journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 142 abstract men often take undue advantage over women on their bodies. in the african traditional societies and beyond, several debates have been ongoing on the need for the women folk to regain their full freedom without taking into cognisance the main reason behind this dominance. in the actual sense of it, african men take advantage of women in the african society majorly because of the authority which the society accords the african men as a result of the patriarchal cultural practice which is traditionally inherent within the african society. this patriarchy has directly and indirectly affected the economy as well as the power structure in the african society. this paper attempts an examination of the patriarchal influence on the rights of women over their bodies. it aims at submitting that there is a need to merge patriarchy with women freedom as a blend for the development of our society so that the women will at least be able to live as human. the methods of historical and critical analysis, reflective argumentation and oral interview were adopted to pursue the aims of this study. keywords: patriarchy, freedom, culture, oppression, proverb introduction the question of whether a woman should have control over her body has been on for several years and it has been variously debated by scholars as one of the major focuses of contemporary discusses. some scholars argued against it while others argued in support. most of the debates, however, seem to argue in support of the claim that a woman should have right over her body. proponents of this line of argument seem to argue in the light of the western influence on the female gender. however, much attention has not been placed on this discussion in the light of the reality obtainable within the africa's patriarchal culture. hence, this study aims at examining this question, putting what is central to the african patriarchal society into consideration and in its proper perspective. the paper divides to three sections. the first gives the historical background to the patriarchal culture in africa, with major reference to the yoruba tribe. the second section examines the major factors responsible for the quest for the freedom of the female gender while the last attempts a justification for the quest and concludes that the right of a woman over her body is dependent and cannot be over and above the africa patriarchal orientation and world views. however, this should be done with the mind of rejecting derogatory and harmful cultural values while retaining unharmful cultural values without destroying them under the guise of civilization. the methods of historical and critical analysis, reflective argumentation and oral interview were adopted to pursue the aims of this study. patriarchal influence on the right of women over their bodies mayokun joyce olowoniyi 143 historical background to the patriarchal culture in africa the word 'culture' has be defined severally by scholars; however, it has been commonly defined as the way of life of a people and it includes their customs, tradition, beliefs, behaviour, way of dressing, modes of speech or language, without neglecting their works of arts as well as their attitudes to life among other things. culture varies from one society to another and it is dynamic (abdi 2010). this work emphasisesthe culture of the yoruba people of nigeria in africa, being the culture i am most familiar with in africa. yoruba represents a west african group that inhabits west africa. the majority of this group is from southwest nigeria and they predominantly belong to the oyo, ogun, ondo, osun, ekiti, lagos, parts of edo, kwara, and kogi states. although yoruba societies do not enjoy a long written historical background, yet, from some of the oral traditions which were transferred from one generation to another and from the cultural practices of the yoruba people in terms of their proverbs, odu ifa corpuses, taboos, familyhood, property acquisition versus inheritance, marriage and widowhood rites, etc. one can obviously demonstrate the kind of treatment, the women folk is subjected to. the yoruba nation like many other african societies is essentially a patriarchal society. a patriarchal society is defined as that '...which is characterised by male super ordination and female subordination' (ubrurhe 1999:82). men show superiority over women. according to (okome, 2002; akintan, 2013) as cited by (dogo, 2014), the consensus among writers is that the nigerian society (of which yoruba is a part) is patriarchal in nature. it is a society where gender roles are distinct and evident, and gender relations are informed by the dynamics of patriarchy which casts women in a subordinate role to men (dogo, 2014). a patriarchal society is therefore one which strengthen the' masculinity feminine dichotomy' by favouring and perpetuating male domination; and as such, in all areas of the society, structures are manipulated to maintain and foster the domination of women by men (dogo 2014). in the yoruba society, there are clear gender roles and right from birth, a child is cast in the roles ascribed for the sexes by the society and these roles confine the sexes to appropriate manner of behaviour and areas of life endeavour. this is why feminists believe that sex as a concept is biological while gender is cultural and sociological. in the yoruba society, gender is associated with sex from birth. from birth, the male child is preferred to the female, and that is why when a child is born in yoruba land, the first question is often is 'is it a boy or a girl?'(olabode 2009) and even throughout childhood and adolescence, boys and girls are treated differently and assigned different roles. although oyewumi (1997) in her studies of the oyoyoruba society argues that there is no concept of gender in the yoruba culture. she bases her claims on the fact that the yoruba language has no gender markers. she further observes that the yoruba language has no word for 'woman'. for her just one word in the language, 'obirin', denotes female, while 'okunrin' denotes male. 'obinrin' according to her does not derive from 'okunrin', the way that 'woman' derives from 'man'p 33. for oyewumi, 'obinrin' is not in any way inferior to 'okunrin', and there are no markers in the yoruba language that distinguish names, occupation, profession, status and so on in terms of gender. yoruba language for her has no gender-specific words for son, daughter, brother or sister (oyewumi 1997). apart from the fact that oyewumi's claim committed a fallacy of hasty generalization by aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 144 making conclusions on the whole yoruba society based on her account of the oyo society alone which is an infinitesimal part of the yoruba society as a whole, her claims failed to identify the yoruba society as a patriarchal one. the male and female hierarchical relationships were not just introduced by the western colonisation as she claimed, rather they were coded in the performance of yoruba language and not merely in the language. key factors responsible for women suppression in yoruba culture patriarchy is a key concept in the yourba tradition society. this patriarchal culture is such that is filled with languages that enables the community to diminish the humanity of women (odunyoye 2002). as a concept, patriarchy has been defined and recreated by feminists in their quest to understand and analyse the origins and situation of the domination of women by men. as such some the term has been used by feminists to refer to the 'systematic organization of male supremacy and female subordination'. (ferriera (2004) describes patriarchy as a system that is both oppressive and discriminatory. she believes that it is oppressive in all areas of society, including social, economic, political and cultural; discriminatory in its control of access to power, management of resources and benefits, and in manipulation of public and private power structures (395). in the words of cynthia cockborn (2004), patriarchy is a system in which leadership, authority, aggressiveness and responsibility reside in men and masculinity; while nurture, compliance, passivity and dependence are part of women and femininity. african (yoruba) women have always been noted for their salient roles such as parental, occupational, conjugal, domestic, kin, community and individual in the society. yet, specific economic and cultural issues leave most women at the mercy of men. often times, women are confined to the four walls of the family home, restricting their activities to procreation and household chores. within the yoruba patriarchal society, being married is a sign of respectability, whilst single mothers, unmarried and divorced are stigmatized. however, marriage is a key factor for the oppression of women. many women struggle to attain economic independence, and socio-cultural and political encumbrances steeped in patriarchy put women in a position of bondage. women find it difficult to live up to their full potentials with their dual roles in the productive and reproductive spheres (osimeh et al 2018). even with their roles as mothers and wives, they have limited time and opportunities to participate in economic, commercial, business, financial, educational, political, and even religious activities. within the culture, even when a woman is of age and she is yet to be married or maybe a single mother, the society believes such is not responsible and even have words like 'adalemosun' which are derogatively used against such. female subordination in africa takes intricate forms grounded in patriarchal tradition and culture. though education is accessible to women in nigeria for instance, culture still subordinates women. marriage therefore in the yoruba society is like a necessary evil. another major issue predominant in our culture and which accounts for women oppression is our yoruba proverbs, folklores and the ifa corpus. balogun (2010: 22) observes that the oppression of women is fostered in africa through cultural vehicles such as proverbs. generally speaking, proverbs are regarded in the thinking and communication process of the yoruba people and it touches a wide array of human concerns and activities but attention has not been largely placed on the connection between yoruba proverbs and the oppression of women. but as temitope balogun notes, 'proverbs have served as major avenue for the continued perpetration of gender olowoniyi patriarchal influence on the right of women over their bodies 145 discrimination among africans (balogun, 2005: 39). although balogun (2010) attempted a way through which the pervasiveness of the oppressive proverbs can be overcome, but this paper argues that his suggestions are not as realistic as he suggests they are. yoruba proverbs and folklores is an integral part of people's consciousness and often assumes the appearance of a natural, god-designed element of existence. this is why many women do not see their position and status, in relation to men, as disempowering. though many people tend to think that it is a literary form of the past, it is still an integral part of daily living. 'gendered proverbs' for example unconsciously influence the way we relate to the opposite sex and even to members of the same sex. proverbs serves as mirrors of the cultural values of communities, they are used to buttress a point and to give an argument a cloak of general acceptability in yoruba land. hence yorubas holds that 'ologbon wo ni ko mo idi owe' meaning that 'no one is regarded as wise, if he does not understand proverbs' proverbs are admitted as truths obtainable in our society but they have gone a long way in further cementing the inferior status linked with the female sex. many proverbs ridicule women and they have contributed to the negative traits often attributed to women, such as envy, gossip, greediness, materialism, evil, sexually insatiable, selfishness, etc. hence proverbs has been used to belittle and degrade women. proverbs in yoruba land are often used to drive home a point. although ogunwale (1998) asserted the existence of some proverbs which also demean the masculinity in the yoruba proverbs yet it can be argued that the proverbial oppression of women with the yoruba proverbs are more pronounced than that of men. some of the proverbs which are derogatory for the women folk are: ' 1. b'obinrin ba gbon l'agbonju, penpe laso oko re e mo'. meaning 'a husband's undersized clothe is an indication that his wife is excessively cunning'' 2. obinrin leke, obinrin l'odale' meaning 'the woman is a gossip, the woman is a traitor'' 3. okunrin ti ko ku, obinrin re ni ko i tii paa' meaning 'a man is yet to die because his wife his yet to kill him' even some seeming positively writing proverbs are loaded with meanin against the women folk, such as ' 4. ka pe were l'oko iyawo, ko le je ka'raye lo' meaning 'let's call a mad man a groom, such that he would allow us to have our way' . the implication of this is that the mad man is deceived as if to be a groom is the best thing that can happen to a man, there is more to life after marriage in the hand of a woman. all these proverbs and many more are actually demeaning to the women folk. justifications of the quests for freedom: the way forward the question of whether a woman should have a right over her body becomes a moral issue to be addressed because of the debate on the idea of freedom and right entailed in the yoruba culture. women need to be free from several forms of abuse, that culture, ideologies, innovations etc. has placed on them. this is because as shugarts observes 'that which constitutes the female has suffered quite possibly the worst universal ideological abuse ever to be aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 146 perpetrated on an abstract category' (shugarts 1994:18). the women folk have been suffering in abstraction due to the burden placed on them by the virtue of the patriarchal nature of the society. attempts to classify the nigerian cultural structure into the ideological frameworks of the western world on the issue of the control of the woman body are merely an attempt to impose a completely theoretically strange ideological edifice upon the african cultural structure. however, there is the need to recognize the value and contributions of women if the yoruba society or any other is to discover and actualize its full potential. hence, there is the need to merge patriarchy with a 'limited version of women freedom' as a blend for the development of our society. to achieve this, in marriage which has been identified as one of the factors of oppression, the husband (man) should not impose himself over the wife (woman). the responsibilities which are solely the traditional imposed duties of the women, should be shared, the women should even be encouraged by the men to actualize their potentials without the four walls of the home and so on. the women should be empowered to work and the men should not see it as a threat. there should also be forms of gender empowerment such that there will be gender-neutral concepts which seek to modify gender relations in complimentary context rather than in a conflicting perspective. furthermore, rather than reconstructing the proverbs that we have in the yoruba culture like oyewumi suggested, there can be a form of social engineering and construction such that there will be sensitization and awareness from the grassroots level to the highest levels of the society through educating and consultations with all stakeholders beginning from the traditional leaders and guardians/ custodians of culture about what is needful. about the derogatory proverbs, ifa corpus, taboos, although they may not be easily changeable as oyewumi suggested, yet, opportunity should be given to the women folk to complement by jointly collaborating with the men in the building of the society. it also entails a change of mentality for the women folk in the interpretation as well as the performance of the proverbs. they should, through good and virtuous character change the mind set of their men counterparts. this is because these proverbs could have been captioned based on generalization from within the culture overtime. this may actually lead us to the question about the origin of proverbs, but this is not within the scope of this paper but can be a useful philosophical research to be addressed at another time. women and men should see these derogatory proverbs as an 'indeterminate language' which is coded in performance but can be acted out in good traits for a good portrayal of the women folk. conclusion this paper examined the question of whether a woman should have control over her body in the light of the reality obtainable within the africa's patriarchal culture. this paper examined the question by putting what is central to the african patriarchal society into consideration and in its proper perspective. the paper analysed the historical background to the patriarchal culture in africa, with major reference to the yoruba tribe. the second section examined the major factors responsible for the quest for the freedom of the female gender within the yoruba culture and concludes that the right of a woman over her body is dependent and cannot be over and above the africa patriarchal orientation and world views. however, this should be done with the mind of rejecting derogatory and harmful olowoniyi patriarchal influence on the right of women over their bodies 147 cultural values while retaining unharmful cultural values without destroying them under the guise of civilization. it however submits that there is a need to merge patriarchy with a 'limited version of women freedom' as a blend for the development of our society so that the women will at least be able to live as human. references abdi, a.a. 2010. 'globalisation, culture and development; perspectives on africa' in journal of alternative perspectives in the social sciences. accessed on april 14, 2016 from akintan, o.a. (2013). powerful and powerless: women in religion and culture in traditional ijebu society. journal of social science, vol.3 no 22 balogun o.a. (2010) 'proverbial oppression of women in yoruba african culture: a philosophical overview' in thought and practice: a journal of the philosophical association of kenya (pak) new series vol.2. no 1, pp 21-36 dogo, s.a. (2014) the nigerian patriarchy: when and how in cultural and religious studies, vol.2. no 5, 263-275. doi:10.17265/2328-2177/2014.05.002 ogunwale, j.a. 1998 'the derogation of masculinity in yoruba proverbs'. nordic journal of african studies, vol.7 no 1, pp 103-113 okome, m.o. (2002) domest ic, regional and international protection of women against discrimination: constraints and possibilities. african studies quarterly, vol.6 no 3 olabode, b.o. (2009) african gender myth in proverbs and verbal discourses: a case study of the yoruba of south-western nigeria. ibadan, nigeria: hope publications oyewumi, o. (1997) a critical analysis of oyeronke oyewumi's the intervention of women: making an african sense of western gender discourses. minnesota: university of minnesota press. shugart, helen a. 1994 'the missing text: rape and women's sexuality.' women and language xvii (i): 12-19 ubrurhe j.o. (1999) 'culture religion and feminism: hermeneutics problem' in ifie, e. (ed.) coping with culture, ibadan: oputuru books williams, c.o. (2019 ) patriarchy and the representation of women in africa and asia international institute for asian culture, newsletter 83 retrieved from . iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/patriarchy-and-representationwomen-africa-and-asia. accessed 08 september, 2021. www.japss.org https://www aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 http://www.japss.org https://www page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 47 on the philosphic foundation of science charles c. nweke abstract this paper comes as an attempt to restate the place of philosophy in the evolution of human development and history. it represents the bid to address seeming, subtle and vocal moves to denigrate philosophy amidst the reckoned progress of science and technology and more worrisome, deny it of an age long titlemother of all sciences. the paper reechoes, by tracing the origin of science, the fundamental role of the mother philosophy by being and begetting science as its ancient offspring. it equally articulates the time and circumstances that informed the independence of the basic disciplines of science from philosophy. the paper’s synopsis is the position that all the fields of science have their remote foundation in philosophy. keywords: philosophy, science, ancient era, modern period 1. introduction the attempt to reaffirm the philosophic foundation of science, at the present era of seeming over glorification of science based on its huge advancement would portend a sought for intellectual trouble especially of science scholars. nevertheless, the place of philosophy as the crib of human knowledge, development and civilization remains an undiluted fact hinged on known and recorded history. science and the fields with which it is currently known, this paper posits, did not begin as independent area/s of knowledge. it was rather birthed much after initial philosophers’ endeavours at wondering to understand the universe and the fundamental element/s with which it is constituted. there have been concerted and subtle attempt to denigrate this historical fact, thereby denying the place of philosophy in foundation of human knowledge inquiry. these attempts present either as arguments that the known foremost philosophers of ancient time were basically scientists or that philosophy is part of science. there are even claims by individual fields of science to be the harbinger of all knowledge. the content of this paper begins with a concise articulation of the origin of science tracing that history from the time of ancient greek thinkers. this is followed by a section on how some basic areas of science were studied as philosophy. the section on the philosophy as the mother of all science was preceded by an exposition of period of independence of science from philosophy. 2. origin of science history of science cannot be objectively chronicled without reference to its philosophical origin. that science has philosophical foundation is not a product of mere philosophic speculation, but a historical verifiable fact. what is today known aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 48 as science and its specific areas began with the ancient and foremost known philosophers’ attempt at inquiry into the universe in the bid to uncover the basic elements that constitute reality. the reckoned beginning of philosophy around sixth century bce saw the emergence of the known first scientists of western history. the ancient greek thinkers such as thales, anaximander, parmenides, heraclitus, etc popularly known as the pre-socratic philosophers, presented the first recorded basic element of naturewater, air, fire, earth. apart from proposing these basic elements, they provided the initial direction for the definition, meaning and future of the entire corpus of human knowledge based either on reason or/and sense data. study of classical philosophy is insightful in this regard. classical philosophy studies the fundamental problems concerning human existence through the eyes of our intellectual ancestors. many thinkers from classical times were pioneers of our modern philosophical and scientific ideas. the earliest beginnings of philosophy are traced back to the sixth century b.c.e., when the first scientists of western history, the pre-socratics – among them thales, heraclitus and parmenides – advanced revolutionary theories concerning the natural world, human knowledge and humans’ relationship with the gods. (www.classics.pitt.edu) it is very important to note that the ancient philosophical thoughts and works of preceding thinkers especially pythagoras, democritus, euclid, etc led to discoveries which informed many known and surviving scientific theories and fields. after the discovery of the four basic elements initiated by thales, the next point of enquiry was the question of ‘form’ which saw pythagoras propounding a theory about number which gave birth to mathematics. in his “history of science”, williams(2018) submits that: the problem of form was first attacked systematically by the philosopher and cult leader pythagoras in the 6th century bce. legend has it that pythagoras became convinced of the primacy of number when he realized that the musical notes produced by a monochord were in simple ratio to the length of the string. qualities (tones) were reduced to quantities (numbers in integral ratios). thus was born mathematical physics, for this discovery provided the essential bridge between the world of physical experience and that of numerical relationships. number provided the answer to the question of the origin of forms and qualities. one of the most popular mathematical theories, the pythagorean theorem credited to pythagoras, the first person to identify philosophy as love of wisdom, ranks among his other discoveries. the five regular solids, sphericality of the earth, the theory of proportions, the pythagorean tuning, division of the globe into five https://www.britannica.com/biography/pythagoras https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legend https://www.britannica.com/science/number-system https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integral https://www.britannica.com/science/mathematical-physics nweke on the philosophic foundation of … 49 climatic zones and the identity of the morning and evening stars as planet venus are equally notable scientific discoveries of pythagoras. in further response to the primary element the universe is constituted, democritus championed the invention of atoms and proposed that matter is governed by atomic principles. thus:  everything is composed of “atoms”, which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible  between atoms, there lies empty space  atoms are indestructible  atoms have always been, and always will be, in motion  there are an infinite number of atoms, and kinds of atoms, which differ in shape, and size. (williams, 2015) matt williams(2015) captured the invention of democritus in these words: and along the way, many names stand out as examples of people who achieved breakthroughs and helped lay the foundations of our modern understanding. one such person is democritus, an ancient greek philosopher who is viewed by many as being the “father of modern science”. this is due to his theory of universe that is made up of tiny “atoms”, which bears a striking resemblance to modern atomic theory. a critical lens on these submissions could engender the argument tilting towards negating the philosophic claim of origin of science. it could be thought that those pioneers of science were only coincidentally philosophers whose scientific discoveries and theories were independent products of their scientific thinking without any recourse to and different from philosophy. it could be argued that they were doing science without calling it science. however, to the disappointment of such thought inclination, scientific outputs of the thinkers were products mainly of their metaphysical, cosmological and epistemological enquiries about what is,what it is like,the universe, truth and knowledge. in fact, the basic areas of science like mathematics, chemistry, physics, astronomy, medicine were studied in the ancient greek era as part of philosophy. spirkin avers to this effect that, “many general guiding ideas that lie at the foundation of modern science were first enunciated by the perceptive force of philosophical thought.” in fact, “hellenic science was built upon the foundations laid by thales and pythagoras. it reached its zenith in the works of aristotle and archimedes.”(williams, 2018) aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 50 3. science was studied as philosophy the ancient philosophers of ages were not only inventors of science; they established avenues for cross fertilization of ideas and imparting of knowledge. they created academies and became foundational teachers of known history. in that era, greek academies were terrains mainly for study of philosophy. in fact, “the latest theories of the unity of matter, motion, space and time, the unity of the discontinuous and continuous, the principles of the conservation of matter and motion, the ideas of the infinity and inexhaustibility of matter were stated in a general form in philosophy.”(spirkin) aspects of science including mathematics, geometry, and medicine were studied as philosophy. dr. alannah freer in writing “a history of science” captures this point succinctly. he stated that: pythagoras was the first scientist recorded to have taught the science of the ageless wisdom through mathematics, astronomy, geometry, harmonics, medicine and numerology in a form that has survived the test of time and is still recognisable today. after the time of the early ancient philosophers, one of the most popular greek philosophers of socratic period, plato emerged with popular philosophic and scientific achievements. he is known to have established an academy in quest for truth and propagation of knowledge. reflecting on his contribution to science, saugat adhikari(2019) notes: plato played a vital role in encouraging the greek intelligentsia to regard science as a theory. his academy taught arithmetic as part of philosophy, as pythagoras had done, and the first 10 years of a course at the academy included the study of geometry, astronomy, and music. the philosophical thoughts and works of aristotle, after plato, provided a redirection for human inquiry using scientific means. he invented logic and observation as crucial tools for the knowledge of the natural world. his other achievements in the areas of science reverberated so vigorously that he is considered by many scholars as the main inventor of science as well as the first real scientist. in the work, the lagoon: how aristotle invented science armand marie leroi (2014) posits that: aristotle is considered by many to be the first scientist, although the term postdates him by more than two millennia. in greece in the fourth century bc, he pioneered the techniques of logic, observation, inquiry and demonstration. these would shape western philosophical and scientific culture through the middle ages and the early modern era, and would influence some aspects of the natural sciences even up to the eighteenth century. anselm h. amadilo and anthony j.p. kenny(2020) also hold the view that: http://www.unimedliving.com/serge-benhayon/unimed-publishing/our-lineage.html nweke on the philosophic foundation of … 51 aristotle’s intellectual range was vast, covering most of the sciences and many of the arts,including biology, botany, chemistry, ethics, history, logic, metaphysic s, rhetoric, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, physics, poetics, political theory, psychology, and zoology. he was the founder of formal logic, devising for it a finished system that for centuries was regarded as the sum of the discipline; and he pioneered the study of zoology, both observational and theoretical, in which some of his work remained unsurpassed until the 19th century. in the time of aristotle, science did not exist with the name ‘science’, rather it existed as natural philosophy. its fields as they are known today were studied as philosophy. steve joyce (2018) philosopher and writer captured it thus: what we now call “science” was predated by something called “natural philosophy,” which attempted to infer what is true about the natural universe mainly by means of reasoning based on casual naked-eye observation. in the 4th century bce, aristotle believed that all the universe’s secrets could eventually be deduced using logic based on the knowledge of his time. he then went on to deduce that the earth stands motionless at the center of the universe, while the planets (including the sun and moon) and stars were embedded in rotating, concentric, hollow crystal spheres, with the earth at their common center. 4. modern period apart from the foundational contributions of ancient philosophers, philosophy/science relations continued to reflect in the thoughts of many modern thinkers. rene descartes, the father of modern philosophy, and other notable 17th and 18th century philosophers contributed some popular scientific theories. descartes, for instance, proposed the universal conservation of motion. baruch spinoza’s substance monism contains in his theory of monads, basis for universal scientific determinism. galileo is known for his popular theory of the shape of the earth. in the preceding times of the enlightenment, newton and einstein’s theories of absolute space and relativity respectively are responses to the philosophical inquiry about space and time. in the words of a. spirkin: we may also recall the cartesian reflex and the philosopher's proposition on the conservation of motion in the universe. on the general philosophical plane spinoza gave grounds for the universal principle of determinism. the idea of the existence of molecules as complex particles consisting of atoms was developed in the works of the french philosopher pierre gassendi and also russia's mikhail lomonosov. philosophy nurtured the hypothesis of the cellular structure of animal and vegetable organisms and formulated the idea of the development and universal connection of phenomena and the https://www.britannica.com/science/biology https://www.britannica.com/science/botany https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy https://www.britannica.com/topic/history https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic https://www.britannica.com/topic/metaphysics https://www.britannica.com/topic/metaphysics https://www.britannica.com/topic/rhetoric https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-mind https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science https://www.britannica.com/science/physics-science https://www.britannica.com/science/psychology https://www.britannica.com/science/zoology https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-logic https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-logic https://www.quora.com/profile/steve-joyce-1 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 52 principle of the material unity of the world. lenin formulated one of the fundamental ideas of contemporary natural science—the principle of the inexhaustibility of matter—upon which scientists rely as a firm methodological foundation. 5. independence of science from philosophy various studies have shown that disciplines of science, from antiquity continued to be taken as philosophy for many centuries. the point of independence of science commenced with the gradual coming of the enlightenment age. modern science was actually born in 17th century with the invention of instruments like microscope, telescope, barometer and clock. modern biology and chemistry began to be developed as independent fields in 18th century. steve joyce (2018) philosopher and writer holds that, “…the improved discipline continued to be called “natural philosophy” until the 19th century, when the word “science” was adopted to replace it.” the acknowledgement, among scholars of science, of the philosophical foundation of science is not in doubt. american association for advancement of science (aaas) maintain in their “history and philosophy of science” that: until the 19th century, natural science was primarily known as “natural philosophy”, and contemporary philosophy still maintains deep connections with science. some of the greatest intellectuals of all time were both scientists and philosophers. in the 17th century, descartes, leibniz, and pascal developed modern science and articulated its philosophical foundations. 6. teaching history of science in institutions the teaching of history of science in any institution of learning cannot be complete without the basic crucial account of how the initial philosophic endeavours of ancient thinkers shaped science. department of classics, university of pittsburg, usa, for instance, presents in its study course ‘history of science’ that: the ancient greeks were the first mathematicians and scientists of the west. thinkers such as thales, anaximander, pythagoras and empedocles attempted to make sense of the world by studying the evidence they found in it. anaximander proposed that the earth was a solitary body, floating free and unsupported in the universe, and produced one of the first maps of the world. empedocles was among the first to believe that the world consisted of diverse material elements acted upon by forces of attraction and repulsion. the atomic theory of matter begins with the greeks. euclid remains one of the most influential mathematicians of all time. his contemporary archimedes was a famous inventor and is also credited with discovering a geometrical technique which anticipated calculus and the fact that the surface and volume of a sphere is 2/3 that of its circumscribing cylinder. through early astronomy, the greeks developed the idea of mathematized science. in the field of medicine, https://www.quora.com/profile/steve-joyce-1 nweke on the philosophic foundation of … 53 they began with case histories and folk remedies, and ended up with an understanding of the nerves, the ability to patch up wounded gladiators, and even the ability to remove cataracts with eye surgery. they invented the first steam engine, vending machine, automatic doors, and more. and they sustained glorious cities with over a million inhabitants without using electricity, fossil fuels, gunpowder or nuclear fission as sources of energy. in articulating ‘a brief history of science’, the open university, scotland submitted that: the first people to try and develop the theory behind their observations were the greeks: people such as pythagoras, who concentrated on a mathematical view of the world. similarly, aristotle and plato developed logical methods for examining the world around them. it was the greeks who first suggested that matter was made up of atoms fundamental particles that could not be broken down further. 7. conclusion: philosophy as the mother and science of sciences the exposition so far has shown how philosophy birthed science. thus it should not just a mere claim when people hear the expression, ‘philosophy is the mother of all sciences’. philosophy indeed is! not only did philosophy lay the foundation for the existence of science, it nurtured science to some level of maturity before its various disciplines sprouted independently. nevertheless, it is to be noted that even at independence, development and advancement, disciplines of science have not actually departed from the basic philosophic nature of inquiry into reality. in other words, studies of science are remotely studies of philosophy. the area of sciences’ departure from philosophy is the method of science. while philosophy maintains its central character of criticality together with sometimes being speculative, science thrives on empirical explorations. philosophy is also reckoned as science of sciences in its role of keeping the reins of sciences in continuous rational check. philosophy understudies every field of science and with its critical essence and other methods, understands the possibility of those fields operating outside their essences and expectations. in other words: philosophy may be called the "science of sciences" probably in the sense that it is, in effect, the self-awareness of the sciences and the source from which all the sciences draw their world-view and methodological principles, which in the course of centuries have been honed down into concise forms. (spirkin) thus, there is philosophy of virtually every other discipline with the task of questioning their fundamental assumptions and in its normative or prescriptive nature, multiplies options for those other disciplines. so in the academic field of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 54 philosophy, one sees areas like philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of medicine, etc. nweke on the philosophic foundation of … 55 references adhikari, s. 2019. what did plato contribute to science? https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/people/top-contributions-plato/. accessed, october 16, 2020 amadio, a. h. & kenny, a. j. p. 2020. “aristotle”. encyclopædia britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/aristotle accessed october 16, 2020 american association for advancement of science. “history and philosophy of science”. https://www.aaas.org/programs/dialogue-science-ethics-andreligion/history-philosophyscience. accessed, october 17, 2020 department of classics, 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trace the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental, and african traditions and how they inform their development and progress. metaphysical orientation is the sum total of metaphysical doctrines that form the foundational assumption about reality. metaphysical orientations makes explicit the way a tradition grasps and conceptualizes being. the paper discovers that the metaphysical orientations of the western tradition is dualistic in outlook, while the oriental is monistic, and african is complementarity (or duality). though metaphysical orientations are what provide the foundation for the epistemology, ethics and socio-political arrangements of the various intellectual traditions and civilizations we studied. nonetheless, in africa it is not the case, due to web of complex historical and existential issues. therefore the paper argues that metaphysical orientation provides the primordial principles that formed the basis for epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical arrangement that serves as the gateway for development or modernization. however, in the case of africa it is somewhat different. the paper employs the comparative method. keywords: metaphysics, development, oriental, western, african introduction the aim of this paper is to trace the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental, and african traditions and how they inform their development and progress. metaphysical orientation is the sum total of metaphysical doctrines that form the foundational assumption about reality. it can be a conceptual framework or primordial principles that framed a people's understanding of reality. the paper is a comparative exercise that seeks to look at the metaphysical orientations that underline western, oriental, and african philosophy. the paper argues the claim that metaphysical orientation provides the primordial principles that formed the basis for epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical arrangements that serve as the gateway for development or modernization. however, when it comes to africa the case is different due to a whole web of complex historical and existential issues. metaphysical orientation is the sum total of a people's worldviews either systematized or not but which underpins their fundamental assumptions about life, values, society, and the human person. it is an exclusive property of a people, which is rooted in their intellectual traditions, as thought out by their indigenous philosophers. it is the national osuquo juxtaposition of western, oriental and african 2 philosophy of a people that predicated their collective understanding of reality. it is the basis for a people's ideology, corporate values, and national attitude to life. though it is not fixed or essential to the very nature of a people, nonetheless, it can be a product of mutual borrowing from other traditions. this is why a comparative understanding of the metaphysical orientation of various traditions in the world, is essential for mutual accommodation and tolerance which is necessary for global peace. it is this end, the paper seeks to achieve. this paper shall be divided into five sections. section one will discuss conceptual issues like the meaning of metaphysics and metaphysical orientation. section two will discuss the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental, and african traditions. section three will discuss their similarities and difference while section four will trace how this metaphysical orientation inform the development of each of this traditions. while section five will contain the evaluation and conclusion. metaphysics and metaphysical orientations metaphysics as a systematic inquiry was first conceived by aristotle. it was an ancient editor of aristotle's works that coined the word to describe the works of aristotle that deal with the study of entities that are beyond what the physical sciences are interested in. he called it “ta meta a physika” (cohen, 2000). subsequent metaphysicians follow that aristotelian tradition. nonetheless, for aristotle, metaphysics is the study of the first principle of things or the science of existence in general (singer 2005). he contrasted this with other sciences that study particular aspects of existence but metaphysics study existence from a general, comprehensive, and totalizing prism. what is general or totalizing in all existence is substance. as a term substance occupies a central position in the work of most of the great metaphysicians who came after aristotle. 'substance' he declared to be what primarily existed, and was prior to all other things in respect not only of existence but of explanation and of knowledge as well; that is to say, the explanation of anything else involved the idea of substance; knowledge of anything else involved knowledge of substance; the existence of everything else depended on the existence of substance. therefore metaphysics, then, is regarded by aristotle as a single, comprehensive study of what is fundamental to all existence, all knowledge, and all explanation. it will at once be evident that different identifications of substance, that is, of what has this fundamental character, will yield different systems of metaphysics (singer, 2005). from the above, metaphysical orientations is the way different metaphysical systems treat the question of what constituted substance, how it can be known, and how it can be explained. the way the west conceived substance was radically different from the way the oriental conceived substance, and the way the africans conceived it. however, there are various metaphysical orientations such as monism, dualism, pluralism, and duality (ozumba, 2016). these various metaphysical orientations resonate both in aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 western, oriental, and african traditions but the attention of this paper is on the dominant orientations in these traditions. metaphysical orientations of western, oriental, and african traditions western tradition in western tradition, heraclitus and parmenides were the first to give an account of being which is the central issue of metaphysics. the question between heraclitus and parmenides is on: what can account for existence?. in other words, what does it mean for a thing to be (to exist)? for heraclitus, being which is what characterized all existence is in a state of perpetual flux and it is ever-changing, ephemeral, and multiple. this is because at the base of being is the presence of an everlasting fire that brings things to be and to it, all things return. everything moves on, he said, and nothing remains; the world is like a flowing stream. if we stand by the riverbank, the water we see beneath us is not the same two moments ago, and we cannot put our feet twice into the same water. so far, so good; but heraclitus went on to say that we cannot even step twice into the same river. this seems false, whether taken literally or allegorically; but, as we shall see, the sentiment was highly influential in later greek philosophy (kenny 2006, p.8). contrarily, parmenides see being as one and fix, immutable and eternal. we cannot talk of being coming into being or going out of being. it is illogical and absurd to talk about nothing as coming to being. parmenides puts it this way: “what you can call and think must be being, for being can, and nothing cannot be”. this means that being is and nonbeing is not. what parmenides is saying, in essence, is that anything that can be at all, must be something or other; it can be just nothing (copleston 1946). if being is that of which something or other, no matter what, is true, then nonbeing is that of which nothing at all is true. that, surely, is nonsense. not only can it not exist, but it also cannot even be thought of (kenny 2006:9). from the foregone, it is clear that from parmenides's perspective that being is what 'is' and its opposite side is what is not. what 'is' is being which forms the content of thought and it can be related to real things in our experience and thinking. therefore, to sum up, parmenides thought we can say being is undivided, unlimited, and everlasting, and there is no becoming in being or going out from being. this position runs contrary to commonsense and the way things are in our experience. however, subsequent western philosophers especially plato and aristotle, tried to reconcile this parmenides's position though logical, with common sense. the problem facing future philosophers was this: common sense suggests that the world contains things that endure, such as the rocky mountains, and things that constantly change, such as rushing streams. on the one hand, heraclitus had pronounced that at a fundamental level, even the most solid things were in perpetual flux; on the other hand, parmenides had argued that even what is most apparently fleeting is, at a fundamental level, static and unchanging. can the doctrines of either heraclitus or osuquo juxtaposition of western, oriental and african 4 parmenides be refuted? is there any way in which they can be reconciled? for plato, and his successors, this was a major task for philosophy to address. in an attempt to surmount this parmenidean difficulty, plato bifurcates being into two via the world of idea and the world of the sensible. the world of ideas contains the forms of things and they are unchangeable, immutable, fix and eternal. the world of the sensible is the world of appearance which contains things that are mere copies of the archetype which is in the world of idea. being is in the world of idea which is a kind of conceptual world and the particular things in the sensible world are photocopies that respond to the principles of differentiation, growth, death, etc., but in the platonic thought, being is in the world of idea and it cannot be grasped with the senses. in plato's thinking, the forms (meta-material) are the real while the particular things (material) in the sensible world are nonbeing and just mere appearance or sensuous illusions. therefore, through the process of transcendental intellection (elenchus) the mind or soul can recollect or grasps the forms. from the above plato places premium on the metamaterial as being, which represents an idealist account of being. likewise, aristotle in a bid to solve the parmenidean difficulty dichotomize being via substance and accidents. 'substance' is the thing that can exist on its own without depending on any other, while, while 'accident' is the modification or property of substance. even accidents possess substances because they are animated by substances. substance account for the active and passive change in everything. therefore, to account for change, aristotle opines that all finite and infinite beings possess matter and form. the 'form' is the purpose or cause and 'matter' is the substantial material a being is made of. while 'form' may change, 'matter' remains. being is substance while nonbeing is nothing and cannot be predicated on anything. therefore, aristotle places a premium on substantial beings. this is a kind of realist account of being. according to kenny (2006), since the renaissance, it has been traditional to regard the academy and the lyceum as two opposite poles of philosophy. plato, according to this tradition, was idealistic, utopian, other-worldly; aristotle was realistic, utilitarian, commonsensical. these two traditions of platonic and aristotelian form the metaphysical orientations of western metaphysics. furthermore, these two traditions form what heidegger later called traditional metaphysics which is problematic. according to unah (2006), traditional western metaphysics is monistic and it reduced being to the one which makes it static, fixative, and rigid, as such, it is the cause for all the crises in western society and other societies that the west came in contact with. western metaphysical orientation has a disdain for nonbeing (nothing) as nonsensical and it places a premium on being as what is. the implication is that what is is material and being was reduced to beings. more, it sees being as opposed to nonbeing because nothing can't come from something. though unah (2006) maintains that even nothing is something. while western metaphysical orientations are monistic in the sense that it places premium to the one as being, it is also dualistic in the sense that it conceived of two basic opposing substances as the foundation of being. it sees reality as the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 composite of two opposing primordial entities but one is superior (active or present) and the other inferior (passive or absence). while plato sees the forms as supreme and the particular things as inferior, aristotle, on the other hand, sees substantial beings as supreme and their accidents as inferior because everything in so far as it is a being is composite of matter and form. therefore, from aristotle moving forward, western traditions have adopted this materialistic orientation in all their conceptualization of whatever is being. oriental metaphysical orientations there are variants of philosophical thought in oriental tradition with conflicting positions but in this section, i will look at taoism which represents the metaphysical orientation of chinese philosophy. for taoism, tao is the only reality that exists. it is the ultimate reality, the source of all beings, the mystic force underlying all things and all happenings, both transcendent and immanent. it is the ground of being, the foundation of existence, a boundless self-existence, and self-manifesting, self-diffusing, all-pervading reality (omoregbe, 2004). similarly, hinduism used the concept of brahman to describe this ultimate creative principle that individuates itself in things in this world. according to omoregbe (2004), brahman is immutable, unmovable, but it is the dynamic source of all changes in the universe. in itself, it does not change, but its individuates change. its individuations are the actualizations of its potentialities. it unfolds and actualizes its potentialities with the passage of time. brahman is not an individual being but the ground of all beings, including god, are actualizations. while hinduism accommodates the idea of dynamism in its conceptualization of being or the ground of existence, taoism does not accommodate the idea of dynamism in its understanding of the ultimate creative principle. however, both systems are predicated on the monist metaphysical orientations. therefore, the metaphysical orientations of oriental tradition tilt towards monism. this implies that it places a premium on the one as the ultimate irreducible basis of being. african tradition the general trait of any metaphysical system which is distinctively african is that it is basically integrative. to speak of integrative metaphysics or the metaphysics of integration, therefore, is to simply say that african metaphysics is the metaphysics of harmony, which in turn makes african philosophy, the philosophy of harmony (okoro, 2011a). integrative metaphysics simply means the metaphysical system which regards spirit, force, life-force, or vital-force as the primordial principle which permeates all things and is responsible for unity in diversity. it is a metaphysical system that sees spirit (i.e. mind, idea, subject, and all things mental or spiritual) and matter (i.e. body, object, and all things physical) as being equi-primordial and complementary. since for the african, the primary element that sustains the universe is spirit, then spirit or life force permeates and interpenetrates all things. osuquo juxtaposition of western, oriental and african 6 c.s. momoh (2000), a member of the purist school of thought, maintains that african metaphysics can best be defined as the "african doctrine on the spiritual". thus for the african, "the concept of reality encompasses the totality of everything that exists visible or invisible, real, actual or potential" (p.8). and because this metaphysical system does not bifurcate mind from body, subject from object; because it does not separate politics from the economy, the economy from religion, religion from culture, culture from spirituality, spirituality from education, education from physical existence, physical existence from the totality of life; because it does not create a hiatus between theory and practice, action and reaction; it is referred to as an inclusive system and therefore, integrative. african metaphysical orientation is integrative and complementary in the sense that being is a binary complementarity of the opposite i.e. there is a reciprocal relationship between nothing and something. this is because for african metaphysics anything that exists serves as a missing link of reality (asouzu 2004). this implies that being is relational and interconnected and interpenetrating. the aim of african metaphysics is to harmonize all opposites by way of interfusion or integration. this system of metaphysics is also known as metaphysical vitalism, metaphysical symbiosis, spiritual primacism, or the principle of interpenetrability of forces (okoro, 2011b). therefore we can submit that african metaphysical orientations are tilt towards integration, complementarity, and holism. this implies that african metaphysical orientation recognizes the divide between the two primordial substances of being and non-being but it does not bifurcates or dichotomizes them, rather it sees them in mutual complementary relationship (asouzu, 2007; oluwole, 2014). one cannot be grasp without the other, and their harmonious relation is what brings balance to nature, the world and human society. therefore, in the epistemic process, there is an interplay of the subject and the object of knowledge, and knowledge is not only empirical but rational and intuitive (oluwole, 2014). for african ethics, whatever that seeks to destroy the mutual relationship in the community is intrinsically bad and what promotes the harmonious relationship in the community is seen as good (asuquo, 2019; asuquo & akerele, 2020). politically, the african places more premium in consensus building, village democracy and bipartisanship (wiredu, 2001). having given the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental and african traditions, i will compare the distinctive features of these traditions and how they resonate in the development and modernization that have occurred in these traditions. comparative analysis of the metaphysical orientations of western, african, and oriental traditions both oriental tradition and western tradition are absolute monists who maintain that being is ultimately one (omoregbe, 2004). in the west parmenides see being as one and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 other western philosophers follow suit. it is either they are reducing being to one particular substance or the other. for example, plotinus tells us that the ultimate is the “one” which is absolutely transcendent, it transcends being, transcends existence, transcends essence, transcends thought, transcends anything we can think of. this one was reduced to nous according to anaxagoras. likewise, spinoza reduces this one to god or nature. for hegel and the german idealists, it is the absolute or absolute ego or spirit. therefore, to ground being western tradition reduces it to materiality or matter and downplay the spiritual aspect of it. it is on this note that okoro (2011b) describes classical western metaphysical orientation as monistic and reductionistic. similarly, oriental metaphysical orientations share the same trait with the west. for the orientals especially the taoists and hindus being is the absolute one through which other beings emanates. for taoists it is tao, and for the hindus it is brahman. this nonmaterial posture shows that being is essentially nonmaterial and it can give an account of material which is seen as a corruption of being, just like 'nothing' is a corruption of being which is 'something'. this is why oriental moves from the soul to matter. the sharp difference between these two is that europe reduced the being to what is and 'what is' is always 'something'. the oriental, on the other hand, reduce it to spirit veiled with the concepts of tao or brahman. there is a need to provide a synthesis and that synthesis is in african metaphysical orientation. africans do not see the world as a pure rational abstraction or as mere appearances; they simply reproduce reality in the life-world. we define the life-world as man's native transcendental capacity to effectively and pragmatically synchronize the objective world with subjective understanding. it is the visioning of the world about us imaged in symbolic forms. in such a symbolic representation of the world, things are not compartmentalized. on the contrary, in the universe of the life-forces things are inclusively interconnected and interpenetrating. this explains why the african cosmos is said to be cyclical, hierarchical, and tripological in outlook. chinweizu describes the african cosmos as one that operates the logic of "concentric circles" (chinweizu, 2005, p.140). in other words, the cyclical nature of the african cosmos rotates and revolves on a triangular dimension otherwise known as the tripod. the cosmos, society, and man are said to live in a symbiotic unity. holism is the appropriate word for describing the african understanding of the inter-relationship between the cosmos, society, and man. each is an individual whole energized and interconnected to the other by spirit. spirit as the motivating element ensures that the cosmos, society, and man are one intricate web, harmoniously integrated. this interfusion is such that the "world order is replicated in the "social order" and the "social order" is replicated" in the "self-order" and vice versa. again, by way of interfusion, the three orders are said to be identical and hierarchical. whereas the hierarchization of the forces and there are identical to nature requires that: " all forces are strengthened and not weakened, that an individual should be seen in the light of the whole and that meaning, significance, and value depend on the art of integration" (anyanwu, 1981, p. 371). by implication, world reorientation, social reconstruction, should begin from the osuquo juxtaposition of western, oriental and african 8 enlightenment and reformation of the self, for the re-attunement of the self-order to the social and the cosmic orders. metaphysical orientations as the first stage of a people development: western, oriental, and african tradition metaphysics as we discover in the preceding part of our discourse is the ground for all studies because it investigates the first principle of being. this means that the way people understand themselves is predicated on their metaphysical orientations, and the thought systems they have cumulatively built over time which forms the foundation to assert their development whether it is science, technology, or their sociopolitical arrangement. it is on this note, we will explore how the metaphysical orientations of western and african traditions inform their socioeconomic and political development. as has been established in the previous section that western metaphysical orientations are tilt towards monism or strict dualism whereby one aspect of being is abstracted and elevated to an absolute pedestal. we see this in those metaphysical systems that place a premium on an aspect of being and elevated it to being and the other aspect is seen as nonbeing. in the west it is either they uphold materiality over and beyond metamateriality or the other way round. as such they have built their economic, political, social, and educational foundations on the aspect of being they have so identified. historically, the west has moved in priding an aspect of being as being. the elevation of the rational substance of giving rise to the idea of individual substances either as atoms or monads. this rational substance must collude for something to come into being. it is on this note that aristotle sees the individual human person as a rational animal because metaphysically, the individual human being is a rational individual substance. therefore, for society to be possible the individual is seen as a political animal which due to his instinct of self-preservation he must necessarily live with other human beings. this aristotelian metaphysics underlines the trajectories of western society and philosophy. on the economic front, western society has moved from primitive communalism to feudalism and today to capitalism. more so, in the sociopolitical front western society has moved from absolute monarchy to aristocracy and to democracy. the way they conceive being informed the kind of society they have constructed over time, and the nature of their values, norms, and attitude to life. contemporary western society is individualistic in outlook and it reflects in their sociopolitical and economic systems like liberal democracy, free-market economy and it at the same time prioritized political rights over economic rights. similarly, oriental metaphysical orientations is tilt towards strict monism whereby being is one without any other. it is either it is being or nonbeing, or if it is nonbeing it is nothing which means it cannot command existence. hence, everything is reduced to the one. according to hegel's account of history, this one resonates in the oriental leadership as the absolute. this is why the oriental place's premium on the collective as the one and everything is understood and interpreted from this one. the implication aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 is that oriental society emphasizes the supremacy of the one they have identified. on the sociopolitical front, this osne can be the state or the empire or the collective. this is why in china the state as the one is central in all things and in the activities of the people. hence, the oriental values such system as state capitalism, consultative democracy, and prioritization of economic rights over political rights. conclusion in this paper, we highlight the meaning of metaphysics and metaphysical orientations. metaphysics is an inquiry into the foundation of being as being. it investigates the first principle that constituted being or existence by looking at their causes, nature, and categories. on the other hand, metaphysical orientation is the primordial principle that captures the substantial form of a people understanding of reality. metaphysical orientation is at the core of how people understand nature which forms the basis of their epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical organization. it is on this note, the paper trace the metaphysical orientation of the west, oriental, and african traditions and how it informs their epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical arrangement. the paper maintains that while the metaphysical orientation of the west and oriental serves as the basis of their development, such cannot be said for africa due to existential and historical forces that are playing out in africa. some of these existential and historical forces include imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism and globalization. references anyanwu, k.c. (1981). african philosophy: an introduction to the main philosophical trends in contemporary africa. rome: catholic book agency. asouzu, i. (2004). the method and principles of complementary reflection in and beyond african philosophy. calabar: university of calabar press. asouzu, i. (2007). ibuanyidanda, new complementary ontology beyond worldimmanentism, ethnocentric reduction and impositions. london: transaction publishers. asuquo g. (2019). african values and institutional reform for sustainable development in africa. international journal of humanities and innovation (ijhi), vol. 2(4) december, pp.136-143 asuquo g. and akerele a.p (2021). ethical leadership: a veritable tool for national transformation, peace and social justice. journal of african studies and sustainable development, 4(1) chinweizu (2005). "gender and monotheism: the assault by monotheism on african gender diarchy", published as appendix in anatomy of female power: a masculinist dissection of matriarchy (new edition). lagos: pero press copleston, f. (1946). a history of philosophy vol. 1 greece and rome. london: search press. osuquo juxtaposition of western, oriental and african 10 momoh, c. s. (2000). ed. the substance of african philosophy. auchi: african philosophy oluwole s. b (2014). socrates and oòìruìnmiìlaì: two patron saints of classical philosophy. lagos: ark publishers okoro c.b (2011a). problems of metaphysical philosophy. african nebula, issue 3 okoro c.b (2011b). the notion of integrative metaphysics and it relevance to contemporary world order. integrative humanism journal ghana vol. 1 no. 2 omoregbe j.i (2004). comparative study of western and asian philosophy. lagos: joja publishers ltd. ozumba g (2016). ism in philosophy. uduigwomen & ozumba (eds.). concise introduction to philosophy and logic. calabar: joschrism publisher unah j. (2006). even nothing is something – inaugural lecture series. akoka: university of lagos press wiredu, k (2001) democracy by consensus: some conceptual considerations. philosophical papers 30(3): 227–244 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract this article focuses on an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science. feyerabend advocated for anarchism in science which encourages plurality of methods in scientific investigations. his anarchistic approach was a source of great controversy among contemporary philosophers of science because of its revolutionary nature. the basic questions are: what does feyerabend mean by anarchistic approach in scientific investigation? does such contradict the nature of science as an organized and systematic enterprise? has feyerabend's anarchism any implication for scientific methodology and progress? what are the strengths and weaknesses of feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science? in the bid to address these and other related issues, this article employs analytical and hermeneutical methods of philosophical investigation to examine the intricacies of feyerabend's anarchism in philosophy of science. the researcher argues that though feyerabend's anarchism elicited criticisms from some philosophers of science because of its controversial nature, feyerabend contributed immensely towards the development of knowledge in contemporary philosophy of science. this article maintains that despite the loopholes and shortcomings of feyerabend's anarchism in philosophy of science, it is an invitation for scientists to discover and explore many new methods of scientific investigation. keywords: science, anarchism, philosophy and method introduction paul feyerabend is one of the influential philosophers of science. he made enormous and remarkable contributions towards the development of philosophy of science in the contemporary period. among his remarkable contributions in contemporary philosophy of science is his anarchistic approach. anarchism is quite unique, and it appears very strange in matters that concern scientific investigation. his idea of anarchism in the domain of philosophy of science is very controversial. such controversy is basically because of the fact that it seems to contradict the nature of science as a systematic, methodic as well as organized discipline. the fundamental questions are: what is anarchism? how does feyerabend apply it in the domain of philosophy of science? what are the implications of feyerabend's anarchistic approach to scientific methodology and progress? what are the problems associated with feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science? what are the positive aspects of feyerabend's anarchism? these an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchical approach in philosophy of science bonaventure chike anetoh, ph.d. 11 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 and other related issues are to be given scholarly as well as detailed attention in this article. this article is partitioned into three sections. the first section analyses the concept of anarchism in general. the second section examines paul feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science. the third section centres on the evaluation as well as conclusion of the article. the concept of anarchism the term 'anarchism' is the key concept in this article. this section of the article focuses on the clarification and analysis of the concept of anarchism. obviously, clarification of the concept of anarchism enables one to understand as well as appreciate feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science. basically, the term 'anarchism' is most commonly used in the political domain. etymologically, it was derived from the greek word 'an archos' meaning 'no government'. from etymological perspective, it means quest for absence of government. it has to do with the desire for absence of law as well as desire for freedom in a political setting. oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current english (2000) describes anarchism as “the political belief that laws and government are not necessary.”(p.36) hence, it could be said that anarchism is a system that desires for freedom in the strict sense of it. in a similar way, cambridge english dictionary defines anarchism as “the political belief that there should be little or no formal or official organization to society but that people should work freely together”. it becomes clear that anarchism desires for a type of society that is very similar to thomas hobbes' 'state of nature' in which people were allowed to do whatever pleased them. in agreement with the above definitions, fiala (2021) defines anarchism thus: anarchism is a political theory that is skeptical of the justification of authority and power. anarchism is usually grounded in moral claims about the importance of individual liberty, often conceived as freedom from domination. anarchism also offers a positive theory of human flourishing, based upon an ideal of equality, community and non-coercive consensus building. anarchism has inspired practical efforts at establishing utopian communities, radical and revolutionary political agenda and various forms of direct action. (para. 1) anarchism is revolutionary in nature and it emphasizes mainly on human freedom as well as absence of law. an anarchist prizes his freedom above every other thing, and despises law as much as possible. elaborating further on the meaning of anarchism and bringing out very clearly the views of some anarchists, sterba (1999) states: it maintains that no coercive institutions are justified. proudhon, the first self-described anarchist, believed that coercive institutions should be replaced by social and economic organizations based on voluntary contractual agreement, and he advocated peaceful change toward 12 anetoh an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchical approach in philosophy ... anarchism. others, notably blanqui ana bakunin, advocated the use of violence to destroy the power of coercive institutions.(p.628) , but insists that there are no overriding rules in science. in his words: from the foregoing, it is clear that anarchism is basically obtainable in political dimension. however, it is also applied in other dimensions of life. it is now fashionable to talk of religious anarchism, ethical anarchism, scientific anarchism etc. however, the concern of this article is basically the employment of anarchism in the domain of philosophy of science. paul feyerabend championed scientific anarchism. in fact, he advocated for anarchistic approach in scientific investigation. hence, this article focuses on evaluating paul feyerabend's anarchistic approach in scientific investigation. feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science science is generally conceived as a methodic and systematic investigation of phenomena. such systematic investigation enables science to offer explanations of phenomena in the world, and as well predict future occurrences. the method of scientific investigation is one of the issues that have pre-occupied the attention of philosophers of science. paul feyerabend is among the contemporary philosophers of science that have given serious attention to the method of scientific investigation. he advocated for anarchistic approach in scientific investigation, and maintains that such approach is necessary for scientific progress. feyerabend (1981) argues that “there is no method according to the most advanced and sophisticated methodology in existence today” (p.161). however, feyerabend admits that science is systematic in approach just like other ideologies science often proceeds systematically, but so do other ideologies (just consult the records of the many doctrinal debates that took place in the church) and, besides, there are no overriding rules which are adhered to under any circumstances; there is no 'scientific methodology' that can be used to separate science from the rest. science is just one of the many ideologies that propel society and it should be treated as such .(feyerabend, 1981, p.162) he denies the existence of scientific methodology that distinguishes science from other ideologies. this denial contradicts the popular view that science employs unique approach in its investigation of phenomena in the world. however, such denial paved way for feyerabend's introduction of his anarchistic approach in scientific investigation. feyerabend (1984) argues that science is anarchistic, and such anarchism encourages progress. according to him: “science is an essentially anarchistic enterprise: theoretical anarchism is more humanitarian and more likely to encourage progress than its law-andorder alternatives.” (p.53) this implies that there is no need to maintain specific laws in scientific investigation. the quest for non-maintenance of specific laws in scientific investigation is the essence of feyerabend's anarchistic approach. he values anarchism and holds it in a very high esteem in the domain of science. hence, feyerabend (1984) maintains that anarchism “is certainly excellent medicine for epistemology and for the 13 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 philosophy of science.” (p.53) it follows from the foregoing that feyerabend has high regard for anarchistic approach, and thus insists on its employment in scientific investigation. this entails that it is not necessary to create a scientific tradition that is governed by strict rules. he offers two reasons for this position thus: there are two reasons why such an answer seems to be appropriate. the first reason is that the world which we want to explore is a largely unknown entity. we must, therefore, keep our options open and we must not restrict ourselves in advance. epistemological prescriptions may look splendid when compared with other epistemological prescriptions or with general principlesbut who can guarantee that they are the best way to discover, not just a few isolated “facts”, but also some deep-lying secrets of nature? the second reason is that a scientific education as described above… cannot be reconciled with a humanitarian attitude. it is in conflict “with the cultivation of individuality which alone produces, or can produce, well-developed human beings”, it “maims by compression, like a chinese lady's foot, every part of human nature which stands out prominently, and tends to make a person markedly different in outline” from the ideals of rationality that happen to be fashionable in science, or in the philosophy of science. the attempt to increase liberty, to lead to a full and rewarding life, and the corresponding attempt to discover the secrets of nature and of man entails, therefore, the rejection of all universal standards and of all rigid traditions ( feyerabend, 1984, pp.55-56) feyerabend's advocacy for anarchism in scientific investigation is rooted in his belief that the world is unknown, and as such we do not need rigid laws or methods in the attempt to explore the world. it becomes logical from feyerabend's perspective to apply varied methods in the investigation and exploration of the unknown world. furthermore, it may not be easy to prove that the adopted laws or methods of investigation are actually the best. hence, the acclaimed method of scientific investigation may not actually be the best. basically, feyerabend is opting for liberty in scientific investigation, which for him, is necessary for scientific progress. restrictions through laws may not aid scientific progress, but may rather impede such progress. it is certain that feyerabend has little or no regard for laws in scientific investigations. this explains why he opts for anarchism in science. there are some activities that are associated with professional anarchists in science. such activities distinguish them and make them unique in the domain of science. feyerabend (1984) articulates such activities thus: professional anarchists oppose any kind of restriction, and they demand that the individual be permitted to develop 14 anetoh an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchical approach in philosophy ... freely, unhampered by laws, duties or obligations. and yet they swallow without protest all the severe standards which scientists and logicians impose upon research and upon any kind of knowledge-creating and knowledge-changing activity. occasionally, the laws of scientific method or what are thought to be the laws of scientific method by a particular writer, are even integrated into anarchism itself. (p. 56) thus, he upholds anarchistic methodology as well as an anarchistic science. it could be argued that lack of laws in anarchistic science will lead to chaos, and such may not encourage progress. contrary to this, feyerabend argues that the reduced regard for law and order in anarchistic science will not lead to chaos. consequently, he insists that “the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: anything goes” (feyerabend, 1984, p.57). this implies that anything is possible in scientific investigations. he further argues that there is no rule in science that is not at times violated, and such violation is necessary for scientific progress and growth of knowledge in general. contrary to feyerabend's argument, it ought to be noted that the fact that rules are at times violated in science does not in any way imply that rules are not necessary in scientific investigations. it is difficult to see any sector of life where rules are not at times violated. however, feyerabend insists that scientists should be free in their scientific investigations, and not restrict themselves to strict rules. according to him: we find then, that there is not a single rule, however plausible and however firmly grounded in epistemology, that is not violated at some time or other. it becomes evident that such violations are not accidental events, they are not results of insufficient knowledge or of inattention which might have been avoided. on the contrary, we see that they are necessary for progress. indeed, one of the most striking features of recent discussions in the history and philosophy of science is the realization that events and developments, such as the invention of atomism in antiquity, the copernican revolution, the rise of modern atomism (kinetic theory, dispersion theory, stereochemistry, quantum theory), the gradual emergence of the wave theory of light, occurred only because some thinkers either decided not to be bound by certain “obvious” methodological rules, or because they unwittingly broke them (feyerabend, 1984, p.57) the implication of feyerabend's argument is that there are certain conditions when it is necessary not to obey rules, or even to contradict the rules completely in scientific investigations. neglect of rules and contradiction of rules are essential aspects of feyerabend's anarchism. such neglect of rules are at times necessitated by certain circumstances in scientific investigation. elaborating on the circumstances that can necessitate the neglect or violation of rules, feyerabend (1984) states: 15 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 …there are always circumstances when it is advisable not only to ignore the rule, but to adopt its opposite. for example there are circumstances when it is advisable to introduce, elaborate, and defend ad hoc hypotheses, or hypotheses which contradict wellestablished and generally accepted experimental results, or hypotheses whose content is smaller than the content of the existing and empirically adequate alternative, or selfinconsistent hypotheses, and so on. (pp.57-58) the point feyerabend tries to emphasize is that it is needless sticking to the traditional method of scientific investigations. there is always need to explore new ways of scientific investigations. such plurality of methods is better than strict adherence to one particular method. this idea expresses and articulates the anarchistic approach that feyerabend is advocating for in scientific investigation. in fact, feyerabend sees anarchism as the only principle that is defensible in all situations, and insists that it is necessary for scientific progress. he argues that “a law-and-order science will succeed only if anarchistic moves are occasionally allowed to take place.” (feyerabend, 1984, p.60) this implies that the successfulness of lawand-order science is dependent on anarchism, which is a necessary pre-requisite for scientific investigation. anarchism in science, for feyerabend, is quite better than law and order-based science. from this perspective, science that is based on law and order can only be fruitful if it is punctuated with anarchism. hence, scientific investigation cannot do without anarchism, and such is a necessary condition for scientific progress. analysing paul feyerabend's anarchism, broad (1989) states: feyerabend argues that science does not proceed according to a rational method. if there has been progress, it is only because working scientists have broken every principle in the rationalist's rule book and have adopted the motto “anything goes”. the pool of resulting theories has increased, but individual theories are not consistent with one another. (p.534) from the foregoing, it is obvious that, for feyerabend, the principle of 'anything goes' becomes the underlying principle of scientific investigation, and as such, every scientific investigation ought to adopt such principle. tsou (2003) brings out very clearly the two different but related interpretations or rather versions of feyerabend's anarchism in philosophy of science, which are supported by history of science thus: feyerabend's anarchism, then, consists in two substantive claims: (1) science is accurately characterized as an anarchistic enterprise, and (2) science should be an anarchistic enterprise. the first claim is a descriptive claim regarding the nature of the history of science, while the second is a prescriptive claim on how science ought to proceed. in order to support both of these claims, feyerabend appeals to the history of science, focusing on physical theories from newtonian mechanics to wave mechanics. (p.209) 16 anetoh an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchical approach in philosophy ... these two versions of feyerabend's anarchism are quite related, and they communicate the same message, viz. the centrality of anarchism in scientific investigation. tsou (2003) further argues that feyerabend, in his anarchistic science, is advocating for the principle of theoretical pluralism in scientific investigation. this is quite correct based on feyerabend's insistence that one particular method is not adequate for scientific investigations. hence, there is strong need for the exploration of many alternatives in scientific investigations. according to tsou (2003): in prescribing anarchism as a defensible principle for science to follow, feyerabend is urging for a science that follows a principle of theoretical pluralism. specifcally, feyerabend is calling for a science that follows a principle of proliferation, i.e., a science that is organized to require the continuous generation of alternatives. this perspective is premised on the idea that the only process of scientifc change that can produce genuinely objective knowledge requires a context that encourages a plurality of theories and methods. a context that discourages theoretical pluralism (viz., theoretical monism), by contrast, tends to promote both dogmatism and a self-fulfilling confirmation of received views. (p. 210) it is certain from the above that feyerabend champions theoretical and methodological pluralism in science. such, for him, discourages rigidity in science. tsou (2003) demonstrates a very good knowledge of feyerabend's anarchism. this is evident in his scholarly analysis of feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science. elaborating further the intricacies of feyerabend's major thesis in this regard, he states: i have presented feyerabend's anarchism as the normative suggestion that a context of methodological and theoretical pluralism should be encouraged for the sake of the progress of scientific knowledge. this suggestion is premised on a minimal assumption of realism (viz., the methodological assumption that scientific theories should be “interpreted realistically” because theories, to some extent, accurately describe aspects of reality) and the idea that there is no fixed method or fixed theory of rationality that will always provide beneficial results for science. it is important to recognize that feyerabend's anarchism does not reject method or rationality… as such, the anarchist maxim of “anything goes” is not a positive recommendation of “hedonism” (as feyerabend sometimes ssjokingly referred to it) for science, nor does it encompass the claim that all forms of knowing… are equally legitimate. rather “anything goes” is feyerabend's iconoclastic way of emphasizing that sustained criticism and deviations from accepted scientific rules are both reasonable and absolutely necessary for the growth of scientific 17 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 knowledge (mcmullin 1988, pp. 7–10). this potential benefit of methodological and theoretical pluralism, feyerabend believes, is evidenced most prominently by cases of “revolutionary science.” (pp.223-224) it follows that feyerabend is completely against dogmatism with regard to the method of scientific investigation. hence, no specific method of scientific investigation should be accepted as a 'dogma'. at this juncture, feyerabend seems to agree with karl popper that science should be anti-dogmatic. popper argues that scientists ought to be critical as well as anti-dogmatic, and thus champions the idea of 'critical rationalism in science. however, it ought to be noted that feyerabend's anti-dogmatism is mainly concerned with the method of scientific investigation. no 'method' should be held tenaciously as the only method of scientific investigation. furthermore, feyerabend seems to agree with thomas kuhn's 'revolutionary science' as opposed to 'normal science by maintaining that 'revolutionary science' gives evidence to methodological as well as theoretical pluralism in science. also, feyerabend, just like thomas kuhn and quite unlike logical positivists, has high regard for the history of science and at the same time acknowledges its importance in scientific investigations. this explains why he maintains that anarchism is supported by the history of science. he further argues that: standards compete just as theories compete and we choose the standards most appropriate to the historical situation in which the choice occurs. the rejected alternatives (theories, standards: facts) are not eliminated. they serve as correctives (after all, we may have made the wrong choice) and they also explain the content of the preferred views…knowledge so conceived is an ocean of alternatives channeled and subdivided by an ocean of standards. (feyerabend, 1981, p. 159) thus far, the researcher has given scholarly attention to the analysis of feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science. such approach appears revolutionary in nature. this stems from the fact that it questions and contradicts what seems to be the traditional method of scientific research. evaluation feyerabend's anarchism in scientific investigation is actually very controversial. it elicited severe criticisms from different scholars and philosophers of science. some scholars condemn feyerabend's approach to science, and thus criticized him very strongly, while some scholars argue that his approach may be beneficial to the nature of science. treiblmaier (2018) attests to this thus: being one of the most controversial epistemologists and not shying away from pointed criticism, feyerabend has experienced a lot of rejection as well as appreciation, but his ideas have not led 18 anetoh an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchical approach in philosophy ... to the emergence of a dedicated school of followers. this is not surprising since his “epistemological anarchism”, which propagates openness and flexibility, makes it hard to directly derive specific guidelines regarding best practices on how to conduct research. however, his approach has been labeled as an “antidote to the totalitarian tendencies of modern science” (spariosu 1989, p. 300) and we believe that it allows for the critical investigation of the foundations of any research community. (p.12) it is certain that the criticisms given against feyerabend's anarchistic approach were as a result of the controversial nature of his thesis and approach. his approach contradicted completely the fundamental assumption of scientists with regard to the method of scientific research. treiblmaier (2018) notes that feyerabend “was labeled the “worst enemy of science” (p.2). this is due to his principle of 'anything goes' which he upholds in the scientific world. it doesn't seem to the researcher that it is right to label feyerabend the 'worst enemy of science'. it ought to be noted that his anarchistic approach is not meant to destroy science, but rather to open up more avenues and methods of scientific investigations. another scholar that criticized feyerabend's anarchism is tsou (2003). he was dissatisfied with feyerabend's anarchistic approach, and thus argued that his anarchism will not bring about a more objective scientific knowledge. according to him: if one takes feyerabend seriously on his own (somewhat sobered) terms, one criticism that can be raised against feyerabend's recommendation of anarchism is that anarchistic science, characterized primarily by proliferation and rule-breaking, would not necessarily lead to a better or “more objective” scientific knowledge. (tsou, 2003, p.224) certainly, tsou (2003) based this criticism on thomas kuhn's argument that normal science which is characterized by fidelity to the rules and method of the prevailing paradigm can give rise to revolutionary science which brings about scientific progress. the researcher argues that tsou (2003) seems to neglect the fact that proliferation as well as plurality of method may enable scientists make more scientific discoveries. most other criticisms given against feyerabend's anarchism by other scholars revolve around complete neglect of the traditional method of scientific investigations. such criticisms are quite expected because his anarchism challenged the traditional assumptions of science. as was already stated in this article, feyerabend argues that the only defensible approach to science is 'anything goes'. it could be argued that such approach robs science of its systematic and methodic approach to investigation of realities. traditionally, science has its unique qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. brain and anderson (2021) articulate such qualities thus: among the activities often identified as characteristic of science are systematic observation and experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and the formation and testing of hypotheses and theories. 19 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 how these are carried out in detail can vary greatly, but characteristics like these have been looked to as a way of demarcating scientific activity from non-science, where only enterprises which employ some canonical form of scientific method or methods should be considered science…(para. 1) science is empirical in nature and its approach to investigation of phenomena in the universe is fundamentally systematic in approach. such has enabled science to achieve many verifiable discoveries which have improved human condition of existence in the world. by opting for anarchistic approach in scientific investigation, feyerabend is advocating for something that is alien to the practice of scientific investigation. such anarchistic approach may lead to unverifiable results and chaos in scientific research. anarchism ought not be the method of scientific investigation. such stifles science of its unique systematic as well as verifiable approach to investigation of phenomena in the universe. despite the above criticisms, tsou (2003) acknowledged that feyerabend's anarchism is beneficial to the nature of science. thus, he states: although feyerabend was no apologist for science and his arguments against scientific method have often been perceived as “anti-scientific,” it is clear that feyerabend's anarchism is presented in promotion of better science and a more accurate perspective for understanding the nature of the sciences (p.208). obviously, feyerabend's anarchism is revolutionary in nature. this explains why it was criticized by many scholars. however, his anarchistic approach which encourages plurality of methods is an invitation for scientists to discover many new methods of scientific investigation. it ought to be noted that his approach may be beneficial in discovering new avenues and methods of scientific enquiry. conclusion effort has been made in this article to evaluate paul feyerabend's anarchistic approach in philosophy of science. feyerabend is one of the renowned scholars in contemporary philosophy of science. his anarchistic approach in philosophy of science is one of his remarkable contributions in contemporary philosophy of science. as it is very clear in this article, he argues consistently that the only defensible approach in science is 'anything goes'. obviously, his anarchistic approach is very controversial because of its revolutionary nature. it is obvious from the discourse in this article that though feyerabend's anarchism elicited criticisms from some philosophers of science because of its controversial nature, feyerabend contributed immensely towards the development of knowledge in contemporary philosophy of science. he actually broadened the understanding of science in the contemporary era. this article concludes that despite the shortcomings of feyerabend's anarchism in philosophy of science, his unique as well as strange approach is an encouragement for scientists to discover and explore many new methods of scientific investigation. 20 anetoh an evaluation of paul feyerabend's anarchical approach in philosophy ... references brain, h. and andersen h. 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(2019), perspective: dimensions of the scientific method. retrieved from https://journals.plos.org/ ploscombiol /article?id=10.1371 /journal. pcb. 1007279 (10/03/22). https://dictionary 21 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 https://dictionary page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 1 rethinking the primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine for contemporary relevance aanuoluwapo f. sunday, ph.d. abstract it has become a recrudescent cancer to blame failures in africa on the concomitant effects of colonialism. when discussing traditional african medicine, it is not uncommon to find claims such as orthodox medicine have overshadowed traditional medicine and that government has not given traditional medicine its due recognition. since independence, one will expect that alibis as this should not rear their heads. however, as a result of advancement in science and technology, traditional medicine is denigrated as being primitive, unscientific, and unorthodox. this work sets as its problem, the case of primitivism against yoruba traditional medicine which has made gloomy and dimed its relevance and effectiveness in contemporary times. in contemporary times, there is need to rethink african (yoruba) traditional medicine towards rejigging and revitalizing it for sustainable health care delivery. this work critically examines the practice of yoruba ethnomedicine and the accusation of primitivism against it. beyond this, it advances way forward for its practice in the future in order to contribute to sustainable health care delivery. it employs the qualitative method of research using the critical, analytic and prescriptive tools. keywords: ethnomedicine, yoruba, primitivism, science and technology. introduction sometimes ago, two medical doctors had a dialogue on a social media group that i belong to. they discussed yoruba traditional medicine. the first said yoruba herbs and medicinal practices are still as relevant and potent as they were in ancient times. the other, employing hominem responded that his colleague must have been missing classes in medical school to smoke, which has beclouded his reasoning. to him, by virtue of his training in orthodox medicine, he should know that traditional medicine should not be used because it is primitive. both of they did not reach a compromise. primitivism as used by the disdainer of yoruba ethnomedicine is in a malign sense. to him and many others, primitive is a negative word which means useless, antediluvian, obsolete as opposed to modern and scientific. this encounter is the focus of this work. it aims to redefine the notion of primitivism as used to describe yoruba ethnomedicine because it could as well connote a positive meaning. to critically examine the accusation of 'primitivism' against yem, the work is divided into three parts. the first part is the clarification of pivotal concepts. the second part examines the nature of yoruba sunday rethinking the primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine 2 traditional medicine. the third part focuses on the notion of primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine to which certain limitations serves contributory factors. the last part suggests way forward for the survival of yoruba traditional medicine in contemporary times. clarification of concepts yoruba ethnomedicine: yoruba is a sub-saharan language spoken by millions of people mainly in nigeria. yoruba is an ethnic group in the southwestern and north central part of nigeria. just like other parts of the earth, yoruba land is covered with vast forest vegetation of medicinal plants and trees which make indigenous medicinal practices part of the main occupation of the yoruba people. as far back as people have been experiencing health cramps, they have developed means to combat it. similarly, in the yoruba traditional society, they have had to deal with health issues before the momentous development in modern medicine. this is because good health is a prerequisite for personal and collective development, hence the aphorism of the yoruba that eni tó ní àlááfíà, ohun gbogbo ló ní (he who has good health has everything), ìlera l'oògùn orò (good health is the antidote to poverty). yoruba ethnomedicine denotes medical practices within the yoruba cultural milieu. yoruba ethnomedicine involves the use of plants, barks of trees used for herbs, consultation of herbalists, mediums, local doctors and deities for solution to various illnesses (borokini and lawal, 2014:20). it comprises “herbal medicine, bone setting, spiritual therapies, circumcision, maternity care, psychiatric care, massage therapy, aromatherapy, music therapy, homeopathy and a lot of others” (borokini and lawal, 2014:20). in the yoruba cultural ambiance, there are professionals who are skilled in the use of traditional medicine. they are referred to as onisegun (medicine men) or elegbogi (herbs men). those who are trained in the preparation and dispensation of herbs are called alagbo (herbs maker). primitivism: primitivism from the word primitive is from the french word primitive. in latin, it is primitivus derived from the word primus. primitivism is capable of two meanings. first, it is the view that certain ancient practices are preferred. it can also mean that which is backward and antiquated. nature of yoruba traditional medicine yoruba traditional medicine is tied to the apron strings of yoruba culture and religious belief. no aspect of the yoruba life is devoid of their cultural practices and religious beliefs. existence in african understanding is a religious phenomenon; man is a religious being living in a religious universe (mbiti, 1969:15-16). omosade awolalu opines that yoruba medicine is in the realm of religion possibly with some evidence of magic (awolalu, 1979:73). ethnomedicine of any human group in africa straddles both the seen and unseen worlds, such that, one cannot understand the ethnomedicine of the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 yoruba separately from the overall culture within which it emanates and functions (ogundele, 2007:128). health disorders are believed to be caused by evil supernatural forces like witches, demons wizards, sorcerers, who are enemies of their host or as a punishment for evil done in the past. this implies that medicine can be used for the good of humanity as well as to inflict punishment on immoral persons (magesa, 1997:189). however, this explanation may not always be true, illness are also of natural causes (abimbola, 2006:82). it seem to be an alternative way of explaining biological malfunction in the body because of lack of sufficient knowledge of the workings of the human system. for instance, it might be claimed that evil ones are sucking the blood of a person losing weight as a result of malnutrition. with education, we understand better that health disorder may be due to certain unhygienic and inimical practices. despite this awareness, in modern times, it is still believed that evil forces can cause the body of their prey to malfunction. traditional medicine is concerned with exterminating the root cause of a disease (makinde, 1988:89). the medicine man can first ask the gods to know what the cause of the disease is and its treatment (borokini and lawal, 2014:22). kola abimbola refers to orthodox medicine as allopathic medicine while traditional medicine is homeopathic medicine. he writes that; “…allopathic medicine is preoccupied with getting rid of the symptoms, homeopathic medicine is more concerned with identifying the causes of the illness and disease in an effort to restore holistic balance in the biological system” (abimbola, 2006:79). traditional medicine restores not just physical stability but also spiritual wholeness. this shows that in africa, traditional medicine is a homegrown medicine, in ghana, mali, nigeria and zambia, majorly due to inaccessibility to orthodox medicine, the first line of treatment for people with one form of sickness or the other is the use of herbal medicines at home (kayne, 2010:1). hence, yoruba traditional medicine is divided into curative and preventive medicine. curative medicine is the treatment and therapies administered to a patient with intent to cure the patient's medical problems. generally, it involves the use of herbs, roots, leafs, seeds, salt, barks and host of others. instances abound of these types of curative medicine and the ailment to which it is applied. for cough, fadipe nathaniel explains that the ingredients are sugar-cane cut into pieces, soft banana, and shea butter. he adds that when these things are boiled in water, we have some kind of syrup which when constantly applied would give the patient some relief and eventually cure (fadipe, 1970:295). samuel ogundele explains that high blood pressure can be cured by grinding or pounding between five and ten big bulbs of onions, with about an equal amount of garlic added with ginger. all these are put inside a half litre of honey in a container. this mixture is to be taken twice daily. he adds that another alternative is to squeeze fresh bitter leaves inside a container of some little quantity of water and then drink twice daily (ogundele, 2007:132). sunday rethinking the primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine 4 preventive medicine is used as a shield against future attack. to prevent attack from the enemies and wicked ones, yoruba people wear charms and amulets around their waist, some wear it as rings on their fingers. it can be buried as part of the foundation of a house or hung at the entrance of people's houses. all these are done to ward off evil and prevent the activities of the evil ones. some people prepare concoction to drink which would be an antidote against poison and some use it as soap to bath. these mysterious powers that could be used to prevent ailment can also be used for evil ends, hence, we have bad medicine man and good medicine man (awolalu, 1979:74). there have been undeniable changes in the life of the yoruba people. christianity, islam, education and the dawn of orthodox medical doctors have tempered with the wholeness of yoruba traditional medicine (fadahunsi and oladipo, 2004:79-80). in spite the changes, belief in traditional medicine is still pervasive. traditional medicine is still patronized by many rural and urban people because of its accessibility, enduring cultural and psychological values (ogungbemi, 2006:7). yoruba elites also consult herbalists and make use of traditional medicine. it now come in pills, there are established modern medicine firms where drugs are processed with african plants and herbs. herbal soaps, herbal mouth wash, herbal drugs are advertised on the pages of the print media and mass media. local midwives still handle child birth to a greater percentage as evidence that people in modern times still accept traditional medicine. the reason for this acceptance includes the fact that traditional medicines are not expensive unlike orthodox medicine which is expensive because of modern science and technology. furthermore, traditional medicine can be prepared with or without supervision if one knows the required ingredients and method of preparation. furthermore, traditional medicine still has the monopoly to cure certain diseases, like pile. curing pile in yoruba land can be successful by grinding a leaf called efirin, mixed with lime for the patient to lick. primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine yoruba ethnomedicine is faced with diverse challenges that has made it easy to disdainfully describe it as primitive. the greatest challenge of yoruba ethnomedicine is its dearth of a scientific method. by a scientific method, we do not mean that traditional medicine is not testable, it possess empirical knowledge. science itself proceeds by falsification. fadipe posits that; “the greatest gap in the yoruba's knowledge and control of natural phenomenon is the lack of any technique for discriminating between the essential and unessential qualities of things; between what constitutes a thing as such and what are merely accidental properties” (fadipe, 1970: 293). this connotes the inability to induce general principles from particular experiences. when a prescribed medicine expedite cure, all that the medicine man knows is that the combination of certain roots and herbs can cure certain deceases, he may not know the role each ingredient plays and the part of the body the medicine works on (fadipe, 1970: 295). owing to this absence of knowledge and explanation, it seem difficult to fully ascribe to traditional medicine the status of science. however, solomon laleye (2007: 165), contends that science is inextricably linked with culture because every scientific aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 innovation, before universalization, is first an attempt to respond to certain existential challenges of a people within a cultural setting. yoruba traditional medicine is also an attempt to respond to the existential challenge of the yoruba people health wise. another limitation to ethnomedicine is the secretive and esoteric nature of traditional medicine. anyone who will be engaged in the business of traditional medicine has to go through the process of intensive training of about six years or more so as to understudy the methods, principles and rules of traditional medicine (ogundele, 2007: 133). for instance, it is believed that one must not pluck a leaf for medicinal purpose before 6a.m and after 6p.m except one knows the incantation to chant. one cannot know the incantation without being taught. certain healing processes like delivery of a woman who has had protracted labour that may require incantation is also esoteric (ogungbemi, 2006:5). the intangible aspect of traditional medicine which cannot be verified and explained scientifically is a serious setback. some religions see patronizing traditional healers as witchcraft or sorcery. the christian, for instance, see the activities of the oniseegun as barbaric or dubious. this is obviously a contradiction with christian religion because the holy book affirms that god created leaves and herbs for men to take care of their health. the activities of traditional healers are denigrated as a form of discredit to medicine. finally, the problem generally with africans is africans themselves. african people have played a major role in their underdevelopment because whatever is african is often seen as inferior. inability to accept whom we are and what belongs to us is a form of 'internalized racism' (falola, 2016: 8). most africans prefer whatever is foreign. this preference can be due to poverty as well, but most africans fancy what is foreign to that which is local. most people prefer chinese herbal medicine, indian herbal medicine to yoruba herbal medicine. it seems that our mental and psychological temperament to traditional medicine is a limiting factors to its progress. given certain limitations like those identified above, traditional medicine is denigrated as primitive. the question remains that, is traditional medicine primitive? if it is primitive, how should this primitivism be understood to suit contemporary times and aid the survival of yoruba traditional medicine? in the merriam webster's dictionary, a synonym offered for primitive is backwards. if yoruba alternative medicine is described as primitive, it implies that it belongs to the category of those things that have been left behind in the process of cultural advancement and sophistication (idowu, 1991: 109). hence, what often comes to mind first on hearing phrases like 'primitive society' can be the ancient, crude and native society without development, to which the modern and developing society is preferred. this the same as the preference for orthodox medicine over traditional medicine because traditional medicine is seen as haphazard medical practices that are no longer sought-after. however, in a positive sense, primitivism can be seen as the opinion that life was better when it was close to nature. according to cyril-mary pius olatunji (2010:14), “primitivism signifies a theoretical position that whatever is primitive is more authentic and necessarily better…in practical sunday rethinking the primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine 6 terms, it manifests itself in having a preference for whatever is ancient, simple, savage, rudimentary, unsophisticated. primitive here means antediluvian as opposed to modern, sophisticated or scientific”. the first part of olatunji's definition butresses the position that life was better when man was close to nature. however, ancient, simple, savage, rudimentary, unsophisticated, antediluvian as employed in the second part by olatunji are adjectives capable of pejorative meanings. bolaji idowu (1991:109), contends that, these words should not be used to describe any set of people in the world today. the definition of primitivism as offered by two dictionaries and olatunji shows that the word is prone to derogatory nuance. depending on the context in which it is used, it could be positive or negative. hence, when those who object traditional practices describe it as primitive; they mean it is antiquated. bolaji idowu (1991: 109) posits that the incongruous use of the word is as a result of the bias of the western researcher that whatever does not agree with the cultural and social patterns of the west is considered automatically as primitive. corroborating this, mary adekson (2003:1), opines that western researchers who investigate yoruba traditional medicine view it as primitive and non-therapeutic because research conducted by westerners lacks the cultural richness and depth required for such exercise. in segun ogungbemi's view, in the colonial mind, anything african is vilified as primitive in order to fortify their claim of racial superiority (ogungbemi, 2006: 1). this shows that given the western attitude to african cultural practices, they can be inflexible in carrying out research on yoruba ethnomedicine, hence, describe it, and the totality of the african culture that does not appeal to them as 'primitive'. bolaji idowu (1991:109), further accounts that “the anthropological or sociological use of the word 'primitive' has been defended on the ground that it only refers to that which is adjudged to be nearer in behavior or pattern to the original with reference to human race or culture”. to non-western researchers, primitivism connotes that which is desirable. here, primitivism is understood in the positive sense. primitivism in regards to yem is not obsoletism; rather, it connotes originality, it implies that certain medical practices are homegrown, indigenous and african in nature. it means that the yoruba people have a way of treating their ailments with resources in their natural environment and if it is the opinion that the old way of life close to nature is better, then primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine is the notion that in the face of orthodox medicine, traditional medicine is still relevant and potent. as part of yoruba culture and religious belief, traditional medicine is still used alongside orthodox medicine. advancing a future for yoruba traditional medicine today, it is necessary to revive yoruba ethnomedicine which is part of our culture and identity maker. according to toyin falola (2016: 150), given the shortage of facilities and misappropriation of resources, the reason why society have not collapsed is because old ideas that have not been discarded. part of these old ideas is traditional medicine which further shows that culture is part of what makes a society. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 one important step towards the survival of traditional medicine is education. taking the example of the conversation between medical doctors, there are traces that they never had any training that pertains to traditional medicine. ethnomedicine should be an important part of our education. the yoruba child should be trained to learn names of local plants, their combination, usage and their dosages. more colleges of natural medicine should be established for training of practitioners. to a large extent, revitalizing yoruba ethnomedicine will be difficult without taking serious environmental ethics. with the deplorable state of the environment, it is difficult to find plants and herbs for treating diseases. as olatunji oyeshile (1998:159) avers, what african nation needs is a science that takes account of african culture and the physical environment. african environmental ethics takes account of the physical environment. in order to 'save the plant that saves lives' (scot, 2010: 111-112) ecological stability is vital for reviving yoruba ethnomedicine. there should be a revisit to african environmental ethics that does not exploit the environment. in african environmental ethics, utilization of natural resources includes measures of its preservation. environmental ethics cannot be overlooked in creating an enabling and hygienic environment where local medicine will be produced. if natural resources are not conserved, the people, environment and survival of yoruba traditional medicine may be at risk. in a 21st century society, there is need for government intervention to aid the survival of traditional medicine such that it will be attractive to both rural and urban people. reviving traditional medicine seem like a political war. to leaders who seek means to amass public wealth to themselves, developing traditional medicine is not the best means since developing traditional medicine may be less expensive compared to orthodox medicine. government should release fund inform of capital or loans for producers of traditional products. locally made medicine should be made available in modern hospitals and administered to patients if need be. all specially established clinics/institutions of traditional medicine should be registered under the government and government should ensure they meet up with the standard of best practices. as part of measure towards reviving yoruba ethnomedicine, richard oyelakin argues that, traditional medicine should not be integrated into orthodox medicine but developed on its own, it should be granted the autonomy to operate without unnecessary dependence on orthodox medicine (oyelakin, 2009: 73). to him, a call for integration presupposes a sense of qualitative inferiority of yoruba traditional medicine (oyelakin, 2009: 81). on the other hand, falola avers that rather than denigrate traditional medicine as primitive and irrelevant, it is better to seek the means of integrating it with modern medicine (falola, 2016:150). segun ogungbemi (2006: 11-12), opines that traditional healers should make their esoteric knowledge available to orthodox practitioners since they aim at sustaining a healthy life and records should be kept to show their successes and failures. sunday rethinking the primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine 8 admittedly, the traditional healer is not a second fiddle to that of the modern medical practitioner because they seek the same end using different means. while science believes in empirical facts that are tested, traditional religion which is the basis of traditional medicine gives primacy to the spirit. the methodology of the modern practitioner is radically different from that of the traditional healer. for instance, the use of incantation to cause a particular effect. given scientific principle, it is difficult to believe in this since there is no causal connection between words spoken and actions that follows. the primitivism in traditional medicine is exactly what makes it reflect the ancient culture of the people. advocating that it should be integrated into modern medicine is tantamount to making it an appendage rather than an medical practice that can stand on its own. yoruba traditional medicine is part of the culture of the yoruba people that any modern medicine must recognize and acknowledge, hence, corecognized (oyelakin, 2009: 83). whether co-recognition or integration, what is desired is mutualacceptance of traditional and orthodox medicine in order to enhance sustainable health care delivery, productivity and global competitiveness. conclusion ethnomedicine has suffered the same bruises as other african values; cultural, religious, social and/or political. the work has examined the nature, practice and suggested means towards revitalizing yoruba ethnomedicine which shows that improvement in health care delivery will not only come along western lines, it can as well be african in nature. primitivism in relation to ethnomedicine connotes originality. it is part of the sociocultural life of the yoruba which defines them as unique people. although largely patronized by the rural people as a result of poverty and inaccessibility of orthodox medicine. there should be a change in this orientation, such that choosing traditional medicine will not be as a result of poverty but because of its effectiveness. in developing ethnomedicine, the government of nigeria must avoid the illusion of ethnicity and intervene without political excuses as there is no doubt that yoruba ethnomedicine can contribute to sustainable health care delivery in nigeria writ large the world. references abimbola, k. (2006). yoruba culture, a philosophical account. united kingdom: iroko academy publishers. adekson, o.m. (2003). the yoruba traditional healers of nigeria. new york: routledge. awolalu, o.j. (1979). yoruba beliefs and sacrificial rites. london: longman. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 borokini, t.i. and lawal, i.o. (2014). “traditional medicine practices among the yoruba people of nigeria: a historical perspective” journal of medicinal plant studies, 6(2):20-33. fadahunsi, a. and oladipo o. (2004). philosophy and the african prospect. ibadan: hope publications. fadipe, a.n. (1970). the sociology of the yoruba. edited and introduction by okediji francis olu and okediji olòad?j? o. ibadan: ibadan university press. falola, t. (2016). the humanities in africa. usa: pan-african university press. idowu e.b. (1991). african traditional religion: a definition. ibadan: fountain publications. kayne, s.b. (2010). “introduction to traditional medicine: a global perspective” in kayne, steven b. (ed.). traditional medicine. london: pharmaceutical press, 124. laleye, s. a. (2007). “africa's indigenous knowledge, science and the quagmire of sustainable development” japhil 1(1):164-171. magesa, l. (1997). african religion. kenya: paulines publications africa. makinde, m.a. (1988). african philosophy, culture, and traditional medicine. us, center for international studies, ohio university. mbiti, j.s. (1969), african religions and philosophy. ibadan: heinemann educational books limited. ogundele, s.o. (2007) “aspects of indigenous medicine in south western nigeria” ethno-med., 1(2):127-133. ogungbemi, s. (2006). “ethnomedicine in kenya, past, present and future” japhil 1(1):1-14. olatunji, c.p. (2010). “is primitivism indigenous to africa?” inkanyiso 2(1):13-20. oyelakin, t.r. (2009). “yoruba traditional medicine and the challenge of integration” the journal of pan african studies 3(3):73-90. oyeshile, o. cited by laleye, s. a. (2007). “africa's indigenous knowledge, science and the quagmire of sustainable development” japhil 1(1):164-171. sunday rethinking the primitivism in yoruba ethnomedicine 10 scot, g. (2010) “traditional medical practices in africa” in kayne, steven, b. traditional medicine. london: pharmaceutical press, 82-118. journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract this work examines some of the sources of human knowledge to ascertain their validity and justification. the search of/for the justification of human claim to knowing a particular thing brought to bear the need for the re-examination of the sources through which this claims emanate from. this is aimed at ascertaining the justification of the source to know if such knowledge is reliable. this search over the years resulted in bringing forth various opinions and sources as through which humans can gain knowledge. some of these opinions and sources tend to stand in conflict with others there by making it confusing for one to actually know which is to be trusted. it is on the bedrock of this confusion that the objective of this research is to examine the sources of knowledge. to achieve this objective, this work defines knowledge, discusses some of the types, and sources of knowledge as well as attempt an evaluation of the sources of knowledge discussed. this research is relevant because it aims at putting forward the various discussed sources of knowledge and the examination of these sources to ascertain their validity. the method employ in writing this paper are philosophical methods of examination, criticism and evaluation. keywords: epistemology, sources, ratinalism and empiricism introduction the human person over the years is bedeviled with the desire to know. this desire is an inherent disposition in man that stirs up the incessant curiosity to always desire to unravel things: search about the primordial stuff of the universe, the essence of being, his existence and other existents in the world. this burning-incessant curiosity is what is responsible for man engaging in various forms of study. these studies are geared towards also knowing: what is man's place in the world? what is the explanation of the world man finds himself? how can man even gain knowledge about his place in the world? what is this knowledge? why should man even seek to know? from what can man gain knowledge from? how many kinds of knowledge is there to be known? are there rules governing the process of knowing? the above questions are all epistemological questions that aim at man gaining knowledge about one thing or the other. however, as earlier said, the core focus of this paper, is “how does man get to know and what validate his claims that he knows? in other words, what are the sources responsible for man's claims of possessing a particular knowledge about a particular thing? it is the objective of this paper therefore to examine the some of the sources of knowledge that has been put forward is justify their validity and 158 epistemological re-examination of the sources of human knowledge glory nse edet, and blessing ogechi ekeh acceptability. in doing this, this paper presents some of the weaknesses and strengths associated with those mentioned sources. also, to put forward a better understanding of the purpose of this paper, this paper defines knowledge, it discussions some of its types, and also looks into how they relate to the sources of knowledge. concept of knowledge it is the case over the years that knowledge remains an intriguing phenomenon and to provide an adequately acceptable definition keeps troubling man even till data. this is to say that, there is no univocally acceptable definition of knowledge. on the other hand, this does not mean there is no definition of knowledge; of course, there are thousands of definitions given so far. despite these definitions given about knowledge, it is important to mention here that a proper definition of knowledge ought to begin with explaining the word “know”. this is because, the word 'knowledge' is “… the noun form of the very to know” ibrahim, 2012: 110. hence, in this paper, we shall begin the definition of knowledge from defining what 'know' is. idang opined that “to know means to have an idea of something as the result of experience, information or learning's and knowledge in its simplest form has to do with understanding and familiarity gained by experience or information” idang, 2008:16, this simply means that having knowledge about a thing comes from first having an idea of such a thing either through learning about or experiencing it which is a process that has to do with the verb 'know'. on the other had, chambers encyclopedic dictionary emphasizing more on what 'to know' means averred that: to know: therefore, can mean any of the following; to be aware of something; to be certain about it; to learn and remember something's, to have understanding or grasp of the: object of knowledge; to be familiar with something; to be able to recognize or identify something; ability to distinguish between things; to have enough experience and training, to be intimate with something” ibrahim, 2012 :110. from the above views given about 'to know', it becomes clear that since there are various opinions about what 'to know' is, it will be difficult to coin or have a univocal view of what knowledge is. this is because different people will define knowledge based on their conception and understanding of the word 'to know'. the above explication was aimed at giving a background to why there is no univocal definition of knowledge and to what one may consider to be definition. the controversy and disparity in opinion concerning what knowledge is or should be considered as did not start today. this controversy has been right from the ancient period through the medieval, modern and down to the contemporary period. a historical view of what knowledge is will help explain this position better. in the ancient period as seen in the thaeatetus, “knowledge was defined as perception. the things we perceive constitute what we know” this was the view of the man called thaeatetus as seen in the dialogue thaeatetus. however, socrates objected to 159 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 this position by asking 'can't one be mistaken in his/her process of perception and world one still therefore not be justified in claiming to have knowledge since knowledge is perception? what socrates was trying to say was; if perception means knowledge, then, a misperception will double as knowledge and non-knowledge at the same time and this will be contradictory” (ibrahim, 2012, p. 111). thus, socrates argued that knowledge should be something more certain then mere perception. this led to the task of defining knowledge by plato who was a student of socrates. for plato, knowledge should be something that is true, and is believed to be true and there is a rational justification for such belief. this rational justification is the rational explanation given to support belief. this led plato towards comparing what is regarded as knowledge and what is regarded as mere belief or opinion. with the take-off point that plato had, he ended up positing that knowledge is that opinion or belief that is true and there is a rational explanation given for its. thus, plato's definition of knowledge come to be regarded as “justified true belief” idang, 2008:61. in the medieval period which was the period dominated by the church, dogmatism and belief without much recourse to reason, knowledge was seen as that revealed alone by god. one is just to believe and have faith without questioning laid down rules, knowledge claim or postulations. this was the era that authoritative and revealed knowledge flourished. in the modern period, with the revolution posed by martin luther, descartes came up with a seniors level of revolution and refutation of the position of knowledge claims held by the church. according to ibrahim “descartes, a rationalist of the modern period, insisted on a kind of agnostic foundation on which to hinge his entire theory of knowledge. though his systematic or methodic doubt he arrived at the logito… descartes identified the criteria of distinctness and clarity as the marks of true knowledge. thus, true knowledge for descartes must come from self-reflection, geared by intuition that springs from pure light of the human mind and deduction. contemporary thoughts about knowledge tend to show that there are some elements of disagreements found between the ancient view and some of the contemporary period. for instance, edmund l. gettier in an article published 1963 titled “is justified tree belief knowledge?” put forward, position that tends to rival the claim that knowledge is justified true belief held in the ancient period. he argued that, though justification, truth and belief are necessary conditions for knowledge claim, they are not sufficient conditions. he showed through two thought experiments how weak the 'justified true belief' account of knowledge is without a fourth condition to support it. though he did not give the fourth condition, he set the pace for the search of the fourth condition in his new and more powerful way. despite the search for the fourth condition, omoregbe asserted that “knowledge presuppose consciousness. all thinking, all acquisition of knowledge, and even skepticism itself presuppose consciousness” omoregbe,1998:1. thus, it can be said that knowledge for omoregbe deals with one's consciousness of a particular thing or event. omoregbe further buttressed his point by evening that: consciousness is basic to epistemology and is the veritable starting point for any discussion about knowledge. for, it is because man has consciousness 160 edet & ejeh epistemological re-examination of the sources of human knowledge (reflective consciousness) that he can think, that he can acquire knowledge, can justify his knowledge or can even doubt. from the above therefore, it appears for omoregbe, knowledge about a particular is synonymous with consciousness or being conscious of that particular thing. from the foregoing, this research submits that knowledge is the familiarity, consciousness, claim and awareness one has about a particular as a result of experience, reasoning or fearing that can be rationally justified. some types of knowledge the following are some of the types of knowledge there are: 1. empirical knowledge this is the type of knowledge that is derived through the sense organs like: the sense of seeing, learning, touching or feeling and tasting. omoregbe posited that “empirical knowledge is the knowledge acquired through sense. perception, that is, through any of the five senses. empirical knowledge is always knowledge of an individual object, a particular object, not knowledge of a class or category of object” omoregbe, 1998:24. those philosophers who subscribe to this form of knowledge are called 'empiricists' and “this position in epistemology is known as empiricism' idang, 2008:6. in a nutshell, empirical knowledge is that knowledge derived from observation, experience or experiment which is strongly aided by the human senses like; the eye, ear, hand, leg or other part of the body, nose, tongue etc. 2. rational knowledge this is the opposite of empirical knowledge. rational knowledge is the knowledge that is based on reason. asira, ogar and ibrahim postulated that rational knowledge is “any knowledge that is based on rational grounds like on reasoning, logic, mathematical procedures and other extra-sensory means that are not based on capricity, chance, lunch, or based on sheer imagination” (asira, ogar and ibrahim, 2012, p. 41). in epistemology, this kind of knowledge falls under the school of thought called 'rationalism'. 3. authoritative knowledge this is the knowledge derived from an authority or a secondary source. idang submits that: the knowledge me acquire when we depend on a secondary source for information is said to be authoritative knowledge. for instance, we come know about socrates by the testimony of his friends, pulpits, and contemporaries like plato and aristotle… authoritative knowledge is closely related to revealed knowledge, which is also certified by an indisputable authority (idang, 2008, p. 63-64). from the opinion of idang, despite his claim that authoritative knowledge is closely related to revealed knowledge, this paper observes that it is also closely related and similar to testimonial knowledge. 161 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 4. intuitive knowledge this type of knowledge is the type that is derived through a moment of insight and awareness. idang averred that “the position on intuitions thus seems to be a supre-rational approach to truth based on a spontaneous apperception of reality” (idang, 2008, p. 65). it should be borne in mind at this point that intuition is not the result of conscious reasoning or of immediate sense perception, but a moment of flash. in omoregbe's view: intuitive knowledge is knowledge gained by intuition; it is knowledge that is acquired directly by an immediate contact of the mind with the object without going through the process of reasoning. such knowledge is acquired by direct insight without making use of reasoning or concepts. it comes as a flash into the mind (omoregbe, 1998, p. 29). 5. conceptual knowledge conceptual knowledge is defined as the knowledge that is based on universal concepts “acquired through the process of abstraction; hence it is also known as abstract knowledge or intellectual knowledge” according to omoregbe (omoregbe, 1998, p. 34). the process of abstraction is the process whereby abstract ideas are abstracted from particular concrete objects. for hamlyn “understanding conceptual knowledge is linked up with the fact of language” (hamlyn, 1970, p. 272). this is because, concepts are words and words are units of meaning or building blocks in mean information within a given language. this “using a concept means understanding the grammar of the language in which the concept is used. wrong use of concept will obfuscate meaning and hinder communication and ultimately hinder knowledge” (asira, ogar and ibrahim, 2012, p. 145). some theories of the sources of knowledge there are many theories of knowledge; but two of these theories are very outstanding. they are rationalism and empiricism. this paper shall focus on the examination of these two theories with at least one other one: 1. rationalism: this is an epistemological doctrine that holds that knowledge comes through reasoning. esikot postulated that “rationalism is the school of thought that holds that knowledge of the real world is acquired independently of experience” (esikot, 2019, p. 33). in other words, this position stands against the senses as a source of knowledge. thus, rationalism is opposed to any form of knowledge that comes from the sense or experience. those philosophers who support this view are called 'rationalists'. for esikot: they contend that there are some truths that accessible to the human mind and these constitute the only reliable foundation to our knowledge claims. such truths are evident in geometry and logic (esikot, 2019, 162 edet & ejeh epistemological re-examination of the sources of human knowledge p. 33). from the above therefore, rationalism is that theory of knowledge that is against sense perception. another name for this theory is 'a priori' theory of knowledge. 2. empiricism empiricism is that epistemological doctrine that holds that knowledge is derived through the senses and experience. for esikot: the central thesis of empiricism is that perception is at some point or other indubitable; hence some forms of knowledge, if not all knowledge, come ultimately from experience (esikot, 2019, p. 32). hamlyn held similar opinion when he averred that: thus empiricism in its strongest version comes down to the thesis that the indubitable propositions that must form the basis of the defense of knowledge against the skeptic are to be found in experience (hamlyn, 1970, p. 37). from the above two definitions, generally expressed, empiricism is the philosophical doctrine that holds that human knowledge (of the world) is acquired totally from the senses and experience. thus, observation is said play a vital role as long as this position is concerned. those philosophers who subscribes to this position are called empiricists. 3. intuitionism according to mbat (mbat, 2003, p. 38), “intuitionism is a philosophical doctrine that knowledge by intuition is the primary and only source of knowledge”. in other word, this position argues that the only true source of knowledge is institution. this kind of knowledge does not depend either on the senses, perception or on reasoning. some sources of knowledge according to esikot, “sources of knowledge refer to the ways or medium though which we come to acquire or possess knowledge” (esikot, 2019, p. 31). there are a lot of sources through which human can know a thing. the following are some of those sources: 1. the senses (empiricism) one of the sources of human knowledge is the senses like the eye, nose, mouth, lands etc. the philosophical position that supports the senses as a reliable source of human knowledge is called empiricism. mbat postulated that empiricism as an epistemological theory holds that “all our knowledge derived from, or are founded in our sense perceptual experiences, which include touch, smell, hearing, taste and sight” (mbat, 2003, p. 36). this position in nutshell holds that, the senses is the only means through which humans can gain knowledge about reality. some philosophers who support this position are: john locke, bishop berkeley, and david hume. in the opinion of esikot: modern empiricists are of the view that all propositions that can be known are related in some way to experience apart from the propositions of logic 163 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 and mathematics, which depnd for the truth on the meanings of the terms involved; but that we are not really provided with new information by means of them (esikot, 2019, p. 32). 2. reason (rationalism) reason is acclaimed as one of the sources of knowledge, perhaps, to some philosophers, it is the only true source of knowledge. reason or reasoning as a source of knowledge is opposed to sense-perceptual experience. reason as a source of knowledge falls under the epistemological school of thought called rationalism. mbat posited that “rationalism is a major rival school of epistemology to empiricism. rationalism is the claim that true knowledge is derived from reason” (mbat, 2003, p. 37). in other words, rationalism challenge physical sense-perceptual experience as deceptive. rationalism holds that possible-certain truth about anything one wishes to know; including the ultimate nature of reality, the laws of nature, essence of god and moral laws can be known through reason. 4. authority another source of knowledge that is worthy of note here is authority. esikot averred that “by knowledge from authority we mean such kinds of knowledge that we acquire from person other than ourselves” (esikot, 2019, p. 33). it should be understood that an authority is an expert in a particular field or discipline whose pronouncement or opinion is often considered as trustworthy and valid. mbat posited that: a good lot of the things we claim to know are neither things that we personally experience nor they are things that we infer from our reason. besides knowing certain facts through experience and reason, authoritarians claim that we can also know facts about the world by learning them from some authority (mbat, 2003, p. 39). evaluation from the foregoing, it is apparent that the lack of a univocal definition of knowledge may not be unrelated with the fact that there are various sources of knowledge and types of knowledge as well. this is so because, in as much as there are a lot of positions given on how humans can gain knowledge, one should expect that there will be accompanying varieties of definitions of knowledge. be that as it may, this paper mainly focuses on the sources of knowledge. there are other sources of knowledge that has been postulated, but this paper submits three for examination because of the following reasons: 1. not to go off the scope and limit of this work. 2. the other sources of knowledge; when critically analyse, studied and examined are seen to (in one way or the other) fall under these aforementioned three sources. the above discussed sources are not without flaws even as they are tenable to a large extend. as one of the objectives of this paper, an examination of these sources will be 164 edet & ejeh epistemological re-examination of the sources of human knowledge carried out at this juncture to ascertain their weaknesses and strengths. let's begin with empiricism (the senses). empiricism stands very tall as long as knowledge acquisition is concerned. this is because, whatever one claims to know, such must have passed through the process of observation, either directly by the one who claims to have the knowledge or by some other person who serves as an authoritative figure (authority) from which such claim emanated from. thus, one cannot totally get rid of the senses in the process of knowledge acquisition. however, as esikot argued: the acceptance of empiricism either in the traditional or modern rendition rules out certain claims to knowledge. for instance, knowledge of the soul, god… one problem with empiricism is that it is restricted and limits that which is knowable to perception, and perception is not reliable (esikot, 2019, p. 32). in other words, esikot is arguing that since the senses is associated with perception, and perception may be deceptive because of the weakness of the senses, empiricism may also be misleading since it depends on the senses. mbat held and raised similar contemplations about the validity and justification of the claim of knowledge from the senses when he averred that: while it may not be right for us to deny the facts that experience provides us in formation about the physical world, and serves as source for our formation of ideas… empiricism has some serious problems. for example, descartes… questioned: if we have for one time been deceived by our senses, what guarantee do we have that they may not always deceived us? (mbat, 2003, p. 36). on the other hand, rationalism and authority as sources of knowledge are not with flaws. for instance, rationalism discard the senses in the process of knowledge acquisition forgetting that one cannot reason or think about nothing. one must have seen something, touched it, smelt it, felt it or heard about such a thing before contemplating or rationalizing an such a thing. as such, the senses cannot be totally thrown away for they are the medium through which such is possible. thus, rationalism may not function effectively well without the senses. on authority, it is believed that the authority must have derived his/her facts or foundation of knowledge from either the senses or reason. as such, authority as a source of knowledge is still linked back to the senses or reason. despite this, when the reliability of knowledge from authority disagrees with another authority on the same claim, there is need to be cautions by withholding judgment on the matter. furthermore, sometimes it is seen that a careful examination of the claims of an authority unravels some weaknesses of such claims, thus, one must be careful when accepting knowledge claim based on authority. 165 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 conclusion in conclusion, this paper submits that as controversial as the definition of knowledge is, there is still a definition of knowledge based on the school of thought one subscribes thought. this school of thought is also influenced by the believed one holds as his or her source of knowledge. be that as it may, there are two foundational sources of knowledge which humans subscribe to; they are empiricism and rationalism. the former emphasizes the senses; the latter emphasizes reason. a careful examination of these two sources shows that man cannot do without them. at some point man makes use of reason and at another time he makes use of the senses; whether consciously or unconsciously. works cited asira, e., ogar, j. and ibrahim, a. 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(2010). refutation of private language epistemology. calabar: jochrisam publishers. omoregbe, j. (1998). epistemology (theory of knowledge): a systematic and historical study. lagos. joja educational research and publisher limited. ozumba, g. (2001). a concise introduction to epistemology. calabar: ebenezer computer services. pence, g. (2001). a dictionary of common philosophical terms. new york: mcgraw hill. 166 edet & ejeh epistemological re-examination of the sources of human knowledge page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 1 towards an inclusive humanism m. e. abam, ph.d. abstract the emphasis on difference whether ideological, cultural or otherwise has blurred the minds of mankind to that which is truly human thereby creating myriads of problems for peoples of the world. never in the history of the world have we found mankind as polarized as is the case today. this polarity, a corollary of 'difference' has generated tensions ranging from ethnicity, religion, corruption, cronyism, nepotism, terrorism, banditry, etc. the challenges are as a result of emphasis on the 'us' and the 'they'. in the face of global pandemic such as we witness today, it is expedient that we deemphasize difference that divide mankind and evoke and evolve for himself truly humanistic moral virtues that could help to not only reaffirm but embrace our shared humanism that is pivotal to surmounting the hydra-headed concerns currently bedeviling the human race. the analytical, historical, critical and reconstructive methods of philosophy were employed. the analytical method helped in clarifying concepts like humanism, inclusiveness, communalism that are very central to the problematic. the critical and historical methods were employed to examine some theories relating to humanism. finally the reconstructive method was adopted to establish the truism that until we all agree to be more humane than we currently are, the world may never surmount the challenges created by emphasis on difference. the paper recommends that relative global peace is only possibly if and only if cultures, traditions, identity groups, races and religions open up to each other in their quest for a more humanized world. key words: humanism, inclusiveness, ubuntu, communalism. introduction we are living in desperate times where the very nature of most people has become to say the least wicked. the world is gradually receding to the 'hobbesean' state of nature where men and cultures are becoming selfish, individualistic and conflictive. in nigeria alone the degree of wickedness perpetuated by the state, cultures and communities as well as individuals has reached fever peak. there have been different stories of assassinations in kaduna, benue, taraba, zamfara, plateau, enugu, delta, rivers to mention but a few. nigerian highways are no longer safe safe due to the onslaught of bandits. the same bandits have ransacked many villages in the north leaving sorrows, tears and blood on their trail. there is the menace of boko haram and marauding killer herdsmen in the north east and middle belt. in mali the tuaregs are making the state very unsafe for civil governance. same is found in guinea bissau, congo, burundi etc and of recent the xenophobic attacks in south africa. one can go on enumerating where abam towards an inclusive humanism 2 tensions have built up the world over. this paper investigates the essence of our humanity and how a relative global humanism can be achieved that can lead to reduced tensions of identities as well as man's inhumanity to man. the chapter makes the point that it is only in the face of reduced tensions can a true human global order can be attained where individuals in spite their cultural standpoints can actualize their ultimate goals as members of the human specie. i shall adopt the analytical, critical and reconstructive methods of philosophy to achieve my quest. humanism conceptualized most people use the word humanism yet do not let us into what it connotes. the idea of humanism is not new because it has been in use for a long time. this may be why j. herrick writes that “the word has developed since its use to describe a belief system that calls upon reason and values to enable us develop our lives and our societies.” (herrick, 2003:1). at times adjectives like 'scientific humanism,' 'ethical humanism,' 'religious humanism,' etc. are used. these adjectives are only added for clarity purpose. therefore, humanism can be said to be a system of thought that questions existing ideas with the aim and quest for new ones. this definition does not in any way capture in its entirety what humanism means but rather gives us a bird eye view towards the demystification of the concept. the best way of doing justice to the word in question is to approach it from an historical perspective. to this end, humanism is traced from ancient through renaissance to enlightenment and to contemporary times. in the ancient period, a group from miletus a greek colony on the coast of asia minor, took up the major questions of what constituted our universe. one of them was thales who said all existence was based on water. anaximander is thought to have written a book on nature that survived in fragments. thales, anaximander and anaximenes set out the naturalistic view that everything is matter. the drama and sculpture of ancient greece shows a preoccupation with the entirely human which was new to human culture at that time. this human element introduced into hellenistic culture of old found outlet in the capturing of human form on stone. more so, the great philosopher socrates introduced a humanist method of philosophical inquiry in his preferred use of the dialectics (herrick, 1). aristotle also borrowed a leaf from this in his ethics – nicomachean and eudemonia are based entirely on the human. in the renaissance, classical learning was revived giving rise to the emergence of city life in countries like italy. this led to the increase in trade, prosperity and leisure time for most city dwellers giving rise to the use of the phrase studia humanitas to refer to the humanities. vittorina da fletro, giovanni bruno, michel montaigne, even bacon all made their contributions to humanism in different ways at this epoch. in the enlightenment, the work of j. s. mill, analysis of the influence of natural religion on the temporal happiness of mankind (1822) also avers to humanism. here mill puts forward arguments that could help man build society especially his emphasis on education. he capped his humanism with the ethical thesis of utilitarianism that calls for the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. and it is still in the spirit of humanism that people can today argue about the notions of fundamental human rights. the formation of the u. n. is yet a corollary of the spirit of humanism. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 having made that point, we can define humanism as that idea that attempts to 64 return to humans the power and definition of our being – a return from narrative or textual notions of our being to the human condition and human experience as we live it in the present age. this may be why herrick states that “humanism is a way to live, to give meaning to life and to find and understand our place in society and, indeed the universe” (herrick, 3). this is to say that humanism focuses on specific human abilities especially the ability of each of us to reason out the world and our being within it, and has concentrated on science and the scientific method to distill and clarify the ways in which we can obtain truth about the world, and potentially about the human. a note on exclusivism against the background provided, it is an open truth that the world has been grappling with lots of issues as a result of exclusiveness that bring our quest for humanism to question. assassinations, kidnappings, terrorism, corruption, genocides to mention but a few all mitigate our search for global humanism. this exclusivism is responsible for the call for self determination in countries like nigeria, ethiopia, morocco among others. these calls for secession are mostly as a result of individualism that has mitigated the gains for collectivity. many people are now more than ever disenchanted with the political class because of their quest for personal gains. the political class is more interested in power, status and position to the detriment of the wellbeing of the citizenry. injustice permeates the nigerian political space because religious bigots, tribalists and croynists claiming to be champions of nigeria's problems are now the people in leadership position. these individuals lack a sense of commitment and inclusive humanism that is the reason they appoint only people from their villages, towns and cities to positions of authority even when they are the least qualified for such positions. in this regard, there is no iota of meritocracy in appointments except the criterion of being a tribesman. this completely negates the tenets of inclusiveness hence the attending problems that bedevil not only nigeria, but africa as a whole. the cause of all of these challenges are reducible to one factor a dearth of inclusive humanism. inclusivism pessimists have been making the point that an inclusive humanism given the events of our world is only but an illusion because the future is definitely going to see an increasing number of anarchic, small wars similar to somalia, particularly over decreasing resources as nigeria is currently witnessing with killer herdsmen. for the optimist which is the thrust or standpoint of this paper, our cosmopolitan global communication will help us attain a more hopeful and humane world. there is now something one can call a global melting pot where a high sense of globality can be forged. but the question now is; how do we achieve an inclusive humanism? i will be using the reconstructive method of philosophy to reconstruct the thoughts of some theorists to making our quest for inclusive humanism better entrenched. sarles responds to the above question by saying that an inclusive humanism can only be possible if we continue to hope for a better future for mankind. this idea of futurity according to him abam towards an inclusive humanism 4 will help men live peaceably with one another in the hope of the future bliss that will come hereafter. for fanon, as expressed by nayar, an ethics of recognition of difference within the postcolonial paradigm is the first step en route an inclusive humanism because through mutual recognition subjectivities aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 are forged giving rise to a truly humanist vision. to achieve this, fanon proposes that oppressed peoples join up with peoples who are already sovereign to build a world in the dimension of universalism (nayar, 2011:21-35). in the same vein russell as quoted by herrick writes that we can attain a humanized world if: we care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle. to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times and to see in my imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed die because there is nothing to nourish them (herrick, 11). these goals of russell may never be realized if mankind fails to resolve the fundamental problems confronting him – the problem of multiplicity; the one and the many in terms of culture and religion etc. (mclean, 2004:204). to solve this problem according to mclean there is need for convergence of cultures where everyone will recognize that: 1. all are created equal and therefore free – and hence peace lies in the mutual promotion of the pursuit of human fulfillment. 2. that the human person is essentially relational – and hence our futures are so bound together as to require mutual recognition, respect and cooperation, and 3. that peace can be had only from the free pursuit of harmony and hence in a global age, “blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall possess the land” (mclean, 204205). selected theories of humanism so far i have been making a general analysis as to how a more humane world could be attained. put differently my interest is on making possible an inclusive humanism. i shall at this juncture attempt to be more systematic by trying to use different theories to interrogate the problematic. in this vein, i shall be considering the african idea of community otherwise called communalism, existentialist humanism and african christian humanistic value theory of ehusani. african communalism there is no gainsaying the fact that in many african cultures, the idea of the individual person is, for the most part tied to the idea of community. the community here is characterized as a life community in which there is an intimate personal interaction among human beings as opposed to the recently impersonal modern western set-up where everyone minds his or her own business. in a typical african setting, community is neither to be understood in the additive sense of a non-organic bringing together of atomic individuals into a unit akin to an association. in the african sense, there is an assumed organic dimension to the relationship between the component individuals that form the community. the community here is defined as a group of people who together experience reciprocity of awareness (ogbuja 2006:9). the existence of common ties, and biological bonds, interdependent relationships, common abam towards an inclusive humanism 6 interests, and goals is crucial to an adequate sense of community; that in fact constitutes a people into a community, into a social train driven by communalism. this may be why george ehusani writes that: the african values community living not only because “it is good for kinsmen to do so,” but because life is his or her ultimate concern, and that life can only grow in relationships. outside the community there is no life. to excommunicate oneself or to be excommunicated from the community is to be dead (1991:221). this phenomenon was captured in chinua achebe's things fall apart when okonkwo was excommunicated from his community. he went to his mother's people and never felt at home throughout his sojourn at his maternal family (achebe, 1958:99). this is so because the traditional african does not retreat from people but rather he is interested in people since energy and life is drawn and found among persons. more so, it is an open fact that the african sense of family and kinship cannot be rivaled hence the celebrated institution of extended family where nobody is 'a nobody'. this system provides security against the negative vicissitudes of life like death, crop failure etc. in fact you can live your whole life in a traditional african community without ever purchasing or owning a lighter or a box of matches yet always have fire to cook your meals. this is because you are free to get burning coals from anywhere you find smoke rising. the virtue of being hospitable to strangers that flows from the african spirit of solidarity and togetherness is one that places the african on the lead step to bringing about an all inclusive humanism. in the same vein, julius nyerere, one of africa's foremost advocates for communalism is of the opinion that for africa and africans and indeed the human race to live peaceably, the principle of 'ujamaa' must be imbibed. 'ujamaa ' is a kiswahili word that means 'familihood' or 'brotherhood'. it is an attempt to build communalism from the extended family system and brotherhood of traditional africa. ujamaa signifies a set of ideas and principles, a mass ideology, a programme of action and an african brand of socialism. according to nyerere, african socialism must be rooted in our past – in the traditional society which produces us – the recognition of society, an extension of the family unit. through ujamaa nyerere wanted to recapture the old african social order where everybody was his brother's keeper and where there were no unemployed adults. to him traditional society serves as a guide to us on how to attain intrinsic good both materially and psychologically. he maintains that in traditional africa, every man contributes to the general pool for the general welfare. this is exemplified in the common ownership of land which every generation held in trust and exercise sacred responsibility to the future generation (yekini, 2004:252). one of the tenets of ujamaa is the rejection of individualism. individualism is alien to the african. another is the idea of hard work. in traditional african societies, everyone worked for the wellbeing of the entire community. idleness was considered a social sin. “treat your guest as a guest for two days on the third day you give him the jembe (hoe)” is a famous aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 african aphorism. the universal applicability of ujamaa as means to attaining global humanism finds expression in these words: ujamaa requires that the traditional attitude of mind be projected outward to incorporate not only every tanzanian but all mankind. thus, the crusade will not only rediscover and revitalize native values but extend these present parochial values to the entire human race (28). if global humanism must be attained, it is pertinent we imbibe these african virtues of one being his brother's keeper as exemplified in the dignity placed on human worth. if beauty indeed inheres in the human person, peoples of the world ought to strive to be more accommodating to all irrespective of their skin colour, religious affinity or cultural background. we have to transcend the barriers individualism placed on us to becoming truly human. being human implies sociability with the ultimate belief 'i am because you are, and because you are, therefore i am.' the worth of an individual is tied to the global community, therefore we have to protect it, because in protecting it we are invariably protecting ourselves since our fates are bound in the collective. african christian humanistic theory another theory of humanism worth considering is what george ehusani calls 'the african christian humanistic theory. ' ehusani holds that the great threat to human survival is the senseless pursuit of a lopsided technological development. in his words: western technological development has brought a lot of good to the world, it has also polarized a dysfunctional worldview, and a destructive axiology. western technological civilization has traded half-truths and illusions to all the lands of its conquest, and these halftruths and illusions have largely been accepted as the reality (ehusani, 1991:242). ehusani is making the point that any form of development that neglects the human person by presenting itself as if humanity was created for development and not development for humanity misses the mark because this lopsided development model defines the 'human' by how much he eats, how fast he travels, and how well he uses space and people neglecting the very essence of who and what he really is which is the core of being human. against this background, ehusani's african christian humanism serves as an alternative to the lopsided agenda put forward by the west – a system that has turned man into what material benefit he can add to society and not his worth as someone divinely created. this point was again reemphasized by ehusani by quoting pope john vi. he writes that any meaningful development must give “priority of ethics over technology, primacy of persons over things, and the superiority of spirit over matter ” (ehusani, 242). a theorist enthused that there will not be a thing as developed nation unless that nation has been able to make its people live together in harmony. put differently, development is worthless that is not channeled towards global unity and harmony that begins at the individual level. abam towards an inclusive humanism 8 existentialist theory of humanism another point worthy of note in our quest for global humanism is existentialism. existentialism in this sense is seen as the opening up of subjectivities. some have argued that existentialism is a purely subjective philosophy that may never aid our quest for global humanism. olatunji oyeshile argues in the negative. he holds that the claim that existentialism is purely subjective: is at variance with the tenet of existentialism in the sense that there is an inbuilt regulator of human freedom, which is found in inter subjectivity. in other words when we pursue the concept of individual freedom to its logical conclusion, it could be discerned that it allows for the freedom of others in spite of impressions to the contrary. this is found in sartre's statement that “when i choose for myself, i choose for others” (oyeshile 2005:26). what can be gleaned from this statement is that even though we all pursue our respective lives differently as free beings, our freedom is also tied to the freedom of others. in other words, it is the freedom of others that define my freedom as a unique and different individual. oyeshile used theodoros kiros, martin heidegger, j. p. sartre, merleau ponty and gabriel marcel to provide answer to the question: how can we live together in a more humanized world? heidegger's analysis of 'dasien' attempts an answer. dasien means man as being there in the world that is to say, the basic condition or state of man (dasien). heidegger provided a novel analysis and interpretation by further elucidating the essential features of dasien (man). heidegger is saying here that the very idea of being in the world underscores being with others. oyeshile writes that “heidegger although reemphasizes over and over again why the dasien should be authentic, nevertheless allows for the consideration of others in interpersonal relation which is also a basis for multiethnic harmony” (oyeshile, 32). what he is saying in essence is that even though primarily, dasien refers to the individual in the world, he does not exist in the world alone as there are others that one way or the other will affect his being there in the world. to attain global humanism oyeshile recommends that: as dasiens, both at the individual and ethnic group levels, survival is only possible if and only if we recognize the importance of others not as mere objects standing in the way of achieving our goal of survival, but as ends in themselves who are not only important but also inevitable and inescapable in the realization of our goal of survival and freedom (32). we see a tincture of immanuel kant in oyeshile especially where kant asks that we should always see human beings as ends in themselves and not as means to various ends. from the above postulations, we can surmise that for heidegger, global humanism is possible if we apply the simple but yet difficult principle of live and let live. his principle of throwness invariably binds humanity together seeing that we are all thrown aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 into the world together irrespective of race, tribe, religion, culture etc. whether we like it or not, we are condemn to living together so we have to make it work. as rational beings, heidegger will want us to pursue peace because such is our facticity. the notions of anxiety and anguish caused by the fear of the unknown should guide the hearts and minds of dasiens towards global harmony. dasien cannot prolong or have the freedom to actualize his essence in a world of strife, discord, and disharmony. a world of this kind will only help re-emphasize the nothingness dasien tries to run away from. global humanism is possible when we all affirm our authentic selves while not jeopardizing the freedom others equally have to express theirs. furthermore, sartre's analysis of the nature of existence gives direction on how to attain global humanism. underlying his postulations on existentialism is his position that unlike other objects, man possesses consciousness. for this reason he is related the world of things and people in different ways. it is the possession of consciousness that will guide sartre towards humanism. as conscious beings, we are aware of the plight of other conscious beings in the world. we need others to be able to carve out our essences. we exist, we find ourselves here because there are no prescriptions and we must define, decide for ourselves the kind of persons we want to be. the essence thus follows existence. in existentialism, the question of identity is central: basically, who am i? sartre thought that we are, in principle free to define our identity. there is no script for our roles, there is no 'essence' that tells us who we are and what we ought to be. we are all free, and we all bear the responsibility to find answer. sartre's answer to attaining global humanism rest in his two modes of existence – being in itself and being for itself. the main feature of being for itself is the inability of being acted on from without while that of being in itself is characterized in terms of a complete incapacity for any relationship to itself. the bottom line of sartre's exegesis is that in human society we engage each other in mutual reciprocity. oyeshile captures this well when he writes that: sartre's subjectivism adequately provides for the existence of other consciousness in the world. sartre believes that the self must first be for the others as a precondition for having consciousness of himself and others as being for him. what all these show is that as individuals and groups, we have our various and latent manifest identities; we cannot overlook the importance of others and we must accommodate them, because it is when we accommodate them that they will also accommodate us (oyeshile, 36). this is exactly what albert camus put in a different way when he made the call for humans all over the world to come together to confront their common enemy nosea. for him, in the face of human calamities especially one caused by our inability to accommodate one another in spite of our differences, humankind cannot afford to stand aloof or remain apathetic to human suffering. by dint of sheer human solidarity, we must come together to fight against all manner of injustice and cruelty: man's abam towards an inclusive humanism 10 inhumanity to man. man must submit to fate but at the same time impose meaning to life. we must defy the tendency to hate each other with a rebellious spirit – instead of hate, we must love. out of our existential predicament, must solidarity arise to counter the weight of our meaninglessness. we see this clearly in the plague where men irrespective of their creed, position, religion, culture, tradition etc had no choice but to bond together to confront their common enemy – the bubonic plague. in our case, our common enemy lies in our inability to see each other as brothers and sisters that have more in common than the few things that tend to separate us. if global humanism must be attained from an existentialist perspective, we must recognize that we are beings with other beings in the world who are all in dire need of actualizing their essences. this can only be possible if all men come together in solidarity to look for means of overcoming their perceived differences that has led to all sorts of problems for the human race. conclusion i started my analysis on humanism by first looking at the problematic from an historical perspective – the ancient, medieval/renaissance, modern and contemporary times to underscore the point that the search for that which is truly human did not begin today. this is due to the fact that global humanism is a precondition for global peace. we should not lose track of the fact that to attain peace, we must require mutual collaboration from others mutually proportionate with what we give in the harboring of partnership of individuals, communities, cultures and civilizations. humankind must try to overcome their idiosyncrasies by opening up to one another in the spirit of truth and common brotherhood. for this to be possible, all humankind must desire peace since it is the most rational thing to do. instead of monologue dialogue must be encouraged, instead of injustice and intolerance, justice and fairness should be pursued, instead of terrorism and wars, we must pursue the virtue of 'live and let live'. to say the least, an inclusive global humanism is attainable in the face of 'communicative communion of world races.’ global humanism is captured in the african sense in the word 'ubuntu.' the essence of ubuntu is to promote a culture of peace, tolerance, peaceful coexistence and mutual development. as a humanist concept, ubuntu is based on the principle of reciprocity, inclusiveness and a high sense of shared destinies among and across communities. i conclude by making the point that humanism is not an ideal that cannot be reached but rather an attainable mode of existence that could engender human flourishing if and only if individual wills are sacrificed for the good of the collective. references achebe, c. 1958. things fall apart. england: heinemann. herrick, j. 2003. humanism: an introduction. ibadan: gadfly publishers. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 mclean, g. w. 2004. persons, peoples and cultures: living together in a global age. washington council for research in philosophy. ogbuja, c. n. “the place of the ordinary person in african communalistic society” a seminar paper presented to the nigerian philosophical association at the university of ibadan, 2006 ( unpublished ). yekini, a. s. 2004. “ujamaa the political and social thought of mwalimu julius nyerere” in asouzu i. (ed) philosophy and logic today. calabar: university of calabar press. oyeshile, o. 2005. reconciling the self with the other. ibadan: hope publication. ehusani, g. o. 1991. an afro-christian vision “ozovehe” towards a more humanized world. new york: university press of america. nayar, a. “reinventing the world” www.newworldbooks.org. sourced 5th june, 2011. http://www.newworldbooks.org/ 87 a thomistic interpretation of religious education for national unity victoria openifoluwa akoleowo abstract this paper contends that theological education promotes national unity when it recognizes the need to construct a notion of ‘the common good’ as the basis of national unity. it examines the human person as a rational, relational, and religious being whose rationality provides a common denominator with other rational beings of different persuasions. it also examines the notion of the common good as one associated with higher purposes and a virtuous life, which can only be realized in an ideal political community. utilizing the analytic and synthetic methods, it draws from thomas aquinas’ natural law tradition to present a compatibilist notion of faith and reason as necessary tools for the identification of the common good, which ultimately leads to due order in society. due order is maintained in a multireligious entity where members of each religion are equipped with the philosophical tool of rationality which encourages inter-faith dialogues, thus leading to an effective management of tensions and conflicts and an enthronement of peaceful coexistence. keywords: common good, national unity, rationality, theological education 1. introduction this paper argues that theological education as distinct from theological indoctrination fosters national unity when it espouses the notion of a common good desired by all rational beings. it asserts that indoctrination is a deliberate attempt to set up a religion as the only valid religion, discouraging other alternative religions and encouraging the suppression of all other possible understanding and criticisms of the beliefs taught in the ‘valid’ religion. indoctrination neglects the fact of pluralism, which is a demanding factor of the twenty-first century state, and in the face of which, the call for unity becomes an urgent and pertinent task. this paper therefore provides a theoretical background for a theological education which would foster national unity, with particular emphasis on the common ground shared by all rational beings. however, to proffer such a theoretical background imposes an initial intellectual obligation to clarify what is meant by theological education, national unity, common good and how theological education, through the recognition of the common good, can foster national unity. this paper is therefore divided into three sections. section one attempts a definition of what theological education is; section two provides an analysis of the concept of national unity, with particular emphasis on its role in multicultural societies; and the third section examines the notion of common good, its relationship to national unity, and concludes with how theological education can be instrumental in achieving national unity, and ultimately, a peaceful and well-ordered society. 2. what is theological education? as the name implies, theological education is education about theology. education itself is the process of acquiring the art of utilization of knowledge (whitehead, 1932). derived etymologically from the 16th century latin word educare, meaning to bring aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 88 up, train or rear, it is also defined as “the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university” (dictionary, 2018). in pre-colonial africa, character formation and skill acquisition were inseparably linked. pre-colonial education was geared towards the need for sharing and transmitting cultural, religious and moral values; and the impact of these values on the work ethics of society (mosweunyane, 2013). education in pre-colonial africa was thus, value-laden and participatory. its valueladen and participatory features were truncated by the colonial adoption of john dewey’s theory of education which proposed a scientific and humanistic approach to education, to the detriment of the hitherto value-laden approach. dewey’s theory of education rested on the fundamental assumption of the human person as one who is naturally good and thus, does not need a divine being to make him/her good. to explain the presence of evil in the world, dewey simply asserted that the evils in society arise out of the evolutionary adjustment process, and such evils can be addressed by humans without recourse to any divine being. how? through the utilization of the human intelligence. the scientific method of research is human intelligence in praxis, and is best suited for resolving all social ills (dewey, 1998). dewey defined education itself as an accumulation of experiences that stimulate both growth and the capacity for further growth (dewey, 1998). in an attempt to restore african education from a system which had robbed the african child of innovativeness, originality and creativity (fasokun, 1999), aliu babatunde fafunwa defined education as the aggregate of all the processes by which a child or young adult develops the abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society in which he lives, with primary emphasis on learning through the use of the mother-tongue rather than colonial languages (fafunwa, 1974). this presents a picture of education as a process through which a person learns the necessary tools for adding value to his/her society. such tools are typically embedded in the social and cultural practices of a people; thus, education is a process of transmitting the culture of a people to the young members of society in a manner that ensures continuity and growth, and also ensures social control and rational direction of society. having defined what education is, it is also pertinent to know what theology is. from its etymological roots theo and logos, theology is literarily translated as the science concerning god (vos, 1975), or the study of god. it is also defined as “a process of bringing to speech who i am as a person of faith and as a product of my historical, geographical, social and cultural environment” (trokan, 2013, p. 146); and as an intellectual quest aimed at attaining the highest possible degree of intelligibility, charity and consistency in its attempt to investigate, explain and systematize the understanding of the religion of a people (nmah, 2013); among other definitions. it is distinct from religion, in that while religion is the belief in, and worship of a superhuman deity, with a primary focus on morality and god, theology is “an investigation of the nature of deity, deities, and divinity; an intellectual framework for religious belief and practice; (and) an organized expression of the meaning of numinous or sacred experiences” (kraemer, 2013). akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … 89 worthy of note here is the fact that theology, which is mostly practiced by roman catholic and protestant scholars is viewed as a faith-imbued intellectual activity with the aim of providing justifications for the beliefs held by the theologian whose foundational stance is a belief in what s/he is studying (louth & thielicke, 2020). religious studies on the other hand is often regarded as a more comparative, systematic and scientific study of the different religious beliefs, institutions and cultures of the world due to its presentation of texts and findings in a manner that precludes religious scholars’ necessary acceptance/adoption of the beliefs they study. anthony akinwale explains this distinction this way whereas the study of religion in most nigerian universities combines the phenomenological and comparative approaches, theology, while not ignoring the phenomenological and comparative approaches, sees religion as more than a mere phenomenon. whereas other approaches see religion as a mere phenomenon explicable by unaided human intellect, theology sees religion as a revealed phenomenon…theology is the approach of a scholar whose starting point is adherence to the doctrines and beliefs of the religion, and whose intent is to demonstrate the conceptual possibility and intellectual honesty in adhering to such doctrines and beliefs. (2007, p 141). from the above definitions, theological education can be defined simply as the preparation of church leaders for the current and coming generations. a more formal definition is that of diememe noelliste, who defines it as the formation of the “people of god in the truth and wisdom of god for the purpose of personal renewal and meaningful participation in the fulfillment of the purpose of god in the church and in the world” (noelliste, 1995, p. 299). it is a study geared towards priestly formation, christian vocation and is typically structured such that the student achieves a balance between spiritual formation, academic excellence and personal development. it is also a study that is deemed vital for the transmission of christian tradition to future generations; necessary for the renewal and continuity of church leadership; essential for authentic and contextual mission of the church in contemporary times; and necessary for the interaction between church and society (conway, 2010). theological education has undergone considerable change over the years, but from the christian perspective it has focused predominantly upon imparting knowledge of the bible in the western model, with the beginnings of an effort been made now to discern god’s ways in the present world. prior to this effort, theology was taught using what is referred to as the banking method (trokan, 2013). this method is typically assumed as the proper method of transmitting knowledge; the teacher is the repository of knowledge which s/he transfers to the student(s) in a ‘deposit’ like process. this process excludes the possibility of students reflecting on the deposited knowledge to arrive at new knowledge, as aptly captured in the humean and kantian theories of knowledge. in david hume and immanuel kant’s theories of knowledge, knowledge is acquired through perception from the external world and such acquired knowledge is reflected upon to arrive at new knowledge. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 90 a closer analysis of noelliste’s definition of theological education highlights the fact that theological education is education which is geared towards a particular purpose, which is the transformation of individuals. these individuals are transformed in their nature as social beings, to actualize a mission – the fulfillment of god’s purpose on earth. this implies that theological education should produce people who have been transformed from what they were, to become persons who in turn transform and influence their social spheres of influence. this in turn implies that rather than have a theological education structured as a continuous process of theoretical knowledge acquisition, the curriculum for theological education should be structured to create a proper ethos that integrates theory with practice. this becomes necessary in view of the fact of an increasingly connected world abounding with pluralism of cultures, religions, doctrines and beliefs. using a pluralistic world as a backdrop, and bearing in mind that the final product of theological education should be individuals with the ability to affect their world, theological education needs to encourage critical reflection in order for proper and informed relations to contemporary issues facing the local and wider church settings. collaboration among seminaries and theological schools is a feature of the world we live in now, but while collaboration among people of the same faith is premised on the similarities between beliefs and doctrines, interreligious dialogue suffers from a lack of common ground in the sense of similarity of faiths/beliefs. 3. national unity national unity is defined in various ways, and the first definition typically proffered in conversational situations presents national unity as a form of government composed by a coalition of political parties. while this definition follows the line of argument made in this work on the notion of peaceful co-existence, it does not explicate the concept of national unity itself. as a political/philosophical concept, nation unity has numerous definitions. an acceptable definition is that it is a situation where members/citizens of a country possess a mutual understanding of what makes them one country, and act in ways that encourage, prolong and sustain such ‘oneness’. this does not in any way imply that such citizens act in uniformity or homogeneity; rather, it advocates that multicultural societies can achieve peaceful co-existence where each nationality recognizes diversity, and acts to minimize sectional practices which are disruptive to such co-existence (etzioni, 2002). it must be noted that the concept of national unity is often denounced in its conceptualization as a utopian ideal. in this sense it is romanticized as the sole determinant of peaceful co-existence in multicultural societies. while this view can be acknowledged as one that places too much emphasis on the importance of national unity, it must be noted that national unity is indeed an important and necessary condition for societal peace where national unity is underpinned by racial and religious tolerance (etzioni, 2002). unity makes it possible for the citizens of a nation to act as a cohesive whole, mostly through their representatives, allowing them to achieve set goals as a nation, rather than as component individuals. however, national unity is possible only where there is an underpinning feature of a common identity shared by all citizens of a nation, and can only be fostered by having a common goal. akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … 91 an example of a multicultural country which rose from ‘humble beginnings’ to an enviable success story through its citizenry’s pursuit of a common goal is singapore. singapore rose from a third world status to an enviable position in the committee of nations, an achievement which has been credited majorly to the unity of its citizens. some fifty years ago, singapore had no natural resources and was tagged one of the developing nations of the world. now, it is touted as a fully developed nation, with a high standard of living; an achievement credited to the unified pursuit of a better life by its diverse citizenry (keong, 2013). nigeria is also an example of a multicultural country. however, nigerians have not been able to articulate a common good to which all nigerians aspire towards, and this has resulted into a high level of intolerance towards members of other nationalities, ideologies, religions, beliefs and doctrines. of particular importance to this work is the plurality of religions in the country. comprised of citizens belonging to three main religions, namely christianity, islam, and traditional african religions, nigeria has been particularly bedeviled by religious intolerance, and although it is often referred to as a secular state, it is more accurate to describe the country as a multi-religious society, judging by the overarching influence of religion in all aspects of our national life. in nigeria, devotion to the teachings of islam and christianity on the part of their respective adherents without a requisite acknowledgement of the inherent humanity of the ‘other’ has resulted into an unprecedented level of religious intolerance. religious intolerance or fanaticism is the inability of an adherent of a particular religion to acknowledge, accommodate and accept the right of others to live by another faith different from his own. invariably, such an attitude is connected to the conviction that one’s religion is the only divinely ordained path to spiritual enlightenment and immortality in heaven. consequently, a religious fanatic believes strongly that his religion is unquestionably superior to other religions, and those who belong to other faiths must be converted. an extreme form of this belief is practiced by some islamic sects who believe that in the absence of the possibility of conversion, non-adherents must be killed. 3.1. theological education for national unity in the nigerian context, the theologian is faced with problems stemming from cultural, religious and ethnic differences. the contemporary nigerian nation pays lip service to the idea of a ‘nigerian essence’, and identification is done on the basis of ethnic and religious affiliations. this has resulted into a divided society, one where each religion or ethnic group views itself as primary over others, and searches for ways/ methods of asserting primacy over others. this does not paint the picture of a society of people living in peace and harmony, and the terrorist attacks by boko haram insurgents can be seen as a result of having the mind-set that one’s religion is the ‘one’. it has therefore become imperative to restructure theological education in order to address the concerns of national unity. this restructuring must be one where the final products of a theological education operate on the foundation of the facts that 1. all humans possess dignity, and 2. the continuous existence of a collective of people is inherently dependent on their mutual recognition and pursuit of (a) common good(s). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 92 4. the common good as a socio-political concept, the common good is best defined as what is in the public interest. it denotes those goods/activities that serve all members of a given community and its institutions, and, as such, includes both goods that serve no identifiable particular group, as well as those that serve members of generations not yet born (etzioni, 2015). as a normative concept with a long and contested history, there is no universal agreement on what it entails, how it should be balanced against individual goods, and if and by whom it should be enforced. having deep religious and political roots, it is a concept which rarely receives adequate attention in contemporary sociopolitical discuss. this paper therefore attempts to highlight the principal lines of thomas aquinas’ thought on the nature and constitution of the common good, with particular emphasis on why this concept is a necessary foundational concept for teachers and students of theological education, with the ultimate aim of revitalizing interest in this concept. 4.1 thomas aquinas and the common good thomas aquinas relied heavily on aristotle for his notion of common good. in the nichomachean ethics, aristotle defines the good as that which all things desire. everything has a nature, which is a form to which it must conform. everything also has an end, and the end of a thing lies in the fulfillment of its nature (aristotle, 1941). for plants and inanimate objects, the inclination to achieve perfection is motivated by internal principles/features/properties which lead them from one state of existence to another in a predictable manner. in humans and other animals, the inclination towards perfection is motivated by knowledge and love. knowledge is derived from experiencing the world, and such knowledge consists of the determination of things that are beneficial or harmful to them. once acquired, knowledge enables animals to discover their position/niche in the world, and operate within this position/niche as an established being. if the good is that which all desire, happiness is that which is sought by all. everything is done to achieve happiness, and for humans, happiness is the final end. this is where aquinas builds up aristotle’s position to arrive at the fact of the common good. for aquinas, social groups are ordered by law. while laws might be coercive, they are primarily accessed through reason which dictates that humans share a common goal – human flourishing. using this as a fulcrum, aquinas identifies three (3) inclinations that are possessed by human namely: an inclination towards existence in a manner suitable to his/her nature (which is shared by all other things); an inclination to live as members of the animal kingdom which encompasses identification of one’s position/niche, fulfillment of natural biological ‘obligations’ including propagation of the species (which is shared by other animals); and lastly, an inclination to live in society (which is the human beings’ natural habitat, as rational and political animals, and within which humans can attain well-being) and a desire to attain perfection (aquinas, 1947). this final inclination is peculiar to humans because of the social aspect of their nature which dictates society as humans’ natural habitat. this implies that humans cannot exist outside society. this position is justified by the fact that it is impossible to conceive of a human baby surviving and growing up outside of a community of people akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … 93 to take care of its needs. if humans cannot exist outside of society, it then becomes necessary that society itself must be one that is conducive enough for humans to achieve their ends. society is intrinsically necessary to man, and following from aquinas’ position that all things are ordered towards their ends, it follows that society also has its own end to which it is ordered. this end, for society, is the ‘common good’. in the sense that society is ordered towards a particular end, and humans cannot live outside of society, the common good becomes the supreme human good, differing qualitatively from the particular goods of individual members of the society, although directed toward the same end: attaining the knowledge of god through virtuous living. according to aristotle, the common good consists of actions performed for the mutual advantage of all citizens of any particular society. the sole purpose of humans living in society is to ensure that they attain their ends. extrapolating from this, aquinas argues that the notion of the common good implies a mutually shared concept among members of society. while he asserts that this concept is found in the knowledge of god, this paper argues that it is also found in the notion of a peaceful and well-ordered society. 4.2 the common good as knowledge of god/ well-ordered society aquinas affirms that god loves all human beings, and that all human beings desire one thing – the knowledge of god. to know god is to love him, and thus, anyone who claims to love god must also love those god loves. this is further buttressed by the fact that a human being is a social being who should help others of his/her kind to achieve/attain their ends with the hope/belief that these others would reciprocate when s/he is also in need of help. consequently, humans ought to live in mutual love, which is often manifested where people help out strangers with no hope of reciprocity. thus, the pursuit of the knowledge of god requires participation in public life. since the human being’s particular good is interwoven with society’s common good, it follows that all actions which are inimical to attaining the knowledge of god are actions which are contrary to the common good, while actions which encourage the actualization of the common good are in the interest of all. public, peaceful participation in societal life encourages the actualization of the common good where such participation is done with due order and proportionality. 4.3 rationality and the common good the human being is a rational animal whose rationality enables him/her to participate in the eternal laws. this participation imbues in humans certain natural basic propositions, better known as natural laws. natural laws are known through the application of reason, but humans derive variations of laws from natural laws which are applied to existential issues of social life. however, given that all laws have their causes/source in the eternal laws created by god; it is not out of place to conclude that all laws are naturally directed towards achieving the common good. aquinas categorically asserts this conclusion by stating that the purpose of law is to promote the common good. since the natural law is nothing more than human participation in the eternal law, and reason is the principal tool of this participation, when a human being acts in accordance with reason, s/he acts in accordance with virtue. humans exist within the context of social structures. the social nature of humans is an integral dimension and society is germane to the achievement of human happiness, as aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 94 such happiness can only be attained within the societal framework. thus, society, being the human’s being’s natural habitat, is the only habitat within which human being can find self-realization. in society, humans apply their rational and social aspects to achieve a domain necessary for human survival. this domain is regulated and preserved through transmission of experiences and discoveries over ceding generations. this becomes the culture through which society is sustained, and in which moral norms are delineated to ensure preservation. the human person is characterized by rationality, relationality and religiousity (akinwale, 2017). rationality enables the human being to subordinate her/his appetitive and emotional aspects. this is necessary for the human being’s attainment of both particular individual good and the common good. the hobbesian transition to civil society aptly showcases this ability to utilize rationality as a tool for the achievement of both individual and common goods. the hobbesian state of nature was populated by humans who exhibited egoistic tendencies in the pursuit of their personal goods. this egoistic pursuit was dictated by their emotions and appetites, and ultimately led to a state of anarchy, where each human rose up against the next human. eventually they came to the realization that if the prevailing chaotic state were to continue, it would not encourage human flourishing. recourse was then made to the rational aspect of the human nature which dictates that the continuous survival of the human race can only be achieved where there is peaceful co-existence. prior to hobbes, aquinas’ natural law theory argued that humans possess the capacity to know the right way to live in society. this knowledge is attained through the human rational nature. underpinning aquinas’ theory is the notion of the ‘common good’ which is shared by all humans by virtue of their rationality. rationality imbues one with an appreciation of the fact that being human accords one a certain level of dignity. this dignity is to be respected and protected in all measures. thus, implied in the notion of the common good is the recognition of the dignity of the human person, an inherent dignity that must be respected in the pursuit of person 4.4 theological education and the common good the nigerian nation is currently plagued by indices of underdevelopment, including poverty, institutional corruption, ignorance and differing shades of neo-colonialism. multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious contexts make it difficult for a wide acceptance of theories that aid development. the church has tried to contribute its own quota through theological educational as seen in the establishment of schools, institutes and centers for lay studies and seminaries. however, it must be noted that interreligious dialogue is only possible through rationality and recognition of a mutual common good. as akinwale notes “peoples of divergent religious and political affiliations can (only) enter into dialogue or a common ground located on the intellectual faculty that is our common possession” (akinwale, 2017, p. 133). theological education should place more emphasis on interfaith encounters which would result in mutual action towards the achievement of the common good. interfaith/interreligious dialogue however implies knowledge of other religious traditions, an example being the catholic theological tradition which teaches courses in islamic religious knowledge. we must also note that the basic fundamental to being a christian is the ‘mission’ which theological education is meant to prepare for. akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … 95 theological education must thus prepare for mission praxis leading to an orientation towards the world to whom god has sent christians. all subjects should be studied not in abstract theory, but with full awareness of the practical implications of topics studied, particularly with regards to the mission of evangelizing. theological education itself is renewed by learning new ideas generated by missionary praxis in the world. the church is called to work in the world, and understanding the world demands that theological education be interdisciplinary in nature. this would ensure a working knowledge of the world in which the mission takes place. 5. conclusion while there is no formula for what it takes to train a successful and faithful minister of the church, it is possible for products of theological training to achieve a level of success as people of god. this would obtain where theological education has moved beyond intellectual theorizing to instilling in students a deeper personal ‘appropriation’ of their faith. this would in turn result into a love for the truth, which the christian faith teaches is – ‘god is love’, not only in abstract terms, but also in the demonstration of this truth. products of such training would be persons who recognize that members of other faiths living alongside deserve no less mutual awareness and respect as other christians. they would also know that all members of society, irrespective of their religious or ethnic affiliations are equally able to comprehend the necessity of working together to achieve a peaceful and well-ordered society. this, in essence, is the common good which this paper preaches. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 96 references akinwale, anthony. (2007). the place of theology in the university curriculum. in j. kenny, (ed.), the idea of an african university:nigerian philosophical studies, ii (141-160). the council for research in values and philosophy. akinwale, a. (2017). religion and politics in contemporary nigeria. african journal of politics and society, 2, 133-150. aquinas, t. (1947). summa theologiae. (f. o. province, trans.). new york: benziger brothers. aristotle. (1941). the basic works of aristotle. (r. mckeon, ed., & g. r. mure, trans.). new york: random house. conway, m. (2010). key issues for theological education in the 21st century. in d. werner, d. esterline, n. kang, & j. raja (eds.), handbook of theological education (pp. 23-29). oxford: regnum books international. dewey, j. (1998). the essential dewey. (l. a. hickman, & t. m. alexander, eds.) bloomington, indiana: indiana university press. etzioni, a. (2002). diversity within unity: a communitarian approach to immigration policy. migration world magazine, 30(1-2), 14-19. etzioni, a. (2015). common good. in m. t. gibbons, (ed.) the encyclopedia of political thought, first edition, 1-7. hoboken, nj: wiley blackwell publishing. fafunwa, a. b. (1974). history of education in nigeria. london: allen & unwin. fasokun, t. o. (1999). fafunwa, aliu babatunde (1923-). performance magazine. retrieved from https://www.performancemagazine.org/thinkers-oneducation/fafunwa-aliu-babtunde-1923/ keong, c. s. (2013, march). multiculturalism in singapore the way to a harmonious society. singapore academy of law journal, 25(1), 84-109. kraemer, c. (2013, january 3). theology is not religious studies (blog post). retrieved from http://www.patheos.com/blogs/sermonsfromthemound/2013/01/theologyis-not-religious-studies/?repeat=w3tc louth, a., & thielicke, h. (2020, september 13). theology. encyclopedia britannica. retrieved from htpps://www.britannica.com/topic/theology mosweunyane, d. (2013). the african educational evolution: from traditional training to formal education. higher educational studies, 3(4), 50-59. nmah, p. e. (2013). theological education and character formation in nigerian christianity: a reflection. african research review, 7(28), 34-46. akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … 97 noelliste, d. (1995). towards a theology of theological education. evangelical review of theology, 19(3), 299-307. oxford english dictionary, o. (2018, january 11). education. in oxford english dictionary. retrieved january 11, 2018, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/education trokan, j. (2013). models of theological reflection: theory and praxis. catholic education: a journal of inquiry, 1(1), 144-158. vos, g. (1975). biblical theology old and new testaments. london: banner of truth trust. whitehead, a. (1932). the aims of education. london: ernest benn. journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract the debate on human destiny and its relationship to freedom, responsibility, legality and morality is an ongoing discussion. the concept of destiny especially in western philosophy depicts a static and unchanging idea that is causal to success or failure in the lives of individuals. perhaps because of the culture of writing, destiny is seen as represented in black and white ink such that once written, it cannot be erased unlike the culture of oral expressions. whereas yoruba account of destiny depicts a possibility of erasing or recanting what is already given prenatally, many scholars have laughed over this or term yoruba idea as purely metaphorical and inconsistent in expression. the aim of this paper is to argue that the yoruba idea of destiny is one of the most consistent ideas with the reality before us. it is an all encompassing thesis that bridge the gap between theory and practice and by extension the relationship between ought (morality) and what is (legality). this aim will be achieved by explaining the relationship between the prenatally received destiny and natal active destiny. this is necessary due to our finding that the western idea of destiny only sees destiny as individualistic without a consideration of collective destiny or social aspect of destiny where different destinies interact and consequently makes social group or government liable for some individual actions. we conclude that yoruba idea of destiny is consistent with why individuals and societies are responsible for some failures or successes. our finding embodies the reason why both government and societies can be held responsible for social and personal actions. keywords: consistency, destiny, ori, potentiality, yoruba belief introduction there are various interpretations that have been accentuated for ori(spiritual head) which depicts destiny by various scholars within the yoruba thought system. ori (spiritual head) which depict destiny has mostly been accentuated for as a product of individual self effort. that is, as an outcome of an individual labour. various argument has been put forward in order to have this claim strengthened. among these claim is the common yoruba proverb which says "atele owo eni kii tan eni je" which connotes that "one's physical labour doesn't deceive one. in essence, the level of wealth and affluence a man commands is set to be based on how much he has been able to labour into via strive(hardworking/diligent labour). another claim which also strengthens this position is the claim that "iwa le wa" which means "character is beauty", this advertise to us the place of character formation in the actualization of (good) destiny. however, our goal is not to debunk all these claims and their necessary effects, but to show that beyond these claims lies an external social or collective reaction whose contribution has a major role to play in determining success or the interaction among destinies as the determinant of success and failure in life: a further reflection on yoruba traditional thought akande michael aina, ph.d& motadegbe adewale oluwasenu 148 failure of individuals. this work uses the potentiality thesis as the theoretical framework for the interpretation of destinywhich takes into consideration the place of moral accountability without diminishing the yoruba metaphysical intelligence. also it attempts to advocate the theory of consistency as a tool for understanding the claim that there are prenatal bad or good ori. in doing this we argue that the concept of afowofa shows that yoruba people frown at reliance solely on one's effort as against collective efforts. we argue in this work that every prenatal choice of ori is potentially good; a bad ori is not a prenatal choice rather it is a result of the inconsistency between what is chosen and what the individual and societies do. a bad ori is a product of an individual's failure to align with a prenatal choice. conceptual clarification of destiny in yoruba thought the concepts of ayanmo (that which is affixed), akunlegba (that which is received kneeling) and akunleyan (that which is chosen kneeling) are the three major ways being employed to show the process involved in the acquisition of ori (destiny) in yoruba traditional thought system. these processes are left unexplained in western philosophy thereby creating a vacuum in the relationship between prenatal acts and postnatal results. however, akande & ofuasia (2020) conflate the message of akunlegba and ayanmo to communicate a single message which is the bestowment of destiny where choice is absent, while akunleyan signifies the idea of choosing from various alternatives. idowu (1962) gives account of these tripartite means of acquiring ori(destiny), when he writes that: a person may kneel down and choose his destiny, this is called akunleyan (that which was chosen while knelling). he may kneel down and received his destiny that is called akunlegba (that which was received while kneeling) or ayanmo (that which is fixed to someone) (see oladipupo, 2020: 4). however, it's mainly believed by many scholars that irrespective of the process engaged or used to acquire ori (spiritual head), whatsoever is encoded in such ori cannot be altered (see abimbola, 1976; idowu, 1962). while we agree that a general idea of destiny depicts what cannot be altered, yet it cannot be argued that all destinies are realized even when they are realizable. our contention of this position is that many of these scholars interpret akunleyan and akunlegba in isolation to adayeba. this made it difficult to see a possible dialectics between what was chosen and what was given. the principle of dialectics allows us to see the potentiality between two opposing forces which reveals a hidden third force that will eventually becomes the thesis and the actual reality. the dialectics between what is bestowed and what is chosen is responsible for adayeba. this will be made clear in subsequent sections as we explain that all oris are potentially good prenatally but what becomes of individual ori depends on the consistent interaction among various akunleyans and akunlegbas. potentiality thesis of ori potentiality theorists affirm the content of ori as a mere potential. they see what is 149 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 embedded in ori as double aspects of a coin, which will always show up different sides any time a coin is thrown up. ori in this instance has both good and bad aspects and each has the potentiality of manifesting. moses makinde affirms that, ori is "mere potentiality". that is, all that is encoded in one's ori(spiritual head) is a potential that needs extra effort before it can be birthed out. one's character then becomes significant in birthing a good destiny. planning towards a goal is therefore essential because if one failed to plan, one has planned to fail. he avers this through the words of abimbola (1971): it must be emphasized, however, that the yoruba concept of the choice of destiny through ori also emphasizes the need for hard work to bring to fruition the potentiality for success represented by the choice of a good ori. this leads us to believe in ese (leg) as an important ingredient of human personality. ese (leg) is regarded by the yorubas as a vital part of the human personality make-up, both in a physical and spiritual sense. ese, for the yorubas, is the symbol of power and activity (1971:85). it is clear that even professor abimbola affirms a good ori to be nothing more than a potential that can either be brought to fruition or otherwise. he posits further that nothing can be done in order to alter a bad ori to be good, to the extent that he asserts the incapability of the gods to do such. let us take for example, a cripple person destined by his ori to be a basketball player whose society fails to provide him the necessary amenities and as a result of such ended up not becoming a basketball player, could such be said to either be a failure or success? to us it is the society that deserves the blame rather than the cripple. he is still a potentially successful basketball player. what this affirmed is that his failure is something outside his ori (spiritual head) because the content in his ori needs to align with his effort and the collective destiny of his society. since society is an assemblage of individuals the point underscored is that the success of a society depends on the efforts of various people who make up the society. in like manner individuals are equally affected by the success of the society as people are born or as they migrate into the society. this social aspect of human destiny is what the yoruba call adeyeba (what we met on the earth). adayeba is the interactions among destinies of different individuals for the purpose of influencing one's place in life. we think that, with the concept of adayeba one can argue that every ori is potentially good prenatally, it is the failure in the social aspect or individuals efforts to provide necessary supports that is responsible for failure. since there is no work or area of life that one cannot be successful. there are successful bankers just as there are successful sweepers. a successful ceo and a successful beggar are both fulfilling their destinies. there are also failed ceos and beggars too. our position that there is no prenatal bad ori is buttress by odu ogbe iyonu. the english rendition goes thus: nothing comes from getting angry. patience is the father of character. an elder who has patience has everything. this is why divination was casted for ori, and likewise iwa (character). it is only cultivating character that is 150 aina & oluwasenu the interaction among destinies as the determinant of success... difficult. there is no bad ori in ile-ife (oladipupo, 2019:12). this ifa corpus informs us on the nature of ori, by its expression that there is no bad ori (spiritual head) or destiny. in other words, all oris are inherently good on their own. it moves on to inform us about iwa(character), which it posits to be difficult to nurture and how it can affect human destiny, though it can be cultivated with patience. however, a careful and diligent observation of this ifa verse shows that a necessary connection exist between iwa (what we do) and ori(what is coded).though the verse did not mention the role of character of others in an individual's life, yet such is not ruled out. moses makinde makes an incorrect interpretation when he asserts that: “it may, of course, be argued that if predestination is assumed, the point that one has to make an effective use of his ese in order to be successful in life is unnecessary, for it is precisely the choice of success in life that the choice of a good ori implies” ( makinde, 2010 : 114). his mistake stem from his thinking that an individual is the only one who needs to make efforts to realize his destiny. he has overlook adayeba which is responsible for interaction of different individuals in realizing their goals. what many potentiality theorists interpreted are the concepts of akunlegba and akunleyan(prenatal) while overlooking adayeba (postnatal). and some who theorized about adayeba also mixed the point because they isolated it from the understanding of other two. what professor abimbola and others fail to see are the two sides of destiny: pre-natal and post-natal, which must interact before a good ori chosen can be realized. consequently, a bad ori is not a prenatal choice but a postnatal failure. for instance, the wright brothers; orville and wilbur were generally known for their invention in the aviation. however, their society has a very lot to play in their success. intellectualism and self help alone could not have birthed such a success in the area of aviation. what created a platform of success for them was the positive external response of their sponsors. air and space (n.d) informed us of how the us army invested in this adventure which led to the proper actualization of this goal. in another clime, channels television (2016) have it recorded that two nigerian individuals have genuinely brought their creativity in to play in aviation. one these two individuals named aghogho ajiyen has been proved to be a mini aircraft maker by building a mini aircraft with special locally made fuel. according to his words "aircraft for me was just like a destiny". but what a pity, aghogho despite his personal efforts to research into things for the actualization of his supposed destiny, he is yet to get sponsorship of any kind, even from the nigerian government. this reaction to his innovation (action) has handicapped him financially. also, there is a dictum which says "he who fails to plan, plans to fail". this is also used to further enunciate the potentiality thesis of ori, even as failure to plan is planning to fail. so, when a carrier of ori chooses to be lazy he is actually trying to birth a potential in his/her ori. the error in using this dictum as the basis of explanation is stemmed from overlooking the fact that people's plans do fail and hardworking people are not always successful. how do we then account for such inconsistencies? there are lazy people who became successful because some people decided to help them and there are hardworking 151 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 people who failed just because some people decided to thwart their efforts. in all these one good explanation is the concept of adayeba which takes into consideration how collective efforts or interaction of individual destiny can be responsible for failure or success. the claim therefore, that one's hard work or laziness is a prerequisite for success or failure respectively may not explain fully the causal factor for responsibility. however, jim unah's (2006) claim, that "even nothing is something", can be leveraged on to argue that a potential bad ori will not receive help from the society and a potential good ori will receive help from the society. in other words, when we say someone's /society/ government is doing nothing as to enhance what is coded in one's ori, it is a signal that such are actually doing something to enhance an aspect of whatsoever is programmed in such ori. but that argument will still lend credence to the potency of adayeba in explaining failure and success in destiny. this fatalistic position will be inconsistent with yoruba explanation of the role of ese and iwa (hard-work) in the realization of individual's destiny. also, to hold ori as fatalistic/hard-determinism, debunks not only the place of ebo(sacrifice), but also the existence and power of the two dominant opposing forces in the universe as believed by the yoruba. abimbola expatiate further that: the yoruba believe that apart from man himself, there are two opposing forces in the universe, one of which is benevolent to man while the other is hostile. the benevolent forces are collectively known as ibo ( the divinities), and the malevolent agents are known as ajogun (the warriors against man). the àjé (the witches) are also in alliance with the ajogun for the ruination of man and his handiwork. man needs to offer sacrifice to the benevolent forces so as to continue to enjoy their support and blessings. man needs to offer sacrifice to the ajogun and the àjé in order that they might not oppose him whenever an important project is embarked upon (abimbola, 1975 : 391). in other words, the fatalism and naturalism theses of ori as against potentiality thesis strip these forces off their roles as stipulated in the above excerpt, which is mainly, the capacity to influence things. furthermore, some scholars like moses makinde, who declared ori as a mere potentiality also misinterpreted ese (spiritual leg) as the literal leg, meanwhile, esé(spiritual leg) goes beyond this. esé (spiritual leg) is a metaphor for hardwork, strife and moving in a pair. it connotes working together with others to achieve success. however, many used the term mainly in its literal sense and this led makinde to lay emphasis on the importance of opolo (brain) in respect to ori(good/bad). he states that: [t]o the effect that a choice of good ori would not lead to success without an effective use of one's ese or owo so that, in this case, we can write off deformed person as incapable 152 aina & oluwasenu the interaction among destinies as the determinant of success... of succeeding in life. but as i suggested earlier, the importance of opolo (brain) cannot be ignored. for this reason, it is possible for a person to have chosen a good ori in heaven and yet fail on earth in spite of the use of his legs and hands, if such use is not properly coordinated by one's brain (opolo) (makinde, 2010:115). here, makinde misinterpreted ese and owo as a symbol of power and activity by placing more emphasis on the human literal hand and leg. by asserting the fruitless labour of owo(literal hand) and ese(literal leg) if not properly coordinated by opolo(brain), makinde misses the metaphorical significance of both words. if seen in this wise, the proper use of one's brain becomes part of the element which enables a human being to struggle and function adequately in life so as they may bring to realization the whatever goodies that have been marked out for them by the choice of ori”. in other words, ese (hardworking, strive) is not in any way limited to what is done by using the literal hand(owo), and leg( ese) but includes all kinds of diligent work such as intellectual works. or can we say a computer programmer who was born crippled but went through the rigor of studying and came out of college with good grade, and now currently rendering programming services for reputable organization not a working person? if the answer is no, then we need to carefully look into what makinde accentuated as ese(spiritual leg), the symbol of strife and hard work. so, it can be said that the proper use of one's brain is strife/struggle/hardwork which ese depicts in its figurative sense. the yorubas would say, "ori mi gbe mi de bi re, ese mi sin mi debe" which when interpreted in english is render as follows, "my head lead me to the place where goodies lies, and my leg carry me along". using hermeneutical interpretation, the ori is deduced to be human destiny, while ese is to be seen as human labour/ strivings/hardwork. it can therefore be said that whatever destiny one may have chosen, it is needed to be backed up by hardwork. and on this premise, a physically deformed person can still strive or work hard. with the advancement in technology, we have been able to see empirically the services some of our internet bloggers who are physically deformed (leg issue) but mentally informed are rendering online, and they are also making it big in their areas of specialization. afowofa as an indicator that destiny cannot be solely self efforts or individual's hardwork when we mention social aspect of destiny which is adayeba, the role of individual character in relation to others becomes more emphasized. in the previous explanations many scholar alluded to the idea that the concepts of owo and ese, are indication that one's fortune or failure can be change with individual efforts in life. however, this individual effort is tied to afowofa which frowns at a person relying solely on their efforts and thinking. afowofa encompasses the ideas of intention, needs, wants and interest that every individual is involve in as a matter of choice. afowofa when interpreted in english means self causation. afowofa (self causation) is the belief that the aftermath of some certain event can be directly linked up with one's defect in character. and this defect is about arrogance, impatience or inordinate ambition. these aforementioned vices allows individual to jettison advice and help of others in life. in support of this claim, balogun (2007:125) deduced that individual moral character is a very important aspect of life that can make or mar one's destiny and unfortunately it is not a given content in one's destiny. 153 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 “given this critical point that ori is not about moral character, but about issues of prosperous or impoverished destiny” it can be argued that any individual character must be such that will encourage other people to value one's personality. it must also be noted that a line with this, in odu ogbe yonu when rendered in english informs us that “it is only cultivating character that is difficult". in other words character formation is as a result of one's effort and the feedback received as a result of such character connected with how well the individual involved has developed his/her character in regards to social relations. in other to buttress this point, orangun avers: [a] good destiny can be spoiled by undesirable character (iwa) through the act of rashness and impatience. this was stressed by an ifa priest from obara oyeku who tells a story of someone who aspired to climb the coconut tree to the very top. he was told that it had been laid down for he could do it; but he must be very careful not to be misled by pride of his achievement to attempt to jump from tree to tree. he did not heed this warning. in his attempt to jump from one tree to another, he fell and died (orangun, 1998:27). the place of character formation can be seen in the excerpt and the thesis of potentiality is also viable in it. however, one could see that even the climber needs to cultivate the virtue of patience, obedience to instruction of others. the claim that his ori affords him the opportunity to climb it and succeed on the one hand, is a potential but to climb it with the help of others' instruction is what could grant actual success on the other hand. his failure in this episode is as a result of afowofa (self-glorification), the failure to properly employ what his society offers. it is within this context afowofa makes sense. it connote individual's failure to fit in to what the society or its components like family, friends, government offers and striving to birth what is encoded in one's prenatal ori(spiritual head)alone. this can be further explicated in a yoruba dictum which goes thus: agbajo owo la fin soya, owo kan o ru eru de ori, when rendered in english, it goes thus: collectively we can boast or speak with confidence, one hand cannot lift load to the head. in essence, it calls for social efforts in order to have such task done. this can be further strengthened with the yoruba proverb which says: igi kan o le da igbo se, (a tree cannot make a forest.) in essence, afowofa is the aftermath of trying to succeed alone while neglecting what àdáyébá ((social factors) has to offer. better put, afowofa is an individual failure to properly align with what is potentially in their ori with what adayeba (social factors) offers. it's on this note that orangun (1998) posits character is a bride which must be married with destiny and also advised that individuals must cooperate with others to make their destiny successful by acquiring and practicing good character (orangun, 1998: 27). according to schick & vaughn, aristotle defines moral virtues as "dispositions, such as courage, temperance, friendliness, and justice, which helps us to avoid the problems caused by overdoing or under-doing."(2003: 373). that is, "virtues keep us from losing our balance" (schick & vaughn, 2003). aristotle thinks that bad people have too much or too little of something. for example, if we have too much fear, we suffer the vice of cowardice. if we have too little fear, we suffer from the vice of foolhardiness. but if we maintain the proper balance between cowardice 154 aina & oluwasenu the interaction among destinies as the determinant of success... and foolhardiness, we enjoy the virtue of courage. in other words, afowofa (self causation) is failure to maintain a balance between two extreme which later results into a negative or undesired effect. so, the notion of afowofa (self causation) is when a person could not secure a balance between their self effort and the efforts of others. it buttresses our position that in spite of individual good fortune in destiny one must not solely rest on this, to achieve success. relying on the content of one's good ori alone mostly lead to undesirable consequences. consistency thesis the consistency approach is employed here to debunk the belief that a destiny once chosen cannot be changed and that akunleyan and akunlegba strictly dictate human destiny. consistency theory to some means if a person is consistent in doing something, the desire result will be achieved. that is what informed the dictum, you cannot continue to do something consistently and expect different result. it is a fatalistic position that expects that a cause will always produce the same effect. a fatalist who holds this view is oladipupo (2019), who agrees with soren kierkegaard that "life can only be understood backwards; but must be lived forwards." it is in line with this reasoning that he submits that we can only understand whether or not one has a good or bad ori only after observing the life pattern of the individual (oladipupo,2019 : 10). we submit here based on experience that the dictum is not in any way sufficient enough to pronounce any ori good or bad. consistency approach is the attempt or thesis that advertises strife for continuous focus as a necessary instrument for birthing one's desires. this thesis is been validated via experience. for example, the practical life experience of elon musk validated this approach. elon musk started his own company after a long search for job employment at various companies within his reach; he couldn't obtain any and as a result did something different by starting his own company (elon musk, (2021). a fatalist like sunday oladipupo would have easily pronounced musk a failure looking backwards at his job hunting history before the establishment of his own company based on the saying of the danish existentialist, soren kierkegaard "life can only be understood backwards; but must be lived forwards. in another clime the current nigerian president, muhammadu buhari, contested for the office of the president three consecutive times consistently until the fourth time to attain the office in 2015(ajakaye, 2015). in both instances different approaches yielded the same result. we submit that if people are consistent enough in their approaches to life it does not guarantee success or failure. success is birthed if one's actions on earth are in consonance or consistent with what one chose prenatally including grabbing help form others and one will fail if one does not. in other words, the dictum as employed by oladipupo would be inappropriate to distinguish between a good or bad ori if there is anything like that. in order to infer this from ifa literary corpus, a study of afuwape (son of orunmila) and his friends oriseeku (the son of ogun), orileemere (the son of ija) need to be studied as embellished in one of the ogbe ogunda.a journey back into odu ogbeyonu will illuminate us further as we underscore the process employed by afuwape (son of orunmila), and his two friends, oriseeku (son of ogun), and orileemere (son of ija) . after a proper exegesis of odu ogbeyonu , we discovered that both oriseeku (son of ogun) and orileemere ( son of ija) acquired ori (spiritual head) which depict destiny at ajala's abode without anyone of them directly kneeling down (showing humility), which is 155 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 contrary to the virtue that afuwape (son of orunmila) displayed. the posture or character of afuwape to ajala (the divinity in charge of moulding head) indicates his humility and submissions to the knowledge or instruction of other people. and this led ajala to provide afuwape with an ori that is consistent with his character. the yoruba's has a saying which goes thus; rere lo pe, ika o pe. good is what is favourable (pays), evil does not pay. ifa corpus in odu ogbeyonu also informs us of afuwape consistency in good doing which later earns him the ori of his choice at ajala's place. while the inconsistency and rashness of his friends earned them an ori that is consistent with their character; though an undesired result. afuwape story lend credence to our consistency thesis because it signifies that what one does in aye (life) must be consistent with not only one's potentials but also with the social efforts of others. that is why akosejaye (checking how to live on earth) is an important ritual or action in yoruba traditional societies. our position lend credence to ifa panegyrics which says “bi oni ti ri ola ko ri be lo n mu babalawo di ifa ororun” (the event of today is not like that of yesterday, this is the reason why ifa priest consults the oracle often). conclusion it has been inferred from the foregoing the potentiality thesis of ori and the place of consistency approach as a necessary tool for birthing one's desire without diminishing or faulting the yoruba metaphysical intelligence in any sense. any explanation of destiny must take into consideration the yoruba belief in the interaction between the physical and the spiritual, in this case between the prenatal and the post-natal. it is the product of this interaction that can properly be called one's destiny rather than what is chosen prenatally which is just a potential rather than the actual. the consistency principle we have employed here is not that to have a good destiny one must be consistently doing good deeds rather our argument is that a good destiny on earth is as a result of the consistency in one's character or social efforts and the ori that one has chosen. it is for this reason yoruba people traditionally engage in what is called akosejaye th(checking how to live on earth) on the 8 day after a child is birthed. this information which is normally sorts from a diviner is necessary to synchronize one's efforts with the potential in one's ori. 156 aina & oluwasenu the interaction among destinies as the determinant of success... 157 references abimbola, w. (1971). “the yoruba concept of human personality” in la notion de personne en afrique noire colloques internationaux de centre national de la recherche scientifique. paris: centre national de la recherche scientifique. ajakaye, r. (2015 march 31 )."nigeria's buhari: fourth time's the charm":a politics. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/nigerias-buhari-fourth-times-thecharm/61871 balogun, a.b., (2007) “the concepts of ori and human destiny in traditional yorùbá thought: a soft-deterministic interpretation” in nordic journal of african studies, 16(1) pp. 116-130. channels television (2016, january 26). gifted nigerian invent flying mini aircrafts [video] youtube. retrieved on 4/5/2022 elon musk zone (2021, july 7). elon musk's speech will leave you speeches [video]. y o u t u b e . r e t r i e v e d o n 1 2 / 2 0 / 2 0 2 1 . https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=vyzdld44ebk&t=2s idowu, e.(1962).olodumare: god in yoruba belief. london: longman. olalekan, b.(n.d).predestination "kadara, ayanmo, ipin or akosejaye @ https://www.ekimogundescendant.org/predestination-kadara-ayanmo-ipin-orakose-jaye olaleye,s.k.(2014)."akosejaye: trend and status in yoruba communities of south western nigerian"ilorin journal of religious studies,(ijourels)vol.4 no.1,2014,pp.83-100 makinde m. a (2010). "an african concept of human personality: the yoruba example" in african philosophy: the demise of a controversy. ile-ife : obafemi awolowo university press limited oladipupo, l (2019). "the absurdities of strife and sacrifice in traditional yoruba notion of destiny: a defense of the fatalistic interpretation" in lasu journal of philosophy, vol. 2, no. 1, october. orangun, a. (1998). destiny: the unmanifested being (a critical exposition)ibadan: african odyssey publisher schick, t. & vaughn, l. (2003). doing philosophy: an introduction through thought experiments.new york: mcgram hill companies, inc. unah, j. (2006). even nothing is something: an inaugural lecture delivered at the university of lagos on wednesday, 19th april 2006. lagos: university of lagos press “ t h e m i l i t a r y u s e o f a i r p l a n e " . a v a i l a b l e a t h t t p s : / / a i r a n d s p a c e . s i . e d u / e x h i b i t i o n s / w r i g h t brothers/online/age/1910/military.cfm/ accessed on 5/4/2022 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 123 an assessment of the theory of environmental ethics anthony ugochukwu nwokoye abstract environmental issues have become problematic over the years, ranging from the conflicting theories of environmental ethics to the appropriate ethics suitable in addressing environmental problems. the constant abuse of the environment, the destruction of biodiversity and its correspondent threat to posterity are the foundational and fundamental insight that motivated this research work. it becomes necessary to pinpoint the appropriate environmental ethics to address the pressing environmental needs of the ecosystem. in an attempt to proffer solutions to the environmental challenges, numerous environmental ethics were developed to express the relation between human beings and the environment. however, this paper focuses on the assessment of the two broad divisions of environmental ethics: anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. this paper employs the philosophical method of analysis to examine the two environmental ethical theories in line with the appropriateness in ameliorating the pressing environmental challenges. this paper discovered that ecocentric environmental ethics is an inclusive ethics that accommodates all the members of the ecosystem and places intrinsic value on human beings and nonhuman beings. it becomes paramount if such environmental ethical approach should be adopted by individuals, government, corporate bodies, organizations, et cetera to manage the rising environmental issues. inasmuch as technology, civilization, industrialization, technologies are necessary for human existence, this paper calls for moderation in exploration of the environment for human’s benefit. keywords: environmental ethics, anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, intrinsic value 1. introduction some environmental ethical philosophers have attacked the traditional western deontological and teleological ethical theories on the ground that they exclude the moral consideration of non-human species; this exclusion, they argued is the basic cause of environmental degradation. callicott stated categorically that environmental ethics begins with the assumption that traditional metaphysics and moral theories are the root of environmental problems than tools for their solution. the traditional ethical theories impose limitations only on interpersonal freedom of action and on personal freedom in relation to society as a whole, neglecting the place of environment in man’s relationship. a historical excursion to western ethical theory will reveal that nothing or little was said about man’s relation to nature, the major consideration was on how man relates with himself, others and the society. callicott sees this as a great negligence or vacuum in the ethical history of the west, and proposed that an environmental ethic would define the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 124 extent of human freedom of action in relationship to non-human natural entities and to nature as a whole. in reference to leopold maxim, “a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community” (262), he envisaged a holistic non-anthropocentric environmental ethic. a holistic non-anthropocentric ethic regards non-human species as possessing intrinsic value because they are members of the ecosystem, and their continued existence depends on the health of the ecosystem. furthermore, he enumerated what po-keung stated as the basic problem of environmental ethics; i take it that the major task of environmental ethics is the construction of a system of normative guidelines governing man’s attitudes, behavior, and action towards his natural environment. the central question to be asked is how ought to man, either as an individual or as a group, to behave or to act towards nature? by nature, i mean the non-human environment man finds himself in…. any viable environmental ethics, it seems to me, should provide adequate answers to three questions (1) what is the nature of nature? (2) what is the nature of man? (3) how should man relate…to nature? (116) callicott once said, “to begin adequately to address environmental problems and eventually ameliorate the environmental crises, (1) metaphysical foundations must be brought into alignment with ecology—the principal basic science of environment—and (2) ethical theory must be enlarged so as to include within its purview both nonhuman natural entities…” (177). in concordance with his assertion, callicott writes on lynn white’s position “what we do about ecology [that is, natural environment] depends on our ideas of man-nature relationship. more science and more technology are not going to get us out of the present ecological crisis until we find a new religion, or rethink our old one” (120). 2. environmental ethics environmental ethics as a concept is derived from two words: environment and ethics. environment derived from the french word, “enviromer” meaning to “encircle or surround”, thus, it can be defined as (1) the circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms… (cunnigham et al.16). it can be referred to as the natural compositions of an organism which includes, water, soil, air, land, etc. on the other hand, ethics is defined as the branch of philosophy that deals with the standard of right or wrong, good or bad, justice, fairness. ekwutosi citing consalves conception of ethics writes, “ethics grows out of life-situation in which we are confronted with some sort of perplexity or doubt about what is the right thing to do or the best course to follow…” (1). thus, environmental ethics deals with the application of ethical principles in man’s nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … 125 relation with the environment. it is concerned with the moral attitudes that guide man’s relationship with the environment. baird callicott, a philosopher of environmental ethics opines that “environmental ethics has emerged as a new subdiscipline of moral philosophy…. environmental ethics may be understood to be but one among several new of applied philosophies” (116). on his clarification and distinction of environmental ethics from other new applied philosophies, rolston avers that; environmental ethics is more radical in applying ethics outside the sector of human interests. contemporary ethics has been concerned to be inclusive: the poor as well as the rich, women as well as man, future generations as well as the present. environment ethics is even more inclusive: whales slaughtered, wolves extirpated, whooping cranes and their habitats disrupted, ancient forest cut, earth threatened by global warming. these are ethical questions intrinsically, owing to values destroyed in nature, as well as instrumentally, owing to human resources jeopardized. humans need to include nature in their ethics, humans need to include themselves in nature (518). rolston’s argument is that environmental ethics is often regarded as an applied ethics, but there seems to be a sort of difference between the two. in applied ethics, the traditional and metaphysical ethical theories are applied say, to medicine, business, work, genetic engineering and professional ethics. on the contrary, rolston argues that “environmental ethics begins with the assumption that traditional metaphysics and moral theory are more at the root of environmental problems than the tools for their solution” (115). thereby stating that environmental ethics is a kind of anti-applied ethics, in the sense that, it refutes the principles of traditional ethics in addressing the environmental abuses. environmental ethics transcend the common application of ethical principles; it is an exploration of alternative ethical principles that can adequately address the environmental issues. richard sylvan arguing in line with rolston posits that, “it is increasingly said that civilization, western civilization at least, stands in need of a new ethic… setting out people’s relations to the natural environment” (12). the western conception of ethics has been human centered, it only dictates human to human relation, the human person is both the subject and object of the western ethics. subsequently, giving the new development or using charles darwin terminology, evolution, human being has discovered the need to extend moral relation to other nonhuman species, hence the beginning of environmental ethics. nnamani in his explication on environmental ethics opines that, “environmental ethics begins with two basic aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 126 assumptions: firstly, that human behavior towards the natural world should be governed by moral norms, and secondly, that we are charged with some responsibilities towards nature” (393). rolston points out that “environmental ethics starts with human concern for a quality environment, and some think this shapes the ethic from start to finish.” (517). thus, environmental ethic arises from human’s concern to conserve and preserve the environment from the imminent environmental crisis that is gaining ground in the world. human beings must ensure a sustainable environment for a healthy living. environmental ethics is a branch of environmental philosophy that deals with moral relation of human species to nonhuman species. it is an extension of ethical cum moral consideration to animals, plants, soils, rocks, etc. jardins puts this rightly, environmental issues are not primarily political matters, but ethical affairs, they raise fundamental questions about ethics and philosophy” (4), nnamani in addition to what jardins has said, avers that “environmental ethics raises questions about the place of human beings among other living organisms and about their relationship to nature and environment” (393). nnamani in his essay “environmental ethics,” set forth to provide a philosophical ground of environmental ethics, he argues that environmental ethics can be a type of descriptive, normative and philosophical ethics. as a descriptive ethics, environmental ethics describes and summarizes ethical belief that helps us to understand the complexity of environmental challenges; as a normative ethics, environmental ethics makes ethical judgment and evaluations of environmental issues, and appeals to some standard or norm of ethical behavior; as a philosophical ethics, environmental ethics examines values in conflict and the competing reasons that underlie the conflict, in order to be able to evaluate normative judgment and ensure suitable environmental decisions and policies (394). however, environmental ethics is of recent origin, though many ancient philosophers have said something about the environment or nature, but it was from the humanistic point of view. richard sylvan was right at stating that-: “it is not of course that old and prevailing ethics do not deal with nature; they do, and on the prevailing view man is free to deal with nature as he pleases, i.e, his relations with nature, insofar at least as they do not affect others, are not subject to moral censure” (12). serious academic inquiries into environmental ethics started in the 1970s. during this period a fervent awareness grew among scholars on the need to rethink human’s relationship with the environment. on the first world earth day in 1970, environmentalists started urging philosophers, who were involved in the environmental discussion to proffer a solution to the imminent environmental crisis by formulating an environmental ethics. there were three papers that really inspired the desire for an environmental ethics; an essay in aldo leopold’s a sand county almanac, ‘the land ethic’ (1949), where leopold explicitly avers that the root of environmental crisis is philosophical. the second paper is lynn nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … 127 white’s ‘the historical roots of our ecological crisis (1967) and thirdly, garett hardin’s ‘the tragedy of the commons’ (1968). these papers were influential in the environmental discussion of the 1970s. subsequently, many philosophers took interest in the enquiry to save the planet from environmental crisis and possible extinction. callicott writing on the existence and establishment of environmental ethic within the philosophical circle, states explicitly; in 1973, with the publication of three seminal papers, environmental ethics made its formal debut on the staid and conservative stage of professional philosophy. that spring, the young australian philosopher peter singer published “animal liberation” in the new york review of books. that summer, “the shallow and the deep, long range ecology movement: a summary” by distinguished norwegian philosopher and mountaineer arne naess appeared in the international philosophy journal, inquiry. that fall, another young australian philosopher, richard sylvan (then routley), addressed his colleagues at the fifteenth world congress of philosophy in varna, bulgaria, with a question: “is there a need for a new, an environmental, ethic” (“environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology” 3) 3. theories of environmental ethics in the bid to formulate an environmental ethics that can suitably address the environmental challenges, nnamani observes; the true nature of these norms and responsibility gave rise to two conflicting theories of environmental ethics: philosophers who hold that we owe responsibilities directly to other human beings and merely indirectly to the non-human part of the natural environment. in other words, nonhuman parts of the natural environment deserve man’s moral consideration only insofar as they serve humanity interest. the second camp is the philosophers that hold that we owe direct responsibility to the whole universeplants, animals, species, and ecosystem. in this case, every natural object and the ecosystem have moral standing in their own right (393). consequently, the first camp is the anthropocentric philosophers that advocate for the human centered ethics, while the second camp is the non anthropocentric philosophers that clamour for the intrinsic value of the whole ecosystem. the non anthropocentric philosophers are further divided into two: the biocentric aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 128 philosophers, the ecocentric philosophers. but due to the scope of this study, we shall only examine anthropocentric environmental ethics and ecocentric environmental ethics. 4. anthropocentric environmental ethics anthropocentric environmental ethics is the branch of environmental ethics that is human centered. the word, anthropocentric, is derived from the greeks words, ‘anthropos’ –humanand ‘kentron’ –centeredthus, it is the idea that human beings are the most significant species on the ecosystem in the sense that they are considered to have a moral status or value higher than that of other animals. anthropocentrism emphasizes on the superiority of human beings over nonhuman species, and these nonhuman species are valued through the lens or perspective of human. in other words, human beings are assigned higher intrinsic value while nonhuman species are accorded instrumental value. anthropocentrism evaluates the behavior of human towards nature on the sole basis of how it affects human beings. human interests become the determinant factor in the conservation of the environment. the only reason for conserving the environment is that not doing so can harm the human beings, otherwise humans have no reason to conserve the environment. in order to comprehend this better, reference would be made to the scenario painted by richard routley, which he called the last man example, “the last man (or person) surviving the collapse of the world system lays about him, eliminating, as far as he can, every living thing, animal or plant…what he does is permissible according to basic chauvinism” (16). routley’s argument is that the last man behaves in an anthropocentric mannerism, he was eliminating every living thing, animal or plant because they do not have value, apart from serving the interest of man. though routley was not in support of such environmental value, “one does not have to be committed to esoteric values to regard mr. last man as behaving badly” (16). the proponents of anthropocentrism posit that, every instance of value originates in a contribution to human values and that all elements of nature can, at most have value instrumental to the satisfaction of human interests. this point is made clear in the assertion, “anthropocentrism views humans as the centre of ethical concern, while the environment is often seen as a usable resource, there for our personal exploitation,” (nuigalway.ie) underlying this position is the argument that values cannot exist without a valuer. the nonhuman species cannot be valued by and for itself because in the absent of man, they seem to possess no worth at all. it can be argued that the proponents of this view got their inspiration from classical philosophers. thus, anthropocentric view of environment can be traced down to the ancient philosophers. spinoza writing on the early conception of man notes; …they look on all things of nature as means to their own advantage…they could not believe them to be self-created, but on nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … 129 the analogy of the means which they are accustomed to produce for themselves, they were bound to conclude that there were some governor or governors of nature, endowed with human freedom, who have attended to all their needs and made everything for their use….thus it was that this misconception developed into superstition and became deep-rooted in the minds of men (qtd in spinoza 164 ). man has always see nature as an instrument of manipulation and use, nature has no function except to satisfy the human race. aristotle once affirmed, “nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man.” (bk 1, ch 8) this anthropocentric view of aristotle was followed by his medieval student thomas aquinas, who following the line of his master argues that nonhuman animals are ordered to man’s use. thomas aquinas contributing to the anthropocentric conception puts it, “hereby is refuted the error of those who said it is sinful for man to kill dumb animals: for by divine providence they are intended for man’s use in the natural order” (112). in other words, human beings have right to subjugate other beings below on the hierarchy, because these beings are meant for human’s consumption and usage. another radical philosopher who vehemently espoused anthropocentrism is francis bacon. carol merchant, a professor of environmental history, philosophy and ethics in the university of california, writing on bacon’s contribution to the death of nature, describes in bacon words; [t]he new man of science must not think that the “inquisition of nature is in any part interdicted or forbidden.” nature must be “bound into service” and made a “slave” put “in constraint” and “molded” by the mechanical arts. the “searchers and spies of nature” are to discover her plots and secrets” (qtd in merchant 272). bacon from his statement is advocating for the exploitation and control of nature for human benefits. he went further to claim that knowledge is the ability to command nature, to penetrate into the inner and further recesses of nature, in order to discover the secrets of nature, “there is therefore much ground for hoping that there are still laid up in the womb of nature many secrets of excellent use having no affinity or parallelism with anything that is now known… (qtd in merchant 273). bacon raised a call to dominate nature and exploit the natural environment for the good of the entire human race. though bacon is not an environmental philosopher, but his view greatly influenced man’s conception of nature, merchant puts this succinctly, “human dominion over nature, an integral element of the baconian program, was to be achieved through the experimental “disclosure of nature’s secrets.” seventeenth-century scientists, reinforcing aggressive attitudes toward nature, spoke out in favor of “mastering” and “managing” the earth (merchant 275). thus, it can be argued that human anthropocentric conception of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 130 nature stemmed from baconian program of dominating nature, such that man sees nature as a commodity to be used. paul taylor writing on the distinction between anthropocentric environmental theory and the life centered theory, observers critically the nature of anthropocentric values; according to the latter, human actions affecting the natural environment and its nonhuman inhabitants are right (or wrong) by either two criteria: they have consequences which are favourable (or unfavourable) to human well-being, or they are consistent (or inconsistent) with the system of norms that protect and implement human rights. from this human centered standpoint it is human and only humans that all duties are ultimately owned. we may have responsibilities with regard to the natural ecosystems and biotic communities of our planet, but these responsibilities are in every case based on the contingent fact that our treatment of those ecosystems and communities of life can further the realization of human values and/or human rights. we have no obligation to promote or protect the good of nonhuman living things, independently of this contingent fact (198). 5. ecocentric environmental ethical theory ecocentric environmental ethic deals with the argument for the intrinsic value of the whole ecosystem, it employs the insights derived from ecological studies to advocate for value within ecological entities, processes and relationships. the tenet of ecocentrism is that we cannot adequately understand the value of an individual organism, unless we discover the value in the interconnected relationships that exist within the ecosystem. “the world is an intrinsically dynamic, interconnected web of relations in which there are no absolutely discrete entities and no absolute dividing lines between the living and non-living, the animate and the inanimate, or human and the nonhuman” (eckersely 49). thus, the seeming disparity between human and nonhuman stemmed from the traditional anthropocentric conception of nature. it is on this view that the ecocentrism rejects traditional ethical theories, arguing that they are insufficient and inadequate in addressing the environmental challenges. the major argument advanced by the proponents of ecocentrism is that value lies in the processes as well as in products; to value individuals among the fauna and flora and not the evolutionary and ecological processes is like valuing the eggs that the golden goose produces more than the goose able to produce them. it will be a mistake to value the goose only instrumentally. a nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … 131 goose that lays golden eggs is systemically valuable. how much is an ecosystem that generates myriads of species or even, as we soon see, an earth that produces billions of species, ourselves included (rolston iii 524). the position of ecocentrism was first advocated by aldo leopold in his highly influential essay "the land ethic", leopold begins his essay explicating the moral evolution over the millennia. according to him, the earliest notions of morality regulated conduct between individuals, as reflected in the ten commandments. later notions regulated conduct between an individual and society, as reflected in the golden rule. leopold argues that we are on the verge of a new advancement in morality which regulates conduct between humans and the environment, which he calls the land ethic. for all three of these phases in the evolution of ethics, the main premise of morality is that the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts. for leopold, "the land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land” (262). this involves a radical paradigm shift in how humans perceive themselves in relation to the environment. originally we saw ourselves as conquerors of the land. now we need to see ourselves as members of a community which also includes the land. the role of conqueror is self-defeating, for it assumes that the conqueror knows all. yet, clearly, we do not know all of the inner complexities of the environment. leopold illustrates this by noting how human history has been altered by specific changes we have imposed on the environment. according to stan rowei, writing on the significant nature of the ecosystem, and its integrated nature, which demand respect for it, writes, [t]he ecocentric argument is grounded in the belief that compared to the undoubted importance of the human part, the whole ecosphere is even more significant and consequential: more inclusive, more complex, more integrated, more creative, more beautiful, more mysterious, and order than time. the environment that anthropocentrism misperceives as materials designed to be used exclusively by humans, to serve the needs of humanity, is in profoundest sense humanity’s source and support:.... econcentrism goes beyond biocentrism with its fixation on organisms, for in the ecocentric view, people are inseparable from the organic/inorganic nature that encapsulates them. they are particles and waves, body and spirit in the context of earth’s ambient energy (106-107). j. baird callicot in his criticism of the western ethics and its inadequacies for protecting the environment envisions a new ethic that will incorporate the intrinsic value of the environment. this new ethic advocates for the intrinsic value of the environment which he refer to as ecocentrism. the environment is understood in terms of a complicated web of relations, where different organisms interact and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 132 depends on the health of the ecosystem for their survival. thus, it becomes paramount that man should adopt an ethic that will respect the place of other nonhuman species, because just like humans, they are part of the ecosystem. “ethics is to be reformed by moving away from a strict concentration on humans and their relations to include the nonhuman” (mcdonald 13). in other to set out the foundation of this new ethic, callicott made recourse to the land ethic of aldo leopold, he argues that; the land ethic, founded upon an ecological model of nature emphasizing the contributing roles played by various species in the economy of nature, abandons the “higher/lower” ontological and axiological schema in favour of a functional system of value. the land ethic... is inclined to establish value distinctions not on the basis of higher and lower orders of being, but on the basis of the importance of organisms, minerals, and so on to the biotic community (qtd in mcdonald 16). similar to the earlier postulation at the beginning of this section, ecocentrism was championed by aldo leopold, but callicott established the philosophical foundation for the acceptance of the land ethic in the philosophical circle. the land ethic is grounded on the intrinsic value of the ecosystem, the respect for nonhuman species. this ethic was necessitated by the human degradation of the environment, the exploitation of mineral resources, which to a great extent poses threat to human life and whole ecosystem as well. thus, the need arose as to the formulation of an ethic that can adequately address the human relation to the environment. in response to this, callicott point out that, “an adequate value theory for nonanthropocentric environmental ethics must provide for the intrinsic value of both individual organisms and a hierarchy of super-organismic entitiespopulations, species, biocoenoses, biomes, and the biosphere” (qtd in mcdonald 17). the assumption that the ecosystem poses intrinsic value implies that the whole species within the ecosystem also possesses intrinsic value and therefore equal. paul taylor argues to the contrary, that there is difference between human and nonhuman species, in his words, he writes: “we do not deny the differences between ourselves and other species, but we keep in the forefront of our consciousness the fact that in relation to our planet’s natural ecosystems we are but one species population among many (207). thus, human has higher degree of sentience than the nonhuman species but we must realized that we are part of an interdependent system, and must coexist with other species, “this is the fact that the well-being of humans is dependent upon the ecological soundness and health of many plants and animal communities, while their soundness and health does not in the least depend upon the human well-being” (taylor 208). 6. conclusion nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … 133 the moral consideration of nonhuman species cannot be neglected at this age because studies have proven that the ecosystem is interrelated and abuse of one member of the ecosystem invariably results to the dysfunction of the entire ecosystem. the discussion on the primacy of the human species on other nonhuman species has provided justification on the constant abuse of the environment. however, this study is a call to change the perception of human relation with the environment. nature has inherent value besides its benefit to human. thus, in exploration of nature, human beings should respect the intrinsic value of other members of the ecosystem. development, technology, industrialization and civilization are necessary element of human species but ecocentric environmental ethics argues for a moderation of these activities in order to curb extreme extinction of some of these nonhuman species. it must be noted the upholding the intrinsic value of the environmental is indirectly beneficial to human beings; if the other nonhuman species would go into extinction, then, human would have little or no resources to explore. references aquinas,thomas. (1975). summa contra gentiles, translated by v.j. bourke, (london: university of notre dame press, bk.3, part 2, ch.112 aristotle,( 1948).politics translated e. barker, oxford: oxford university press, bk.1, ch.8 callicott, b.j. (1997).“the challenge of a world environmental ethics,” american journal of theology and philosophy, vol.18, no.1. ---. “conceptual resources for environmental ethics in asian traditions of thought: a propaedeutic,” (1987).philosophy east and west, vol. 37, no.2, “environmental ethics,” retrieved from www.nuigalway.ie/cobra/links/guides/environmental-ethics.html accessed on 28th august, 2020. hawaii: university of hawaii press. ---. “how environmental ethical theory may be put into practice,” (1996).ethics and the environment, vol.1no.1. ---. “introduction” in m. zimmernam, (general ed), b. j. callicott, sessions george, warren karen j, clark john. (assoc, eds.) (1993).environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology, new jersey: prentice hall. cunnigham, w. p., cunningham m., saigo, b. (2005).environmental science: a global concern, 8 ed. new york: mcgraw-hill companies. eckersely, r. (1992). “ecocentrism explained and defended,” environmentalism and political theory, london: ucl press. ---. r. environmentalism and political theory, london: ucl press, 1992. http://www.nuigalway.ie/cobra/links/guides/environmental-ethics.html aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 134 ekwutosi, m.c.(2006).basic issues in ethics, onitsha: rex charles & patrick ltd, booksmith house, leopold, a. (1949).a sand county almanac, new york: oxford university press, manson, n. (2000). “anthropocentrism and the design argument”, in religious studies vol.36, quoted baruch spinoza, in the ethics and selected letters, samuel shirley (transl), and seymour fadman(ed). united kingdom: cambridge university press. mc donald, h.p. (2004). “john dewey and environmental philosophy” albany: state university of new york, mcharg, (1969). “design with nature,” new york: doubleday and company inc. merchant, c. (1993). “the death of nature”. in zimmernam michael, (general ed), callicott, baird j., sessions george, warren karen j, clark john. (assoc, eds.) environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology., new jersey: prentice hall. nnamani, a.g. (2005). “ethics of the environment,” in p. iroegbu and a. echekwube (eds.), kpim of morality ethics: general, special and professional, nigeria: heinemann educational books. po-keung, i. (1987). “taoism and the foundations of environmental ethics,” in j. baird callicott’s conceptual resources for environmental ethics in asian traditions of thought: a propaedeatic university of hawai’i press, rolston 111, h. (2003) “environmental ethics”, in nicholas bunnin and e.p. tsui-james, (eds.), the blackwell companion to philosophy, 2nd ed., oxford: blackwell publishing. rowe, stan j. (2020).“ecocentrism: the chord that harmonizes humans and earth.” (the trumpter, 1994) p.106-107 retrieved from http://.www.ecospherics.net/pages/roweecocenrism.html. accessed on 14th july, 2020. sylvan, r. (1993). “is there a need for a new, an environmental ethic?” in zimmernam michael, (general ed), callicott, baird j., sessions george, warren karen j, clark john. (assoc, eds.) environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology., new jersey: prentice hall. taylor, p. (2020).“the ethics of respect for nature”. retrieved from www.unweitethikk.at on 14th july, united nation development report (undp), niger-delta development human report, abuja;un house, (2006). http://.www.ecospherics.net/pages/roweecocenrism.html http://www.unweitethikk.at/ aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 53 abstract thomas pogge in his work world poverty and human rights created theories driven by human rights to center on negative rights and duties of the avoidance of harm. pogge's theory of global justice is developed on a minimalist account of what it means to harm. he shares the view that violation of the negative duty not to harm constitutes an injustice. this injustice is done against the citizens of worse-off countries by the global institutional order. citizens of well-off countries are carrying out injustice by harming the worse-off of the society through the imposition of a global order that avoidably creates human rights deficits without appropriate compensation or reform to policies. it is on this note, pogge proposed the disbursement of global wealth, to the worse-off countries and their citizens. consequently, the goal of this paper is to critically examine pogge's proposal of global wealth distribution to the worse-off of the world and suggest alternative solution to the challenge of extreme poverty in a country like nigeria. this paper establishes that pogge's proposal is not plausible if applied to the nigerian state. this is because it runs contrary to the theory of productive justice which holds that resources to be distributed to the global poor should first be produced by everyone in order to ensure equity and fairness amongst all instead of violating the rights of entitlement of those who have produced the available resources. also, the paper argues that the major cause of extreme poverty in the world is domestically created rather than international. the paper concludes that, in order to deal with high level of poverty in nigeria and make the nigerian state more productive there is need for the fusion of political transparency and accountability and economic diversification solutions to tackle the domestic causes of severe poverty in nigeria. the expository and critical analytic methods of philosophical inquiry are adopted. keywords global justice, global resource dividend, negative rights, transparency. thomas pogge's notion of global justice reassessed odey, jetty joe i. department of philosophy, university of nigeria nsukka anthony c. areji, ph.d department of philosophy, university of nigeria nsukka eze, chima fidelis department of philosophy, university of nigeria nsukka & adejoh, florence eke department of philosophy, university of nigeria nsukka introduction twenty first century has witnessed tremendous growth in global interaction in all facets of human endeavours. this has been facilitated by growth in communication, transportation and technology. ideally, the level of growth in global interdependence and network in the world is meant to bring about better and good standard of living for over 8 billion people estimated by worldometer to be living in this planet earth worldometer, 2022, para. 6 but the opposite is the case. more than 95 million people are estimated to be living in extreme poverty worldwidesdg indicators, 2022, para.1 and in 2022 nigeria ranks the highest as the poverty capital of the world with a staggering figure of 133 million peopletunji, 2022, para.1. hence, pogge in his work entitled “world poverty and human rights” traced extreme global poverty and inequality to the actions of the developed countries in the world and the kleptocratic leaders in third world countries. according to pogge, the new economic global order is considered too harsh on the global poor. he stressed that the new economic global order is made in such a way that negotiators from first world countries use their superior bargaining skills to exploit the third world countries' weaknesses, ignorance and corrupt nature. however, these first world countries make concessions to themselves in their agreements to their own benefit. at the end, 75% of the benefits of global economic growth are taken by those developed countries. consequently, pogge proposes that a cosmopolitan solution should be made to address global economic poverty. he calls this proposal global resources dividend grd. pogge's 2002 grd holds that states and their governments shall not have absolute “libertarian property rights with respect to the natural resources in their territory, but can be required to share a small part of the value of any resources they decide to use or sell. this payment they must make is called a dividend because it is based on the idea that the global poor own an inalienable stake in all limited natural resources”p. 196. as a result of this, this paper will take a critical look at the claims of pogge and how it will help in reducing global extreme poverty. at this point, the paper turns its focus to pogge's view on global justice and his proposal to global injustice. thomas pogge on global justice thomas pogge's notion of global justice is created around severe poverty status of the worse-off of the society. pogge 2002 demonstrates a pathetic image of how the global poor lack access to the basic necessities of life like food, shelter, water, medical care and other things. this lack of access to the basic necessities of life amounts to what he calls severe poverty which is an injustice which is foreseeable and avoidable. by implication, justice for him is when the global poor have access to the basic necessities of life. this idea is one which he adopted from rawls' first principle of justice which advocates for equal rights and responsibility pp. 60-378. pogge 2002 proposed a global resource tax (grt) notwithstanding the fact that every country is the sole owner of the natural resources in their environment. by the creation of the grt every country will be obliged to pay tax on every extraction of resources they make and if the country uses the resources extracted the country has to pay tax for what they consume or sell p.196. if the country decides to sell some to other countries, the tax load has to be shared between them by way 54 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 of selling their resources with higher prices to such countries. on this note, the grt is a consumption tax of the world natural resources pogge, 2002, p. 196. pogge insists that companies who do the business of mining and exploration of natural resources should be made to pay their taxes to their government which will later transfer the proceeds of the tax to the countries which need assistance in order to help the poor people globally. the tax payment is not what is to be done as charity to the global poor; rather it is an obligation that has to be fulfilled to the globally disadvantaged individuals. for pogge, honest countries can take responsibility in the distribution or disbursement of the funds or nongovernmental organizations should take up the duty or agencies of united nations should disburse the fund to the benefit of the poor and worse-off of the society. pogge added, if wealthy countries would not benevolently pay their tax, or because of shame of being exposed or sense of justice international sanctions would be placed on them. critique of thomas pogge's notion of global justice having gone thus far in presenting thomas pogge's view on global justice, it is appropriate at this juncture to make a critical analysis of his views and it would be done part by part. this will enable us to discern whether or not his polemical venture is worthwhile. the first part of his views to be critically analyzed would be his view on the international causes of extreme poverty. pogge's focus on international causes of severe poverty the questions that readily come to mind when examining pogge's claim that the global institutional order contributes to the harm done to the global poor are: does the international global order really cause harm to the global poor? if it does cause harm to the global poor, to what extent can the global institutional order be held responsible for causing harm to the global poor? do the affluent countries cause the global poor any harm? what is the role of the global poor in the predicament they find themselves? these are some of the questions our analysis would be based on. there is no doubt that the global institutional order has some share in the predicament or condition which the global poor find themselves which is due to the consequence of the unjust policies put in place by these institutions in favour of wealthy countries. based on this, pogge can be said to be correct but not to the extent of putting the major part of the blame of the poverty condition of the global poor on the global institutional order or wealthy countries. seeing the global institutional order as the major cause of global poverty seems ridiculous in a way. if it is really the major cause of global poverty what can be said of other poor countries that made it out of the same level of poverty with other countries under the same global institutional order? countries in the asian world which are referred to as asian tigers are perfect examples which show that pogge's argument does not have a strong footing. another perspective one could look at pogge's claim of the global institutional order as harming the global poor is to compare the status of the global poor under this current global institutional order and before the global institutional order came into existence. if 55 odey, et al. thomas pogge’s notion of global justice reassessed we take the baseline of the status of the poor in the past hundred or hundred and fifty years when the international global order was not yet in existence and compare it with the status of the global poor in this period, one will see that there is a great improvement in the poverty level of the global poor in the present than it used to be. it could be said that things are not perfect but better than what it used to be. mathias risse thoughts are in inline with this opinion expressed above. risse tries to show that the global order does not harm the poor if one adopts those baselines of comparison that pogge has suggested. contrary to what pogge believes, when these baselines are invoked, it turns out that the global order has caused staggering improvements over the state of general misery that human life historically has been immersed in. according to risse (2005), the global order is not unjust. at most, what can be said about it in this respect is that it is incompletely just pp. 9–18. risse (2005) further supports his argument by pointing to a number of statistical facts. first, in 1820, 75% of the world population lived on less than one us dollar a day. today, only slightly more than 20% of the global population find themselves at this economic level. the average income per capita (worldwide) was in 1999 significantly more than doubled as compared with 1950, and similar spectacular improvements in terms of life expectancy has been achieved in that periodpp. 9–18. risse concedes that the world trade organization wto regime has not benefited the global poor as much as it could have, but by and large, the wto regime constitutes a huge improvement over the previous general agreement on tariffs and trade (gatt) system and any other previous multilateral or bilateral trade agreement. this point was also made by reitberger pp. 379–402. on a different note, reitberger accuses pogge of failing in his analysis of who owes what to the global poor to make a proper distinction between global order and global institutional order. by this argument he completely disagrees with pogge on the claim that the global institutional order is harming the poor, rather it is the global order that is harming the poor. in other words, reitberger (2008) has no modicum of challenge with accepting the opinion that the former causes much poverty in today's world. however, he rejects pogge's view that the latter plays such a role p. 402.the global order is made up by more than merely international government organizations (the un, the imf, the wto, and the world bank). importantly, this order is composed of more or less powerful individual nation states that interact with each other in a myriad of ways. these individual nation states can, moreover, through their own domestic and foreign policies make a huge impact on other countries' economic situation and development. accordingly, it is reitberger's (2008) view that it is a flaw in pogge's analysis that when it counts out the possible causes for global poverty, it only offers two options: domestic features and the effects of the global institutional system. this is a fallacy of false alternatives in the sense that it overlooks the causal impact that the policies of one nation state can have, and often have, on the economic situation of other countries p. 402. staying on the topic of the global institutional system, pogge has been criticized for failing to make a distinction between the harms that the global institutional system does to 56 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 the poor and the harms caused by domestic/foreign policies of individual nation states. many of the attributes of the global order that pogge argues contribute to persistent poverty, such as selective trade restrictions by rich countries against imports from poor countries, agricultural subsidies, and tax deductible bribery of foreign officials, fall squarely within the domestic jurisdiction of sovereign states and are not really part of the institutional order as such, strictly defined. if these features constitute harm and are violations of negative duties, they are not directly due to what the global institutions do reitberger, 2008, p. 402. at this point, it will not be out of place to state clearly that the major cause of global poverty is domestic or national rather than international. first, the leaders in poor countries are corrupt, lacking in capacity and competence. second, the global poor is guilty of the crime of harming themselves by not making enough and effective demand for good governance and equitable distribution of resources among all citizens in their country from their elected leaders. the global poor in most of the third world countries are responsible for electing into power the corrupt leaders who steal major parts of their funds and keep them in foreign banks. these citizens go to the extent of rigging election for these morally depraved and incompetent leaders in making sure they get into power just for short term gains at the expense of long term gains that will change their poverty status. the point is that, the global poor in this democratic era which the world is in have so much power and right to change their poverty status if they choose to because the power to elect their leaders resides in their hands and they have the constitutional right to stage peaceful protests or revolution in a bid to register their dissatisfaction but have decided to look the other way. there have been countries which were not operating democratic system of government but when their citizens got fed up with their system of government which was not yielding any positive result demanded for a change of government by calling for peaceful revolution. they knew clearly that their poverty status was as a result of political and leadership incompetence. for instance, daron acemoglu and james a. robinson 2012) in the preface of why nations fail explain how north africa and middle east were shaken by “arab spring” which began with jasmine revolution that was inspired by the “self-immolation of street vendor mohamed bouazizi on december 17, 2010. by january 14, 2011, president zine el abidine ben ali, who had ruled tunisia since 1987, had stepped down” p. 14. after this incident, the revolution against the few elites ruling in tunisia did not stop but grew stronger and spread down to the middle east. the revolution also spread down to egypt and hosni mubarak who ruled egypt for 30 years was ousted in february 11, 2011acemoglu robinson, 2012, p. 14. the displeasure of egyptian citizens was due to poverty. at a time, “the average egyptian has an income level of around 12 percent of the average citizen of the united states and can expect to live ten fewer years; 20 percent of the population is in dire poverty. one 57 odey, et al. thomas pogge’s notion of global justice reassessed thing was clear about the poverty status of the citizens of these countries and that is the cause of their poverty” acemoglu robinson, 2012, p. 14. for the egyptians, they were held back by “an ineffective and corrupt state and a society where they cannot use their talent, ambition, inequality, and what education they can get” acemoglu robinson, 2012, p. 14. two things are clear from the explanation above: (1) the cause of their poverty was political. (2) they rose against the corrupt elites who were holding them back from progressing or living a standard life. this implies that for there to be real change in the third world countries, the change has to come from within. it has to be domestic. the citizens have to stand up against the power that has wrested them down and put in power those who have capacity, competence and character. another angle to pogge's focus on international causes of severe poverty is that, the work ethic of the citizens and government of well-off countries is superior to that of the citizens and government of worse-off countries and this in a way determines which country's citizens are poor or rich. it is not possible that one who works less productive will be at the same level with one who works very hard and productively so. for instance, in nigeria there are certain citizens who have a high sense of entitlement because the natural resources which the country survives on are explored from their area; hence, they find it difficult to be hardworking either in the area of academics or in the works they do. they want everything to come to them for free. they expect the companies that are situated in their environment to employ them even when they lack the qualification to work with them. this is not as a result of lack of opportunities to acquire the basic skills that will make them employable but due to laziness to engage in the right things that will help them to be properly equipped. consequently, they have a lot of poor people around that area. in this case, one cannot accuse well-off countries, their citizens and global institutions for being responsible for the poverty of such citizens. pogge also argues that citizens of the better-off countries are guilty of harming the global poor. the serious question begging for answer is that, to what extent can they be held responsible? it is understandable to know that the rich countries contribute in some ways in shaping the international institutional order in alliance with corrupt leaders of poor countries but what is difficult to understand in pogge's argument is his claim that the citizens of these rich countries are collaborating with their country in harming the global poor. for instance, what is the role of the citizens of the well-off countries in taking decisions that promote unfair tariffs and resource borrowing privileges which are ways in which the international institutions in collaboration with both the rich and poor countries use in harming the global poor unfortunately, there are no clear proofs to show that the citizens of the rich countries have a hand in upholding these things. the citizens cannot be held responsible for the actions of their representatives. for instance, there are times when the citizens of these rich countries disagree with their leaders on certain issues and policies but their leaders still go ahead to uphold such policies. therefore, it is a hasty conclusion drawn by pogge accusing the citizens of rich countries of harming the poor. 58 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 steinhoff 2012 made a reasonable illustration to support this view when he states that, “what happens if my government decides to unjustly kill me? it is obviously wrong to say that my compatriots and i bear primary responsibility for our murders?” pp. 119-38. he also gave another example by asserting that if his government violated a negative duty not to veto a certain security council resolution on behalf of an oppressed people it would not have been possible for him to have violated that duty, because it is utterly not possible for him to have violated the duty. in fact, he said vehemently that he cannot veto security council resolutions steinhoff, 2012, pp. 119-38. based on these examples, it is clear that the general principles pogge relied on to make his argument of accusing the citizen of rich countries of harming the global poor since their government violated rights of the global poor are not valid. pogge's focus on negative rights for better understanding of pogge's position on global justice and world poverty a short distinction between negative duties and positive duties is important. negative duties are duties not to harm other people, whereas positive duties are duties to offer assistance to worse-off people. it is an essential feature of negative duties that in cases where a negative duty has been violated, the person who has been harmed has a right to compensation from the person (or institution) who has done the harm. positive duties to offer assistance are different from negative duties in the sense that it is not a necessary condition for the former duties to kick in that the duty holder has harmed someone sonderholm, 2012, pp. 366–391. pogge argues that the global rich have a duty to eradicate severe poverty in the world because of their having violated a principle of justice not to unduly harm others by imposing on them a coercive and burdensome global order that makes their access to the objects of their human right or that greatly diminishes the global poor's earning potential and imposes unnecessary costs on them. consequently, the global poor's access to objects of basic human rights such as shelter, water/food, and basic medical care is made insecure by the global order. there is no doubt that the actions of the better-off countries and the international institutions have affected the global poor in some way but there is a greater burden on the worse-off countries. it is important to point out that there are few controversies regarding the fact that negative duty is genuine and appropriate. but where there is a serious challenge to the argument of pogge is with regard to his claim that the global rich have a duty of eradicating poverty because they harm the global poor by imposing unjust global order on them. this is based on his argument that the major cause of extreme global poverty is not domestic. even though he admits that technical incompetence, corruption, and tyranny in the political/social institutions of some developing countries play a causal role in the genesis and perseverance of global povertypogge, 2002, p. 117. pogge must be mistaken to claim that the major cause of global poverty is international rather than domestic. the reason is that, in spite of the fact that we live in a global world, different countries still have their sovereignty which means no matter the influence of the 59 odey, et al. thomas pogge’s notion of global justice reassessed borrowing privileges provided by the better-off countries for the developing countries, they cannot be forced to take those borrowing privileges if the governments of those developing countries do not seize those opportunities for their private gains. the point being made here is that, the major cause of global poverty is local rather than international. therefore, the citizens and leaders of such developing countries should bear the primary responsibility of harming themselves. the citizens have to take responsibility for not standing up against bad, incompetent and corrupt government. on this note, pogge's claim that the global rich have a duty of eradicating poverty is not correct. some scholars argue that negative duty is nothing but a relabeling of positive duty. scholars like reitberger and gilbert echoed these view firmly. according to reitberger, it is a consequence of pogge's analysis that the affluent count as harming the poor insofar as they comply with, and support, an international order that fails to prevent human rights deficits (if these deficits are foreseeable and if there is an alternative global order that avoids them). reitberger then goes on to say “if we think justice requires that we create an institutional order whereby people's basic human rights are not violated regardless of direct cause and everyone is provided with basic goods in life, we are in fact (as i aim to show later) relying on a kind of positive duty to aid the poor––something that pogge rejected for failing to distinguish properly between harming and failing to protect” reitberger, 2008, pp. 379–402. gilbert also objects to pogge's concept of a negative duty. he sees this concept as being unduly inflationary because it, in effect, turns what is essentially a positive duty into a negative one. on pogge's concept of a negative duty, one counts as violating a negative duty not to harm x if one fails to improve the situation of x as much as possible gilbert, 2005, pp. 537–50. pogge's focus on global resource dividend according to pogge 2002, grd proposal foresees that states and their governments shall not have complete “libertarian property rights with respect to the natural resources in their territory, but can be required to share a small part of the value of any resources they decide to use or sell. this payment they must make is called a dividend because it is based on the idea that the global poor own an inalienable stake in all limited natural resources”p. 196. the revenues generated from the grd are meant to help the global poor live a dignified life worthy of the human person. the proceeds will be used to provide and improve their basic necessities like medical care, nutrition, personal hygiene and their personal interests. it will guarantee their freedom to compete effectively in the society and participate in the labour market and politics. also, “the grd proposal is meant to show that there are feasible alternative ways of organizing our global economic order, that the choice among these alternatives makes a substantial difference to how much severe poverty there is worldwide, and that there are weighty moral reasons to make this choice so as to minimize such poverty”pogge, 2002, 196. 60 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 against this view, there are two arguments: (1) pogge's proposal can best be called a moral appeal which lacks enforceable measures therefore it cannot be really effective. pogge would have rather called his proposal to the problem of global injustice done to the poor as a measure for creating strong awareness for the global poor so that they can be motivated and rightfully informed about their condition to help them rise up against the various causes of global poverty. (2) the second point looks at how sustainable global resource dividend (grd) is. upon reflecting on grd, series of questions came to mind: how long will this continue to be practiced? will it not encourage more laziness on the part of the global poor and the government of developing countries? the reality is that it is not sustainable. firstly, the reason is being that, there is no specific time the tax payment will come to an end. secondly, while the dividend is being collected there is no clear cut plan on what will happen to the corrupt leaders of those countries and their citizens whose orientation is formed to be receiving instead of working. this act in itself is an injustice to those who have made effort to produce wealth. in other words, it goes against the theory of productive justice which subscribes that everyone should participate in the production process share in the burdens in order to be able to participate in sharing of benefits. this is to ensure equity and fairness amongst all instead of violating the rights of entitlement of those who have produced the available resources. the act of receiving dividend without working is a contradiction to the theory of distributive justice which encourages appropriate distribution of burdens and benefits. thirdly, the rich countries may not be disposed to keep giving what they worked for to the poor nations. they may rather use their superior might to undermine the system for their own good. there are no clear evidences to sustain the claim that if the current global system is altered the condition of the global poor will be permanently taken care of. at some point, pogge was of the view that after the grd must have been collected and the leaders of the country which is meant to receive it are examined not to be competent to put into good use the grd, the body responsible for managing the grd should identify the most important projects that will have great impacts on the lives of the poor citizens of the country and execute them. the question begging for answer is this, is it not the same corrupt and incompetent leaders that are in power that will continue to mismanage those projects after they must have been completed? or will the international body go ahead to manage the projects they spent money to put in place in another man's country? whatever the case may be, the reality is this, pogge's proposal is just an idea which is not practicable and if at all attempts are made to practicalize the proposal it will land the international body in circle of catastrophic failure. having analyzed and pointed out the flaws inherent in the postulation of pogge on global justice and why pogge's solution to the challenge of extreme poverty in the world cannot solve the problem, this paper at this stage, turns its attention to suggest best ways to deal with the challenge of extreme poverty in countries like nigeria. these solutions are both political and economic in nature. 61 odey, et al. thomas pogge’s notion of global justice reassessed fusion of political and economic solutions to the issues of extreme poverty and underdevelopment in nigeria the combination of both political and economic solutions to the challenges of poverty and underdevelopment in nigeria would go a long way to ameliorate the high level of poverty in nigerian and at the same time economic development. the rationale behind this is obvious. nigeria is a country that is battling with devastating state of corruption and poor economic development and as such demands on the one hand, transparency and accountability as basic political solutions, on the other hand, diversification of nigeria's mono-economy as the economic solution. transparency and accountability form the two main traditional policy approaches to corruption. it is interesting to note that, transparency and accountability are not sufficient conditions to solving the political problem but they are necessary conditions, as remedies to the political problem. even at that, with the application of only the political solution to the corruption status of nigeria without a concurrent application of the economic solution to deal with the challenge of nigeria over-dependence on mono-commodity economy will not bring about the needed development that will aid in alleviating the high level of poverty in nigeria. consequently, it is necessary for the economic diversification solution and the political solution of transparency and accountability to be combined to effectively handle both the challenge of extreme poverty and economic underdevelopment in nigeria. as regards how instrumental economic diversification is to the economic development of nigeria, anyaehie and areji 2015 assert that, “diversified economy will stabilize nigeria against the vagaries of oil market, and provide opportunities for the satisfaction of needs and aspirations of her population. different sections of the national and tiers of government should develop other aspects of economy where they have comparative advantage”pp. 87-94. chinecherem uzonwanne also supports the issue of economic diversification as a way-forward for economic development in nigeria when she states that, there exists a positive relationship between economic growth in nigeria and diversification of other sectors because, when there were proper management of human resources, huge investment and concentration on agriculture, nigerian economy was recorded to be healthy and vibrantp. 2. the rationale behind uzonwanne's view is that, an efficient, and sustainable economic development is not possible without a monoeconomy giving way to diversified economy. consequently, nigeria has to quickly follow the path of economy diversification from a mono-commodity dependent economy to a multi-commodity economy. conclusion pogge's theory of global justice is founded on a minimalist explanation of what it means to harm. he argues that the global institutional order and citizens of the developed world are perpetuating injustice by harming individuals through the imposition of a global order that avoidably causes human rights deficits without appropriate compensation or reform to policies. consequent upon this, pogge proposed the distribution of global wealth, to the less developed countries and their citizens. this paper also argues that the major cause of extreme poverty in the world is domestically created rather than international, 62 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 therefore, the paper concludes that, in order to alleviate the high level of poverty in nigeria and make the nigerian state more productive there is a need for the fusion of political transparency and accountability and economic diversification solutions to solve the domestic causes of severe poverty in nigeria. references anyaehie, michael and areji, anthony chukwudi. 2015. economic diversification for sustainable development in nigeria, open journal of political science, 5, 87-94. acemoglu, daron and robinson, james a. 2012). why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity, and poverty, great britain: profile books ltd. gilabert, p. (2005). the duty to eradicate global poverty: positive or negative? ethical theory and moral practice, 7, 537–50. pogge, thomas. 2002. world poverty and human rights: cosmopolitan responsibilities and reforms, cambridge: polity press. rawls, john. 1971). a theory of justice cambridge, ma: harvard university press. risse, mathias. (2005). do we owe the global poor assistance or rectification? ethics and international affairs, 19, 9–18. reitberger, m. (2008). poverty, negative duties and the global institutional order, politics, philosophy and economics, 7, 379–402. sustainable development goal indicators 2022. retrieved from https//unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/goal-01/ steinhoff, uwe. 2012. why “we” are not harming the global poor: a critique of pogge's leap from state to individual responsibility, public reason 4 (1-2), 11938. sonderholm, jorn. 2012. thomas pogge on global justice and world poverty: a review essay in analytic philosophy vol. 53 no. 4, 366–391. tunji, sami. 2022. nigeria's poverty exceeds world bank projection, five states lead th18 november,https//punchng.com/nigerias-poverty-exceeds-world-bankprojection-five-states-lead/ uzonwanne, chinecherem. 2015. nigeria in the face of dwindling oil revenue, journal of economics and sustainable development vol.6, n0.4, 2. world population clock 8 billion people 2022 worldometer. retrieved from https//www.worldometers.info/world-population/ 63 odey, et al. thomas pogge’s notion of global justice reassessed page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract there has been a dominance of the anthropocentric orientation in science and technology, in economics and government thinking, in academia and among the world's religious traditions, with only an ambivalent support for ecocentrism through the history of thought (taylor et al., 2016). despite occasional admittance of the urgency of axiological paradigm shift by the un it continues to confine itself to the anthropocentric framework in its assessment of environmental despoliation. this article demonstrates the inadequacy of unep's anthropocentric worldview by appraising its environmental assessment of ogoniland (2011) in light ecocentric environmental philosophy. unep's assessment of what went wrong and what needs be done remains at the level of environmental law and fails to see the ethical failure antecedent to the ineffectiveness of environmental law in the form of existing oil company environmental guidelines. the objective is to underscore the failure of unep's assessment to espouse any remarkably different approach to human relation to the environment that promises protection for the ecosystem. for progress in confronting the challenge of environmental protection this article concludes with a recommendation that ecological ethics be emphasized in environmental education to broaden the axiological framework of environmental ethics accessible in academia and to government and private policy makers. keywords: ecocentric, unep's , environmental and ogoniland introduction anthropocentrism continues to be the world's dominant philosophical framework, even in projects that spell out environmental sustainability and ethics as a stated goal. a clear instance of this is unep's environmental assessment of ogoniland (2011) which blames human destruction of the environment only as destruction of resources and recommends no ethical change of behaviour beyond prudential protection of the said resources on account of their value to the human community. another critical example is the failure of the un and educational policy makers across the world to introduce ecocentrism into their much celebrated education for sustainable development programs. the critical challenge is the seeming or actual ignorance of the academia about ecocentrism, or its scepticism concerning its practicality. there is therefore the urgent need to expose, explore and appraise the ecocentric perspective of environmental philosophy and thus make it accessible to the academic public as the less charted and more radically philosophical framework of environmental ethics. it is from that background that this article appraises unep's environmental assessment of ogoniland in an ecocentric philosophical appraisal of unep's environmental assessment of ogoniland francis tete 205 light of ecocentric environmental philosophy, with the objective of putting unep's anthropocentric orientation to the test of an ecocentric reassessment, thus underscoring the philosophical significance of ecocentrism. the concept of ecocentrism ezedike captures its essence when he says that “ecocentrism puts all beings in the ecosystem in one moral universe” and explains this to imply that “quite apart from its assumed instrumental value in supporting the existence of human species, nature is deemed as valuable in and of itself. humans, therefore, ought to respect and demonstrate moral responsibility to all beings in the ecosystem” (2020, 82-83). washington et al (2017) similarly maintain that ecocentrism is the broadest term for worldviews that recognize intrinsic value in all lifeforms and ecosystems themselves, including their abiotic components. anthropocentrism, in contrast, values other lifeforms and ecosystems insofar as they are valuable for human well-being, preferences and interests. touching on the value theory root of the concept, keller (2019:177) opines that ecocentrism “is an axiology that identifies biotic communities as worthy of moral consideration. it is a form of holism whose ethical good is based on the health and flourishing of the ecological entity as a whole. in a local context, this consists of the biotic community, in the global context, this consists of the biosphere”. rowe (1994) likewise observes that ecocentrism proposes “a value-shift from homo sapiens to planet earth: ecosphere. a scientific rationale backs the value-shift. all organisms are evolved from earth, sustained by earth. thus earth, not organism, is the metaphor for life. earth not humanity is the life-center, the creativity-center. earth is the whole of which we are subservient parts”. callicott (1999) sums it up in describing ecocentrism as a copernican revolution in ethics that seeks to extend the boundaries of moral significance from homo sapiens to nonhuman nature. history of ecocentrism animism, which promoted a highly ecocentric attitude to the environment, was the dominant culture in early antiquity (white, 1962) and persisted almost everywhere until the rise of jewish monotheism and greek philosophy assigned the role of “conqueror” of the rest of the natural world. though hughes (1994, viii) observes that the greeks and romans had environmental problems, hargrove (1989) contends that the general philosophical climate of classical antiquity made ecological thinking technically implausible, if not conceptually impossible (p.26). inspired jointly by greek philosophy and the judeo-christian tradition, modern western science was cast upon the unecological paradigm that nature has no reason to exist save to serve man. inspired by cartesian dualism and the reductionism of newtonian physics, and despite copernicus and in spite of darwin, modern science, according to rees (1988), gave impetus to a sister physics in the form of capitalist economics, which sees 'the environment' in terms of isolated, individual resources, whose component parts are bendable to human will and purpose. the extreme anthropocentrism of this has led to global indifference to the disastrous ecological consequences of industrialization, while the gross national product (gnp) represented by bank statements is exalted as the 206 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 universal indicator of national health and social wellbeing. though accenting to the need for a broadened value consideration for nature in the interest of environmental sustainability, the un has not been consistent in conceding to ecocentrism. the world charter for nature in 1982 held that “every form of life is unique, warranting respect regardless of its worth to man” and demanded that i n relating to them “man must be guided by a moral code of action” (united nations, 1982: preamble). in our common future, the un held that development “must not endanger the natural systems that support life on earth: the atmosphere, the waters, the soils, and living beings” (wced, 1987a: 57). the tokyo declaration that accompanied our common future lost the ecocentric viewpoint again. its principle 1 was to “increase growth” while principle 3 was to “conserve and enhance the resource base” for humans (wced, 1987b). in its environmental assessment of ogoniland, unep (2011), as we shall see, the un maintains a strictly anthropocentric focus, with no suggestion that the environment has an “intrinsic value” or “moral consideration” apart from its economic, health or cultural value to man. this history of ambivalent attitude towards ecocentrism underscores the need for academic research to look in the direction of ecocentrism, considering the catastrophic results of the anthropocentric orientation. as an approach to environmental philosophy, callicott (1999:159) explains that “ecocentrism sprung from aldo leopold's land ethic. leopold aimed at advancing an alternative to anthropocentrism in his sand county almanac and his land ethic is a clearcut example of an ecocentric philosophy since it is centered on the whole ecological (or biotic) communities rather than their individual members. schweitzer (1925) wrote civilization and ethics earlier but he was more biocentric in approach, emphasizing “reverence to life”. taylor (1986) who wrote respect for nature much later got closer to ecocentrism. it is philosophical reactions to leopold, however, and to callicott (1987, 1989, 1994, 1999, 2013) his critical advocate, that has delineated ecocentrism as a philosophical framework in environmental ethics. our task is to appraise the ecocentric status of unep's environmental assessment of ogoniland. elements of ecocentrism there are certain basic elements that characterize ecocentrism irrespective of the diversity of authors and viewpoints that intersect to constitute its universe of understanding. the most fundamental of them is holism, the outlook on the world as one entity of interdependent and interconnected parts. the second most critical viewpoint in ecocentrism is moral extensionism, the contention that nonhuman nature has a right to moral consideration in relation to human conduct. another, on which the preceding position rather depends, is the according of intrinsic value to nature, that is, considering nature as having inherent worth of itself and in itself, prior to human valuation or usefulness to man. the other two are community metaphor and ecological conscience. the community concept draws on ecology and evolutionary sociobiology to assert that the degree of kinship between human and nonhuman nature amounts to a kind of community relationship which implies modes of cooperation and limitation of conduct in the struggle for existence. if the community metaphor is accepted then ecological 207 tete an ecocentric philosophical appraisal of unep’s environmental assessment of igboland conscience, a kind of ecological moral sentiment, follows logically, according to leopold. the last two are demands for attitudinal change and environmental education, both critical for the realization of the integrity of the ecological community. fundamental issues in unep's assessment of ogoniland unep's environmental assessment of ogoniland (unep, 2011) is the most comprehensive white paper on the environmental footprint of the oil industry in africa, a product of scientific research conducted by competent experts with appropriate tools and criteria leading to credible conclusions, as opposed to politically orchestrated woe litanies or popular foul cries based on observable but uninvestigated environmental damage. speaking for itself, the document admits of being “the best available understanding of what has happened to the environment of ogoniland—and the corresponding implications for affected populations”, with a promise to provide “clear operational guidance as to how that legacy can be addressed” (8). it is this content and purpose of the document that we undertake to address within the framework of ecocentric environmental philosophy. for this purpose, an outline of the essential elements of the documents' empirical findings can be made as follows: ·destruction of streams and rivers (surface water) through contamination with hydrocarbon (p.68), ·contamination of underground water and soil due to vertical sipping of pollutants in areas where pollution has been unattended and or repeated for long periods (p.96-108ff.), ·destruction of mangroves (aquatic vegetation) and farmlands due to repeated and unattended pollution (p.72), ·destruction of fish and various kinds of seafood and aquatic creatures (p.178ff.) ·destruction of air quality due to hydrocarbon sooth from gas flaring and artisanal refining (p.102), ·failure of oil producing company to abide by available oil industry environmental regulation such as egasin (environmental guidelines and standards for petroleum industries in nigeria [1992]), including failure to decommission abandoned oil facilities (p. 43ff., 115ff, 138ff.), ·failure of government and oil company to safeguard pipelines and abandoned oil facilities from bunkering and artisanal refining, ·failure of spdc's rena (remediation by enhanced natural attenuation) procedure to achieve either environmental clean-up or legislative compliance (p. 144 ff.) ·recommendation of clean up as joint restitution by government and oil company (p. 207 ff.) ·recommendation of environmental education in the form of awareness campaign (p.215) it is these contents of unep's assessment that we shall now appraise in light of key concepts of ecocentric environmental philosophy. 208 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 the unep assessment and the community concept as a prime concept of the ecocentric perspective the community concept constitutes a foremost challenge to the unep environmental assessment of ogoniland. in this regard it is observable that the unep assessment does not indicate any concept of “community” that binds the streams and rivers and mangroves and tilapia and cockles together with the human inhabitants of the land and drillers and refiners of oil as unavoidably bound together as one whole. unep did not observe any breach of community relationship between the human actors on the land and the nonhuman members of the land community. the analysis did not observe the logical contradiction in the action of the people who took part in bunkery and artisanal refining that laced the creeks with layers of hydrocarbons and decimated the aquatic populations decisively yet used monies sold from the oil business to search in vain for fish they could buy for consumption. the same can be said of shell's ravenous oil exploitation activities. unep did not observe that the oil company acted from a perspective of one who did not see himself as belong to a “community” with the land on which oil was struck. in leopold's language, shell acted with the mindset of modern homo sapiens, the conqueror of the land community. from this conqueror perspective oil business could thus be done without regard for the land and other members of the land community. the violation and reckless destruction of fauna and flora with no honest commitment to restoration is symptomatic of a pre-ecological understanding of the earth as given to man to plunder and conquer as his strength can afford. unep assessment and intrinsic value closely related to the absence of a community understanding in the human treatment of land is the failure to regard every member of the environment as having value in themselves, irrespective of their instrumental value to mankind. this is poignantly missing in unep's assessment. the assessment failed to observe that an instrumental axiology of the ecological community by the human members who do not see themselves as members stand at the baseline of the ecological disaster that both multinational oil business and local refining turned ogoniland into. even unep's judgment of misconduct on the part of these local and international actors only considered the instrumental value of the destroyed “resources”. there was no definite reference to a loss of ecological value or other forms of inherent worth attributable to the various nonhuman victims of the environmental damage. unep programmed its assessment on the ecologically fallacious premise consistently disparaged by leopold, namely, the supposition that evidence of wrongdoing “had to be economic in order to be valid”. it appears by unep's assessment that the destruction of mangrove vegetation and farmlands and creeks alongside the massive extermination of periwinkle, tilapia, catfish, crayfish, mallet, sardines, bonga fish, oysters, cockles, mussels, and various kinds of crabs in the ogoni rivers was wrong only because of the economic and human cultural value of the species involved. there were surely thousands of other species of non-economically valuable and perhaps culturally unpopular species destroyed as a result of the massive pollution of land, stream and creek which the unep report apparently did not bother to assess or report about. in rolston's analysis, the perpetrators of the environmental damage would have had a sense of duty towards the natural world if they had an appropriate judgment of the values 209 tete an ecocentric philosophical appraisal of unep’s environmental assessment of igboland resident in the natural world quite apart of their usefulness to human purposes. among such cognitive, critical and moral duties of humans to the natural world missed out in the unep assessment is what rolston captures as the duty of “transcending human interests and linking them up with those of the whole natural earth” (1988, 72). in rolston's view it is such duties as this owed by humans towards the natural world are part of the reasons human superiority to nonhuman nature isn't “groundless prejudice”. in leopold's land ethic perspective even the members of the ecological community who have no direct human utility value have critical ecological value to the extent they contribute to the integrity, stability and beauty of the ecosystem. and, again, for leopold, every member of the ecosystem should have been a subject of unep's value judgment for the sake of the ecological whole of which it is a part, if not for its own sake. from the angle of taylor's biological egalitarian framework, unep assessed the damage done to the ogoni ecosystems on the same ecologically ignorant and logically fallacious (it involves a petitio principii) consideration that humans are the superior species, that nonhuman species have no inherent worth, and that usefulness to human species is the standard for determining what treatment other species deserve. unep's assessment and ecological conscience another point on which an ecocentric review of environmental destruction of ogoniland would dwell relates to the concept of ecological conscience. the unep assessment could not see this because it viewed the disaster with the short-sighted lenses of anthropocentrism. an ecocentric binoculars would go further to see that an absence of ecological moral sentiment on the part of the human members of the ecological community stood at the backdrop of the senseless treatment of the environment fundamentally. despite variations in the conception of conscience across the continuum of philosophy's history, leopold's notion of ecological conscience as part of the evolutionary possibility of a land ethic is not philosophically unthinkable. the scholastics, most ably represented by thomas aquinas, saw conscience as the act of applying universal principles (i.e., divine laws) to real situations (aquinas, summa theologiae, 1 q79; langston 2000 and 2015; sorabji 2014: 62–66). ecologically this implies that the created order makes certain moral demands on human conduct in real life situations even in relation to the natural environment. as schaffer (2009) has argued, the sentiments of the christian saints and other provisions of patristic and medieval hagiography are capable of alignment with the facts and theories of evolutionary, molecular, and ethological biology to suggest a behaviour pattern demanding more responsible attitudes and actions toward other species (p.149). in modern times rousseau defines conscience as “an innate principle of justice and virtue, by which …we judge our own actions or those of others to be good or evil (rousseau 1921 [1762]: 253). this too is applicable to leopold's idea that humanity activate our ecological conscience. callicott has been emphatic in relating leopold's ecological conscience to the “moral sentiment” th theory of 18 century sentimentalist philosophers, especially david hume. in kant, “every human being, as a moral being, has a conscience within him originally” (kant 1797 [1991]: 160), and conscience is one of the four “natural predispositions of the mind (…) for being affected by concepts of duty”, the other three being moral feeling, love for one's neighbours, and respect for oneself (kant 1797 [1991]: 160). this too does not 210 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 contradict the prospect of an ecological imperative as a matter of conscience, a judgment of the mind, to act dutifully towards nature in certain acceptable ways and to refrain from acting in certain unacceptable ways. in leopold's analysis, the lack of community understanding and absence of moral sentiment between human actors in the ogoni environmental odyssey and the ecological victims translated to the lack of care and sense of duty to respect and protect the natural environment. unep's assessment and moral extensionism an ecocentric appraisal of unep's assessment further considers the extent of moral extensionism in the assessment. the only apparent submission to moral extensionism in the assessment is the demand for clean up of the degraded environment by a collaboration of those who principally colluded to wreck the havoc in the first instance, the federal government and the shell petroleum development company. however, the assessment makes no proscription or approbation on the basis of any conception of right and wrong in human relation to nature. even the demand for clean up as an ethical responsibility does not appear to be made in respect of the respect and care which the environment deserves in its own right in repair for the heinous disruption of its integrity, stability and beauty, but rather as restitution to the human community whose “resource” base for subsistent farming and fishing had been vandalized. in other words, the demand for clean up made by unep in favor of the ogoni environment qualifies as call for moral responsibility only on the anthropocentric level, and does not meet the requirement of moral extensionism characteristic of ecocentrism. despite divergence of opinions among environmental philosophers regarding what the trademarks of moral consideration should be, the failure of the unep assessment to consider the various nonhuman victims of the ogoni ecological disaster as deserving moral standing on their own worth leaves the assessment light-footed as a work of environmental ethics. maintaining the classical human chauvinism of traditional ethics, the unep assessment fails, in the language of richard and val routley, to consider a “removal of humans from a dominant position in the natural order” (1980, 96). the unep document leaves its reader with the classical impression that humans are free to do as they wish with the environment insofar as they do not cause damage to their human usefulness. here leopold would disparage the unep assessment for failure to evince an extension of ethics from people to land. taylor would refute unep for failure to admit respect for nature into for its value into its assessment. schweitzer would criticize the unep environmental assessment for failing to make ethical judgments regarding the mistreatment of various “will-to-live” in the ogoni environmental carnage and would roundly reject the document's inability to call for an “extended responsibility with regard to everything that has life”(in pojman, p.96). unep's assessment and attitudinal change having failed in the previous aspects of ecocentrism considered in the foregoing, the unep project also failed in what should be their consequent, namely the ecocentric demand for attitudinal change. ecological ethics, in leopold's connotation, being fundamentally about “a limitation on freedom of action in the struggle for existence” and 211 tete an ecocentric philosophical appraisal of unep’s environmental assessment of igboland a “tendency of interdependent individuals or groups to evolve modes of cooperation”, the crux of any environmental assessment would assess current modes of conduct and prescribe appropriate change of behaviour. for the land ethic leopold prescribed a change of conduct on the part of homo sapiens from the role of the conqueror of the land community to a plain member and citizen of the community. the unep assessment prescribed certain changes of behaviour but not in respect of the nonhuman members of the ecological community. the prescriptions of the unep document does not extend to the realm of human obligations towards nonhuman nature. the assessment does not call for respect for life and care for nature for their intrinsic biodiversity value. naess would appraise the unep (2011, 138-151) assessment as having a shallow environmental approach, focusing almost exclusively on technical aspects of environmental protection, including, important as they are, noncompliance with the legal provisions of egaspin (environmental guidelines and standards for petroleum industries in nigeria [1992]) and ineffectual reliance by spdc on rena (remediation by enhanced natural attenuation), thereby tending to “make the public more passive and disinterested in the more crucial non-technical lifestyle-related, environmental issues (in zimmerman et al, 1993, 204). the unep document does not highlight in its recommendations the central challenge of attitudinal shift of environmental ethics; what leopold dubbed “a little healthy contempt for a plethora of material blessings”; what naess calls “simple living”, “appreciating life quality, …rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living”. pope francis emphasizes this attitudinal change in his critique of the throwaway culture, that turns the earth into a pile of filth with accumulated rubbish from homes and businesses, construction and demolition sites, clinical, electronic and industrial sources, most of them non-biodegradable, highly toxic and radioactive (ls, 21). quoting pope john paul ii, francis would leave unep's assessment with a m issing keynote on attitudinal change: “every effort to protect and imp rove our world entails profound changes in “lifestyles, models of production and consumption, and the established structures of power which today govern societies” (ls, 5; ca, 58). unep's assessment and environmental education considering the role of ignorance in our deepening environmental crisis (leopold, 234235; tuttle, 2012), the final challenge of ecocentrism, or any environmental ethic whatsoever, is environmental education. this has been a critical dimension of ecocentrism. significantly, however, unep's only reference to environmental education is an embarrassing half a sentence on the need for “awareness campaign” for local participants in bunkering and artisanal refining (2011, 215). even so, unep's proposal for environmental education stops at informal education, with is its susceptibility to unpredictability of definitive results and other limitations. in this unep appears to underestimate the role of education in checkmating the tide of environmental degradation. then the recommended education leaves out the prime destroyers of the environment, the multinational oil companies and their staff and those undergoing formal education who shall take up leadership positions as government functionaries, institutional administrators and policy makers. eventually the environmental education recommended is unabashedly simplistic and hopelessly human-centred, with emphasis only on “the disproportionate nature of the short-term financial gain set against the 212 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 medium to long-term health consequences” (215). in this the unep document fails in its rendition at the crescendo. evaluation and conclusion the ecological disaster to which multinational oil business turned ogoniland as evidenced in unep's assessment corroborates leopold's repeated insistence that the conqueror (anthropocentric) relation of homo sapiens (humankind) to the environment (biotic community) to which he is merely a native, a plain member and citizen, is selfdefeatist and calls for a new ethic of appropriate respect and care for the environment. the unep assessment demonstrates by implication the failure of classical philosophical ethics in its anthropocentric orientation to meet the global needs of environmental protection is evidenced in the catastrophic prospects of a looming environmental apocalypse due to global warming and climate change, resource depletion and desertification, ecosystem destruction and biodiversity loss, and global environmental pollution. the weaknesses of unep's assessment shows, as wehrden et al (2016, 68) have argued, the urgency of research that aim at “harmonizing people and nature” (that is, that are ecocentric), and their “primary importance for achieving a sustainable future … especially but not exclusively if they aid normative and transformative knowledge creation”. although ecocentrism was once thought to be theoretically groundless (passmore 1974, artfield 1992), its philosophical integrity has been robustly defended (callicott 1987, 1999; ress, 1988) and extensively expanded (naess 1974, rolston 1988). the converging postulation of ecocentric thinkers thus captured in the above critique of unep's environmental assessment of ogoniland is that current threats to environmental sustainability cannot be checkmated by merely prudential anthropocentric prescriptions. a shift from anthropocentric to ecocentric models of human relation to nonhuman nature thus appears as a new copernican revolution in ethics to which the unep assessment is diametrically disconnected. the inadequacy of anthropocentrism as an ethical framework for environmental protection implies the need for a new philosophical framework, just as the failure of geocentrism naturally called for a paradigm shift to heliocentrism as a logical necessity for scientific and civilizational progress (kuhn, popper). in view of progress in environmental protection we conclude with the recommendation that ecological ethics be emphasized in environmental education to broaden 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(2016) “sustainability and ecosystems” in sustainability science: an introduction, heinrichs, h. et al, eds. london, springer wood, allen, 2008, kantian ethics, new york: cambridge university press, chapter 3. world commission on environment and development (198 7a) our common future. oxford university press, oxford, uk. world commission on environment and development (198 7b) tokyo declaration. available at https://is.gd/ezzd0h (accessed march 2017) zimmerman, m. e. et al, eds (1993). environmental philosophy: from animal rights to radical ecology new jersey, prentice-hall 216 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 46 a critique of the divine command theory of ethics from the teachings of the abrahamic religion zaria ibrahim abubakar abstract divine command theory is a theory of ethics that grounds the nature of ethical demands in the fact that they represent the command of god. it posits that god’s command is the ultimate source of moral obligation or that god’s will is the basis of moral laws. this position was held by the medieval theologians and philosophers like anselm, abelard, duns scotus and william of ockham. endorsed by locke and berkeley, and in the modern age it has been especially elaborated by kierkegaard and barth, it was criticized by aquinas, who emphasized god’s intellect rather than his will. the divine command theory of ethics, however, faces a philosophical difficulty. interestingly, is that in spite of some disagreeing debates within, the divine command theory is supported in all the abrahamic religions (judaism, christianity and islam). this article, therefore, aims to critique the arguments of some scholars for and against the theory. a hermeneutic framework is employed. the significance of all critique is that looking at morality within the religious tradition, solutions are provided to the moral problems within human conflicting societies. keywords: divine command, ethics, morality, religion, ontic. 1. introduction divine command theory is a theory of ethics that grounds the nature of ethical demands in the fact that they represent the command of god (blackburn, 2008:103). also called theological voluntarism, divine command is a position which claims that god’s command is the ultimate source of moral obligation or that god’s will is the basis of moral laws. an action is said to be good because it conforms to divine commands. an action is said to be bad or evil because it is performed even though the agent knows that such an act breaches god’s commands. this position was held by the medieval theologians and philosophers like anselm, abelard, duns scotus, and william of ockham. it was endorsed by locke and berkeley, and in the modern age it has been especially elaborated by kierkegaard and barth. it was criticized by aquinas, who emphasized god’s intellect rather than his will (bunnin and yu, 2004). however, the social problem confronting the account is that in the period of declining religious belief, people fail to attach importance to such moral concern. more problematic is that the classical philosophical problem associated with such an account is the euthyphro dilemma: “does god command that a thing is good because it is good, or is a thing good because god commands it?” (plato, 1961:169-185). if it is the former, god is not the authority and we should be able abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 47 to determine our morality without reference to god; if it is the latter, we have a tautology: a thing is what god commands because it is what god commands. in neither case do we seem to have explained the nature of goodness. this theory has difficulty in explaining how god’s command can have moral force. if a moral law is justified in terms of god’s will, it is not clear how we can determine that god’s will is good. according to this concept of tautology, therefore, if we have other grounds for finding out what is morally good, we might determine that god’s will is good, but we do not need his commands to know our moral obligations. but graber (1975) argues that divine command theory of ethics has more going for it than has been generally acknowledged. he identifies the factor responsible for obscuring the merits of a divine command theory as the heavy-handedness with which philosophers have been led to deal with it as a result of trying to handle too much at once. he shows that it is a mistake to expect any “inherent moral reason” for god’s commands. the demand for independent validation of god’s commands is based either on an assumption which can be shown to be question-begging, given the structure of systems of justification, or on a practical fear which, however much it is warranted with regard to human authorities, cannot be sustained in the case of divine authority, given god’s benevolence and faithfulness. hence, a divine command theory of ethics can be formulated in a way that is consistent and plausible. in whichever way we conceive it, we can always ask what the basis of morality itself is. there are two quite different explanations that are commonly offered. the first is that the basis of morality is social agreement, and the other, that morality is ultimately rooted in religion. our concern, therefore, is to critique the divine command theory of morality devised form the perspectives of the abrahamic religions (judaism, christianity and islam). 2. the critique 2.1 jewish scholars the divine command theory of ethics, faces a philosophical difficulty. the difficulty is found in the famous dilemma posed in plato’s euthyphro: does god freely determine morality, or is morality independent of god? attempts to trace the origins of divine command theory in the history of philosophy often begin with the scholastic philosophers john duns scotus and william of ockham (idziak, 1979). ockham’s moral theory, as noted by marilyn adams, is often taken as ‘the paradigm of “divine command morality”’ (1986:1-35). according to idzik, in a passage in on the four books of the sentences, ockham writes: ...the hatred of god, theft, adultery, and actions similar to these according to the common law . . . can even be performed meritoriously by an earthly pilgrim if they aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 48 should come under a divine precept, just as now the opposite of these in fact fall under a divine command. and, with a divine command in effect for the contrary of these, it is not possible that anyone meritoriously or rightly engage in such acts, because these are not performed meritoriously unless they come under a divine command. and if they should be done by an earthly pilgrim meritoriously, then they would not be called or named ‘theft’, ‘adultery’, ‘hatred’, etc... and therefore, as far as the total meaning or the definition of such names is concerned, they signify evil qualities…. (idziak, 1979:56–57) the overall import of this passage is that the moral status of an action depends solely upon god’s command. theft, adultery etc., are wrong at present only because ‘the opposite of these in fact fall[s] under a divine command’, that is because god forbids these actions. if these actions were commanded by god, they would be ‘performed meritoriously’, and, as the end of the quoted passage makes clear, they would not be called by names which are negatively morally charged. the forms of divine command theory ockham accepts in this passage is explicitly stated, that the actions that he is discussing ‘are not performed meritoriously unless they come under a divine command’, in other words god’s command is a necessary condition of the moral rightness of an act. but ockham also says that theft, adultery etc., ‘can even be performed meritoriously by a person if they should come under a divine precept’, that is, god’s command is a sufficient condition of the moral rightness of an act. this denotes that the moral status of an action is solely dependent upon the divine command. ockham thus does not mean in this passage merely that god’s command is a necessary and sufficient condition of the moral rightness of an action; that would yield only equivalence. but ockham plainly intends, as well, that there is an asymmetrical relationship of dependence of the moral rightness of an action on god’s command. and the dependence that he argues for in this passage is clearly ontic as opposed to epistemic or semantic. in another passage, ockham writes: by the very fact that god wills something, it is right for it to be done . . . hence if god were to cause hatred of himself in anyone’s will, that is, if he were to be the total cause of the act (he is, as it is, its partial cause), neither would that man sin abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 49 nor would god; for god is not under any obligation, while man is not (in the case) obliged, because the act would not be in his own power. (urban, 1973:312) the beginning of this passage, ‘...by the very fact that god wills something, it is right for it to be done’, asserts sufficient condition. in the remainder of the passage, ockham claims that there are no moral constraints on god’s actions. thus, this extract also supports morality depends upon god, and he absolutely cannot be questioned, because he is not bounded by any moral obligation. divine freedom from moral constraints is also asserted in ockham’s remark that ‘... obligation does not fall on god, since he is not under any obligation to do anything’. however, it should be noted that contrasting interpretations of ockham’s stance are not uncommon. thus even copleston (1953), who seems to agree that, ultimately, ockham supports divine command theory, believes that ‘we are faced with what amounts to two moral theories in ockham’s philosophy’ because of ockham’s frequent employment of the scholastic concept of ‘right reason’ which he sometimes portrays as the norm of morality (coplestone, 1953:107). oakley states that ockham is “simply inconsistent” (1961:70). david clark (1971:72-87) and others have all argued that ockham’s position is significantly more complex than a straightforward espousal of ontic divine command theory. what is interesting, however, is that in spite of some disagreeing debates within, the divine command theory is supported in all the abrahamic religions. some jewish scholars, for examples, immanuel jakobovits, isadore twersky and marvin fox argue that jewish tradition supports divine command theory, the notion that morality depends upon god’s command. while others like aharon lichtenstein, shubert spero, louis jacobs and avi sagi object on the ground that tradition denies this view. but harris, m.j. (2003) argues that the picture that emerges from jewish texts is significantly more complex and nuanced than most jewish philosophical literature is prepared to concede on this issue. he shows that the contemporary philosophical literature tends to recast socrates’s query, which is ‘the euthyphro dilemma’, in monotheistic and more modern terminology. the structures of the dilemma are refashioned in the following way: is it the case that; (1) an act is right because god commanded (or wanted or willed or approved) it, or alternatively, is it the case that (2) god commanded (or wanted or willed or approved) this act because it is right? (sagi and statman, 1995:11) aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 50 according to the first structure (1), god, or more precisely his command or will, etc., determines morality; morality depends upon god. on the second structure (2), by contrast, morality is independent of god; he commands or wills certain things because of moral considerations that are not contingent upon him. however, an intriguing response to the issue of divine interaction with morality in jewish tradition is offered by yeshayahu leibowitz. according to harris (2003), leibowitz propounds a highly austere view of jewish religious life in the following statement: the religious jew is he who has accepted upon himself the yoke of torah and the commandments . . . if we are talking about the religion of israel, we cannot avoid seeing the fact that the original, historical hebrew concept of religiosity is the acceptance of the yoke of torah and the commandments. (harris, 2003:37) for leibowitz, judaism, at least at the level of the individual religious life of the jew who takes his or her faith seriously, is essentially co-extensive with the observance of torah and the commandments of judaism. leibowitz admits that, on a more abstract plane, torah study and observance of the practical commandments do not exhaust the entire content of judaism. but so far as the individual’s jewish life is concerned, he remains adamant that observance of torah and the commandments is the fundamental relevant characteristic. a corollary of this picture of what constitutes jewish religious life is a claim which is highly germane to the euthyphro’s problem, and which leibowitz (in harris, 2003) repeatedly emphasizes. it is that human needs, interests and values have no legitimate place whatsoever in judaism, as characterized in the following statement; “judaism is not a program for the solution of the problems of humanity but [a program for] the service of god.” (harris, 2003:37). against this background, leibowitz’s direct pronouncements about the relationship between judaism and ethics come as no surprise, when he writes that: judaism has not been embodied in ethics, and there is no meaning to the expression ‘the ethics of judaism’ . . . ethics cannot be jewish or non-jewish, religious or nonreligious -ethics is ethics . . . ethics is an atheistic category, which cannot be reconciled with religious consciousness or religious feeling . . . scripture does not recognise the good and the upright, rather abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 51 ‘the good and the upright in the eyes of the lord’. (harris, 2003:38) this way of de-ethicising scripture is a technique which leibowitz is fond of. in further attempt to reconcile his insistence that the torah contains no moral directives with the scriptural words held by rabbi akiva who attempts to constitute a great principle of torah, leibowitz points out that the relevant text, ‘you shall love your neighbour as yourself’ is followed immediately by the words ‘i am the lord’ (harris, 2003:38). this addition, argues leibowitz, radically transforms the verse ‘from a humanistic-moral principle into a religious commandment’ (harris, 2003:37). leibowitz sees ethics as ‘an atheistic category’. combining this contention with leibowitz’s treatment of leviticus 19:18, we are again unsurprised by a statement which would otherwise have seemed unwarranted; regarding ‘and you shall love your neighbour as yourself’ . . . as an expression of ‘the morality of judaism’ is merely a heretical falsification of he torah (harris, 2003:37). leibowitz knows that there exists a category of ethics within the matrix of human life. what he is implacably opposed to is the use of judaism as a means towards achieving these human ethical goals. he is also passionately committed to a related but even more radical notion: the idea that judaism even contains any human ethics is anathema to him. judaism and ethics are utterly discrete categories, separate realms, and there cannot be any such thing as a ‘morality of judaism’. what this argument necessitates is that we cannot base human morality on religion. but this study aims to show that societies have done that and have achieved some level of utility in the values and virtues derived from such religious morality. in contrast to leibowitz, immanuel jakobovits is an ardent advocate of jewish divine command ethics. he writes: every monotheistic religion embodies . . . a definition of moral values... in the jewish view, the human conscience is meant to enforce laws, not to make them. right and wrong, good and evil . . . defy definition by relation to human intuition . . . these values, judaism teaches, derive their validity from the divine revelation at mount sinai. (jakobovits, 1979:119) what is moral and what is not says jakobovits, is, on the jewish view, revealed to us by god. there is no place for the invention by human beings of their own moral laws. on the contrary: the task of humanity is simply to submit to the precepts of divinely revealed morality. jakobovits does not consider the possibility of a nonman-made, objective morality that nevertheless does not depend upon god. he aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 52 presents only two options, a morality contingent upon god and a subjective human morality, and claims that jewish tradition unequivocally endorses the former. jakobovits’s remarks in the passage cited are brief, and appear in the context of a discussion whose primary focus is a topic other than the relationship between divine commands and morality. it is thus difficult precisely to determine his position, but it is at least clear that he takes morality to be dependent on god’s explicit torah commands, and it would appear that he construes this dependence as ontic in nature. in another work, jakobovits, in a statement reminiscent of one of leibowitz’s observations writes; “...the duty to ‘love thy neighbour as thyself’ is imperative only because ‘i am the lord’ that is, ‘because i have commanded it” (1967:292) this statement is a definite expression of support for an ontic command form of divine command theory. in fact, the concise nature of jakobovits’s articulations of support for the idea that divine command theory is the view of jewish tradition is worth remarking upon, particularly when his statements are contrasted with leibowitz’s remarks. marvin fox, another advocate of jewish divine command ethics, makes several statements in support of the claim that jewish tradition endorses various versions of divine command theory. in one of his celebrated articles he writes; “it is through god’s revelation, mediated by the prophets that men are taught to know what is right and wrong” (1972:126). the implication here, certainly in context, is that god’s revelation is the only way that human beings achieve moral knowledge. fox thus supports that we would have no moral knowledge without god’s revealed torah commands. the implication becomes explicit in fox’s next paragraph: in ancient hebrew thought there is only one source of the knowledge of good and evil the commandments of god as they are revealed to man. (harris, 2003:38) in another essay, fox expresses unequivocal support for the idea that the hebrew bible supports both epistemic and ontic forms of divine command theory: the bible knows only god as the source of all notions of right and wrong. there is no definition of the good except his teaching and his will . . . within the biblical framework, he alone teaches us what is virtuous; there is no standard other than that which he has given us . . . even in the moments of their greatest bitterness and despair, the biblical prophets did not question that god alone is the source of abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 53 our knowledge of right and wrong . . . without the divine moral standard, there is no standard at all. (1990:202-203) fox, however, like most other contemporary jewish writers who discuss the divine command theory, does not distinguish between different forms (e.g. ontic, epistemic, and semantic) of these theses. it is possible, therefore, that in this passage fox is merely reiterating support for some version of ontic divine command theory. he might just mean to say that what god commands is ipso facto moral, and its morality is to be explained in terms of its being a divine command. and when he asserts that considering a law as both a divine commandment and immoral is a contradiction in terms, what he perhaps intends is the corollary of ontic divine command theory that, as we shall see below, is emphasized by luther for the christian perspective of the divine command theory: if god’s command (ontically) determines morality, then logically there can be no conflict between divine commands and morality. christian scholars the christian perspective of the divine command theory is reflected in certain passages in the reformation writings of luther and calvin. with their endorsement of divine command theory, these figures (among others) continued, after ockham, a tradition of adherence to divine command theory in christian thought. in reply to the question of why god permitted the fall of adam and why he created all humanity god is he for whose will no cause or ground may be laid down as its rule or standard; for nothing is on a level with it or above it, but it is itself the rule for all things. if any rule or standard, or cause or ground, existed for it, it could no longer be the will of god. what god wills is not right because he ought, or was bound, so to will; on the contrary, what takes place must be right, because he so wills it. causes and grounds are laid down for the will of the creature, but not for the will of the creator – unless you set another creator over him! (idziak, 1979:95) aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 54 luther’s language in the third sentence of this citation (‘what god wills’, etc.) echoes that of the euthyphro dilemma as originally formulated by plato but provides (unlike plato in euthyphro) a response that favours divine command theory. discussing the question of whether there is injustice on god’s part, luther states: for the fact is that there neither is nor can be any other reason for his righteousness than his will . . . furthermore, since his will is the highest good, why are we not glad and willing and eager to see it be done, since it cannot possibly be evil? if the only reason for god’s righteousness is his will, then god’s will is both a necessary and a sufficient condition of morality. (harris, 2003:97) luther also conveys the ‘asymmetry’ of divine command theory by making god’s will explanatorily prior to his righteousness. luther then makes explicit a very important corollary of divine command theory, which we have encountered above, though in a jewish context: ...if god’s will (or command) determines morality, it follows logically that there can be no conflict between his will (or command) and morality‘it cannot possibly be evil’. (sagi and statman, 1995:117) the context of calvin’s passages is a discussion of the doctrine of predestination and it also clearly supports divine command theory thus; for if his [god’s] will has any cause, there must be something antecedent to it, and to which it is annexed; this it were impious to imagine. the will of god is the supreme rule of righteousness, so that everything which he wills must be held to be righteous by the mere fact of his willing it. therefore, when it is asked why the lord did so, we must answer, because he pleased. but if you proceed farther to ask why he pleased, you ask for something greater and more sublime than the will of god, and nothing such can be found. abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 55 ... the will of god is not only free from all vice, but is the supreme standard of perfection, the law of all laws. but we deny that he is bound to give an account of his procedure; and we moreover deny that we are fit of our own ability to give judgment in such a case. (idziak, 1979:102) divine command theory is supported in these passages, certainly, at any rate, in the first and the third; but there are two further points of interest that make them particularly worth critiquing. first, proponents of divine command theory sometimes stress human obedience rather than human comprehension. the first passage, and even more so, the third, demonstrate the consanguinity that exists, for some advocates of divine command theory, between divine command theory and an emphasis on human obedience as opposed to human understanding. second, the third passage in particular, makes plain calvin’s disapproval of human challenges to divine justice. we can understand the phrase ‘when justice clearly appears’ to be a reference simply to the divine will that calvin says is the supreme standard of justice, not a reference to instances where what god does seems just to us. calvin’s disapproval of human moral challenges to god is echoed in an article by james rachels (1981), who takes such disapproval to be the appropriate religious stance. however, jewish tradition, in genesis chapter 18, has tended not to find such challenges problematic. other philosophers who advocate divine command theory in the history of philosophy include, among others, descartes, locke and berkeley. another supporter of the theory, though seldom mentioned as such in the literature, is john austin, who writes: “the divine law is the measure or test of . . . morality . . . law and morality, in so far as they are what they ought to be, conform . . . to the law of god” (austin, 1998:6). austin holds that there are two kinds of divine commands: explicit (which he terms ‘revealed’ or ‘express’), and ‘tacit’. together, these types of commands give us (among other things) the content of morality. the way in which we find out what the ‘tacit’ commands are, according to austin, is ‘the principle of utility’: whatever action (or, more precisely, class of actions, because austin is a rulerather than an act-utilitarian) brings about the greatest happiness of the greatest number is tacitly commanded. the class of actions that conforms to the principle of utility conforms also to god’s command. in austin’s words: the divine commands [are] the ultimate measure or test . . . the principle of utility, or the general happiness or good, [is] the proximate measure to which our conduct should conform, or the proximate test by aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 56 which our conduct should be tried. (austin, 1998:104) the above shows that austin takes divine commands or divine law as explanatorily prior to morality. he says further: “it [utility] is not in itself the source or spring of our highest or paramount obligations, but it guides us to the source whence these obligations flow” (austin, 1998:104). this passage clearly expresses divine commands, showing them as the source of our moral obligations. austin’s support, as articulated in the above appears to be for ontic divine command theory and plus some kind of explanatory priority of divine commands over morality. ludwig wittgenstein also endorses divine command theory, characterising as ‘shallow and rationalistic’ the notion that god commands x because x is good (1965: 3–12). divine command theory has also been advanced in various forms by, for example, robert adams, philip quinn, stephen clark, robert burch, edward wierenga and paul rooney. all these support the thesis that divine command theory can be employed to inspire morality of individuals in particular, groups and societies in general. 2.2 islamic scholars about the literature on islamic divine command, al-attar argues that the vast majority of the books which deal with “islamic ethics” or “muslim ethics” do not cover philosophical ethical problems (2010:xix). donaldson’s studies in muslim ethics (1953), as well as majid fakhry’s ethical theories in islam (1991), both provide the reader with a general knowledge of what is usually referred to as islamic ethics. yet, neither of them deals in depth with the philosophical ethical problems that are related to any society’s socio-political interests. however, this is not true as this and similar works influenced by it represent only one trend of islamic ethical thought, those intensely influenced by greek philosophy. such writers as miskawayh, although outstanding in general philosophy, should not be regarded as representatives of the distinctive aspects of islamic ethical thought. however, regardless of the misconceptions and errors that appeared in donaldson’s book, it was the first to be written on islamic ethics by a western scholar. majid fakhry surveyed major aspects of different ethical trends in islam. george hourani’s islamic rationalism: the ethics of ‛abd al-jabbar (1971) is a pioneering work in the study of mu‛tazilite ethical thought. hourani rightly points out that the writings usually described as ethics by philosophers such as miskawayh and tusi are mainly concerned with the classification and description of vices and virtues in the manner of aristotle’s treatment in the nicomachean ethics. he also noticed that theories of values and ethics could be reconstructed from the works of the leading philosophers, but that their bases were regularly neo-platonism, incorporating aristotelian elements (1971:2). such books, abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 57 according to hourani, “offer little of general philosophical interest that is new” (1971:21). therefore, he considers the mu’tazila to be the first moralists of islam. he reconstructed a “deontological” moral theory from the works of ‛abd aljabbār, and provided the reader with valuable insights into mu’tazilite ethics. but his conclusion about the mu’tazila is erroneous, because as we shall discuss in the next chapter, many scholars, like umaruddin (2003), are of the view that muslim morality is as old as islam. the first indigenous source in islam is the qur’an, a scripture believed to be revealed by god to the prophet of islam. ethics in islam, therefore, takes its origin from the qur’an and is wholly based on it. the qur’an lays down the foundation of religious system on purely ethical principles that there is not much to distinguish between islam and islamic ethics. umaruddin (2003:64) argues that the moral, civil, canonical and criminal laws of islam are not rigidly separated from one another and cannot be identified as isolated systems. it was the muslims’ particular characteristic that “they took their stand on qur’an and founded and developed their sciences on original and independent lines” (margoliouth, 1950:55). according to umaruddin, the qur’an, through divine command, inspired in the muslims the best and the noblest that is conceivable in life. he refers to some passages of the qur’an which he chooses at random thus: shall the reward of good be aught but good ch 4 vs 60. and be good to the parents and to the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the neighbour, and the companions in a journey and the wayfarer and the slave-maids in your possession ch 4 vs 36. and they who, when they spend, are neither extravagant nor parsimonious, and (keep) between the just means ch 30 vs 67. and who control their desires... but whoever indulge in their desire beyond this are transgressors ch 70 vs 31. and enjoin the right and forbid the wrong, and be patient under whatever shall betide thee: for this is a burden duty ch 31 vs 17. and let not ill-will towards any induce you not to act uprightly. act uprightly ch 5 vs 82. (umaruddin, 2003:65-66) aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 58 the whole of the qur’an is full of these kind of divine commands relating to kindness, forgiveness, piety, equity, just dealings, compassion, restrain of lust, nobility, modesty, and so on. in his book, ihya’, al-ghazzali is quoted to have said “the prophet himself says, “i have been sent to perfect morals.” (umaruddin, 2003:66). hashi (2011:124) also writes that “...in the qur’an, belief in allah, humility, better communications and continuation of good deeds are the foundations of good morals.”. he quotes the qur’anic statements about the best person being the person who upholds these moral foundations and invites others to practice these values. who can be better in religion than one who submits his whole self to allah, does good, and follows the way of abraham the true in faith? for allah did take abraham for a friendch 4: vs 125. who is better in speech than one who calls (men) to allah, works righteousness, and says, i am of those who bow in islam?ch 41: vs 33. (hashi (2011:124) in islam, therefore, while the qur’an lays the foundation of ethical concepts and standards, the sunnah [way of life] of the prophet contains the actual practices of such concepts. and the qur’an exhorts the muslims to follow the guidance of the prophet, thus, macdonald writes that “it is the desire of every pious muslim to model his life in every possible particular upon that of the prophet.” (1960:103). margoliouth also writes that “every muslim endeavours to reach the unapproachable perfection of the prophet’s character.” (1950:239). he adds that “...the immediate followers of the prophet who followed in his footsteps are also regarded as patterns of good conduct. in contrast to hourani, therefore these immediate followers who are known as the companions of the prophet were the first moralists after him. they possessed all the good qualities, e.g. knowledge, understanding, piety, patience, gratitude, etc.” (margoliouth, 1950:239). despite the fact that the fundamental principles of ethics were present in the qur’an, ethics existed in the form of aphoristic wisdom. it was not studied as a philosophical science until the influence of the greek thought asserted itself on the muslim mind (umaruddin, 2003:68). and when the muslims took to studying philosophy they mainly concentrated on metaphysics, logic and physical sciences. like the greeks, at that early stage they considered ethics as part of politics. it was ibn miskawayh who made an attempt to write a systematic treatise on ethics (sharif, 1966:828). 3. conclusion abubakar a critique of the divine command theory of … 59 this critique articulates the divine command theory of ethics, showing the theory as the source of moral obligations. in addition to the arguments presented by the abrahamic religions, the discussion shows that austin’s support appears to be for ontic divine command theory adding some kind of explanatory priority of divine commands over philosophical morality. ludwig wittgenstein also endorses divine command theory, characterizing as ‘shallow and rationalistic’ the notion that god commands x because x is good. divine command theory has also been advanced in various forms by, for example, robert adams, philip quinn, stephen clark, robert burch, edward wierenga and paul rooney. all these support the argument that divine command theory can be employed to inspire morality of individuals in particular, and groups and societies in general. references austin, j. (1998). the province of jurisprudence determined and the uses of the study of jurisprudence. hackett, indianapolis. clark, d. w. (1971). ‘voluntarism and rationalism in the ethics of ockham’. franciscan studies 31, 72–87. fakhry, m. (1975). justice in islamic philosophical ethics: miskawayh's mediating contribution. the journal of religious ethics, 3 (2), 243-254, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40014897. graber, g.c. (1975). in defense of a divine command theory of ethics. journal of then american academy of religion, 43, (1), 62-69 published by: oxford university press stable url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1460735 harris, m.j. (2003). divine command ethics: jewish and christian perspectives, routledge, new york. idziak, j. m. (ed.) (1979). divine command morality: historical and contemporary readings. the edwin mellen press, new york. jakobovits, i. (1967). jewish medical ethics: a comparative and historical study of the jewish religious attitude to medicine and its practice, bloch, new york. jakobovits, i. (1979). jewish views on abortion. in rosner, f and david j.b. (eds.), jewish bioethics. new york: sanhedrin press, 118–133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40014897 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 60 oakley, f. (1961). ‘medieval theories of natural law: william of ockham and the significance of the voluntarist tradition’. natural law forum 6, 65– 83. plato, (1961). the collected dialogues of plato including the letters. hamilton, e and cairns, h. (eds.), princeton university press, new jersey. plato, (1998 2013). euthyphro, translated by benjamin jowett, oxford university press. rachels, j. (1981:325-337). god and human attitudes. in divine commands and morality, ed. paul helm, oxford university press, england. sagi and statman (1995).religion and morality. rodopi, amsterdam-atlanta. wittgenstein, l. (1953/1958). philosophical investigations [philosophische untersuchungen]. 2nd ed. translated by g.e.m. anscombe and edited by g.e.m. anscombe and r. rhees. oxford: blackwell. umaruddin, m. (2003). the ethical philosophy of al-ghazzali, a.s noordeen publishers, kuala lumpur, malaysia. urban, (1973). william of ockham’s theological ethics. franciscan studies 33, 310-350. journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 129 abstract a critical evaluation of modern business trends in nigeria portrays some spate of paradoxes and ethical challenges. both emerging and new businesses, including government public enterprises that are owned by the state, are run without any solid ethical principles. the question of the moral value and benefits without any potential harm to humans and the environment in the entrepreneurial sphere is almost not discussed or given proper attention. the absence of a moral principle guiding a business poses great challenges in this contemporary era, especially now that we are faced with difficult social and environmental issues such as poverty, unemployment, food scarcity, and climate change. the research aims to reveal how critical sound ethical principles are needed to serve as the foundation to correct the obvious consequences of unethical practices in the business sector in nigeria. a business manager and employees need to constantly make responsible decisions and abide by sound ethical principles that will not only lead to business growth or profit maximization but also impact society positively. hence, the application of moral principles to business raises critical questions; how should a business conduct itself? how do businesses resolve ethical dilemmas? are the activities of the business detrimental to sustainable living? this research employs the philosophical method of analysis to critically assess the application of ethical principles for sustainable business operation and proffers solutions to unethical practices in business. keywords: moral principles, business ethics, and entrepreneurship introduction ethics are moral rules that guide how an individual or a community behaves or conducts itself. the emphasis is on correct and incorrect acts, as well as the decision-making process involved in assessing the final consequences of such activities. ethical principles are distinct from values in that they are seen as more permanent, universal, and unchangeable norms, while values are subjective, even personal, and prone to change through time. meanwhile, moral principles of ethics serve as a foundation for ethical ideas and judgments (schumann, 2001). several of the concepts discussed here trace back to socrates, plato and even ancient religious communities. these ideas may and do coexist; they are used differently in various contexts. intentionallyusing one or more of these principles and ethical methods might assist one in examining moral choices and alternatives before making a decision or resolving an ethical challenge. each individual has a unique set of personal ethics and values. every day in various areas of engagement, including in business, humans face ethical dilemma that necessitate sound ethical decision-making and an understanding of what it means for an act to be ethical issues and the bane of nigeria's economy: a philosophical reflection. anthony chikaeme onwuliri 130 ethically right or wrong. business ethics are critical because owners, managers, and workers must understand business challenges and make sound judgments and choices based on their principles while adhering to applicable regulations. ethical behaviour is a component of a business's societal obligation. how company owners and staff see the operation of the firm often dictates how they handle consumers (erondu et al., 2004). employees who believe their firm is "ethical" are more inclined to act ethically themselves. due to the widespread application of ethics in all aspects of human engagement and endeavour, ethical dilemma and unethical practices occur daily in human life (rossman & rallis, 2010), and it can be difficult to find a good solution or compromise that respects the viewpoints, values, and obligations of each person or institution involved. this is why the application of ethics in business is just as important as the entire process of business operation. but business ethics, despite the hype it has received over the years, remains a debatable topic within the nigerian business environment. a distressing but unavoidable fact of organizational life is that employees occasionally engage in unethical behaviour that harms their companies, co-workers, or the general public. unethical behaviour in the workplace can take many forms, ranging from deception, theft, sabotage, and corruption to the concealment or destruction of official documents. as a result, the economic costs of such unethical behaviour in the workplace are difficult to quantify; billions of naira are almost certainly lost annually. within the nigerian business space, there are numerous ethical challenges inherent in business operations, particularly in the contemporary era, when technological advancements, aggressive competition and capitalism, mineral exploration, and the use of social media channels have become the order of the day. these recent developments necessitate new approaches to business behaviour between businesses and consumers, as well as between businesses and society. while one may argue that the primal concept of 'do good and avoid evil' is still important in modern business operations, it is no longer adequate to handle certain ethical difficulties and unethical practices encountered in company operations. thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the ethical principles of morality in light of certain modern business ethical challenges and unethical practices and to determine how to resolve these business ethical dilemma and restore sanity to the system. the concept of business ethics companies now have more power and obligation to contribute to social ideals and sustainable development in the era of global capitalism. from an institutional and ethical standpoint, the outcome of businesses' social aspirations has been the creation of norms for a global civil society with its laws and standards. corporate contributions to the building of civil society standards aimed at reinforcing the social basis of commercial transactions include the development of codes of conduct and policies of moral management (utting, 2005). by definition, business ethics refers to the principles that govern what constitutes ethically acceptable and unacceptable behaviour in business. company ethics, according aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 131 to twin (2021), is the study of correct business rules and procedures surrounding potentially contentious problems such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery, discrimination, corporate social responsibility, and fiduciary obligations. desai (2012) described business ethics succinctly as the incorporation of ethical ideals into corporate behaviour. stanwick & stanwick (2013) define business ethics as the study of business circumstances, behaviours, and choices that include concerns of right and wrong. according to this definition, business ethics encompasses the whole range of relationships between businesses, people, society, and the state. in other words, corporate ethics is as intricate as a business. business ethics is the study of both the moral judgment of business and the standard by which business choices, behaviours, and instructions are judged to be morally correct or incorrect (kotler & keller, 2006). business ethics transcends legal concerns by demonstrating how ethical business actions build reciprocal trust in relationships. regardless of the legality of the conduct, each time company management or customers feel tricked or cheated, an ethical concern occurs. business ethics entails operating by what society and people generally see as acceptable ideals. interpersonal or business interactions, it is characterized by candour, respect, fairness, and equality. a code of conduct establishes principles for the whole company, whether it is in the field of doing business, managing funds, constructing security, training, research, medicine, or the law (mason, 2011). he highlights the need for moral behaviour to be congruent with honesty and confidence, trustworthiness, fairness and clarity, acceptable remuneration, dependability, integrity, impartiality, and accountability. in many respects, the same standards that people employ to behave themselves appropriately – both personally and professionally – also apply to corporations. ultimately, acting ethically entails identifying what is "right" and "wrong." around the globe, fundamental norms govern what constitutes unethical or illegal commercial conduct. for instance, dangerous working conditions are often seen as immoral since they endanger employees. a busy work floor with just one exit is an illustration of this. in the case of an emergency, such as fire, employees may get trapped or crushed as everyone rushes to the one exit. businesses cannot operate effectively in the modern day without incorporating suitable ethics into the way they conduct some important business activities. business ethics has evolved into a critical component of a sustainable enterprise. this conclusion is consistent with grace and cohen's (2005) assertion that "business ethics is not an optional component of business life or a philosophical or moralistic zeal; business ethics is how people conduct their business affairs, from the most heinous fraud to the highest levels of excellence." essentially, it must be remembered that business ethics is concerned with those aspects of business that are not specifically addressed by the law or are left unaddressed by the law. stanwick and stanwick (2013) puts it succinctly: "discussions about the ethics of certain corporate activities may ultimately result in legislation if an agreement is established, but for the majority of problems relevant to business ethics, the law usually does not give direction at the moment.” corporate ethics is concerned with those business challenges, acts, and choices that include moral dilemma. however, it deals with those behaviours that are morally right or onwuliri ethical issues and the bane of nigeria’s economy: a philosophical reflection 132 wrong, not to business actions that are professionally or financially correct or incorrect. for example, a firm that chooses to expand its budget for the year cannot be blamed on moral judgments; it is a component of the corporation's financial decision, and the repercussions cannot be deemed morally acceptable or wrong. however, when a firm chooses to invest in an ecologically friendly project to offset environmental damage, this choice might be considered ethically correct. while certain unethical business activities are self-evident or true for businesses worldwide, they, sadly, continue to exist. determining whether a business technique is ethical or not becomes more challenging when it exists in a grey region, like nigeria with poor regulatory controls, where the border between ethical and unethical behaviour may get blurred. four major ethical principles in business operations ethical principles do not give a simple path to ensuring that an ethically sound choice is made, nor do they provide direction on how to prioritize principles that seem to clash with one another. rather than that, they emphasize the factors that should be considered while making judgments. however, these principles are seen as the bedrock of ethical rules and aid in the clarification of concerns in a specific circumstance. while there are other ethical concepts relevant to the business world, this study will focus on four important moral-ethical principles, which include the following: 1. the principle of autonomy. 2. the principle of justice. 3. the principle of beneficence. 4. the principle of nonmaleficence. the principle of autonomy autonomy is derived from the latin term meaning "self-rule." this requires human beings (companies) to respect the autonomy of other individuals (customers or clients), that is, to respect the choices made by other individuals for their own lives. this is the obligation to accept and support people's self-determination in pursuit of what they feel is in their best interests. autonomy is a moral empowering concept that lays the responsibility for the consequences of action squarely on the shoulders of moral actors. a person operating based on autonomy cannot justifiably blame another for unfavourable outcomes. individuals seldom act totally free most times. their behaviours are often conditioned, and they may be missing knowledge that would drive them to act differently if it were known. others, on the other hand, may help moral agents maximize their liberty by aiding them in meditating on their intended acts and offering pertinent information that enables the agent to have a more refined perspective on the expected action. assisting customers and employees in becoming more self-sufficient with adequate information may be one of the most critical duties of the business professional and firm. and providing false information deliberately to mislead people is a breach of this principle. due to the huge diversity of goods and services accessible in today's marketplace, customers want substantial knowledge in order to make informed decisions. additionally, they need the chance to articulate the principles that guide their actions. workers, as consumers of labour possibilities, need knowledge about their jobs, all the more so in a aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 133 turbulent labour market often characterized by "employment-at-will" dynamics. this obligation extends to the maintenance of confidentiality and privacy, particularly in handling client data. privacy is not only about information; it also refers to the freedom from unneeded or unwelcome intrusion by others. securing customer data is an ethical need in a variety of areas, including healthcare and other sectors where consumer data is gathered to provide effective services. when personal information is exploited or is insufficiently safeguarded, it may result in identity theft, financial fraud, and other issues that cumulatively cost individuals, organizations, and governments millions of dollars each year. as a result, companies are required to safeguard client data at all times. the principle of justice this concept is applicable to a wide variety of ethical circumstances, whereas the other principles are often utilized in the context of justice. the idea is complex, and its succinct presentation needs clarification. they should get what they are due, what they deserve, or what they may rightfully claim by a fair distribution of benefits and obligations in which equals are treated similarly unless there is a morally significant difference that justifies treating individuals unequally. justice addresses the following concerns: ·fairness ·distribution of resources ·access to services ·rights to services ·fair opportunity the principle of beneficence to put it simply, this principle directs the operator to do what is right and good, as well as to avoid damage wherever feasible. in other words, it directs the agent to strive for the highest possible ratio of good to evil. it is comparable to the concept of autonomy in that a good act originates with an autonomous actor and to the principle of utility in that a good act helps the greatest number of individuals. four notions are often discussed in talks about beneficence. they are as follows: 1. one should not practice evil or do harm 2. one should prevent evil or harm 3. one should remove evil or harm 4. one should practise good treating equals as equals and unequals as unequals is central to the justice principle. in a democratic society, we begin with the premise of fundamental equality among all members of the population. equals are to be treated equally, according to the ethical imperative based on this concept. thus, if a right is recognized, such as the right to selfdetermination or advancement, each individual should be allowed to exercise that right. the right cannot be granted arbitrarily to some while denying it to others. individuals are not, however, equal in every way. they are sometimes uneven. they are unequal because they vary in some way that is morally significant. individuals above the age of sixteen, for example, may receive a driver's license; those under the age of sixteen may not. as a onwuliri ethical issues and the bane of nigeria’s economy: a philosophical reflection 134 result, they are treated unequally as a result of their true inequalities in this regard. there can be no constraints on the implementation of the notion of justice strictly speaking. however, certain adjustments may be necessary. one may transcend the concept of justice. compassion may motivate someone to offer services to another even if it is not required by law. a firm that is downsizing may take further measures to re-employ or retrain laid-off employees to offer them a competitive edge in the job market. an institution may have additional purpose concerns that extend beyond the basic standards of justice, such as the practice of going above and beyond minimum needs to safeguard the environment when it is threatened by a corporation's behaviour. the principle of nonmaleficence nonmaleficence is defined as "an ethical concept requiring one to refrain from inflicting purposeful damage" (loue & pike, 2007; stahl, 1997). it is the principle of avoiding harming others, sometimes summarized as "above all, do no harm." it is often regarded as the most crucial of all the principles since it specifically prohibits the agent from wilfully harming others or engaging in behaviours that may hurt others. additionally, others define this concept as causing the least amount of damage to the fewest possible individuals in a scenario when there is no other option. it is comparable to the principle of beneficence. the notion of nonmaleficence is founded on four pillars, which include the following: 1. an act is not intrinsically wrong 2. a good effect is intended 3. the good effect isn't a by-product of a bad effect 4. the good outweighs the bad the notion of nonmaleficence in business has been codified in a variety of businessrelated texts. sirgy& lee (2008) wrote a work on this that stands out. their approach was appropriately dubbed "well-being marketing," since it was founded on notions of obligation ethics, notably the duty of beneficence and non-maleficence. they demonstrated in their article how the idea of well-being influences marketing choices made by consumer products corporations. ethical issues and unethical business practices in nigeria unethical business practices,when viewed through the prism of the four major ethical principles discussed above, are directly opposite; there are practices that are deceitful, exploitative, and potentially hazardous to society. they are those activities that do not adhere to the accepted norm of company operation, which is to always do the right thing (drucker, 1973). nigerian culture is defined by a plethora of unethical commercial practices that have permeated the country's corporate climate (nwaizigbo & ogbunankwor, 2013). numerous cases exist in which firms operate within the law, yet their activities harm society and are often seen as immoral. for instance, there are several ways in which organizations engage in unethical behaviour, abusing their employees, customers, and even the general public. in certain circumstances, a person leading an operation in a corporation may be unethical in the pursuit of his or her profession, while in others, we are discussing corporate culture, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 135 in which the whole organization is corrupt from the top-down, with terrible consequences for society. a typical example is the now-defunctchinmark group run by marksman ijiomah, a microfinance platform that deceived thousands of investors with false information into putting in huge sums of money, and eventually absconding with their money. consider the following unethical business practices and ethical challenges that corporations face: unethical business practices bribery for contracts. bribery and corruption are embedded within many nigerian operations, including private and public businesses. numerous business entities compete for government contracts for which they are ineligible because they have alternative ways of obtaining the contract other than presenting a competitive offer. in many government institutions, authorities will accept a contract application but delay it until they are provided a bribe to transfer the file from one table to the next.certain unqualified firms get significant contracts as a result of their capacity to bribe senior government officials, only to quit the project midway. this explains why there are several abandoned projects strewn around the nation. this goes against the principle of justice and beneficence. deceptive marketing. when a business produces a marketing effort that distributes falsehoods, this is referred to as misleading marketing. they would assert that their goods or services do what they are incapable of, and the buyer would remain unaware of the reality until they purchased the service or product. the customers part with their hard-earned money with little guarantee of reimbursement, since nigerians seldom sue these unscrupulous firms for retribution. sometimes, in the end, the customer may suffer severe harm or damage from using the product or services. this practice violates the principle of autonomy, beneficence, and nonmaleficence. inadequate working conditions and safety standards. the majority of businesses in nigeria are guilty of this specific dishonest business activity. small and medium-sized businesses are the worst offenders. numerous organizations operate in substandard work conditions that do not adhere to safety regulations. some of these expatriate-owned businesses mistreat their employees, who are unwilling to report the abuse to civil rights groups due to their lack of union affiliation and fear of losing their employment. their industrial machinery has severed employees' hands, and others have died as a result of accidents at these workplaces, all of which occurred in the absence of meaningful punishments against these firms. this practice violates the principle of beneficence and nonmaleficence. employee abuse and low salary. this is a common occurrence in a large number of businesses around the country. the proprietors of these businesses abuse their employees and get away with it. this abuse continues unabated daily. they treat the employee as though the labour they provide has no value to the organization. these businesses act with impunity, owing employees the standard low wage, and deferring payment for as long as they choose. occasionally, they owe to pay for months yet require each employee to maintain an exceptional level of onwuliri ethical issues and the bane of nigeria’s economy: a philosophical reflection 136 output. this practice violates the principle of beneficence and nonmaleficence. producing low-quality goods. producing inferior goods or selling expired items is one of nigeria's most infamous unethical business practices. certain quack firms manufacture poor items and sell them to gullible customers. frequently, the items would have the seal of the government ministry, directorate, or agency that regulates them. examples abound in the manufacturing of water and pharmaceuticals. for instance, some producers produce sachet water (clean water) arbitrarily. they do so as a result of nafdac's failure to apprehend and punish these dishonest company operators to act as deterrence to others. this practice violates the principle of beneficence and nonmaleficence. ethical challenges issues with social media. social media use is one of the major ethical challenges confronting corporate operations in modern times. numerous ethical concerns occur when firms and workers use and utilize social media platforms, including the disclosure of sensitive information, conflicts, private information, and workplace discrimination. in other words, this raises certain ethical concerns, such as "is it ok to discipline workers for specific sorts of social media posts?" are you compelled to retain an employee who espouses objectionable ideas online? should a corporation act as a mediator when workers dispute on social media? if these difficulties are not remedied, they may have a detrimental effect on the company's image and trustworthiness. thus, how the firm manages these ethical dilemmas is critical to the company's image. to summarize, resolving ethical concerns in the business including social media may be challenging because the majority of instances are not always apparent. for example, using social media during business hours may be considered a waste of time and money. however, when corporations impose limits on employee usage of social media during work hours, this may be seen as an infringement of the workers' privacy rights. the idea of autonomy is at work here. thus, how can a corporation support individual liberty while still ensuring that workers adhere to the organization's mission? generally, a firm should solve this difficulty by specifically expressing it in the employment contract so that each employee is informed of the restrictions upon contract acceptance. on the other side, the firm should send frequent reminders on appropriate social media behaviour. nepotism. nepotism is one of the organizational practices that might result in workers being treated unfairly. the word "nepotism" originated with catholic bishops bequeathing riches, land, and the priesthood to their "nephews" typically, the nephews were their illicit children, and it functioned as a means for church officials to acquire land and keep authority within their families (bellow, 2003). wheatley (2016) defines nepotism as the practice of persons in positions of authority (such as your employer or manager) exhibiting favouritism toward friends or family members; often via the provision of employment or perks. according to her, nepotism traditionally implied favouritism toward family members, but it now encompasses a far larger range of behaviours. in the workplace, this may include favouring employees aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 because they are friends, family, or just like their personality; as a consequence, they are granted greater prospects. abun (2014) distinguishes between two types of nepotism: relative nepotism and friend nepotism. according to him, relative nepotism is a widespread practice in which relatives are hired, saved, prioritized, and promoted ahead of others, while friend nepotism is a managerial style that places a premium on friendship. he referred to it as the management's "inner circle of influence," and they are the management's top priority. he described link nepotism as the practice of favouring those who have a connection to the management, whether it is a political connection, a sports activity/hobby connection, or any other kind of relationship. he said that although it may seem insignificant, such connections often persuade management to provide preferential treatment. nepotism is a kind of favouritism in which a corporate leader prefers to hire a family member over an outside candidate. while it is undoubtedly a contentious issue in corporate ethics, employing family members is not intrinsically immoral. although nepotism is not a new occurrence in business and politics, this unethical conduct by a prominent individual of awarding employment and other favours to the family may harm the firm or mistreat workers. the fundamental difficulty with nepotism in business is that it runs counter to traditional employment practices of hiring and promoting the best competent applicant for a position. while a son, daughter, or nephew may be the most skilled employee, nepotism often results in relatives being hired over people with a higher level of education and experience. even if a relative is the most qualified candidate, choosing him may create an image of favouritism. however, when viewed objectively, nepotism is not always a terrible thing, particularly when the family member or close friend is suitable or qualified for the position. however, it gets troublesome when they are not qualified and were chosen over competent individuals. in nigeria, public office holders in top positions like nnpc, inec, pppa, cbn, nafdac,tetfund, etc., are often accused of reserving juicy positions for their children and relatives even though they do not meet the requirements. nepotism violates the ethical concept of justice since fairness is a necessary component of commercial operations. given the interconnected nature of business environments, the total effectiveness of a firm is contingent on the combined efforts of all employees. as a result, a company structure that rewards or provides advantages based on familial or friend relationships is destructive to the firm. nepotism may demotivate industrious and competent staff, affecting the organization's overall performance. environmental sustainability issues mazurkiewicz (2004) defined environmental sustainability as "the most efficient and effective use of natural resources in order to minimize environmental consequences and financial costs." it has been widely accepted that modern business has a considerable impact on the environment. businesses use an excessive number of natural resources and release toxic substances into the environment, resulting in environmental deterioration and biodiversity loss. as a result, companies must consider strategies to mitigate environmental damage. the firm must safeguard the environment and ensure that its operations do not have a detrimental impact on it. when such negative outcomes are 137 onwuliri ethical issues and the bane of nigeria’s economy: a philosophical reflection unavoidable, the firm should take steps to mitigate them. developing environmentally conscious corporate ethics is consistent with the beneficence principle, which states that one should avoid damage at all costs. given that the objective of any organization is to achieve financial outcomes and enhance value to assure profitability, severe environmental destruction is immoral. the repercussions of unethical business practices surprisingly, despite the crucial relevance of ethical standards for sustainable growth and development, ethics is not taken seriously in the nigerian corporate landscape. business and ethics are seen as an oxymoron by the ordinary nigerian business. according to a survey on business ethics in nigeria, 98 percent of nigerian businesspeople admitted to engaging in one or more unethical behaviours (asolo, 2000). another study suggests that nigerian firms are ranked worse in terms of ethical behaviour (asolo, 2008). quality monitoring and control agencies have been accused of collecting bribes from companies that produce substandard products that harm people's lives. consequently, this decay has caused many ugly outcomes. according to akinyemi (2002), one of the most serious social and economic problems confronting nigeria and indeed africa is the breakdown of morals, work ethics, discipline, social responsibility, and general civility among its citizens. nigeria has lost several billions of naira as a result of contractors colluding with officials of government ministries, departments, agencies, and commissions (mda's) to siphon funds into private pockets, resulting in substandard project execution or complete abandonment of projects after mobilization; in violation of the procurements act (ribadu,2003).the nigerian business environment is harmed not just by contractors' unethical behaviour, but also by the many operations of marketers in all sectors of the nigerian economy. this category comprises the manufacturing, banking, construction, telecommunications, automobile, transportation, and health care industries, as well as the oil and gas sector where marketers inflate the price of fuel which further raises the cost of goods and services. these industries have been defined by a plethora of unethical business activities that are misleading, exploitative, and harmful to human life, all of which have a detrimental effect on the company, consumer satisfaction, and, ultimately, the economy as a whole. a lack of ethical behaviour in business has resulted in the downfall and collapse of multimillion-naira corporate businesses and contracts (ameh &odusami, 2010). this also reflects poorly on nigeria's worldwide transparency score for ease of doing business. unethical business practices may wreak havoc on a company's image and even result in legal issues (jalil et al., 2010).several bank failures in the early 2000s in nigeria were caused by unethical behaviour on the part of workers, management, and other stakeholders. equally, enterprises such as niger steel, avop, oghe cashew industry, ikenga hotels, and the presidential hotel enugu have all collapsed as a result of unethical actions in private sector organizations in nigeria. for instance, some unscrupulous sellers in enugu's ogbette market defraud their consumers by measuring rice, beans, and other consumable food products using defective scales. concerning banks, there have been instances when some bank staff collaborated with certain directors to steal money entrusted to their care by clients. towards promoting ethical business practices in nigeria having critically assessed the current situation, one can conclude that applying these 138 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 ethical principles as outlined in this paper to business operations in nigeria can remedy the situation. but it has to follow a bottom-top approach. in a world beset by various risks – human, environmental, and social – business has a critical role to play in resolving these concerns. the world has evolved as a result of technological advancements and new ways of doing things, which has invariably resulted in the emergence of new ethical discourses in business relationships. thus, it becomes vital to understand and apply acceptable ethics while dealing with ethical concerns and preventing unethical corporate activities. the government, businesses, executives, and workers all have a role to play. business regulatory authorities are ineffective and inefficient in carrying out their supervisory responsibilities; this is due to their laxity and corrupt inclinations. this is consistent with the results of oyewobi et al. (2011), who concluded that nigeria's outbreak of unethical business practices is a consequence of a lack of oversight by key regulatory bodies and corrupt activities plaguing the country's economic sector. the government is responsible for enacting and enforcing rules against unethical business activities in corporations. employers and workers are guided by the regulations to adhere to generally recognized ethical standards. governments also monitor organizations to ensure they are not engaging in unethical behaviour. while governments must guarantee that individuals who break laws intended to prohibit unethical business conduct face consistent enforcement action, governments may also take proactive initiatives to promote ethical business behaviour before the occurrence of unethical activities. corporations should do background checks on prospective workers, foster a culture of transparency and open communication, and implement performance audits to help limit unethical behaviour. while ethical behaviour should be encouraged, unethical behaviour should be dealt with immediately and sternly in an unbiased way. there should be a formal written code of ethics for the company, and such formal standards should be examined, updated, and strictly enforced. corporations should designate an ombudsman to allow workers to confidentially express their concerns or denounce unethical behaviour. additionally, businesses should teach and reinforce ethical behaviour via refresher courses to ensure that employees can walk the talk and that executives can lead by example. businesses that uphold integrity, openness, and accountability may use their reputation and ethics to attract investors and stimulate economic growth. nigeria's economy can reclaim investors' faith and reclaim its tarnished brand if fundamental principles are adhered to. issoufou (2015) observed that contemporary corporations are mostly focused on profit maximization, even when ethical principles in business are disregarded. he underlined the need for firms to adhere to laws and regulations to have a stable and sustainable financial system. these ethics should be based on these fourfundamental ethical principles to provide answers to ethical challenges encountered throughout corporate operations. although several recent advancements and improvements in corporate management have happened, ethical concerns have become greater as nature changes, technology advances, human needs become more insatiable, and social crises like poverty and unemployment rise. 139 onwuliri ethical issues and the bane of nigeria’s economy: a philosophical reflection conclusion. we have shown in this reflective philosophical research that unethical business practices have infiltrated nigerian society, wreaking havoc on customers and the economy as a whole, necessitating urgent attention of the government and corporate executives. the study concludes that with effective oversight by business regulatory agencies, stricter enforcement of legal requirements for doing business in nigeria, and corporate adoption of an ethical culture, ethical business practices can be restored in the nigerian business environment, resulting in economic growth and development for the country. chryssides and kaler (1993) argued that incorporating moral considerations into commercial ventures benefits the organization, as it is widely believed that "good ethics is good business." businesses must recognize that an ethically sound enterprise is a lucrative one. applying ethics to company operations creates a favourable brand image in the eyes of customers or consumers, resulting in increased profit for the firm. nonetheless, business ethics should not be viewed as a tool for ensuring profitability; rather, business ethics should be viewed as a moral obligation to conduct business in the most favourable manner possible at any given time. references academia.https://www.academia.edu/30686719/favoritism_in_the_ workplace_and_its_effect_on_the_organization ameh, j. o., &odusami, k. t. 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(2003). economic crime and corruption in nigeria: the causes, effects, and efforts aimed at combating these vices in nigeria. monaco world summit 5th international summit on transnational crime monte carlo 23rd and 24th october, 2. 141 onwuliri ethical issues and the bane of nigeria’s economy: a philosophical reflection page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 116 abstract the study seeks to examine death (isu) in ebira tao thought system. the ebira people resides in the middle belt of nigeria. as people they strongly belief that the tripod metaphysical issues of birth, death and hereafter form the most fundamental thoughtprovoking phenomena which impact on humankind existential reality. death generally generates expectations, anxiety, fear, sympathy, pain, sorrow and even joy in the existential life of the people subsumed into the notion of suspended animation. logically, the ratiocinative spirit behind this line of thought is more of idealistic realism due to the pragmatic occurrence of death in man's life experience.in the light of the above the study seeks to expose and appraise human existence in the light of birth, death and life-afterdeath as transitional odyssey from the physical realm of the mundane world into the spiritual enclave of reality. and as well posits that these tripods form the eternal process of suspended animation since man lives, die and live in the two worlds of the physical and the spiritual. thus, the paper discovers that a detailed explication of these concepts leads to accepting death and life-after-death as fundamentally shrouded in a process of suspended reality of an individual who occupies two worlds (physical/visible realm and spiritual/invisible realm) at two different times and places.the paper conclude by asserting that human life is existential in an experiential world, and that the issue of death and life-after-death of the same person is the subsuming the whole process of existence into one of suspended animation programme of the divine programmer . keywords: animation, death, pragmatic, ratiocinative, existential introduction birth, death and hereafter or life-after-death forms the most fundamental thoughtprovoking phenomena which impact on humankind in the physical and spiritual life existence. this tripod (birth, death and hereafter) remains the essence as well as mystery of divine creation process network and devoid of human manipulation. death generates expectation, anxiety, fear, sympathy, pain, sorrow and even joy in the existential life of the people which can be subsumed into the notion of suspended animation programme. logically, the ratiocinative spirit behind this line of thought is more of idealistic realism due to the pragmatic occurrence of death in man's life experience. this study seeks to expose and appraise human existence in the light of birth, death and life-after-death as transitional odyssey from the physical realm of the mundane world into the spiritual enclave of reality. and as well posits that these tripods form the death(isu): suspended animation programme in ebira tao thought salaudin usman ph.d and benedict michael, ph.d 117 eternal process of suspended animation since man lives, die and live in the two worlds of the physical and the spiritual. thus, a detailed explication of this work leads to accepting death and life-after-death as fundamentally shrouded in a process of suspended reality of an individual who occupies two worlds (physical/visible realm and spiritual/invisible realm) at two different times and places (mbiti 149). the paper apart from the introduction is divided into five parts, the first examine the notion of human existence, section two looks at the universal conception of death, while the third section looks at african notion of death, section four looks at death as transitional process in african (ebira tao) thought, this will be followed by the fifth section which examines lifeafter-death as basis for suspended animation process in african metaphysics, this will be followed by conclusion. human existence the creation of man is awesomely mysterious as no one asked the ultimate creator to fashion out this wonderful enigma called man in the first place. it is only after the initial creation process that man decides to besiege the creator through petitionary prayers or “protest” when his aspiration in regard to fertility and procreation suffer retardation. thus man in his existential life often behaves as if he is the master of his life only to be caught shut by death. the human existential experience is characterized with challenges of facticity as well as possibilities of life. surmounting these existential stumbling blocks leaves man in perplexities, fear, sorrow and sympathy. awesomely, man stumbles and wobbles his way through the odds from birth to old age, if he is “lucky” or has his life terminated in his prime without attaining the status of an elder of the family, clan, tribe, or community. fundamentally, the african frowns at this unpleasant scenario which is seen as impinging or disrupting the ontological harmony of the society. be this as it may, man is at a loss as to the early exit from the physical world. however, the ultimate planner informs man in one revered religious books that “and the life of the world is only amusement and play” (quran 29:64). confounding questions resonate more often within the reflective minds: are human beings really the master of their lives? what are the implications of life and death? or does human being really have a choice whether to perpetually live on earth or to eagerly long for death? these are potent questions that confront humankind in the context, as lenrie peters in his poem “the fence” summates: here where the dim past and future mingles, there nebulous hopes and aspirations… there where truth and untruth struggle in endless and bloody combat… there where time moves forwards and backwards with not one moment's pause for sighting… there where the body ages relentlessly and only the feeble mind can wander back… open-souled amazement. there where all opposite arrive to play the inner senses (113) the notion of death it usually takes a philosophical impulse and inspiration to write on the issues of death and life-after-death as it provokes as well as it illuminates the mind and heart of man in order to bring out the clear vision of the varied complexities therein. man is the centre of the universe as well as the measures of all things therein in the universe. invariably, all aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 discussions on existence become meaningful if the subject matter revolves round human existence. the philosophical and moral perception of death often portrays it as dreadful. human beings talk less about death but consciousness reminds them that the unity of purpose that exist between mind and body sooner or later shall come to an abrupt end. ogungbemi posits that discussion on the concept of death and the living-dead often provoke sympathy and fear. thus, ogungbemi, contends “it is not palatable subject. it is a common belief that being born into this world is an entrance and you cannot have an entrance without an exit. therefore, death necessarily the exit of man on earth” (ogungbeme,2007p.12). the issue of death is a commonly acknowledged universal phenomenon. no sane human being can claim ignorance of this most-often discussed aspect of human essence. steve job, the founder and ceo of apple computers in united states of america expresses his belief thus: make every day count. remembering that i'll be dead soon is the most important tool i've ever encountered to help me make the big choices in life. because almost everything all external expectations, all pride, all fear of embarrassment or failure-- these things just fall away in the face of death, leaving only what is truly important. remembering that you are going to die is the best way i know to avoid the trap of thinking you have something to lose (17). the notion of force or being is a core aspect of african cosmological and ontological belief-system. in essence everything has force or everything is imbued with vital energy or vital force in african metaphysics (mbiti). for death to be able to affect man, it invariably connotes that it is a force capable of discharging the lethal responsibility of dismembering man by removing the soul from the body thereby disrupting the ontological harmony in man and the society. if it is true that death is force and has the capacity and capability to influence and affect man at any point in time, then, death is a higher force in the hierarchy of forces in african ontology and rank among those forces capable of inflicting damage to man. death can also be termed as “spirit” which “refers to either a special mode of being or an entity existing in that mode” (horton 181); for, the ontology of any “distinctive african world-view is replete with spirits” (idoniboye 83-5). upon this understanding of the african perception, forces or beings are differentiated in african ontology into species according to their vital power or their inherent rank in a pyramidal or conical form. through the interpretative understanding of the african mentality, forces are designated as both visible and invisible which is elucidated in african (ebira tao) perception of hierarchy of forces. furthermore, tempels contends that the ultimate creator of the universe and its contents is at the apex of the hierarchy. “above all forces is god, spirit and creator. it is he who has force, power, in himself. he gives existence, power of survival and increase, to other forces. in relation to other forces, he is “he who increases force” (29). all other forces depend on god for sustenance and are believed not only accountable for their activities in the different realms of existence but serve as servants to him. 118 usman & michael death(isu): suspended animation programme in ebira tao thought it is important to note here that death as a force takes directive and order from the ultimate creator in the execution of its activities on living things (including man) ( ). it is in the light of this fundamental notion that death as a force can be likened to an intelligent emissary who does not disobey or fail to carry out its ordained responsibilities of snuffing life out of living things without prior notice of the time and place and who the next victim(s) ( ) would be. in this regard, death can be seen as an overbearing force capable of transversing the whole gamut of the universe in order to fulfilling its apportioned tasks. hence, death is not bounded by spacio-temporal boundaries. one is bound to ask the question that: is man destined to die? the answer to this question is that man has been destined to die right from the abode of the creator. death is a fixed destiny which man must pass through. it cannot be altered transferred or evaded as death is a necessity in order to fulfil the pre-ordained or pre-destined choice that each individual had already made before his creator (makinde, 1988,p.57). this is vividly explicated in the yoruba concept of person and choice of inner head (ori). here one is made to believe that one has the free choice of his destiny and as such assume responsibility for the consequence. similarly, it is common african (yoruba) perception that death is a creation of olodumare (god), according to idowu, (1962,p.187). it is apt to note that god not only create the two worlds according to his wish but he owns and sustain the worlds in an egalitarian manner where one cannot fault him (awolalu and dopamu, 208). but there is a problem with the above view that god creates death as a means of removing man from earth. this problem did not indicate why man dies prematurely without attaining old age where man can meaningfully contribute to the ontological harmony of the bond between the living and the living dead. this notion cannot be sustained because god did not discuss his plans with man before creating man. hence, he cannot be seen as insensitive to the above notion. the goal of god is eternal process for humanity whereby man needs to transverse the physical world before entering the everlasting spiritual world. the bridge as an equipoise between the physical world and the spiritual world is dead which must be crossed by all living things, including man. to the african, the natural change that occur as a result of death indicates that human being has a goal relative to it, which in most cases is an ultimate goal common to all thing. the reason for this perception of the african is the fact that every change is an attempt to achieve another state, status or form ( ). this is in consonance with aristotelian idea of change and form. hence, change is a continuous process for object composed of matter and form since the object still has the potentiality to receive another form, until it reaches the state of immutability and immobility (which is a state of complete rest) where no further acquisition of form is possible. in human context, therefore, this state of immutability and immobility can only occur after death when man tries to attain immortality. it is important to note that, in death man transits into the invisible world that is invisible to the senses. thus, edeh is of the view that: the place is completely different from the material world in terms of imperceptibility to the senses and … entirely different world of its own, a world where the human beings who have left this material world 119 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 remain until they are able to be reincarnated. hence, there must be two worlds in existencethe visible and invisible worlds (75). an intriguing aspect of life-after-death is the aspect of the role of the ancestors and the issue of reincarnation. one is bound to ask the question: what are the roles of ancestors in the reality of african existential life. since we cannot equate the ancestors with god, then the onus placed on man is, according to kwame (1996, p.168) to give “the greatest reverence we, the descendants of the ancestors, can show to them is to let them rest in peace. the critical assessment of the belief in the theory of incarnation and the ancestral world poses apparent contradiction as well as incompatibility. why some would hold to the fact that reincarnation in african thought does not mean that the ancestral spirit that is born again but that the child that is supposed to come under the influence of ancestor and thereby receive part of the ancestors' vitality and qualities. to many other people, there are basically three facets of human personality viz, the first holds that one transforms into an ancestral spirits. the second goes into the spirit world. the third reincarnate to be born again (173). in this regard, there is this belief that the process of reincarnation goes beyond one time. there are several rounds that the soul of a man makes after death in the process of reincarnation. those that have completed their reincarnation trips stay permanently in the ancestral world, while the reincarnating ancestors are those still to complete their number of rounds. furthermore, if we go by plato's explanation of the nature of reality, the real world has the characteristics of parmenides' realm of being; but plato's real world contains multiplicity as well as permanent entities. thus, plato's metaphysical theory emphasizes the ideal intelligible reality as the important and significant realm of the universe; it at the same time tries to give some account of the world of appearance. a life directed in terms of the ultimate goal of contemplating reality (though in physical context) should as a matter of fact, be one in which the soul soars upward to the perfect world of idea of the body. in this context, if the soul lives a direct harmonious life with the body, this could be leading a human being to liberation from the sense world into the real world . egbeke (2001, p.21) posits from the aristotelian angle that, every natural object is always undergoing change. the changing nature of the visible world must be a fundamental characteristic of reality. the changing natural world is intelligible if we know the actual constituents and how they operate. it is common knowledge that africans subscribe to the causal axiom that “whatever begins to exit must have a cause of existence” (flew, 262). sodipo asserts that the supreme being is identified in yoruba traditional thought as the ultimate cause of all visible causes in the world while the activities and clan of lesser gods are recognized to constitute important secondary causes. it is also believed that chance occurrences in nature, society or in the life of an individual person has no basis in african ontology. to the african all events have causes, whether natural or supernatural, which presupposes that the belief in chance occurrences will only amount to betrayer and ignorance of the real cause of the event. from the above view, the african believe that god cause death but still regard premature death as act of malevolence. to the african, man should attain full maturity of eldership where he lives life fully in the physical world and transits to immortality in the spiritual world of the ancestors through death. 120 usman & michael death(isu): suspended animation programme in ebira tao thought death as transitional process in ebira tao thought system the ebira tao believe that the process of birth is the first visible rhythm of a new generation which is accompanied rite of birth performed in order to accord the person a corporate social being of the society. death on the other hand, is an inevitable episode of demise which occurs within human existence. the destination of man's life journey extends into the netherworld in spirit form as a delayed experience. it is in the light of this that mbiti (1969) opines that the african life cycle is embedded into an ontological rhythm fundamentally momentous in the life of an individual. according to mbiti: human life has another rhythm of nature which nothing can destroy. on the level of the individual, this rhythm includes birth, puberty, initiation, marriage, procreation, old age, and death, entry into the community of the departed and finally entry into the community of the spirits (25). mbiti's position to some extent explains the ebira tao notion of death and life after death. however, the ebira tao has a holistic approach to life existence in accordance with the cosmo-ontological foundation of the people's belief system, rotimi, substantiate this by contending that “death is not always seen as evil especially when the individual is of age, it is seen as a welcome development since the individual is seen as entry or transiting into another stage of his existence” (1998, p.76). in essence, death is a necessary qualification that permits the aged death to join the community of the spirits of ancestor ship. this reflection on the issue of death and after-life has its loci in ebira tao cosmoontological perception. the cultural, environmental, politico-episteme, mythicoreligious and ethnic-linguistic perspectives provide the ebira tao people with the material object for ponder, wonder, questioning as well as responding to the over bearing challenges occasioned by the reality of death which is ever present in man's experiential existence (onwuanibe,1984,p. 183). sharing similar perception with the igbo, the ebira tao thought mourns their dead with grief and sympathy; they remain resolute and hopeful that death is not an end in itself but a process of transition. in essence, the dead is reborn into another life which is completely different from the visible world that the departed individual had left (john, 1989,p32). it is on this note that we can sufficiently place the ancestors or the living dead who duels in a new life with new status and rank. in this abode of the living dead, the ebira tao believe that the ancestors have influence on the life existence of the living on earth. this view is succinctly occasioned during the annual festivals such as the ekuechi (night masquerade festival). in his analysis, rotime believes that, this masquerade cult festival is embedded with certain significant connotation unique to the ebira tao belief system. this involves the transmogrification of the ancestral spirits into the realm of the living felicitating and admonishing the home stead of the essence of maintaining the ontological balance and harmonious living within the family and the community (41). this group of nature spirits though freely navigates both the spiritual and physical realms with utmost ease but inferior to the power and force of god who either strengthens or diminishes this group's power, if necessary. thus, ebira holds that the universe presents certain coherence in this conical structure where there exist a well ordered pattern of 121 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 power and authority. for them the category of the ancestors is believed to be the emissaries and ambassadors of god and man. they are saddled with the responsibility of carrying information and communicating at all times with man and god. for the ebira tao: “ancestors were fathers who founded the different clans”(john, 52). this view was amply expressed by temple, when he asserts that “patriarchs were the first to whom god communicated his vital force, with the power of exercising their influences on all posterity” (tempels 29). it is this chain of authority that the ebira tao cherishes the importance of the ancestors in the affairs of man. this recognized chain of hierarchy upon which the ancestors occupies high rank binds men to god. the ancestors are not regarded as merely dead members of the society but has special roles to play in the success or otherwise of human existence. for the ebira tao, the ancestors are not dead completely but alive in a diminished life and reduced vital energy. and that is why inferentially, it is certain that the eku (which is the masquerade cult system) with its mysterious manifestations isolated in the domain of the dead as masquerading motif. the living-dead are believed to have acquired greater knowledge of life and vital or natural forces are only used to strengthen the life of man on earth. the superior forces of the living-dead by primogeniture can be employed to reinforce the living posterity. within the threshold of this category of ancestors are ranks; and the spiritualized beings belong to higher hierarchy. the occupiers of this position are the first parents of the tribes who are already on their way to complete the stage of their immortality. the chain they formed is the link with which the forces of the elders exercise their vitalizing influence on the living generation. noteworthy is the fact that there exists a symbiotic relationship between the unborn, the living and the living-dead which crystallized into a “dome of continuity” (soyinka 76). the ebira tao people believes that those unborn have vital forces residing in our loins awaiting the appropriate time to be sprouted out. the-yet to be born are the off springs of the future which must be protected at all cost as they are the hope of continuity. the ancestors need the close affinity so that they can enjoy constant remembrance through the pouring of libation during festivals and other special occasions just as the living needs the service of the ancestors as emissaries to god. it is this symbiosis that strengthened the african humanity. the people strongly believe that the abode of the nonhuman spirits envelops the universe. some of these non-human spirits according to edeh (76) are men and women who lived good and purposeful lives while on earth; the bad spirits on the other hand are departed souls who live abominable lives while on earth before their demise. in some societies, those in this latter category need to be cleansed spiritually with rituals before burial in order to be able to enter into the midst of the living dead. in essence, they belief that both good and bad spirits interact with the living on earthwith those humans who share like minds with either of the two sets of spirit. but in the contemporary epoch, with the coming of islam and christianity, the beliefs in the presence of guardian angels as emissaries of the almighty god carry out functions such as writing the deeds or actions and inactions of men while on earth. to the adherents of the above two religions, this function of the angels is for accountability purpose which every human is believed to account for on the future date after death and or on the day of judgment in heaven. furthermore, it should be noted that human existential world is characterized with fortunes and misfortunes experienced on daily basis in our traditional societies. hence the 122 usman & michael death(isu): suspended animation programme in ebira tao thought ebira tao people hold that the real success and happiness of man depends largely on his good work, righteous living and being in good company of good spirits while on earth. though the good spirits respect the freedom of man to exercise his free will, nonetheless, the guidance of good spirits is a necessity in order to maintain ontological harmony within the cosmo-ontological order of the ebira tao people. in traditional and contemporary societies, family members have tasted the sorrows of losing members to death; this sorrow is not born alone. according to mbiti (118) “they are sorrows of the community and the african societies at large”. hence, there is usually the rite of passage for the departed soul in order to sympathize as well as bade the soul good bye till we meet. it is in this regard, that the african tends to perform all necessary rituals that will clear any encumbrance or inhibition against the soul getting to the abode of the ancestors. in other words, the goals of rites of passage in ebira tao perception are to achieve an objective and subjective outcome which in essence binds the ritual issues of sociocultural transitions in human life. this above view instructively and significantly tends to consider the cultural rite of passage of an individual member of the society as having corresponding effect on the society itself (iroegbu, the audacity of ibi ebibi 22). this in effect is a transformational effect railed into a patterned, repetitive and symbolic enactment of the people's cultural belief whose goal is to align belief system of the individual with that of the society. thus, the symbolic essence of the processes of the ebira tao rite of passage of an individual member of the society lies in the cultural system whose performance is ordained by both the tradition and the religion of the people. as the case in most societies in africa, rite of passage “is one which is usually ordained by the religion or by the tradition of a group. a rite of passage will essentially succeed in moving individuals from one social state or status to another” (iroegbu the audacity of ibi ebibi 22). in essence one is bound to hold that both individual's perception of themselves and society's perception of individuals are concentrically interwoven and mutually transformed together. the major significance of a rite of passage involves three essential stages of experience (iroegbu the audacity of ibi ebibi 22). the first is a “period of separation” from the present social state of seclusion. this transition includes movement from homeland to foreign land, life to death, pregnancy to childbirth, peace time to war time or vice versa where one social space or state necessarily gives way for the other. the second state is the “period of transition” in which one is located between two states of social being. in this regard, the individual is captured in neither one thing nor the other, and such a moment provides for a change in one's body and psychic framework. the final stage is the “integration phase” which embodies various rites of metaphysical incorporation whereby the individual in question is absorbed into a new social role. such as becoming an elder, or dying and assuming a venerated identity of an ancestor. this integration phase in particular accord and a affirm reunification and re integration into the society and world order of this mundane world and the other world. according to opoku, (1978, p.137) the ancestors play significant role in the communal life of the african. this is an indication that the ancestors are not cut off from the living, for they may still reveal themselves in dreams or appear to their living relatives to guide or correct them in their daily affairs on earth. thus, in different part of ebira tao 123 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 in particular many people have claimed to have encountered their departed ones especially if the living was not aware about the departed soul's demise. such claims and believes have great influence on african belief in the intermingling of the living and the living dead. most importantly, in african rite of passage, participants are place in a transitional realm that has few of the attributes of either the past or coming – to – state, and by existing in such a non-ordinary realm which facilitate gradual psychological opening of the initiates to profound interior change (turner and tambia 123 166). traditionally, dead bodies are buried in graves. graves in ebira tao thought not serve as the abode of the dead but as the fulfilment of the divined to return back to earth in the cause of rites of separation disconnection from the human world but also ensure the process of transition and integration to the other divine world, where the dead person is believed to settle down properly. in some instances, elders of the community while alive may have directed his/her family members to commit to earth their remains in a specified place. the right to make a choice of a specific place was acceptable to the people in the past as well as in contemporary period. thus, ebeh (2010,p. 96), argues that death, grave and burial ceremonies among the igala people of kogi state just like the ebira tao allows the “living persons to suggest how best to handle and bury their dead bodies, however with reverence, respect and in well dug-up graves”. an important tomb site housing the remains of pa obege in a rock at eika-ohizeyin, okehi lga of kogi state provides unique information. as one of the strongest medicine-men in ebiraland in ancient period, pa obege demonstrated his prowess by instructing that at death, his corps should be laid on a chosen site on the rock and behold the body disappeared into the rock leaving behind a shape of a grave. this tomb site is now a tourist attraction to the earth-diviners and nondiviners. essentially, in most traditional societies graves are considered as the acclaimed abode of the dead through which the world of the ancestor is linked. public cemeteries are common sites in ebiraland and elsewhere in africa; with differentiation based on, especially, religious divides (with the muslims, christians and traditionalists having their separate cemeteries even within the same village, town or city). life-after-death as basis for suspended animation process in ebira tao arsing from our understanding of ebira tao notion of death and burial rites. the ebira people strongly believe that upon death, one enters a state of after-life where death is profound connection with the cosmological forces of the physical and the spiritual worlds. the knowledge of after-life serves as comfort when loved ones died as we hope to see again. the above view if sustained, significantly reduce the morbid fear that characterizes death. the strong feeling of reunification with the living-dead in future life confirms the believe of the ebira people of life-after death. thus, the belief that there is after-life or lifeafter-death means that there is resurrection as succinctly held by the adherents of islam and christianity. first, the creator of life and death is still capable of restoring life to the death. second, god has resurrected human in sleep when presumed dead; in coma and trance in unconscious state. the concept of life after death is not a monopoly of islam and christianity religions but a believe strongly held by the ebira people. the tradition also holds that one who gives life to earth after death shall give life to man after encountering 124 usman & michael death(isu): suspended animation programme in ebira tao thought death. it is in the light of these views that iroegbu, pantaleon in enwisdomization and african philosophy writes: the most fundamental objective of the philosophical quest is the penetration of the being of the human person towards the fuller requirements of his being as human-in-the-world destined for higher-being in the ontological sense of sharing in the continuity of being hereafter… full being hereafter is in view of full being in the totality of the now (155) thus, the african strive assiduously to ensuring that, all his having, knowing and acting as well as all his relating have this fullness of being in the present reincarnational, ancestral and transcendental world as their terminus ad quem. equally all the other aspects of life, and studyanthropological, epistemological, hermeneutical, sociopolitical and axiologicalare ultimately directed towards the full ontological realization of being as human both in his corporeali ty and in his spiri tuali ty (iroegbu, enwisdomization 155). death as transformation of man is a necessary consequence of the appropriated materials in the fact that all human existential life experience is dynamically progressive or retrograde into the level of the next world or hereafter. it is this regard that death helps to reconstruct man from a previously deconstructed, clarified or purified raw material (physical human being) among the ebira tao, the physical world and the spiritual world dovetail and inhabited by force or beings that are hierarchically acknowledge. thus, objects or nonobjects are placed in an ontological order according to their vital ranks (ajana, 1990, p. 63). in this regard, the ebira people believe that humankind is the centre of all created forces or beings and as such regarded as measure of all things in existence as posited by protagoras of abera. human superiority over other forces or beings stems from human individuals possession of intelligence which placed him on a higher pedestal among beings in the universe. writing on the same issue, john, (1961,p.101) believes that “things stand at the disposal of muntu or 'at hand' for man”. man's intelligence gives him an edge and control over spiritual life-force. however, the magnitude of an individual man's sovereignty is a function of that individual's ontological vital rank or superior/higher vital force with which he can use to influence other forces. the idea of reincarnation in ebira tao ontology presupposes the coming back to life of the erstwhile departed soul in such a way that the major traits and characteristics are well noticed in the reincarnated being. the ebira tao rite of reincarnation remains an indelible practice among the people, even in the present period. to buttress this view further, ibrahim, believes, “the ebira tao hold the notion that the living-dead are reincarnated in totality” (108). unlike in other cultures as stated by mbiti, who contend that aspect of their personalities of physical characteristics are re-born in their descendants.(133) 125 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 during the reincarnation process of a child, the ebira tao besiege the ultimate, the ancestors and the earth to ensure that the new initiate fully participate in the harmonious and prosperous living on earth just like his/her forbearer that he reincarnate. this idea that man can live again through reincarnation succinctly supports the assertion that the issue of death and hereafter is suspended animation program of the ultimate creator. conclusion existence in ebira tao thought system is viewed holistically, this is because it is interwoven and held to be integrative, because it considers all the facets of human reality. the tripod issues of human existence (life), human transition (death) and life-after-death (suspended animation) is in totality the very essence of human personality in both the physical and spiritual worlds. it is from the holistic view that this key essence of the ebira tao thought system as regards the above tripods that one can really understand the essence of their ontology. in this paper we have considered, the ebira tao and african human existence one whole in which the individual is essential a member of the community that transverse the two worlds. the study considered death as inevitable and among the ebira tao not as agonies and destruction. but a stage in life that requires transition to higher life, and that death can be faced with human courage and the unconquerable spirit of man. the issue of death is seen as a composite picture of man's life existence which is to be born today and only to die tomorrow and thereafter resurrect in the netherworld. this resurrection only happens as a result of the immortality of the very essence of man which is his soul. the presentation of death in two different images of reality only subsumed into the process of suspended animation as a possible reconciliation with the ancestral world on a higher pedestal. 126 usman & michael death(isu): suspended animation programme in ebira tao 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its relevance is more or less limited therein. however, umeogu views kola nut as a versatile symbol that is not only relevance in igbo socio-religious environment, but also in all aspects of igbo life. his metaphysics of kola nut centers on a philosophical interpretation of the symbolisms of kola nut especially towards establishing igbo science and arts. this is drawn from the point that kola nut is a representation of the igbo world; no aspect of igbo world cannot be reached through kola nut. in his words, kola nut is “the microcosm of igbo macrocosmic world” (umeogu, 2019:29). however, since kola nut stands for all things in igbo world, umeogu first of all, explains its origin has been gotten from the forest and domesticated as a sacred symbol. he goes on to argue that igbo man is a being that comprehends reality through symbol. symbol is for him, an essential epistemic tool. nevertheless, it is further established that there is a crucial and undeniable link between a symbol and the reality it represent. hence forth, metaphysics becomes a science of symbolisms as it tends towards revealing or disclosing the intrinsic or true nature of reality. in this vein, kola nut as a metaphysical tool moves towards disclosing the true nature of reality in igbo worldview. umeogu stands on this capacity of kola nut to investigate the true nature of reality in igbo cosmology and establishes his metaphysics of kola nut. this umeogu's metaphysics of kola nut which he names “kolanutology” delves into exploring and explaining reality in igbo perspective. kolanutology moves from the socio-religious significance of kola nut to its academic and epistemic relevance in igbo world of experience. accordingly, (umeogu et al, 2019:1) argue that, “if further exploited to the fullest, the communion of oji igbo can engineer indigenous science and art capable of utilizing its humanistic essence to restore value to a fast degenerating evolution of our society.” however, kola nut as a metaphysical symbol reflects the nature of reality in igbo world. kolanutology as such, becomes a philosophical investigation into the symbolic nature of kola nut in igbo cosmology. kolanutology investigates the nature of reality as kola nut symbolizes in igbo perspective. it does not study kola nut ordinarily as fruit from kola nut tree because in effect, it is something beyond it. thus, (chidume, 2014: 550) contends that, “the importance of kola nut to the igbo nation is something socioritualistic. it transcends biological and physical dimensions; it extends far beyond the known world into the unknown world of the departed ancestors, spirit beings, and deities.” kolanutology rather, studies kola nut from its “symbolismic” nature in the words of umeogu or what it stands for in igbo cosmology. to this effect( umeogu, 2019:20) states that, “…as a professor of philosophy and metaphysics, i want to use the kola nut to tell the story of igbo reality, that is, to give igbo reality a philosophical expression.” it is pertinent therefore, to examine the concept and nature of kola nut in aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 order to understand umeogu's metaphysical perspective especially towards the establishment of igbo science and arts. the understanding of kola nut kola nut is a nut contained in a pod as a fruit of a tree called kola acuminata and kola nitida. according to (umeogu, 2019:23), “it is a white or yellow or red coloured nut or seed of the tree of the proximate genus, kola, with the specific difference of kola acuminata or kola atrophora…” each pod contains from two to five kola nuts. it is a west african indigenous tree. (umeogu, 2019:23) in trying to explain the origin of kola nut, he states that, “kola nut in its universal and/or genetic origin is a tree found by creation or evolution in the tropical and sub-tropical rain forests in the heart of the world, with special reference to the heart of africa.” amidst the species of kola: kola acuminata, kola nitida, and garcinia kola famous in nigeria, this study focuses on the genus proxima of kola known as kola acuminata. kola acuminata typologically is the igbo kola nut commonly known as oji igbo in igbo land. other species of kola nut are culturally irrelevant in igbo socio-cultural world. to this effect, (anidobe and uzoalor, 2010) opine that kola acuminata is the only kola that is recognized in igbo rituals and ceremonies. this follows from the fact that oji igbokola acuminata can be in lobes or lobeless. the number of lobes is always clear whenever it is broken. the number of this lobes or halves or cotyledons is essential to igbo man. other species of kola is not regarded in igbo world because their lobes are insignificant in igbo socio-cultural world. umeogu observes that kola nut resembles human heart when taken out of the pod. for him, this very nature of kola nut symbolizes something of great significance in igbo cosmology in terms of unism and communalism. some sages in igbo land state that kola nut tree is the first tree that was created by god and as such, it possesses a sacred nature. in contrast, umeogu believes that kola nut is a wild fruit that is domesticated by the igbo people. in his view, kola nut migrated through myth and commerce into the igbo cultural home. he argues that igbo people dedicated kola nut to sacred use and disconnected it from profane use. it is because of this reason that kola nut is regarded as a sacred fruit and tree in igbo land. (anidobe and uzoalor, 2010: 2) note that, “because of its sacredness, the dry wood of kola nut is not used as fire wood in igbo land.” furthermore, umeogu avers that holiness is the essential nature of kola nut in igbo land. its transcendental nature for him consists in its ability to represent sacred communion. he further reveals that this nature and transcendental nature of kola nut veil it with a nature and transcendental nature that can be influenced by thought, word and action. kola nut possesses a vital force that can influence the gods, the ancestors and the people. according to (obiajulu and nnajiofor, 2015:86), “the igbo african people use kola nut to compel compliance of listening ear of god whenever kola nut is raised up in prayer.” a prayer made with kola nut is efficacious and influential. that is, kola nut possesses a sacred nature that engenders its sacred use and reverence in igbo cosmology. kolanut and the establishment of new bodies of knowledge ezebuilo & nwankwo kola nut in bonachristus umeogu's igbo metaphysics 4 in metaphysics, the central focus is on the nature of reality and the relationship between them. according to (aja, 2015:106), “igbo accounts of reality represent a two-world theory: the sensible world and the invisible or spirit world.” it is evident that these two worlds are in nature different but they are mutually connected. to buttress this fact, (aja, 2015:106) contends that, “the two worlds dovetail.” in the same vein, (omoregbe, 1990:22) states that, “these two worlds although different in nature are not completely separated, for there are links and interactions between them.” umeogu envisages kola nut communion in igbo land as capable of uniting the material and immaterial world. in his word, “… it creates a seamless interaction between the material and the immaterial world, the physical and meta-physical” (umeogu et al, 2019:1). this portrays the unavoidable connection between metaphysics and other fields of study in igbo cosmology. as such, umeogu attempts to explore other areas of life, physical and nonphysical, through a devoted study of kola nut in igbo metaphysics. just like metaphysics is the root of all sciences so kola nut stands as the pathway to all knowledge in igbo world view. umeogu believes through kolanutology, in the connectedness and relatedness of reality in igbo world view. following his assertion that kola nut “is the microcosm of igbo macrocosmic world” (umeogu, 2019:29), (umeogu et al, 2019:1) contends that, “the igbo kola nut perhaps portends an untapped potential capable of influencing and inventing her own science and arts.” after all, what is appreciated as science and arts today are nothing but “offshoots of both the communal and the collective life of a certain people which follows a unique pattern of man's logical attempt to overcome his challenges, subdue his universe and master his environment” (umeogu et al, 2019:1). the implications of kola nut studies in umeogu's metaphysics center on the establishment of new bodies of knowledge that are original to igbo people. this ideology is nevertheless brainy, ipso facto it stems from a conception that kola nut epistemologically stands for all things in igbo cosmology. as such, kola nut as a metaphysical symbol embodies igbo perspective of the world as it touches their life. to this effect, (umeogu, 2019:61) argues that, “…the kola nut is a multivocal symbol with substantial sense and reference that connects to and is connected by the vital areas of human life in the world.” this for him is “why the kola nut as a substantial multidimensional symbol creates and constitutes igbo science, arts, etc” (umeogu, 2019:61). this follows from umeogu's observation that kola nut tradition in igbo cosmology is not something limited to socio-religious sphere of igbo life. for him, it encompasses the totality of life. this areas of knowledge engendered by the study of kola nut are for umeogu original and integrates igbo moral and religious world view as opposed to western and modern individualistic and liberal world where the end justifies the means. nevertheless, the result of this original science and arts “will be one which integrates the values of the material and immaterial world in social cooperation and solidarity, integrity, justice, equity, peace, sacredness of life in the universal perspective” (umeogu et al, 2019:2). this could be justified through critical exploration of the symbolic nature of kola nut in igbo cosmology with regard to some core academic fields like religion, geography, anthropology, sociology and politics. in this regard, this work attempts to aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 examine kola nut and the being of god, kola nut and the nature of the world, kola nut and the nature of man, and kola nut and the structure of the society, with a view of observing how successful umeogu is in establishing new bodies of knowledge through kolanutology. kola nut and the being of god it is obvious that the argument about god's existence is still one of the most enduring difficult arguments. this is because; god cannot be perceived or even be conceived like other particular things. god as a being is immaterial and therefore, non-sensible. no one can argue anything about god with the same amount of certainty you would talk of other material particular things and be believed. some believe that nothing about god is certain but speculation. this follows from the fact that no one can contend to have touched or felt god as he would touch or feel a neighbour. however, the igbo people experiences a power that is manifesting itself in the world and the natural response is to look for the giver of experienced reality or the divinity whose power is being experienced. what is the power behind and still within the experienced events? the search for that divinity or the power manifesting itself in the world is the source of igbo religion. it is this search for the giver of experiences that compels the igbo to go beyond the material to the spiritual world. without self-transcendence the igbo would have no sense of value, meaning, freedom, and morality but would have been enclosed solely in the material world of stimulus and response like the lower animals. nevertheless, the igbo do not see the material and spiritual worlds as two independently existing worlds but as one world following the interplay between them. like the ancestors living in the spiritual and imperishable world, their effects and presence are not wanting in the physical community of the physical world. however, the igbo people identify the giver of experiences or life as chi, chukwu, chineke (great spirit, the creator). (ejiofor, 1984:202) notes that “the igbo people attribute every event which they cannot understand to the handwork of god or the spirit of the ancestors.” other powers observed in nature include anyanwu (sun-god), ahianjoku (power of agriculture), amadioha (power of thunder or god of retributive justice), agwu isi (power of healing and divination), igwe (power of the sky), chi or ikenga (personal guiding spirit) etc. it is when one realizes that spirit-world is vivid in the material world and both are inseparable; one would come near to understanding the igbo concept of god. it is this belief that the spirit dwells in matter that forms the basis of igbo religion, philosophy, ethics, etc. god is a reality that cannot be disproved in the igbo world. some scholars have expressed doubt on whether there is any supreme being as god in igbo cosmology. ( nze, 1981:21) contends that, “in igbo culture, there is no god.” nze meant this on the ground that igbo people have no conception of a supreme being such that is obtainable in christian theology. for him, “there is a supreme being that created man; there is a supreme being that created trees; there is a supreme god of the earth. sun is a god” (nze, 1981:21). he argues further that: ezebuilo & nwankwo kola nut in bonachristus umeogu's igbo metaphysics 6 there is no single instance when the igbo perform sacrifice to the worship of a single being of the christian concept. because the igbo perform sacrifices as acts of appeasement and/or worship, and because there exists no occasion when a supreme being of the christian description is appeased or worshipped, it can be said that this being does not exist at all or exists but is not recognized because he is passive. our fathers worshipped gods and not a god (nze, 1981:30). (aja, 2015:147) posits that “it was christian missionaries and igbo christian theologians who were concerned about finding the supreme god in the igbo pantheon.” (umeogu. 2019:61) viewing god from the perspective of a creator and controller of universe maintains that, “…it must be established first that god must exist as an undivided unity before engaging in any form of work or function whatsoever.” if god exists as a divided being, the question of his division, since division implies creation in igbo worldview, emerges. also, if god must be seen as a creator, it is obvious that his existence is prior and necessary for the existence of other things in the world. to buttress this idea, (abanuka, 2019:106) avers that, “if the ultimate reality is not granted, nothing can be nor be conceived.” therefore, ultimate reality or if you like god cannot be excluded when the existence of reality is being discussed because he is the basis of all that exist or can be conceived. consequently, the problem of how the igbo people could account or explain the nature of god in the presence of other small deities becomes a philosophical issue. firstly, (abanuka, 2004:11) acknowledges the fact that those gods nze highlighted are merely “…explanatory symbols in so far as they give meaning to the values and aspirations of the community, but also as exploratory symbols, i.e., in as much as they are means of searching for the understanding of the one and only true god.” he goes as far as stating that, “they have no reality in themselves; they are naught…even the earth goddess (ala) is not exempted from not being real: the earth goddess has no ontological relevance” (abanuka, 2004:11). umeogu contends that the igbo people must have come to the knowledge of god as an undivided unity through the symbolisms of undivided or one lobed kola nutoji-ifilifi. one lobed kola nut symbolizes the undivided and uncreated god. since division means creation in the igbo world of experience, it follows that since oji-ifilifi which symbolizes the epistemic foundation of god is undivided, god as a being is one and uncreated. in his words, “oji-ifilifi is an undivided unity. creation implies division in igbo thought and culture. so the undivided unity in the lobless kola nut both establishes the “uncreation” of god and the fact that god is one without a second” (umeogu, 2019:61). thus, with umeogu, kola nut becomes an explanatory and exploratory symbol through which the knowledge of the nature of god could be reached. accordingly, he opines that, “…the igbo idea of god, not as an article of faith, but as an article of knowledge, came from the symbolism of the lobless kola nut: oji-ifilifi” (umeogu, 2019:61). kola nut and the nature of the world aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 the problem of the origin and nature of the world is perennial problem in philosophy. man has the desire to understand the world in which he lives but the nature of the world seems to be incomprehensible. this follows from the fact that “man viewed the world as a totality in its known and unknown, visible and invisible, physical and immaterial aspects” (abanuka, 2004:29). as (abanuka, 2004:29) rightly observed, “the world was also perceived in the regularity and irregularity of its events, and as a place where natural qualities are full of contraries.” in order to express the nature and origin of the world, it is pertinent to resort to a common and comprehensible approach that would accommodate the intricacy and vastness of the world within the understanding of a cultural people. following the above line of thought, (umeogu, 2019:61) postulates that “igbo cosmogenesis is just easily discernible in the igbo two lobed kola nut: oji okala naabo; whose substantial symbolism indicates heaven and earth.” heaven and earth are two different worlds that are not separate but interplay in igbo cosmology. these two worlds, spiritual and material, proceed from one lobed kola nut. in effect, heaven and earth as the representation of igbo universe are created by god. as the name implies, two lobed kola nut expresses division. as earlier stated, one lobed kola nut is undivided and as such, uncreated. on the other hand, two lobed kola nut is divided and as such created. however, this is an exposition that the world is a consequent of creation performed by an absolute and uncreated being, god. the world for (umeogu, 2003:4) has two parts to it, drawing from the analysis of the word oji okala naabo, “okala means half, okala naabo means two halves, but two halves make a whole” which he argued to must have proceeded from the “binary voice of god.” for (umeogu, 2003:2), the two lobed kola nut “is the binary polar-function of oji-ogbi.” the world expresses a binary or two functions that are interdependent. it could be viewed in the interrelationship between heaven and earth, light and darkness, male and female, cause and effect, night and day, action and reaction and what have you. abanuka seems to have the same view on the binary-functionary nature of the world in igbo cosmology as expressed in his theory of “ultimate contraries”. (abanuka, 2014:100) contends that, “the ultimate contraries are mutually dependent corollaries. consequently, any of the poles loses its meaning if it is taken in isolation from the other.” humanly speaking, the two lobed kola nut is cosmic; its gender characteristic is unestablished. some scholars contend that it is genderless like one lobed kola nut; others view it to be male and female following from the gender roles of heaven and earth in begetting species in the world. (umeogu, 2019:61) moreover establishes that, “its gender modification being spectacular is cosmic in definition, in the sense that it has not the normal male-female human igbo kola nut gender modification.” at this juncture, one cannot attribute any gender modification to the world because it is an embodiment of realities inside and outside gender. it is however bigger than man in general and that is one of the reasons why the two lobed kola nut is not eaten in the igbo world of experience. in this regard, (umeogu, 2003:2) opines that, “the igbo man is not always ezebuilo & nwankwo kola nut in bonachristus umeogu's igbo metaphysics 8 in a haste to eat oji okala naabo, because it is too cosmic to be purely human. it represents the whole world of heaven and earth, wherein man is only a little part.” in sum, the two lobed kola nut is an explanatory symbol of the universe in igbo cosmology. it expresses the world as originating from god who is absolute and uncreated as expressed in one lobed kola nut or oji ogbi/oji ifilifi. the sides or halves obtainable in two lobed kola nut states the reason while the igbo world is dual and “the dual properties of such a world have the operational modality of binary development” (umeogu, 2019:62). also, it expresses the unquantifiable unity that exists between the two worlds as related to god, the ultimate creator. kola nut and the nature of man the origin and nature of man is part of the indigenous knowledge embedded in kola nut system. umeogu expresses that the nature of man in igbo anthropology would be better comprehended through the instrumentality of kola nut in igbo cosmology. kola nut therefore becomes an explanatory and exploratory symbol towards the establishment of igbo anthropology. in the study of the nature of man through kolanutology, our focus will be more or less on the origin of man, his composition and gender functionality. however, the three lobed kola nutoji ikenga expresses the origin of man. man is a creature of god who is uncreated. it must be pointed out that oji ikenga comes from oji ogbi and oji okala naabo, symbolizing the precedence and supremacy of god and universe over man. as the universe is created by god, so man is also a creature of god. as has been argued earlier, there is nothing human in one and two lobed kola nuts. they symbolize things above man. man came with the three lobed kola nut, which means that he is preceded by god and the world. as such, (umeogu, 2019:62) contends that …the first time human beings populated the igbo world and being was when the three lobed kola nut entered the igbo world….” nonetheless, oji ikenga expresses the three composites of man: body, soul/mind and spirit. for (umeogu, 2003:2), “the three lobed kola nut, also gives some meaningful insight into igbo psychology by representing the three sides of man: the flesh/body (aru/ahu), the soul/mind (nkpuruobi/uche) and the spirit ( mmuo).” nevertheless, the three lobed kola nut is directly preceded by two lobed kola nut which is genderless. gender therefore emerged in the igbo world through three lobed kola nut, oji ikenga. accordingly, (umeogu, 2003:2) contends that, “oji ikenga is the first kola nut with the human face. it is the first kola nut with an explicit gender-function and modification.” the three lobed kola nut has nothing feminine in it. all the lobes are male lobes. this portrays for (umeogu, 2003:2) that, “in the igbo story of creation, man was created before the woman.” (umeogu, 2019:52) contends that the 'number three' expresses masculinity, thus, he notes that, “this automatically shows that three is a male or masculine number in igbo life and being; and by that very fact, it will be improper for the number three to be associated with the female gender or feminine genderfunction in any way.” the four lobed kola nut which brings the igbo anthropology to its aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 completion expresses the two genders in the igbo world, following its two males and two female contents. the four lobed kola nutoji afia naano na ubosi naano delineates that the woman comes from the man. umeogu holds that women are not allowed to eat oji ikenga as man is not advised to eat oji ogbi and oji okala naabo for the reasons revolving around supremacy and incomprehensibility. woman is only advised to eat oji ikenga when it is prescribed as medicine with some herbs for fertility especially when it involves the need for a male child. humanly speaking, the three and four lobed kola nut delineate the biological, physiological and psychological features of human beings including their behaviours and development in socio-cultural milieu. kola nut and the structure of the society thus far, it must be noted that the existence of god, the universe and human being (male and female) have been established through the symbolisms of igbo kola nut. it is pertinent also to observe that igbo man lives in the community of his fellow human beings. he does not live in isolation. his strength and self-actualization is reached within the ambience of his immediate community. in this vein, (chukwuelobe, 2014:86) observes that, “the igbo do not exist for himself alone; he is not an island. rather, he derives vitality and life-force from his immediate community.” it is within the community that the igbo man has his being. in a nut shell, he can be argued to be a social being. however, having established that igbo man is a social being that lives in society or community of his fellow human beings; it is pertinent also to examine the nature of this society. umeogu finds the instrumentality of kola nut which is a universal symbol in igbo world of being and experience expedient in this regard. obviously, the igbo people are more concerned with lived experience rather than engaging in a futile imagination about life. the world, says merleau ponty, “is not what i think but what i live” (omoregbe, 1991:36).the priority of 'what is' is held over 'what ought' to be in igbo cosmology. as such, (chukwuelobe, 2014:85) contends that, “igbo thought organizes itself within the ambience of experienced life.” nevertheless, the structure, administration and functioning of igbo society can be observed in igbo kola nut. igbo kola nut explores and explains igbo society as it is and not as it ought to be. one lobed kola nut expresses one who is an island but igbo society like that of plato in the republic abhors one who is an island or a hermit. this can be seen through the symbolisms of kola nut's lobes. one lobed kola nut expresses god and god as a creator and an absolute being can be contested to be an island. the need of a second however is not necessary for him. after all, he is the uncreated creator. man on the other hand is an incomplete being that needs his creator and other beings around him to give meaning to his life. as such, god is seen at the center of igbo society as is symbolized by one lobed kola nut from which other kola nuts' lobings emerged. according to (umeogu, 2019:63), “…igbo society is made up of god/god(s), the world and human beings, signified by the lobeless kola nut and other lobings of the kola nut….” ezebuilo & nwankwo kola nut in bonachristus umeogu's igbo metaphysics 10 more so, igbo society recognizes the absolute authority of god and from god authority gets to the people, especially the elders of the community. hitherto, it has been observed that the spiritual and material worlds interplay in igbo cosmology. in the words of (chukwuelobe, 2014:86), “the spirit land and the human world intermingle.” this expresses how authority passes from god to ancestors and finally to the people, especially the elders. the human society is not far removed from the land of the ancestors. these two lands come together whenever kola nut is raised up in prayer. in effect, igbo society is not separated from the spiritual world. there is an umbilical cord of interrelationship between them. umeogu also observes that igbo kola nut resembles the human heart which is an expression of the unity and harmony that characterizes the igbo society. the traditional igbo society is known for peace and harmony, justice and equity, hard work and prosperity and what have you. these characteristics are explainable through the symbolisms of kola nut in igbo worldview. (kanu, 2020:53) avers that kola nut “unites the living and dead, and symbolizes a feast of togetherness, love and trust.” evaluation it is obvious that umeogu has succeeded in making a critical and appreciable move towards the establishment of igbo science and arts through the study of kola nut. this areas or fields of knowledge which umeogu tends to establish through a devoted study of the symbolisms of kola nut in igbo cosmology are more or less original and pragmatic. it goes with itself the original thoughts and experiences of the igbo people. however, in these fields of knowledge is encoded the moral and spiritual life of the igbo people. it incorporates the spiritual and material world. one can say that it is not one sided knowledge. nonetheless, the life span of this knowledge remains questionable following the unquenchable evolution of man and the world. the question remains: could this knowledge withstand the wave of reality in the present and future times? nevertheless, umeogu's kolanutology is not an abstract cum utopic expression. it stems from a lived experience of igbo people. it is more of reinvention and modernization of what has always been but currently suffering the disastrous wave of westernization. possibly, it can be reinvented and institutionalized in order to restore the dignity of man. evidently, the existence of man is threatened by the uncontrolled and parallel growth in science and technology which instead of been completely subjected to the improvement of man's standard of living has gone towards elimination and displacement of man in a world he is meant to reign supreme. for the sake of humanity and nature, umeogu's kolanutology is worthwhile if it fills the observable holes in its doctrine. pertaining to its life span, it is undisputable that igbo language is recently battling with the wave of extinction due to the widespread and effectiveness of english language in nigerian society and institutions but not igbo ideologies. evidently, umeogu's metaphysics of kola nut is written and expressed in english language as an exposition of the flexibility and dynamic nature of this tradition which would enable it to stand the wave of time. it is not limited by space and time. kola nut communion has gone with igbo prodigies into aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 different parts of the world as a tradition that is one with their being. as such, (ogbalu, 1974:51) argues that, “kola nut is one of the fruits which cannot be removed by the people not even by the whiteman from igboland” critically, irrespective of the distance covered by igbo kola nut tradition, umeogu's kolanutology suffers short life span due to its recognition of gender inequality. the limitation of women in kola nut tradition and distancing them from the symbolism of the number three as a perfect number poses a great threat to umeogu's doctrine. according to (ezebuilo, 2019:532), “man and woman have the same dignity and are of equal value ontologically….” appreciating inequality of any sort be it gender, economy, race and so on is a negation to the egalitarian nature of kola nut and as such, it cannot foster the kind of development umeogu posits. accordingly, (ezebuilo, 2019:539) submits that, “gender equality is vital to the pressing need to tackle poverty and promote the development of wellbeing of the african communities.” also, it opposes the ideology of this present time from where feminism takes its baton. it is obvious that any academic tradition or discipline that recognizes gender inequality will not stand in this present time. gender equality is an important aspect of education that must always be appreciated. it is unimaginable in this present time to establish science and arts that give some limitations based on gender, maybe a science that would abhor women from participating in the practical or teaching aspect just like in the breaking of kola nut. such science and art cannot stand and as such, cannot unite us because there is no unity in the face of inequality. however, the presence and manifest efforts of feminism in this present time would hinder the germination of such science and arts. thus, pertaining to the presence of women's activists, (ezebuilo, 2019:535) observes that, “women's rights activists have been at the center of the revitalization of human rights, struggling to address gender inequality across cultures without lapsing into misguided sentiments.” more importantly, the exclusion of women from the core traditions of kola nut has contributed to its degeneration. it is obvious that any tradition that is not familiar among the young people suffers extinction. in addition to the fact that kola nut is one of the quick routes to inseminate poison in this present time because it is a tradition everyone is expected to partake in, the weak transmission of its principles have distanced the youth from its communion. culture grows through socialization and socialization is possible through mothers because they are always present at all stages of the development of their children to inculcate necessary morals and traditions into them, but because they are passive in kola nut tradition, they feel unconcerned and as such fail in inculcating it into their children. the emotional nature of women makes them better knowers and teachers. their approach to ethics and learning is always “person-centered, stressing care, compassion, trust, mercy, forgiveness, preventing harm, and feelings” (lawhead, 2002:566). this approach breeds more humane society than any other approach. on this ground, (lawhead 2002:567) contends that “the pain and anger women feel in response to subtle sexual harassment or injustice allows them to perceive features of the prevailing social structures that are invisible to men.” ezebuilo & nwankwo kola nut in bonachristus umeogu's igbo metaphysics 12 conclusion kola nut as a universal symbol in igbo land should manifest in fullness, equality, fairness and togetherness. its tradition or ritual presentation should not be segregative. all levels and genders of human species should be equally and equitably represented. its tradition should be approached by all since it is at the center of the igbo world. it should not be agent of women suppression and limitation, rather, agent of equity and self-realization. if women continue to suffer limitation, it is obvious that society will continue to suffer imbalance. thus, (kanu, 2012:27) observes that, “sex inequality has produced negative effects such as suppressed talents, lowered productivity and reduced creativity.” this would further stunts moral and intellectual development of the society. in this vein, mill contends that “the subordination of women which has become a principle regulating the existing social relations between men and women is wrong in itself and impediment to national and human improvement” (kanu, 2012:27). in this vein, this paper recommends that for umeogu's kolanutology to achieve its purpose, it has to be restructured in such a way that there will be no noticeable division among genders and individuals. what one refers to as tradition is a subject to change. as such, (kanu, 2012:26) maintains that “the idea of 'we have been doing it like this for a long time', under the cover of tradition, has also affected efforts towards the liberation for women.” using mills philosophy of associationism which asserts that minds are produced by associative laws acting on experience, it is pertinent to note that “if we change the experiences and upbringing of women and what men are made to believe about women, then their mind will change” (kanu, 2012:26), especially among those who believe “that the subordination of women to men reflected a natural order that women were by nature incapable of equality with men” (kanu, 2012:26). umeogu's kolanutology should however be restructured and revitalized to give everyone equal opportunity to express and actualize his/herself. this will enable women to be active and alive in all socio-cultural phenomena. factually, women are more close to their children than men. therefore, this restructuring will revitalize kolanutology through the activeness of women which will in turn guarantee children's education of kola nut as an easy means to spread and inculcate its principles. references b. u umeogu, (2003): “african symbolismic philosophy: tractus symbolismico philosophicus africans” awka: cifogne. agama, christian sunday, (2020): “symbolism and social order among the igbo” filosofia theoretica: journal of african philosophy, culture and religions, vol.9, no. 2 joseph i. omoregbe, (1993): “a philosophical look at religion” lagos: joja educational research and publishers ltd. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 13 chidume, chukwudi g., (2014): “the symbolism of kolanut in igbo cosmology: a reexamination,” european scientific journal vol. 2 b. u. “umeogu, 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(1984): “cultural revival in igbo land,” onitsha: university press. chukwuemeka nze, (1981): “pragmatism and traditionalism in the conception of god in africa” uche: journal of the department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka 5 b. abanuka, (2014): “reality and individuation: an examination of appearance,” enugu: snaap press ltd. b. abanuka, (2004): “myth and the african universe,” onitsha: spiritan publications. b. u. umeogu, (2003): “igo oji igbo: a philosophical discourse of the meaningfulness of oji okala naabo phenomenon in igbo culture,” awka: cifogne. ezebuilo & nwankwo kola nut in bonachristus umeogu's igbo metaphysics 14 b. u. umeogu, (2003): “igo oji igbo: a philosophical discourse of the meaningfulness of oji ikenga phenomenon in igbo culture,” awka: cifogne. m. c. chukwuelobe, (2014): “thanatology: the igbo/african metaphysics sense and value of death” open journal of philosophy vol. 4 no. 1 j. i. omoregbe, (1991): “a simplified history of western philosophy: volume three contemporary philosophy” lagos: joja educational research and publishers ltd. ogbalu, f. c, (1974): “omenala igbo” onitsha: varsity press. william f. lawhead, (2002): “the voyage of discovery: a historical introduction to philosophy” usa: eve howard. kanu, ikechukwu anthony, (2012): “the equality of sexes in j. s. mill vis-à-vis the participation of women in the nigerian labour and economy” international journal of language, literature and gender studies bahir dar, ethiopia. vol. 1 (1). 69 a nation’s economy in the covid-19 pandemic era: what nigeria can learn from france clement chimaobi emefu abstract the covid-19 pandemic is revelatory of both positive and negative states of world economies. from a comparative analytical method of the sanitary measures put in place by various governments of the world, one can discern notable points of growth and decline (weakness) which could be lessons for world leaders. this paper argues that france as a european francophone economy could be a relevant example for nigeria. as an african anglophone economy which has always positioned itself as one of the economic powers in the continent, nigeria should brace up for the economic challenges of the post-covid era. the paper seeks to x-ray some of the fundamental ingredients which can support it in that direction. any other economy that aspires to survive in the forthcoming post pandemic future can also benefit from such trajectory. keywords: covid-19, economy, pandemic, lockdown, post-covid era. 1. introduction one needs to be an economic expert to be able to give an economic analysis under the covid-191 pandemic era. with its phenomenal impact on the world since early 2020, pushing the radical and unanticipated transformation of lifestyles of a good majority of our citizens, a lot can be said. a global crisis that turned automobile companies into producers of respiratory machines (bender & colias, 2020; salvador, 2020); taxi drivers were turned into ambulance owners (alasdair & danish, 2020); cosmetic companies turned into producers of hand sanitizers (ng, 2020); and even, monasteries and religious communities converted into private and medium scale enterprises for the production of face masks (hoyeau, 2020). the list can continue. all these speak for several economic indicators which got revealed as consequential to the outbreak of the coronavirus which causes the covid-19 disease. it was officially declared as a pandemic by the world health organization on march 11, 2020. from an eye witness experience in france since the outbreak of the pandemic, there have been unanticipated colossal events which hit the economic sector, while leaving a remarkable amount of transformative effects. a question could be asked further: why use france as an example for nigeria? these are two distinctly different countries, one anglophone and the other francophone, with almost parallel approaches to politico-economic realities. the choice can succinctly be justified on the fact that knowledge comes more when there are divergent views to one same reality. moreover, france and nigeria enjoy a long history of economic interactions. nigeria figures as one of the largest consumers of champagne, which aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 70 originates from france2. this is not just a multimillion dollar market, but also a solid machine which has the capacity to nourish the bilateral economic relations of the two countries. in addition, the recent years have seen a massive academic exchange programs between the two countries. nigerian graduates and postgraduates flood the french research centres with direct extension either to the french labour market or using the french system as a window into the european labour market. as it were, both campus france and the french service de coopération et d'action culturelle (scac) attached to the french embassy in nigeria, have this bilateral economic objective as a guiding principle in the discharge of their diplomatic duties. in return, the friends of nigeria (fon), a network of nigerian professionals in france, as an example of a nigerian initiative, do not just promote responsively to that paradigm but also positions itself as a vehicle and promoter of such dual strategic projects. based on these observations, we intend to discern fundamental indicators of not just a healthy or progressive economy3, but also other ingredients on which economic paradigms can be hatched and constructed for the future, especially for nigeria. against this backdrop, we could seek to designate what can be denoted as the foundational abc (rudiments) of a willing economy, following the french model. for an economy to stand the test of time, it must not just be anchored on various fundamental elements which ensure its existence, but also be able to prove its progress on those grounds. it is from this dimension that it could be asserted unequivocally that true governance thrives under a healthy economy. our concern in this context is not going to be the health consequences and/or the fragile nature of the health sector as revealed massively by the covid-19 pandemic. we rather wish to extrapolate those dull areas which radically demonstrate the porous state of the health sector in nigeria. consequently, we will use them to raise a collective awareness about the urgency for which this matter should be the concern of every government. it could also serve as an ingredient for promoting a more vibrant economic system which could always stand the waves of time. 2. foundational abc of a willing economy and the french model france ranks as one of the world’s economic powers. with an annual gross domestic product (gdp) per capita growth of about 1.3% in 2019 and 2020 (economic survey of oecd, 2019), it maintains a permanent seat in the un security council. france figures as well among both the g8 (g7) and the g20 nations4. the largely economically based designation of these few countries echoes much of their individual might along the lines of economic stability. given that a country’s economic power plays a significant role in the politics that it promotes both on the national and international levels, the g8 (g7) and the g20 nations are always projected as the first class citizens of the international community. france counts among these two groups for multiple reasons. emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 71 according to the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd) economic survey of 2016, france was the world’s fifth economic power in 2016 (and seventh in 2019 just behind the uk and india). it will be recalled that the country has recorded an estimated rate of 1.7% of its gdp growth in 2018, supported by a robust chain of investments, solid consumption of goods and services, favourable external conditions and domestic reforms. these make for the basic ingredients on which a strong country’s economic prospect is built. according to the updated imf forecasts from 14th april 2020, due to the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic, the gdp growth of france is expected to fall to -7.2% in 2020 and pick up to 4.5% in 2021, subject to the postpandemic global recovery. all these notwithstanding, in many sectors, the french economy is among the strongest in the world. this is because france is among the leading industrial economies in the automotive, aerospace, and railways sectors, as well as in cosmetics, luxury goods, insurance, pharmaceuticals, telecoms, power generation, defence, agriculture and hospitality. france is also the world's leading tourist destination – at least in terms of numbers, though not in terms of tourist spending. french companies operate worldwide; they run some of the big red buses in london, as well as trains and bus services all over europe. they also run supermarkets on four continents, including over 200 hypermarkets in china. french companies produce some of the pharmaceutical, beauty and dairy products that people use in their daily lives worldwide. regarding its labour market, france has one of the highest levels of graduates, and the highest number of science graduates per 1000 workers of any european country. the economic progress and advancement attributed to france did not arise from the vacuum. there are series of historical and political decisions taken by past french leaders focused on building a strong economy. in the years following the second world war, the french economy developed massively from a largely agrarian state with over 40% of the population still living on the land, into a modern industrial economy with world-class corporations and business leaders. in the years 1945 1975, known as "les trente glorieuses", the french economy grew by an average of 4.1% in terms of gdp per inhabitant, far faster than the usa or the uk, though slower than germany or japan. the french state which for most of this time was in the hands of conservatives played an active role through the establishment of a series of four year plans (contrats de plan), whereby the state set-up economic targets and economic priorities, but left it up to private enterprises to achieve or apply them. for example, the rapid development of the french motorway system was achieved (and is still being managed) by public investment offset by the sale of long-term concessions to private or semi-private companies to operate and maintain them. between 1945 and 1986, political leaders from charles de gaulle (a conservative) to françois mitterrand (a socialist) embarked on policies of nationalization and state’s intervention. for de gaulle, nationalization was seen as a tool of economic development, guaranteeing a stable environment for key sectors of the french economy, and also ensuring aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 72 support from his opponents on the left. he went on to nationalize the car-maker renault in 1945, as a means to help it recover from the war and also to placate the communist opposition and the unions. for mitterrand, nationalization was ideological. during his first tenure of office as the president, he initiated a wide range of nationalization projects touching different sectors, including banking, insurance and pharmaceuticals. however, for his second tenure of office, he advocated the famous "ni-ni" doctrine (the neithernor doctrine), proposing neither nationalization nor privatization. in actual fact, this was a way of admitting the failure of his previous policy. yet beyond the issue of nationalization or privatization, the french state has maintained an above-average ability to intervene in economic affairs. it remains a major shareholder in utilities such as électricité de france (edf) where it has a majority holding, and france telecom (orange), in which it has a 27% holding. as a result of its hands-on approach to economic management, france has been able to ensure some remarkable economic success stories. among the most visible of these is france's world-leading success in the field of rail infrastructure. france was the first country in the world to propose, plan and set up a dedicated highspeed rail network. today, the country can boast as the world's second most extensive high-speed rail network (after spain), one which runs without interruption from the north sea to the mediterranean, and east-west from near the german border to the lower reaches of the loire. state’s intervention in the automotive sector has helped renault become one of the main world players in the sector, as the french government still holds a 15% stake in the car company which, in turn, is the leading investor (almost 45%) in nissan. this is however, a visible progressive outcome of the state’s intervention policy in the french economic system, irrespective of what critics of such approach might hold to. in juxtaposition with the nigerian economic context, even though the two economies have a lot to share in reciprocity, the latter has much more it can learn from the former. according to the 2020 index of economic freedom of various countries, whereas france’s economic freedom score is 66.0 making its economy the 64th freest in 2020, nigeria’s economic freedom score is 57.2, making its economy the 116th freest in the 2020 index. its overall score has decreased by 0.1 point, reflecting a decline in the fiscal health score. nigeria is further ranked 14th among 47 countries in the sub-saharan african region, and its overall score is slightly above the regional average but well below the world’s average. this is contrasted by the french’s economic overall score which is below the regional average but well above the world average. it is important therefore to note: as the measurement of a free economy also largely depends on its dividends on its population, nigeria’s economy still struggles to find its roots in a wide range of dimensions. as it were, its economy has been mostly not free since 2007, when it emerged from the repressed category. it can also be underlined that the gdp growth of nigeria over the past five years has been unimpressive for such a resource-rich developing country (2020 index of economic freedom, 2020). this emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 73 is because, nigeria’s economic freedom and development have been battered by chronic and severe political instability, interference in the economy by the central bank of nigeria and the federal government, as well as the consequences of pervasive corruption. an economy which is saddled by power shortages, insecurity, high inflation rates and tight credit conditions cannot perform miracles to becoming robust. of course, all these parameters, whose direct impact could be easily be assessed on the subject-citizens, demonstrate the health of the economy. such a panoramic profile of france as an economic power, in relation to nigeria’s economic state, provides a tangible context for our reflection. the evaluation cycle can truly be completed when the dividends of the economic status quo are seen on the population. it could be qualified as dividends of economic success of the, either the french population (citizens) which counts about 64.7 million people, or the nigerian population which counts about 193.9 million people (2020 index of economic freedom, 2020). particularly in a challenging time such as the covid19 era, a proactive economy understands the need and is able to support the masses through a solidarity mechanism such as the social security system with all its enabling impact. when such is the case, following the logical principle of reciprocity, the government could easily impose various rules of inevitable lockdown, which are judged as measures to cut down the spread of the coronavirus. 3. the social security system: a pointer to an economy at the service of citizens in france, the "social security" is a public service of the state, which insures all the social risks of workers, employees and liberal professions, self-employed and non-salaried workers, agricultural employees. the service is available on the metropolitan territory of france, and also for french employees posted abroad. by means of the social security code, the state has entrusted its management to various private law bodies which, as a result, are entrusted with a public service mission (dupeyroux & prétot, 2008; greber & kahil-wolff, 2006). put differently, call it "social security" it also alludes to one of the means of ensuring a mutual interaction between the government and the citizens. regardless of their actual liability to income tax, since they present the nature of taxable sums, the indemnities paid on the occasion of the termination of the employment contract at the initiative of the employer come within the scope of social security contributions (2nd civil chamber july 6, 2017). the unprecedented circumstance of the covid-19 crisis fits into one of these juridical conditions. from the above juridical base, the benefits of the social security system could not be as salutary for millions of french citizens as it has been since the beginning of the covid-19 pandemic. “even though the government’s financial aid does not come in full and also as at when due because of a massive influx of people on the scheme, the little that comes has been our sole source of survival”, says ghislaine lebrun, a french colleague. this is because, she continues, “my husband and i aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 74 lost our jobs at the beginning of the lockdown, and our various companies had to declare bankrupt, as they could no longer function as they used to”. this is one out of millions of similar cases of precariousness of the economic health of many countries as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. when both medium and large scale enterprises can no longer work under strict sanitary regulations, a direct consequence is the dismissal of employees, at least to save the juridical personality of the entity. it was in the light of this that the french government, on the 11th of march 2020, announced, alongside the lockdown rules, the sum of €450 billion as its preliminary budget to "save the economy" (plane, 2020). in this notable economic package, salaries that were paid by various companies to their workers were almost entirely taken charge of by the government. it is interesting to note comparatively with the nigerian approach, such welfare package was not to be distributed to the population home after home. there is already an existing mechanism through which the government can directly “give and take” from its citizens. going by that, millions of french citizens, who were eligible for this direct assistance had their bank accounts credited in real time as the testimony of ghislaine above highlights. in addition to the traditional social security system which has been instituted in france since 1945, another massive social assistance initiative was taken by the government in march, and renewed in november 2020. to support the most modest households and young people under 25 years of age facing the financial difficulties linked to the pandemic crisis of covid-19, exceptional solidarity aid was agreed be paid to them from november 27, 2020. this aid of 150 € is increased in proportion to the number of children these people could have at their charge. service-public.fr went further to explain who can benefit from it and what the amounts were to be. this assistance is paid automatically to those who are entitled to it by way of family allowance funds, agricultural mutual funds or through the government agency of pôle emploi. this is because there is already an existing database with the above agency, which facilitates such interaction between the citizens and the government. it will be added to social assistance paid monthly throughout the year (french prime minister, 2020). correlatively, the nigerian government issued an economic package for citizens during the heat of the covid-19 pandemic, between the months of march and may 2020. the intention behind such initiative is not far from the idea that propels the french social solidarity initiative, with similar examples in other developed economies like the us and the uk. millions of naira were allocated to what was tagged “fg’s covid-19 palliatives”, as the minister of humanitarian affairs, disaster management and social development, hajiya sadiya umar farouq testified to at the beginning of the lockdown (agbedo et al., 2020). however good the intention could have been, was it possible to allocate an aid to a citizen that emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 75 cannot be accounted for? is it possible to reach out to a citizen who does not even exist in the “real consciousness” of the government: a citizen without identity, a citizen whose existence is not on any record except when he owns a driver’s license or an international passport? a citizen who is already dead almost at the same time he is born, since there is no trace of his coming into the world as nigerian? was there to be a functional system similar to that of the french social security and the like, there would not have been any reason for the government of nigeria and its agencies to create stores of warehouses where food materials were kept. these were obviously awaiting distribution to the population home after the other, only and according to the whims of few privileged individuals favoured by the minster in-charge of the package. even though the covid-19 palliatives remained hidden beyond the very lockdown period they were needed till the #endsars nationwide protesters discovered and pounced on them (obiezu, 2020), it still echoes glaringly the poverty of the nigerian economy. if a government cannot efficiently render basic services to its population, how then can it expect obedience to its laws by the same citizens it cannot serve? 4. the management of lockdown rules during the covid-19 pandemic as an economic indicator of a strong or weak economy the merit of every rule lies on its capacity to guide its subjects towards attaining a set objective. it is on this interpretation that the rules put in place to implement the lockdown measures against the covid-19 pandemic both in france and in nigeria, as well as in other parts of the world have their primordial raison d’être. a healthy rule can be identified from its endpoint, which is simply its reception and compliance by the subjects for which it is meant. it must not be enforced by naked brutal force, but rather by means of a more respectful approach, which serves the purpose of awakening the sense of responsibility on the subjects of the law. observations made both in the french and nigerian contexts leave a lot of interrogations in this regard. beyond using the police and the military on the street to enforce the sanitary measures put in place against the covid-19 pandemic, a government like that of nigeria has no other effective means of maintaining the lockdown regulations. as a nigerian citizen, up until the last decade, there is no available database which contains the individual profile of the nigerian population, through which a direct impact of governance can reach the last man on the street. apart from those who have driver’s license or international passports or civil servants, or bank accounts and the like, it is almost impossible to account for individual nigerians. the project for enrolling every citizen into a national identity card scheme has been ongoing for the past five to ten years, and yet has not been completed. put differently, it will be very difficult to ascertain a comprehensive record of nigerian citizens, right from birth to death as could be observed in most countries accomplishing developmental strides today. consequently, even “ghost workers” continue to receive salaries in various circles of public service. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 76 by contrast, it is almost impossible for there not to be an updated and actualized record of every french citizen in a database that the government uses in various active interactions with its population. it is through such a system that social services like taxes and medical insurance could be administered from beginning till the end. the french law enforcement agents therefore have no rights to abuse, let alone brutalize a law breaker as was the case severally in nigeria (bbc news, 2020). the french police, whose duty is to ensure that the lockdown rules were duly respected had just the mandate to attribute fines as from €135 to offenders. such a method, which consists of notifying the offender of his offence, while taking note of his particulars, can also be effective on the ground that there is a database which already contains the identity of the individual. in other words, with such established trace of the citizen, including name and address (known as the “état civil”), whatever penalty that is charged must surely be paid someday. the risk of not paying the initial fine of €135 does not worth it, as it will not only increase automatically at the expiration of the deadline originally stipulated, but will also at extreme cases, warrant the loss of possible benefits which could be gotten from the government. meanwhile, in the nigerian context, without a forceful arrest of the offender, there is no way for eventual penalties to be adhered to, since there is no centralized record of the offending-citizen anywhere. from the above, it comes to light that the administration of every economy is a dual responsibility. a progressive economy must be capable of having the “giveand-take” principle of reciprocity. as it sounds logical that for nature to respect man, man must respect nature, so too, for the citizen to serve the government, the government must serve its citizen. no government could put up laws, expecting them to be respected without putting in place the basic elements which smoothly guarantee the observance of such laws. it is like giving an authoritative injunction that the streets must be kept clean, whereas there is no provision of dustbins in which wastes can be collected. such rule of engagement highlights the basic ingredients of an administrative process whereby true governance could produce a healthy economy (as in the case of france and nigeria for example). 5. true governance of a nation thrives under a healthy economy, and vice versa the symbiotic relationship between the act of governance and the economy of any nation is such that none can be functional without the other. this assertion could be represented as the kind of relationship which exists between a sim card and the mobile telephone itself: none can actualise an effective telephone communication alone. in other words, it is only the combination of both objects that can give rise to an effective communication amongst people, which constitutes their main objective of being assembled together. in a similar way, the act of governance and the notion of economy are two central realities whose essence depends on their coexistence. emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 77 in 1992, the world bank had defined governance as the manner in which power is exercised over the management of economic and social resources for development (as cited in weiss, 2000). subsequently, this definition turned out to be somewhat narrow, as it did not take into account the role of the civil society and the importance of political institutions and civil liberties. aware of that lack, the oecd went on to highlight three essential characteristics of governance: the form of the political regime; the process by which authority is exercised in the management of the country's economic and social resources; and the capacity of the state to formulate and implement policies and to carry out its functions (as cited in dessart, ubogu, 2001). the foregoing brings us to the economic role of the state in any given political context. it would be very difficult to add anything to the rich intellectual legacy bequeathed to us by the great political economists — adam smith, john stuart mill, and so many others over the past two centuries. to avoid the risk of falling into an extreme simplification, one could consider that the economic role of the state has evolved according to objective and historical conditions. it can also be argued that it developed alongside the more subjective views that characterized the intellectual tradition in economics during this period. according to philosophers and those who wrote on political economy in the late 18th century and most of the 19th century, the economic role of the state was limited to compensating for externalities and possible distortions arising from the dysfunction of markets and the provision of public goods. subsequently, as societies became more complex and industrial economies engendered dislocations and disparities, countries began to invoke income distribution concerns, thus adding to their inevitable functions of taking charge of the poor, the sick and the disadvantaged populations. from this background then, there could be a feasible extrapolation of what has been experienced on concrete terms by most economies of the world today. for example, there is no social security system which can be put together with no economic consequences. simply put, the mere conception and attempt to administer the governmental apparatus is economically intensive. following the struggle to responding to the covid-19 pandemic since early 2020, the first major concern of most governments was how to save the economy. it was along this line that the french president, emmanuel macron, while promulgating several lockdown rules, called attention to possible threats to the economy. considering the gravity of the situation, there was sufficient reason to look into the french foreign reserves and decide the amount to be dedicated to saving all forms of enterprises that stir the economy. all these, hallmark of an active economy, were considered to be under colossal threat resulting from the aftermath of the coronavirus crisis. as a result, a clear-cut support plan for both individual citizens and for the collective economy at large was put on the table of the french prime minister. as it were, any economy that aspires to a dynamic level cannot compromise the need to be always proactive. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 78 envisaging the future amidst its uncertainties as encapsulated in the covid-19 crisis assures a firmer control of the economic sector, a major point in the various announcements made by the french government. 6. government support for the economy in the era of covid-19 pandemic at the wake of the covid-19 pandemic, the second crisis alert given by the french government after that of the health sector was on the economy. this was demonstrated in the mobilization of the offices of the prime minister – head of government, the health and economic ministries, side by side. in real time, one could observe the collaboration of these governmental institutions with ministerial portfolios in various measures to respond to the threatening challenges. with sanitary measures put in place to cut down the spread of the virus, one could have expected the next attention to be given to the maintenance of law and order around the sanitary regulations by the military department. but it turned out to be that the sector of the economy became the most urgent preoccupation of the entire government: how to save the economy! from the facts on the ground, the consequences of the covid-19 crisis on the french, european and world economy are major. gdp growths and international trade have contracted, and almost all sectors of the economy have seen their activity decline, to a total shutdown in some cases. the french government has mobilized itself to propose several emergency measures to support the economy and businesses: partial unemployment, deferral of charges, contributions, and loans guaranteed by the state to the tune of €300 billion as solidarity fund for very small businesses, etc. very directly and for example, several measures have been implemented by the ministry for europe and foreign affairs in the economic sectors under its jurisdiction: tourism and export, which have been severely affected by the health crisis. the foreign affairs minister, jean-yves le drian and secretary of state, jean-baptiste lemoyne brought together regional presidents, parliamentarians, public and private export players and industry representatives on several occasions to discuss the challenges and impacts of the pandemic to foreign trade and french exports, and to prepare for the recovery. these meetings enabled a regular update on the consequences of the pandemic for exporting companies, in particular, for small and medium-sized enterprises (smes); to draw an initial assessment of the actions taken; and to make proposals for the coming months (french foreign affairs ministry, 2020). from this perspective and on the continental level, france with a proactive project of law on the floor of the european union, was the first european country to encourage the union to put a collective measure against the crisis. on march 10, 2020, it requested an extraordinary european council meeting and called for coordinated border measures to prevent countries from adopting an individualist approach. it should be recalled that the crisis is happening in the context of the brexit fever, which doubles the continental challenge for the european countries. therefore, the seriousness and urgency of the communal initiative pushed the emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 79 french president to take this concern himself to the eu parliament, in search of support for a collective eu response to the impending economic crisis. seemingly in his thoughts, a global pandemic such as covid-19 could not attract any commensurate response less than global and continental. following from the above initiative, the heads of state and government of europe came together to take several measures to coordinate the public health efforts, aimed at protecting europeans and to reduce the socioeconomic impact of the crisis. with such alert given on the imminent threat on the economy, the expressed concern was how to rescue collapsing businesses and save jobs which were risking high losses (french ministry of europe and foreign affairs, 2020). on the part of the nigerian government, we had seen a somewhat pessimistic approach put in place in response to any economic crisis occasioned by the covid-19 pandemic. apart from the ncdc5 – a sub-agency under the ministry of health – which has been issuing out basic information concerning the coronavirus pandemic, it seems that the federal government of nigeria is not worried about the state of the economy. as it were, there has been no visible plan for a rescue operation for the economy, both on the national level and even on the continental level. such an observation leaves many interrogations on the table regarding how much control such a government has on its internal economic affairs, especially in the post-covid nearest future. 7. control of governance: saving the economy in the post-covid future sequel to the above exposé on the proactive measures put in place by many governments around the world like france, one can quickly identify any government which has a firm grip of the affairs of governance. the notion of control does not allude to seizure for any kind of exploitation, but rather in the sense of mastery of the rudiments of public administration. it will therefore be impossible to make projections on the present or future state of any economy whereby there is no hold of it. what is certain is that the economic crisis which is already being caused by the covid-19 pandemic is the most serious since the end of the second world war. the longer it is going to last, the more consistent the responsive measures from various states should have to be, especially as the crisis unleashes deeper scars on the economic fabric (charrel, 2020). what should be understood is that a deficient management of the health crisis relating to the covid-19 pandemic leaves much to say of any government’s ability to come to the rescue of its troubling economy. this is so because the economic crisis is a reality in the context of the current sanitary situation both for france and nigeria. the fundamental question that begs for an answer is: are there sufficient chances to save what is left of the economy? right from the start, there were already conflicting information as regards the nature of the coronavirus. this difficult circumstance which leveled on all governments of the world most probably caused much harm to the economy, indirectly. the role of the who could not salvage the situation, as countries like the us even demonstrated their aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 80 anger against the international health organization. it was obvious that the number of lives that were lost would invariably impact adversely on the economic force. there were several indemnities which needed to be paid for by insurance companies and government agencies, or even the loss of human resources, which constituted a big loss for the labour market. an average nigerian may be of the same opinion that the nigerian economic system, which has no much link to the human forces of its population is excluded from such projection. as a matter of fact, there may not be much fear about the loss of human forces for the labour market since the coronavirus has only claimed 1,254 lives (out of a population of about 193 million people) since its outbreak earlier in 2020. this number of deaths is out of 84,414 confirmed cases, out of which 71,034 had been discharged (ncdc: 2020). be that as it may, with the fact of the global nature of the world’s economy today, everything is connected. this is to the extent that whatever economic crisis that is happening in the global market today will certainly have levels of repercussions on any national economy, even of a very “remote” country. therefore, the concern weighs on every economy of the world arising from the havoc which the pandemic in question wrecks all over. that makes it a universal problematic, which leaves no exception. for governments to make optimistic projections on how to salvage their respective economies remain a necessary preoccupation of the moment. 8. beyond management of the covid-19 pandemic to basics for an economic reconstruction from these considerations, it will certainly not be sufficient to raise alarm of the tragic impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the economy of every nation around the world especially nigeria. an initiative which will equally be more enriching will involve concrete steps which would assist in a rescue mission for the economy of the future. it is along this line that we tried to use the case-study of france as a comparative example for an important geopolitical economy like that of nigeria. this can invariably be applied or extended to any other country in the journey of development. we could further accentuate a number of concrete indices which could demand a constant attention from those responsible for piloting the economic affairs. from the foregoing, it would not be enough to have simply on record that nigeria’s population is 193.9 million people according to the current statistics of the 2020 index of economic freedom. we may not also dwell on fundamental interrogation of how such figure was derived and its eventual exactitude at the moment. the more essential point to be made hinges on how much the government possesses a comprehensive data, which contains the accurate particulars of every citizen from birth to death. this should be the beginning of determining the economic capacity and be able to project the nigerian working force, as well as the force that could be transformed into the economic market. emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 81 as highlighted from the french paradigm, any form of social solidarity, which can be institutionalized is one of the ways to enshrine a mutual collaboration between the public and private sectors of governance. put differently, the established governmental structure cannot do it alone. there is always a need for the support of the private sector. with a symbiotic relationship established through various means of social solidarity, a collective effort becomes a strong source for facing any foreseen and unforeseen economic and/or socio-political crisis that could ever arise. if the nigerian economy desires to stand up today and in the forthcoming postcovid-19 era, the government must think out of the traditional box. gone are the days of “manual economic policies”. the covid-19 pandemic is ushering a new world order, in the sense of divergent transformation in every day to day style of living which our society had still known as at january 2020. this includes the rapport between and among people, down to the digitalization of goods and services, integration with the various forms of artificial intelligence into both professional and private life. these new modes of living, which the pandemic has gradually imposed on every man and woman today, directly or indirectly affect the core of the human economy under the care of every government of the world. to be able, therefore, to respond and match with the new trend, no existing economic society can continue to remain archaic. if nigeria is still battling today, in 2020, with the problem of electricity supply to the nooks and crannies of the country, that singular example speaks volumes of the gigantic work which still needs to be done so as to secure and establish a conducive environment for the young population on whose hand depends the future success of the economy. in all, it is better late than never. 9. conclusion to conclude, the traces of failure in the response to the economic crisis being caused by the covid-19 pandemic on the part of the nigerian government speak louder of a more systemic problem. the “manual” management of the nigeria’s fg palliatives demonstrates an economic system which is either struggling to stand or is weak. it further shows a non-existent “give-and-take” relationship between the government and its citizens. such a problematic therefore calls for an urgent attention as the world anticipates a post covid-19 pandemic era, which definitely will come with new challenges especially for the global economy. it is in this guise that this paper seeks for a model to run a dynamic economic system in the post covid-19 pandemic era. with some of the elements highlighted above, the french response in the heat of the health crisis has much to contribute to the nigerian economic project. this is because, it shows an economic model which could stand the shock of unforeseen risks like the coronavirus crisis. the social solidarity system reveals a concrete product of such a dynamic economy. it is simply a pointer towards a firmer construction of an aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 82 economic system which can better respond to the impending challenges which the post covid-19 era is going to unleash. it is important to reiterate that the french economic model was born out of historical antecedents and a political will. any project therefore to construct a dynamic and robust economic system might better integrate such a tested, proven and efficient model. this paper seeks to conclude by proposing the french economic model to the nigerian government and to other developing economies in the african continent and beyond. a proactive approach is always invaluably salutary. though the covid-19 pandemic has been overwhelming the entire world and even destructive of so many institutional structures that have served so many economies since the last global pandemic of the spanish flu of 1918, it equally ushers in a good number of economic dynamics. unarguably, it occasions an opportunity for paradigmatic revolutions in all sectors of life. it is only the nation that is able to read the signs of time now that will be able to thrive better in the event of the monumental transformation that is very imminent. finally, while it takes france sometime to arrive at this level of economic development as noted above, the factor of leadership has always been very crucial to this growth. like chinua achebe put it succinctly that “trouble with nigeria is the failure of leadership” (achebe, 1983), this same factor of leadership still demands a more urgent consideration today in view of the development of nigeria. notes 1 covid-19 is the disease caused by a new coronavirus called sars-cov2. it was first discovered in wuhan, people's republic of china (cf. world health organisation. what is covid-19? world health organisation [online].retrieved november 20, 2020 from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umh pzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pv-. 2 if nigeria is not among the biggest consumers of champagne in the world, she ranks as the africa’s top champagne importer. looking at imports, nigeria was the 23rd largest champagne importer in the world in 2014. the uk and us have maintained their top two positions for the past several years, said batonnet, a researcher at the comité champagne, a trade association that represents growers and producers in france. “[nigeria] has never appeared in the top 10. but nigeria has been, for some years now, the [top] importer of champagne in africa.” demian, m. (2020). no, nigeria is not the world’s biggest champagne consumer after france. africa check. retrieved november 22, 2020, from https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggestchampagneconsumer-after-france/. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 83 3 this paper employs the term “economy” in two forms: first, “economy” as a country with all its governmental apparatus. second, “economy” as a large set of inter-related production, consumption, and exchange activities that aid in determining how scarce resources are allocated. in other words, economy as the management of goods and commodities in a given society. this article employs as at when necessary this notion in this double variation. 4 the group of eight (g8) refers to the group of eight highly industrialized nations—france, germany, italy, the united kingdom, japan, the united states, canada, and russia—that hold an annual meeting to foster consensus on global issues like economic growth and crisis management, global security, energy, and terrorism. the forum enables presidents and prime ministers, as well as their finance and foreign ministers, to candidly discuss pressing international issues. it should be noted that the aggregate gdp of g8 states makes up some 50 percent of the global economy. this explains why this comity of nations wedges a lot of economic influence on the rest of the world. russia formally joined the group in 1998, after steps toward democratization and years of gradual engagement with what was then the g7. however, moscow faced renewed criticism in march 2014 on the heels of its invasion of neighbouring ukraine’s crimea region, the home of russia’s black sea fleet and many ethnic russians, amid political transition in the capital of kiev. the seven other members of the g8, joined by the presidents of the european council and european commission, released a joint statement as the g7 condemning "the russian federation’s clear violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of ukraine." russia’s actions "contravene the principles and values on which the g7 and the g8 operate," they said, announcing a suspension of preparatory talks for the sochi summit (cited in laub, z. (2014). the group of eight (g8) industrialized nations. council on foreign relations [online]. retrieved november 30, 2020, from https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/groupeightg8-industrialized-nations. 5 the nigeria centre for disease control (ncdc) was established in the year 2011 in response to the challenges of public health emergencies and to enhance nigeria’s preparedness and response to epidemics through prevention, detection and control of communicable diseases (retrieved december 7, 2020, from https://ncdc.gov.ng/). https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://ncdc.gov.ng/ https://ncdc.gov.ng/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 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https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993619 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993619 http://www.legifrance.fr/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. (1), 2021 86 2020 index of economic freedom (2020, november). retrieved december 26, 2020, from https://www.heritage.org/index/. https://www.heritage.org/index/ https://www.heritage.org/index/ journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 54 abstract environmental philosophy reflects on the natural environment and the place of man. the crucial questions are human relation to environmental challenges such as environmental degradation, climate change, etc. there are catalogues of environmental disciplines from numerous faculties of human research such as environmental philosophy and ethics, environmental epidemiology, environmental microbiology, geography, environmental management, economics, and more. the multifaceted character leading to environmental crisis questions the extent of these human inquiries and their contributions. the problem is that, human activities and negligence to the adverse effects some of these activities has on the environment is costing us our most habitable planet. environmental philosophy involves the reflection of nature which transcends the question about the 'ought' and 'is' of the natural world. using an expository analyticalmethod, we shall elucidate, and clarify environmental ideas and problems, charting the course for environmental activities and principles to be followed in carrying out experiments on the environment. the aim of this paper is to query the existing order of environmental activities and proffer possible ways in which all in the belly of the earth can be preserved from the crisis of anthropocentrism thereby creating an awareness of the danger ensued from human activities to the environment. moral obligation and relational responsibility should be extended to also non-human counters. the significance of this paper is in the solutions it proffers to resolve the problems of environmental degradation and preservation, because environmental degradation does not affect only the environment but also humans. keywords: environment, climate, humans, degradation, ethics. introduction environmental philosophy emerged as a branch of philosophy in the 1970s. it was an attempt to connect humanity's sense of alienation from nature. the trending debate around the 1970s and 80s was that of whether nature has intrinsic value in itself and is independent of human values or its value is merely instrumental with ecocentrism or deep ecology approaches emerging on the one hand versus consequentialist or pragmatist anthropocentric on the other. the aspect of philosophy that is very concerned with environmental and human values is environmental ethics. it asks crucial questions about human-environmental relations such as what do we mean when we talk about nature, what is the value of the environment, that is non-human environment to us, or in itself, what response should we give nature and environmental challenges such as environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change, how can we best understand environmental philosophy: revisiting the paradigm shift and environmental preservation charles b. berebon, ph.d & judith g. gwatana the relationship between the natural world and human technology and development, and what is our hermeneutics and environmental theology? before recent times, ethics or ethical values seemed to have eluded the environment and some biomes that makes up the eco-system and centred mostly around human beings, perhaps, if it were centred on the entire eco-system we would see how the functioning of every life and everything in our ecosystem are in sync. the ethics of anthropocentric hegemony fuelled the vehicle of th industrialization in the mid-20 century in a somewhat blind manner and this has landed us where we are, a place where we are struggling for safety and preservation of life because of the outcome of our activities. according to callicot (2008), guidance may have been sought from an understanding of the macro cosmos, ethics was confined to the microcosmos of human affairs. the actual physical world of plants, animals, and ecosystems was relentlessly exploited. our environment is seen to be made up of biotic and abiotic elements that are living and non-living organisms/things. the range of things we see whether they occurred naturally or because of human activities (man-made), constitutes what form our environment, which means that natural elements such as water, land, air, plants areas, mountains, animals, humans, and the universe itself are constituents of our environment just as transportation, technology and communication, buildings etc. are part of the environment. we also see that the environment of a place/region largely determines the climate condition of such a place, if not immediately, then eventually. according to the merriam-webster dictionary, the climate is defined not only as “the prevailing set of conditions” but also as “the prevailing influence or environmental conditions characterizing a group or period ”. this means that if environmental features change or are altered, it invariably affects the climate condition of such an environment. but why is the climate so important? it is because the climate can literally determine where life can habit, it affects our food sources, and it determines what we wear, and so on. seeing how important the environment is, we can also see why it should be preserved from abuse and misuse. it is therefore the duty of philosophy to open our eyes and minds to see the problems with the present state of things, this perhaps will enable us to come to terms with the reality of our environmental problems and find ways to solve them. philosophical concerns for the environment environmental philosophy is a branch of philosophy that is primarily concerned with the natural environment and the human environment. for mathews, environmental philosophy examines our relationships as humans with our natural environment: it reviews our philosophical understandings of nature and our conception of nature's value and entitlements, (matthews, 2014).according to matthews (2014), part of environmental philosophy is, therefore, exploring what we know and justifiably believe about the environment. but we have to be careful not to stop there. environmental philosophy requires us to develop wisdom about the environment. environmental philosophy focuses on a holistic picture of the environment, deconstructing the dualistic mechanistic conception of the world and to give an ecological organic world view. this philosophy can influence our attitude towards the environment in positive ways where we are able to interact with the environment without degrading the natural resources. our 55 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 planet earth is ill, the deplorable environment is of great concern since we depend on the natural environment for our livelihood but also for existence. human activities have disrupted the ecological systems and natural cycles leading to deforestation, flooding, eroding soils, deteriorating rangelands, and the disappearing species each of which severs the web of life. as noted by kii; this growing cosmic disharmony is evident in rivers running dry, destructive storms, the thinning of the ozone layer, melting glaciers, dying coral reefs etc. the so-called greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere, contributing to the global warming that has evidently changed our weather patterns, increased the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the earth surface and damaging both human health and ecosystems. the implication of all this is that the earth is wounded, under unsupportable stress, leading to an increasing discordance on the earth, thus rendering our planet less habitable, more dangerous, and less bountiful. environmental philosophy is the attempt to outline the fundamental assumptions, basic principles, and normative ideas that characterize and shape a society's conception of itself in relation to its fellow life and the natural life-supporting environment. this includes the interpretation and evaluation of the kinds of practices and ways of life that may be licensed, cultivated, or encouraged by that society's general conception of itself in relation to its environment. for norman (2003), one of the central tenets of the environmental philosophy outlined here is that humanity's relation to nature is shaped in varying degrees by the general conception of nature and human nature that is shared among its members.it should be noted that the sole aim of environmental philosophy is to reawaken some unexamined ideologies, values, and assumptions about why humans treat the environment the way they do and then to give an intelligent human response to the issues surrounding the environment, by so doing calling humanity to her moral responsibility for the damages the advance in technology and science is causing to the natural systems, leading to the environmental crisis. two issues amongst many are of utmost concern to environmental philosophers, they are, environmental degradation and climate change. environmental degradation and climate change: ecological paradigm shift environmental degradation can be referred to as the devaluation and destruction of forces and components of the environment.environmental degradation is the deterioration of elements such as air and soil, the destruction of ecosystems, habitat destruction, the extinction of wildlife, and pollution,. these destructions also include large-scale clearing of forces by cutting down tree and burning of biomass (deforestation), desertification, drought, soil erosion, water pollution etc. are activities of human which portrays the absence of value for the ecosystem. for schramm, environmental degradation is a product of five interrelated causes: (1) too many people, (2) some of whom are consuming too much, (3) using powerful technologies that frequently damage nature's 56 berebon & gwatana environmental philosophy: revisiting the paradigm shift ... ecosystems, (4) supported by economic and political systems that permit and even encourage degradation and (5) informed by anthropocentric attitudes toward nature (schramm et.al, 2003). climate can be described as the average course or condition of the weather at a place usually over a long period of years as exhibited by temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation,. climate change on the other hand refers to a change or shift in the average climate condition of a region over a span of period. climate change can also be referred to as the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns,. climate change is believed to include global warming and is caused by human activities through the emissions of greenhouse gasses. greenhouse gasses that are being emitted are increasing dangerously and certain natural phenomena such as trees etc. which are meant to ameliorate the effects of these greenhouse gasses (which include carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) are being tempered with, misused, and abused alongside other natural and environmental biomass. the result of these is that the glass (greenhouse) which protects our planet from the ultra-violet rays of the sun has now cracked and caused the shifts we see in our climate conditions around the world. some of the effects include altering ecosystems and natural habitats, rising sea levels, frequent and more intense extreme weather conditions, etc.. when we engage the tool of philosophy (which is to questioning) on the issues of environmental degradation and climate change in order to ascertain the what, why, and how of the problems, we find out that it is a result of certain 'careless' human activities. for several decades and centuries, issues of values, good, bad, right, and wrong have been limited within the horoscope of the human space, ignoring the presence and importance of other biomass in our ecosystems, therefore our attitude and activities toward this other biomass is the reason for the destruction of both our environment and our very selves. thus, the ethics of value has had to be redirected from anthropocentrism to more holistic ethics of values for the entire eco. this new paradigm is expressed in environmental ethics or what some call 'anti-anthropocentrism', which is seeking the value for and the protection and preservation of our environmental forces. in a bid for survival in situations of lack and scarcity, people resort to various safe and unsafe means of surviving, therefore, poverty is not left out as it has contributed to the further destruction of the environment. environmental deterioration has exacerbated the paucity of resources and forced people to adopt survival strategies that are harmful to the environment. . philosophy has the potential to salvage and rehabilitate the environment, and the biodiversity through an imperative critical appraisal. environmental and development policymakers who ignore indigenous environmental philosophy can never achieve the success they desire, (kelbessa, 2022). since the environmental movement began four decades ago, there have been many different opinions as to what roles humans should play in protecting and preserving the environment, whether it is important (ethical viewpoint), and also the environment's impact on animals, economics, and creation of 57 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 change. many people assume that the environment is in no danger and that we do not need to worry about recycling, protecting animal rights, and preserving the environment for future generations. we seem to overlook the fact that, humans are just another living being on the planet and have an equal part in the ecosystem as other living things. therefore, life on earth should be treated as a single living system that includes interdependent living beings with their own rights. on the other hand, the destruction of the scenery, water pollution, air pollution, and similar environmental problems due to the increase in technology is not only affecting human beings (increase in health problems like asthma), but are also affecting the other living things and changing the natural environment we live in. however, if science and technology can create these problems, they should also have a solution to them. for the past few years, humans were blamed for their domination and greed toward nature. ecology as a discipline in the expanded sense of a combined socio-economic and biological science, examines how human misuse of 'nature' is causing pollution to the environment (biotic and abiotic), thereby threatening the base of life upon the human species itself depends on .our concern for the environment and natural resources also raises the question of our obligations toward future generations. from a social contract view of ethics or for the ethical egoist, the answer would seem to be that we owe nothing to them because we can gain nothing from them. most other ethical theories, however, do give weight to the interests of our coming generations. the utilitarian would think that the potential existence of future generations should not constitute the reason for us to give less consideration to their interest than we give to our own. a healthy environment is essential to the well-being of the planet and its inhabitants who depend on it for the air they breathe, the water they drink as well as the food they eat. unhealthy environments and lack of the natural resources essential for health such as food, fresh and uncontaminated water and air also contribute much to ill health and consequently deaths. plants and animals of the natural ecosystem can be of health hazard depending on how we control them. by adequately protecting our environment, we set our lives against diseases and environmental degradation and alienate suffering and untimely deaths. these natural resources put us in our proper place, and failure to appreciate this value is not only an aesthetic failure but one of due humility and reverence, a moral disability. ethical implication of environmental degradation surely our actions and activities have future consequences for the continuation of life on earth. the issue of justice and fairness which are central to ethical discourse comes into play if we must answer the questions and issues before us. apparently, human actions and activities towards the environment over the centuries have turned out to be neither just nor fair. “changes in weather patterns have increased storm activity along the coast, affecting human coastal communities…ultraviolet radiation from the thinning ozone layer will interfere with vegetation” . these human-induced events (i.e., deforestation, overexploitation, invasive species, overharvesting etc.) stand in the way of achieving social justice and the concept of being just or fair generally. social justice involves the distribution of resources, wealth, privileges, and opportunities (i.e. food, water and 58 berebon & gwatana environmental philosophy: revisiting the paradigm shift ... shelter) amongst individuals and societies in a fair way, but with the fast and multiple depletion of these resources, achieving fairness or justice would be nothing but mirages as there will be nothing to distribute eventually and the clamour for what is left will result to a situation of “might is right” a situation that is being fought and sought to be replaced with fairness and justice. man's unjust behaviour towards the environment has now turned out to also be man's unjust behaviour to humanity as well. the importance of distribution of resources in social justice, especially as it concerns the environment is t, it will reduce if not eliminate the role poverty plays in harming the environment. despite the increasing damage being done to our environment because of our activities, we are taking very little to no responsibility for our actions, yet we are 'moral agents'. the effects of environmental degradation on our climate has brought to our knowledge the issue of 'intergenerational justice'. the anthropocentric man's ideology has contributed a great deal in bringing us to this point where our climate is no longer safe for us, if we do not take responsibility for our actions which is the first step towards correcting it, total disaster is inevitable. the issue of intergenerational justice concerns what we owe our future generation in terms of global climate conditions and the continuity of all life forms. thus, the various flaring effects of environmental degradation on our climate is a call to our moral responsibility, a call for justice and fairness, especially in the areas of social and intergenerational justice which concerns themselves with the extent to which our behaviour and activities affect resource and relates among different generations. fortunately, there are several feasible ways to correct the damage being done and save the future. the way forward environmental philosophers have seen a need to improve on our present ethical codes in order to take into account our behaviour towards the environment. this has developed into a branch of ethics called environmental ethics. although some philosophers believe that the present ethical codes are adequate to include non-humans simply by extension, some have seen the need to create a completely new ethical and metaphysical descriptions that were human-centred or anthropocentric. to avoid anthropocentrism philosophers have developed an ethics termed 'biocentric ethics'. biocentric ethics refers to any theory that views life as possessing intrinsic value, . aldo leopold (1949) argues that a thing is right where it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. it is wrong when it tends otherwise.the moral theory of aldo leopold is an invitation for a revisit on our interrelationships with nature in which humans have the responsibility and the stewardship towards care. although practical solutions are being found to some environmental problems nothing can be done really effectively without a coherent theory to underpin practical decision-making, . however, one way to promote any idea is through education, creating literacy on the subject matter. it is fundamental now that environmental education is taught from the nursery to the secondary sections of every school and by government mandate a compulsory subject and in the tertiary institutions, environmental philosophy is made a compulsory course for all faculties in all tertiary institutions. by introducing environmental education to our school curriculum across all 59 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 levels, we will be establishing the sustainability of every solution that will be proffered towards environmental preservation because posterity will always be informed. given that environmental issues have become a global issue, several earth submits have been held to address environmental issues and this study encourages us to adopt their recommendations where necessary. rio+20 is one of the earth summits organized by the united nations with the aim of identifying and recommending problems and solutions to humanity's pressing challenges and obstacles to development and a better life. since 1992, the summit has paid more attention to the environment as a sure way to sustainable development, after all, without it we cannot even be. the purpose of the rio+2012 issues briefs is to provide a channel for policymakers & other interested stakeholders to discuss and review issues relevant to the objective and themes of the conference, including a green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradications. the goal is to ensure that while we are 'developing we are not also 'dying', that is our methods and models of development must be all-embracing like that of the 'green economy' which includes renewable energy, green buildings, sustainable transport, water management, waste management. the implementation of a green economy guarantees the survival and continuity of biodiversity. the green economy is defined as an economy that aims at making issues of reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment.(wikipedia, 2021). a study of ecological and environmental issues reveals that national as well as international survival of our world depends on our involvement in the very survival of human species and the natural endowments by which man, through its proper management improves his standard of living and makes this global village a better place to live in. conclusion the environmental degradation only surmises what the future holds for us if the measures suggested in this paper others on environmental preservation are not considered seriously. being aware of and embracing the facts of the matter is the first step towards making any difference, there is a need therefore, to first of all to be conscious and be reawaken from our collective ecological slumber and rise to the occasion of preserving our environment. for this reason, our previous ways of carefreeness towards the environment and our activities that degrades it should be dealt with. there is no gainsaying that our earth is ill. the responsibility for resolving the ecological injustice is in the hands of humans, unless corrective actions are taken, we may be losing our common home. there is, therefore, a need for relational and moral obligation towards the earth. the ecology will outlive man, so there is a need for a healthy relationship and attitude towards the environment. there is a need to rekindle interest in environmental preservation and conservation. 60 berebon & gwatana environmental philosophy: 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degradation wikipedia, green economy, http://www.gjia.georgetown.edu/2022/02/16/african-environmentalphilosophy-injustice-and-policy https://researchgate.net https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/environment#:~:text=1%20%3a%20a%20person's%2 0physical%20surroundings,in%20a%20comfortable%20rural%20environment https://www.nationalgeographic.org/ topics/resource-library-climate/?q=&page=1&per_page=25 http://www.eolss.net/samplechapters/co4/e6-25-04-03.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/environmental_degradation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/green_economy#:~:text=a%20green%20econom y%20is%20an,a%20more%20politically%20applied%20focus 61 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 http://www.gjia.georgetown.edu/2022/02/16/african-environmental-philosophy-injustice-and-policy https://researchgate.net https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environment https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-climate/?q=&page=1&per_page=25 http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/co4/e6-25-04-03.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/environmental_degradation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/green_economy page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 1 pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies columbus n. ogbujah ph.d. & nympha u. nkama abstract the declaration of a disease as a pandemic not only shows the explosive magnitude of its geographic spread, but the intensity of its impact on human lives arising from its high attack rate. the impacts of the current covid-19 (coronavirus sars-cov-2) disease is but a reminder of the life-threatening power of all pandemics, as well as their negative influence, especially within the economic and health sectors of the world. besides human suffering and death induced directly by epidemics or indirectly by attendant economic strangulation, there is the issue of government mitigation efforts and control. at some point, measures of containment seem to fail the ethical tests of: respect for autonomy, the principle of beneficence, the principle of non-maleficence, and the principle of justice, thereby imperiling the democratic gains of societies. in this article, we discussed the impactful influence of pandemics on individual and social lives; we highlighted some well-intentioned but unethical interventions of governments to combat this menace. following the hermeneutic and analytic methods, we conclusively argued that the intrusive nature of some government interventions stifle liberal principles, and imperil much of the gains of developing democracies. introduction for the most part, scholars have identified people's choices for varying forms of governments across the ages. plato, for instance, frequently iterated his five-fold categories of government, arising from one ruler (royalty and tyranny), few rulers (aristocracy and oligarchy), and many rulers (democracy) (plato's statesman 302c-d). while he regards constitutional monarchy as the best of all (statesman 302e), he considers democracy as the worst, for “the government of the multitude is weak in all respects and able to do nothing great, either good or bad, when compared with the other forms of government” (statesman 303a). aristotle adapted these in his three-fold categories with corresponding correct and deviant forms: if sovereignty resides in one person, it is royalty. its perverted form is tyranny. if sovereignty resides in a small set of the population, it is aristocracy. if this small set uses the sovereignty for its own selfish interests, it is oligarchy. if the sovereign power resides in a large proportion of the population, it is polity or constitutional government. its perverted form is democracy (politics iii.7. 1279b). thus, in both plato and aristotle, democracy, as propelled by the peculiar interests of the needy, is a perverse form of government. ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 2 in political history, the ancient greece was the first to create a democracy. as arising from the concepts demos (people) and kratos (rule), democracy encapsulates the idea that the ordinary people should take active roles in the governance of their land, either directly or indirectly through elected representatives. in whichever form it is practiced, the overriding core lies in the idea that people have a voice; a say in the determination of their fortunes―good or bad. the athenian direct democracy which developed around the 5th century bce is different from its present-day practice not only because of its directness (which allows every citizen to vote on every law), but because of its segregatory system of delineating citizenship: only free men were considered citizens in athens. women, children, slaves, peasants and foreigners were not considered citizens and therefore could not participate in the democratic process (aristotle, politics, vii. 8 & 9, 1328-1329). at different times, there have arisen leading socio-political structures with varying ethical implications on the citizen. in the hellenistic world, the rule of the divine king helped the flourishing of aristocracy up to the time of the roman empire and beyond. this was overtly a divisive and oppressive structure which was open to frequent abuses, since the people's fortune depended on the whims of the monarch. but a turning point came with the intellectual evolution of the enlightenment, when individual efforts coalesced into powerful revolutionary movements that in time dismantled various forms of monarchical establishments. prior to, and serving as a catalyst to the enlightenment was the 1688 glorious revolution in england which, by limiting the constitutional power of the monarch and establishing the principle of 'consent of the governed', among other things, laid the foundation for the rise of modern liberal democracy (ogbujah, 2020). this goaded the 1776 formation of the new world on liberal principles, and the french revolution of 1789 which completely overthrew hereditary aristocracy. although challenged by different competing ideologies over the centuries, liberal inclusive principles have continued to expand the frontiers of social harmony, democracy and growth. as the world was hit by the scourge of covid-19 pandemic, there seems to be, even among developed democracies, a rollback of some key democratic principles, such as the prioritization of 'the consent of the governed', inclusivity in decision making and implementation of containment measures, equal opportunity within the law, and the limiting of the constitutional powers of heads of governments. rather than uplifting these key liberal ingredients, various heads of governments, by likening pandemics to war situations, have activated emergency rules, rolling out oppressive and divisive guidelines reminiscent of aristocratic era. some have, like medieval monarchs, locked down whole cities without palliatives, leading to untold sufferings and deaths; others utilized the opportunity to fleece the common wealth with bogus intervention claims. at other times, and because of paucity of medical supplies, health workers have sat in judgment regarding who lives and who dies. given experts' prediction regarding the mutation of this virus, and the possibility of the recurrence of pandemics in the near future, it has become essential to pause awhile to examine our responses so far. this, perhaps, might be the starting point to saving world aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 democracies from profligacy of political elites, and from sliding back to discredited authoritarian regimes. in the following paragraphs, we shall underline how some governments' intrusive interventions fail basic ethical tests for legitimacy, stifle liberal principles, imperil democratic gains of developing nations, and portend danger to the future of ethics in world democracies. meaning and manifestations of pandemics along historical lines, there seems to have emerged a pluriformity of ideas regarding the meaning of pandemic and how to identify it when it occurs. this reality was not helped by the sudden emergence of the novel h1n1 (hemagglutin neuraminidases) disease, and the world health organisation (who)'s policy documents over the years. in his incisive article – “the elusive definition of pandemic influenza,” peter doshi (2011) uses the who pandemic influenza guidelines, 1999–2009 to buttress his thesis, claiming that, at best, what the world body bequeaths to us is a descriptive-definition. for him, the who has inexplicably refrained from offering a formal quotable definition of pandemic influenza. what its recurrent pandemic preparedness guidelines do is to provide insights into what could be classified as “pandemic phase” definitions (p. 533). but in contrast to, and much direct response to doshi, kelly admits of the existence of generally acceptable definition of pandemic. in the article, “the classical definition of a pandemic is not elusive,” he accuses doshi of sidestepping the classical epidemiological definition of a pandemic in arriving at his conclusions (2011, p. 540). citing last (2000), kelly admits that a pandemic is classically defined as “an epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people.” while this definition includes nothing about population immunity, virology or disease severity, it emphasizes the factor of “simultaneous worldwide transmission.” for kelly, the capacity for 'simultaneous worldwide transmission' of an influenza is sufficient to define it as a pandemic, although there exists the possibility to further amplify its potential range in terms of transmissibility and disease severity. generally, the who declares an influenza pandemic if it meets 'hard to bend', clearly defined virological and epidemiological criteria. from its descriptive retinue, it is clear there is always a mixture of different criteria, ranging from wider global dissemination, to disease severity and to novelty. this trivet-like structure has somewhat conditioned most modern understandings of pandemics. etymologically coined from the greek pándēmos―pan (all) and demos (the people), pandemic is commonly used to refer to a widespread epidemic of contagious disease throughout the whole of a country or one or more continents at the same time (honigsbaum, 2009). it is an outbreak of disease that becomes widespread as a result of the spread of human-to-human infection. in simple terms, an epidemic is declared a pandemic if its occurrence is worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people (last, 2000). up from the 17th century, the terms pandemic and epidemic have been used interchangeably within social and medical cycles. morens, folkers and fauci (2009) ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 4 allude that the first identified use of the term 'pandemic' was in harvey's 1666 reference to “a pandemick, or endemick, or rather a vernacular disease (a disease always reigning in a countrey).” this equiparation subsisted along the centuries, and was accentuated by noah webster's recognition of their synonymous structure in his 1828 first edition of webster's dictionary. although webster witnessed the 1789 – 1790 influenza pandemic, he listed it in his dictionary merely as an epidemic. thus, the 19th and early 20th centuries were bequeathed with the use of the term epidemic as representing both epidemic and pandemic. but with increase in migration induced by industrial revolution, and the attendant increasing spread of diseases, there was a proportional increase in scientific understanding of the pattern of disease' spread. the 1831 – 1832 cholera pandemic was the first to be witnessed globally (from asia through to europe) for more than a year. this experience restructured people's understanding of epidemic, such that when the 1889 influenza pandemic occurred, the idea of what a pandemic meant was already latent. by 1918, the term had entered into general use. although the 1889 and 1918 influenza pandemics inspired much of the current usage of the term, they also opened the way to a more loosely use of the concept to commonly denote large-scale occurrences of non-influenza infections―chronic and lifestyle associated diseases. in this sense, its meaning falls back to the general understanding of almost anything that increased in and appeared to spread within or among groups of people, such as smoking, traffic accidents, factory closings and even fear (morens et al. 2009, p. 1019). at some point, it became fashionable to speak of “smoking pandemic”, or “narcotics pandemic”, etc. indeed, as an adjective, pandemic means something “general” and “universal,” but often with a negative connotation. its adjectival usage lends credence to the seeming universality of pandemics in contradistinction to epidemics. although seasonal epidemics can affect large number of people across national borders, they are not classified as pandemics. pandemic is an “extensive epidemic” ― epidemic over a very wide area and usually affecting a large proportion of the population and distributed and occurring widely throughout a region, country, continentally, or globally (morens, et al., 2009). following a thematized structure in response to the question: what is a pandemic?, it becomes clear that for any disease to be classified as such, it must share some key features, namely: wide geographical extension (trans-regional or global); disease movement (spread); high attack rates and explosiveness (active multiple cases appearing within a short time); minimal population immunity (most people are susceptible), novelty (often associated with new diseases or at least novel variants of old ones), infectious / contagious (easily spread from person or vector to person); and severe (disease severity is often measured by the ratio of fatalities) (morens, et al., 2009). the notion of pandemic as thus, elucidated, is a spectacle that has historically applied to the outbreak of diseases of very different etiologies that exhibit a variety of epidemiological features. but following the 2009 stipulations of who's pandemic preparedness plan, it is not difficult to situate a pandemic agent within the class of epidemics sharing these common denominators: highly infectious, must be new, must spread easily, and must cause serious illness (world health organization, 2009). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 besides other variables, these epidemiologic features have largely delineated the manifestation of pandemics down the centuries. this descriptive analysis makes it possible, in spite of the daunting challenge of structuring a widely acceptable definition of pandemic, to categorise a disease as pandemic based on a spectrum of etiologies, mechanisms of spread, and breadth or coverage. such diseases include the acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis (ahc), acquired immune deficiency syndrome (aids), cholera, dengue, influenza, plague, severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars), scabies, west nile diseases, tuberculosis, spanish flu, hong kong flu, h7n9, ebola and zika (morens, et al., 2009; rewar, et al., 2015). the nouveau corona virus (covid-19) pandemic is currently ravaging the world. as at july 16, 2021, 07:21 gmt, there are 4,083,260 deaths out of the 189,750,213 confirmed cases across 220 countries and territories worldwide (worldometer, 2021). as fatality rate increases by the seconds, people are becoming apprehensive, hoping for not a repeat of the “spanish flu” catastrophe. in the main, since the 1500s, it does seem pandemics have struck at least three times in every century. in the 20th century, the three major influenza pandemics―“spanish flu” (1918 – 1919); “asian flu” (1957 – 1958); and “hong kong flu” (1968 – 1969) inflicted a lot of harm on human life and economic development. of late, gostin and research associates (2016) identified hantavirus pulmonary syndrome; severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars); h5n1 influenza; h1n1 influenza; middle east respiratory syndrome (mers); and ebola virus disease as six large scale outbreaks of influenza pandemics in recent years. the spread and impact of the current covid-19 seems to dwarf the sway of these six, even though since 2016, zika virus has continued to threaten the health of people in 34 countries (troncoso, 2016). impactful influence of pandemics on individual and social lives it is often impossible to fully quantify the wreck of highly pathogenic infectious disease pandemic on social life. besides inducing sickness and sometimes massive fatality for those directly affected, and perhaps, beyond the overall strain on the global socioeconomic and political wellbeing, it is essential to pay attention to ethical issues arising from the implementation of containment processes. pandemics, in general, pose major health, social, and economic risks to several countries of the world, and in consequence, threaten the stability of civilized life. in the area of health, pathogenic pandemics have infected hundreds of millions of people causing severe ailments and deaths. for instance, in the 14th century, the 'black death' (bubonic plague pandemic) ― the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, is estimated to have killed about half of european population, and a third of the entire world population (aberth, 2010; howard, 2020). the next in causing fatality is perhaps, the smallpox. although famed to have originated in the 3rd century bce, its manifestation in the 18th century europe caused a lot of death. those who survived had extensive skin scars or were left blind (hays, 2005; cdc, 2016). on the whole, ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 6 smallpox caused about 300 million fatalities in the 20th century (henderson, 2011). this was followed in magnitude by the 1918-1920 spanish flu which is estimated to have killed between 20 and 50 million people across the globe (ghosh et al., 2010). in the course of research, scholars have identified that much of the viruses that circulated and ravaged human population throughout the 20th century had the same strain with the spanish flu. its contribution to seasonal epidemics and influenza afterwards perhaps, explains why taubenberger and morens (2006) named it the 'mother of all pandemics.' this was followed by epidemics of asian flu (caused by the h2n2 virus) in 1957, hong kong flu (h3n2) in 1968, russian flu in 1977, and the hiv/aids pandemic that was first reported in 1981, each with random and severe attacks on human populations (ghosh, et al., 2010). although the severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars) coronavirus ― part of a family of viruses that commonly cause respiratory symptoms, was first identified in late 2002, the influenza h1n1 2009 virus (a/2009/h1n1) is regarded as the first pandemic influenza of the 21st century (luan-yin et al., 2009). its rapid spread and severity led the centers for disease control and prevention (cdc) call it the “first global flu pandemic in forty years.” at its behest, an estimated 151,700 575,400 people died worldwide. the middle east respiratory syndrome (mers) was discovered in 2012; the ebola of 2014 killed more than 11,000 people (maurice, 2016); the zika virus of 2015-2016, and most recent of all―the nouveau coronavirus (covid-19) that is ravaging the world. currently, covid-19 has killed over four (4) million people out of the over one hundred and ninety (190) million already infected (worldometer, july 16, 2021). within enlightened populace, there is palpable apprehension whether this will be a repeat of the devastation of the 1918-1920 spanish flu. besides the sheer 'strangulation' of its victims leading to massive fatalities, pandemics have indirectly caused unimaginable deaths by their negative impacts on economic and social life. much like wars, those who are not directly killed by the virus might be maimed by its scars; and those not directly maimed would not escape grave financial and social burdens. during pandemics, there is huge decline in productivity and tax revenues due to shortage of labour arising from illness or rise in mortality, or curfews and quarantines which disrupt transportation, close down borders and workplaces, and restrict trade and travel. thus, beyond premature deaths, the long-term health impairments and mental health injuries, pandemics elicit colossal loss in gross domestic products (gdp). several scholars like shang, li, and zhang (2021), cutler and summers (2020), maurice (2016), verikios and research associates (2015), and a host of others, have presented mind-blowing estimates of costs of pandemics. in recent past, ebola cost the world more than usd$2 billion according to world bank calculations (maurice, 2016). amongst the various commission's reports following the wake of ebola crisis, it was only the global health risk framework for the future (ghrf) that puts a price tag on its recommendations. the world, it estimates, loses an average of $60 billion every year from pandemics and epidemics (maurice, 2016). the task of bandying price tags to pandemics is enormous not only because one must account for resource allocations that directly relate to lifesaving patient care aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 (including manpower resource, isolation facilities, equipment and supplies) testing/screening procedures, and contact tracing, but because it must also include the costs in terms of man-hour loss due to containment measures. this is in addition to the long-term harm to earnings from those who died or are permanently impaired. the latter category, which relates to immeasurable costs, includes everything that causes a decrease in gdp or loss in economic output, and is always exorbitant. for instance, the negative impacts of sars led the 2003 chinese annual gdp to shrink by 1%, and that of the entire southeast asia by 0.5%. perhaps, this accounts for the seemingly high estimations from mckibbin and sidorenko (2006) that puts the range of economic costs of an influenza pandemic globally from $us330 billion (0.8% of gdp) for a mild pandemic, to $us4.4 trillion for a severe one. but all these pale when compared to the financial losses that have trailed the nouveau coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic. in the us alone, the congressional budget office has projected a total of $7.6 trillion in loss of production in the next decade (congressional budget office, 2020). in their incisive analyses which took a cue from 'environmental and health policy' for assessing the value of a statistical life, cutler and summers (2020), using relevant metrics, arrived at a cumulative estimate of over $16 trillion as financial costs of the covid-19 pandemic to the us alone. this amounts to approximately 90% of the us annual gross domestic product. the figures would be quite scary if statistics from other nations are bandied. allied to this in enormity is the social dimension of pandemics impacts. due to government shutdowns, movements and travels are restricted. schools and markets are closed, while venues for sporting and all forms of recreational activities are shut. tested and infected persons are either isolated in their homes or quarantined at centers for treatment. as social beings, the longer the isolation lasts, and people are restricted to the confines of their limited spaces, the more they are prone to loneliness. cutler and summers (2020) are apt in recognizing that the loss of life among friends and loved ones, the fear of contracting the virus, the concern about economic security, and the effects of isolation and loneliness have the potential to disrupt the mental health of the population. according to the cdc, since april 2020, the ratio of us adults who report symptoms of depression or anxiety has averaged approximately 40%, as against the comparable figure of 11.0% in early 2019. besides morbidity and mortality, pandemics have seriously threatened economic stability of the world, and as such is a security threat. their effects traverse from health care systems to animal health; education to agriculture, transportation, criminality, tourism and to the financial sectors. at the moment, many colleges in nigeria and other parts of africa have either lost an academic session or have had their programmes seriously truncated. the closure of many companies and downsizing of surviving ones have skyrocketed the already humongous unemployment levels, thereby deepening poverty and making it impossible for many parents / guardians to meet up with the financial obligations of their wards. as a result, many children have joined the league of school drop-outs. but most disheartening is that some government officials and their cronies are feeding-off the misery of the common people. investigations reveal ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 8 how the monies meant to shore up the small and medium-sized enterprises (smes), as well as overall palliatives to the people were hijacked by politician. in his fact-checks of government claims against available data and realities, taiwo alimi (2021) exposes a coordinated scam by government agencies in the disbursement of relief packages. using data provided by the world bank and the national bureau of statistics (nbs), he uncovers the near-zero impact of the purportedly spent n288 billion covid-19 intervention fund, even as more and more people slipped below the poverty line. this, perhaps, is not peculiar to nigeria. in the us, for instance, investigators are still uncovering how billions in pandemic aid was swindled by con artists and crime syndicates. while it is sad reality that government aid programmes have long been fertile ground for scammers, the scale of the fraud in the unemployment programme created by the cares act has reached a staggering level. preliminary investigations estimate that at least $63 billion of the $630 billion in disbursements has been misspent, and that the full scope of the loss in taxpayer funds is likely to soar well beyond $100 billion (ramgopal, et al., 2021). no doubt the ripple effect of these is obvious―an upsurge in violent crimes in both countries. pandemic's scourge bites harder than most other disasters because its impacts are all-embracive, leading to a decline in global standard of living. it has its full wrath on all aspects of the economic and social fabrics of human society (drake, cholabi, & coker, 2012). government's responses and their ethical implications to democracy one key feature that distinguishes human rationality from those of higher mammals like chimps or dolphins is introspection. by this, we are able to navigate the vast complexity of our past experiences in order to secure our future. ordinarily, the variety of havoccausing infectious disease outbreaks with pandemic potential should have put various strata of world leadership on constant red alert. but the lack of preparedness displayed in the kneejerk responses of even high income nations at the wake of covid19 pandemic, shows we have either refused to learn from history, or are too absorbed in smugness. despite human and material resources committed to pandemic preparatory strategies by global bodies, most regions of the world are oft overwhelmed by any serious outbreak. this, perhaps, accounts for the uncoordinated, staccato-like mitigation and containment efforts of various governments. at the discovery of an outbreak of a pathogen with pandemic potential, the first instinct that kicks in is to shut down and isolate the source. medical sciences' rule of thumb suggests immediate isolation, for if the virus vector is effectively sequestered, it will run its course and die off, without the capacity to harm the larger population. guided by this, many world leaders, at the macro level, close their international borders at the onset of pandemics. for instance, at the inception of this covid-19 pandemic, although initially criticized by political opponents, president trump began the closure of the us borders first to china on the 31st of january 2020, and subsequently to foreigners coming to the us from other nations. afterwards, virtually all countries of the world followed suit. belatedly on march 18, 2020, the nigerian government announced its restriction of entry to travelers from some places it classified as high risk countries. in the main, to aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 contain a pathogenic influenza with pandemic potential, countries of the world adopt increasingly drastic measures, beginning with imposing travel restrictions, to airports' shutdowns, and border closures. closely subsequent to international travel restrictions and shutdown of airports is the full-scale lockdown of cities, regions, or entire nations. consistent with recommendations by the who (2020) and centers for disease control and prevention (2020) to socially distance in order to prevent the spread of covid-19, most states in the united states, nigeria, and other countries of the world issue stay-at-home orders at the wake of pandemics (chenneville and schwartz-mette, 2020). in nigeria, for instance, the military and paramilitary were drafted to enforce the lockdown order in major cities at the break of covid-19 pandemic. in some other countries like the united kingdom, the social distancing protocol is constantly reviewed in line with infection rates, leading to, at some point, government's prohibition of meeting of two household members (joint committee on human rights, 2020). those who travel for any exigencies, are forced to undergo testing and quarantine for a specified period, while in some countries like israel, iran, and south korea, governments are tapping into their population's phone location data to detect persons in close contact with covid-19 cases as well as to monitor their compliance to imposed quarantine measures (xafis et al., 2020). contact tracing is identified as an effective protocol for curtailing the spread of a pandemic. this entails tracing and isolating all the primary and secondary contacts of an index case. to be able to do this, governments and companies have developed tracing applications that use global positioning system (gps) or bluetooth technology to trace people's movements. this application is automatically installed in people's phones, and has the capacity to identify anyone in close contact with an infected person (isfeedvajani1 et al. 2020). the downside to this is that it has the capacity to expose an individual's private information to the public. being invasive, unscrupulous personnel have no qualms utilizing it in spying the activities of politicians, clergy, or any 'person of interest', intruding into their inner privacy. without proper legislation and enforcement, pandemic contact-tracing strategy can be weaponized in much similar way as did the communist surveillance systems. the forceful retirement of monsignor jeffrey burrill from leadership roles at the us conference of catholic bishops in july 2021, highlights the potential danger of location tracking and data harvesting. the rapid spread of pandemics often overwhelms even otherwise efficient healthcare systems in many countries, and, in particular, their critical care units (grasselli et al. 2020). this has led to the intervention of political leaders in discussions relating to prioritization of the allocation of scarce medical resources such as ventilators, personal protective equipment (ppe), and medical personnel. in this scenario, unanticipated questions such as which hospital should get what ventilators, or to which location should more medical personal be deployed, are rife. caregivers battle with deciding who, amongst the many critically ill, should be admitted to the intensive care unit (icu); which patient should be intubated and need to be mechanically ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 10 ventilated; and whose ventilation should be plugged off to save those with more prospects of survival (singh and moodley, 2020). thus, besides scarce resources and crisis capacity (kavanagh et al. 2020), the practice of healthcare rationing or triage, which could lead to avoidable fatalities, is emblematic of governments' poor planning and execution; it is symptomatic of leadership failures. there is no doubt the severity of pandemics panics even the usually unruffled, leading to sometimes irascible and uncalculated harmful decisions in forms of containment responses. but to stave off anarchy and protect our democracies from sliding into authoritarianism, there is need to strike a balance between emergency rules and the healthcare of the people; between governments' intrusive activities and individual liberties. this is the sense of aristotle's insistence that virtu in medio stat―virtue lies in the middle. there is, perhaps, no better way to apprise the eccentricity or otherwise of governments' containment programmes than by juxtaposing them with established liberal ethical principles. following beauchamp and childress' (2013) four basic principles of healthcare ethics―the principle of respect for autonomy, the principle of beneficence, the principle of non-maleficence, and the principle of justice, it appears easy to ethically appraise disease control efforts, especially in the light of the emergence of the nouveau coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic. the principle of autonomy relates to the right for an individual to make his or her own choices. in developmental psychology as well as in moral, political and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision, especially in matters of private concern. autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. this autonomy could not be more eroded when, for instance, governments order for mandatory immunity or vaccine passports. ordinarily, the vaccine passport is a supposed sign of one's protection from whatever pandemic outbreak, as well as a signal that one doesn't constitute a danger to public health. but the ethical dilemma regarding the use of extracted fetal tissues from aborted babies in vaccine production, has kept many prolife activists out of vaccine use. to directly call for universal vaccine mandate, or surreptitiously implement this through a proxy in the pandemic vaccine passport, not only engenders discriminatory attitude in social relationships, but surely detracts from an individual's capacity to make informed decisions for oneself. the situation is worse, if one considers, as in this covid-19 pandemic vaccine, that the long-term adverse effects are unknown, or that the full shots of the jab doesn't even prevent one from catching or transmitting the disease. the second―principle of beneficence, promotes the maximization of possible benefits while minimizing any potential harm on others; that is, it supports acting with the best interest of the other in mind. but given that every health intervention has potential to harm the recipients, special efforts must be made to conduct cost-benefit analysis so as to properly judge the beneficence or acceptability of certain interventions. while it could be said that governments' containment efforts through lockdowns and novel forms of therapies are generally expedient in times of pandemics, their forms, durations and specific implementation mechanisms can be faulted on many ethical fronts. following jeremy bentham's utilitarian principle, administrators of common aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 wealth should be impelled to always act for the best interests and wellbeing of the greatest number in society. in nigeria, for instance, the reverse is often the case: governments at various strata commonly act for the benefit of their cronies. it took the #endsars demonstrations in october 2020 to uncover and break into hordes of warehouses stashed with government palliatives, while the masses were dying in hunger due to lockdowns. the ones that were actually released on time were mostly usurped by government officials and their associates. alimi (2021) underscores how politicians, community leaders and their cohorts hijacked the system, leaving the most vulnerable empty handed. for him, it is not surprising that, despite government's claim of releasing n288 billion covid-19 intervention fund, more and more people have slipped below the poverty line. the reason is simple: the palliatives never got to the most vulnerable target beneficiaries, while government sleepily looks away. the third―non-maleficence, is somewhat related to the second. as deriving from the ancient latin cliché―primum non nocere (first, do no harm), this is a bioethical precept that reminds administrators and healthcare personnel to consider the possible harm that any intervention might do. its underlying tenet could be rephrased as “given an1 existing problem, it may be better not to do something, or even to do nothing, than to risk causing more harm than good.” as a social animal, man survives and thrives only in the midst of others. for this reason, all strategies of isolation in pandemic periods must be properly weighed because they have the potential to negatively affect the health and wellbeing of individuals. in the wake of covid-19 pandemic, the lockdown regulations have been anything but humane across the world. while the media reportage of people chained to woods for flouting the rules were recurrent in some places, others were made to pay heavy fines. at some point, the british health secretary referred to these rules as 'napoleonic', while hikenbottom (2020) described them as “possibly the most restrictive regime on the public life of persons and businesses ever.” in nigeria, the military and police were drafted into cities to enforce compliance. and within the first two months of enforcement, the security agents had shot and killed more people than the pandemic itself. in some other countries, the lockdown severely restricted social interactions even among family members. according to the british joint committee on human rights, “it is difficult to imagine, save for imprisonment, a more stringent limit on family and private life than preventing gatherings of 2 or more people in private dwellings and public places” (2020, p. 16). although well intentioned, the lockdown strategy has led to permanent closure of some businesses, massive loss of jobs, increase in financial burdens, surge in social isolation and feeling of loneliness, decrease in access to support networks, upsurge in mental health disorders and suicide rates (isfeedvajani1 et al. 2020). as we observed earlier, the cdc reports that the percentage of us adults who were diagnosed of depression or anxiety shot up to 40% in 2020, as against the 11.0% in the previous year. in some other instances, there have been increase in the risk of domestic violence, physical inactivity, internet and gaming addiction, and alcohol / drug use. currently in ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 12 nigeria, the cumulative effects of these are more damning than the fatalities from covid-19 which, according to the nigeria centre for disease control's (ncdc) july 31, 2021 records, stands at 2,149. government's inability to weigh into the pros and cons of isolation strategies, and so properly deploy their use seriously impugns on nonmaleficence principle. finally, there is the justice principle which proposes that people receive what they deserve. although the question of what constitutes “deserving” has been subject of controversy from antiquity, justice, in its broadest sense, encapsulates the notion of moral rectitude grounded on law, equity and fairness (ogbujah, 2014). it is clear that the lockdown regulations provide for restrictions on movements and gatherings, and requirements as to the closure of businesses and premises during the 'emergency period'. its selective application, however, not only hinders collective efforts in staving off the tide of pandemics, but largely highlights an underlying justice problem. why might hordes of individuals who eke out their living daily be locked down for months without palliatives? why might a pub or superstore be allowed to operate at 50% capacity while worship centers are closed, or allowed 2% capacity? does the civic / secular space, let alone parade or demonstration grounds, provide immunity from pathogens more than religious grounds? even though some perceived discriminatory application of the rules with secularist bias have been challenged in some jurisdictions, their lawfulness and proportionality, to a large extent, depend on local interpretation of positive laws by jurists (hill, 2020a). each nation does have its own means for the exercise of emergency powers, but there is a threshold beyond which governmental actions are considered an overreach. the prevalence of such overreach has prompted an avalanche of suits, activism, and guidelines for the protection of liberal values and world democracies. for instance, in october 2020, the diocese of brooklyn and a jewish group (agudath israel of america) filed a lawsuit in federal court against governor cuomo's new “discriminatory” covid restrictions. the case went through appellate procedures and was later discharged by the u.s. supreme court, temporarily barring new york state from enforcing such a rule, as it was considered an overreach (diaz and totenberg, 2020). in a similar case brought for adjudication, the high court of malawi ruled that an impugned lockdown essentially restricts the right to life, to equality and recognition before the law, and to freedom of conscience, belief, and worship (kathumba v president of malawi, 2020). it surprised, perhaps, only a few, that a uk retired supreme court justice―lord sumption, regularly criticises the authoritarian approach of the british government with regard to covid-19 rules, and has publicly encouraged noncompliance with such rules (hill, 2020a). the council of europe, for fear of loss of democratic values pursuant to the avalanche of emergency rules and arbitrary guidelines of state actors purportedly to contain the spread of covi-19 pandemic, issued a toolkit for member states in april 2020 on the need to respect democracy, rule of law and human rights. citing relevant articles in the convention that embody rights and freedoms as benchmarks of modern democratic societies, the council cautions that any restriction that touches on any of the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 13 rights must comply with extant laws and be proportionate to the aim it pursues (2020). sequel to this, the united nations (in its covid-19 pandemic advisory) acknowledges the exacerbation of vulnerability of the least protected in society during pandemic crisis, and consequently harps on the need for world leaders to work to preserve our common humanity and dignity in protection strategies, thus: this is not a time to neglect human rights; it is a time when, more than ever, human rights are needed to navigate this crisis in a way that will allow us, as soon as possible, to focus again on achieving equitable sustainable development and sustaining peace (2020, p. 3). the un understands that every protection measure not in consonant with the overall promotion of human rights would be detrimental to the democratic course of societies, in the long run. this comes on the heels of complaints of human rights abuses from across the world. in nigeria, for instance, people have been literally assaulted and humiliated for daring to seek for basic needs like food, water and diesel (to power generators), during the lockdowns. one particular governor was widely called an “emperor” for his arbitrariness in instituting obnoxious rules, and revelry with enforcing stringent lockdown measures. there is no doubt the advent of covid-19 pandemic, like other pandemics, has led to a resurgence of authoritarianism in many democracies. it is indeed, resulting to a human rights' crisis. with severe limitations on personal and associational autonomy, it will be interesting to see how the democratic landscape will have changed at the end of the current public health emergency (hill, 2020b). conclusion in the preceding paragraphs, we explained the qualities that make an influenza to be classified as a pandemic; we saw the historical manifestation of various sorts of pandemics and their impacts on individual and social lives; and we highlighted governments' mitigation programmes and their actual and potential adverse effects to liberal values. for causing devastations to human lives and means of livelihood much as do wars, the outbreak of pandemics, no doubt, poses security threat. hence, its prevention and containment should be treated, as kern (2016) has opined, not just as a matter of health emergency, but within the gambit of national and global security. this ideation seems to underscore much of the reactive strategies that have trailed the current covid19 pandemic. war, by hindsight, has the potential to wreak havoc in a society, but its outcome could be more or less catastrophic depending on its management, its handling. a proper handling of war or pandemic will undoubtedly save a lot of human and material resources from avoidable loss. the lack or near absence of pandemic-preparedness plans is largely responsible for governments' kneejerk approach to pandemic outbreak. in order to cover their lapses, and perhaps, consolidate grip on power, many world leaders hide under 'national security' to unleash draconian control measures on the people. although, for common good, individual choices and freedoms are curtailed during ogbujah & umaka pandemics and the future of ethics in democracies 14 pandemics, this has to be done within the ambit of the law, and in promotion of human dignity. delivering judgment in the case between the diocese of brooklyn and governor andrew cuomo of new york [case 592 u. s. ____ (2020)], the us supreme court justices upturned the governor's overtly restrictive rule on church attendance, noting that “even in a pandemic, the constitution cannot be put away and forgotten” (2020, p. 5). this is what it means to allow ethics and law to interlace with everyday governance. irrespective of the speed with which decisions are made, a government that shuns the cardinal healthcare ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice slides into authoritarianism. pandemic responses must be done with justice, equity and fairness (jegede et al. 2020); their application must be proportional and honest in order to enhance trust between the people and their government (united nations, 2020). anything short of these is intrusive and has the potential to imperil the democratic gains of societies. references aberth, j. (2010). from the brink of the apocalypse: confronting famine, war, plague and death in the later middle ages (2nd ed.). routledge, pp. 9-13. alimi, t. (20 june 2021). “n288b covid-19 relief fund: how govt, mdas scammed us, by sme owners,” the nation. https://thenationonlineng.net/n288b-covid-19r e l i e f f u n d h o w g o v t m d a s s c a m m e d u s b y s m e o w n e r s / ? u t m _ t e r m = o z y & u t m _ c a m p a i g n = d a i l y dose&utm_content=monday_07.19.21&utm_source=campaigner&utm_medium=ema il aristotle. ([-350] 2000). politics. dover publications. beauchamp, t.l. & childress j.f. (2013). principles of biomedical ethics, 7th ed. oxford university press. cdc – centers for disease control and prevention. (7 june 2016). what is smallpox? https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/about/index.html centers for disease control and prevention. (2020). mental health: household pulse survey. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/covid19/pulse/mental-health.htm centers for disease control and prevention. (2020). coronavirus disease 2019 (covid19): preventing getting sick. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019ncov/preventgetting sick/index.html chenneville, t., & schwartz-mette, r. (2020). “ethical considerations for psychologists in the time of covid-19.” american psychologist, 75(5), 644-654. https://thenationonlineng.net/n288b-covid-19-relief-fund-how-govt-mdas-scammed-us-by-sme-owners/?utm_term=ozy&utm_campaign=daily-dose&utm_content=monday_07.19.21&utm_source=campaigner&utm_medium=email https://thenationonlineng.net/n288b-covid-19-relief-fund-how-govt-mdas-scammed-us-by-sme-owners/?utm_term=ozy&utm_campaign=daily-dose&utm_content=monday_07.19.21&utm_source=campaigner&utm_medium=email https://thenationonlineng.net/n288b-covid-19-relief-fund-how-govt-mdas-scammed-us-by-sme-owners/?utm_term=ozy&utm_campaign=daily-dose&utm_content=monday_07.19.21&utm_source=campaigner&utm_medium=email https://thenationonlineng.net/n288b-covid-19-relief-fund-how-govt-mdas-scammed-us-by-sme-owners/?utm_term=ozy&utm_campaign=daily-dose&utm_content=monday_07.19.21&utm_source=campaigner&utm_medium=email 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(2020). “the perfect moral storm: diverse ethical considerations in the covid-19 pandemic.” asian bioethics review 12, 65–83 the hellenization of african traditional deities: the case of ekwensu and esu ikechukwu anthony kanu orcid id: 0000-0003-1977-202x abstract the understanding of the african world through the lens or framework of the west has been a topical issue among african scholars and beyond. this anthropological approach has been described variously by thinkers of various backgrounds. however, this approach was considered hellenization by scholars like okot p'bitek. this work, therefore, studied the hellenization of particular african deities from the igbo and yoruba religious backgrounds: ekwensu and esu respectively. the concept of hellenization is employed within the context of western and african missionaries trying to understand african traditional world and religion without taking into consideration the peculiarity or particularity of the african religious context. this piece observes that the emergence of these names as the igbo and yoruba equivalents of satan in the bible, reveals poor commitment on the part of the translators to going deeper and spend time in their research. it also observes that the introduction of these igbo and yoruba deities into christianity, has led to the misunderstanding of their functions in igbo and yoruba belief systems. more important is that this misinterpretation will continue to enhance the challenge of inter-faith dialogue which should encourage cooperative, constructive, and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions. the present research would employ the anthropological approach in its investigation into the question of the hellenization of african traditional deities. the phenomenological approach of inquiry would further be employed in the study of ekwensu and esu. keywords: hellenization, african, traditional, deities, igbo, yoruba, ekwensu, esu introduction a major concern for some african scholars in their study of african traditional religion has been the misinterpretation of the african religion by missionaries, historians, philosophers, anthropologists, historians, etc. this concern has, therefore, attracted the perspective of many african scholars who have either categorized this pattern of study or proffered solutions to this limited method of research. a scholar that has dedicated much time to this and categorized it in his 1 studies or researches is the ugandan academic, okot p'bitek. he did a criticism of the pattern of religious studies by western scholars such as edward evanspritchard, godfrey lienhardt, edwin smith, john taylor, placid tempels, among others, and also on some african scholars who were influenced greatly by the western approach to the study of african religion. these african scholars of his time include kenyatta, danquah, mbiti, etc. okot (1969) discovers that the misinterpretation of african religion by these scholars is based on the drive to understand african traditional religion within the conceptual framework of the west. he refers to this approach to the study of african religion as 'hellenization'. okot (1972) observes that these scholars were hellenizing african deities in three ways: the first is using the african deities to prove that the christian god does exist and is known among the african people; the second way was basically by african nationalists who were trying to prove to the west that the african is also civilized, and thus, they clothed african deities in hellenistic garb as they paraded them before their western counterparts; the third group were western missionaries who wanted to demonstrate to their audience of african elites that they, as saint paul in athens were highly religious people with the hope of winning them over to christianity. this notwithstanding, the present piece focuses on the hellenization of particular african deities from the igbo and yoruba religious backgrounds: ekwensu and esu respectively. the concept of hellenization is employed within the context of western and african missionaries trying to understand african traditional world and religion without taking into consideration the peculiarity or particularity of the african religious context. methodology the present research would employ the anthropological approach to the study of religion in its investigation into the question of the hellenization of african traditional deities, with particular reference to ekwensu and esu deities. it would study the concept of ekwensu and esu in relation to the developments that ensued with the emergence of the missionary enterprise. for a better grasp, it would adopt the phenomenological approach of inquiry in the study of the two deities. this would help in the generation of the basic knowledge about the two deities for a further comparative study. it is this comparative study that would help the reader to kanu the hellenization of african traditional deities 2 understand the depth of the hellenization of african traditional deities. hellenization the concept hellenization takes its name from hellenesanother name for the greeks who are descendants of hellen, the son of deucalion and pyrrha. it stands for the spread of greek culture and the assimilation into greek culture the peoples who were not of greek origin. this dominant and transformative method was the approach of ancient greek civilization in her relationship with other cultures or worldviews. in this way, they spread their culture, which includes their language, manner of writing, arts, technology, myth, religion for practical and exploitable reasons. when the greeks came to their present place of habitation now called greece, they displaced the indigenous pelasgians who were there at the time of their arrival. gradually, the culture of the pelasgians was absorbed by the greek culture and through intermarriage, they became fully greek. the height of the age of hellenization was during the reign of alexander the great. although his father had extended the greek city states to egypt, india, persia and across the eastern mediterranean, alexander the great coopted non-greeks into the greek army and encouraged intermarriages with foreign women so as to close up the gap between the greek and non-greek speaking peoples. in conquered territories, he built schools to teach children greek language and culture and built gymnasiums, cultural centres associated with exercise, medicine, and communal bathing in new territories (ancient world history 2012). in this way, the world became more greek and greek language became the language for traders and travelers. places like palestine became hellenized with greek names replacing semitic originals. names such as yeshua became jesus. jewish religion began to blend with greek traditional religious elements. the new testament written after the death of jesus was written in greek language as many converts were of greek origin; and the theologies of paul and john had greek philosophical influences. the church fathers were greatly influenced by greek philosophy which they understood as the handmaid of theology. within academic discussions, especially within religion, dewart (1967) used the concept when he called on theologians to go beyond demythologization to dehellenization of the christian doctrine of god within the context of resolving the friction between the experience of post-war generation and the traditional christian images of god. robinson (1963) furthers this discourse by emphasizing that the traditional christian images of god were metaphysical, a pattern of thinking that the new generation of christians were not open to. this was what aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 dewart called hellenization. this concept was further employed by okot (1963; 1964; 1971 and 1972) who criticized western and african missionaries and anthropologists for hellenizing the african gods to suite western conceptions. in fact, rinsum (2004) avers that “de-hellenist had actually become an honorary title for okot p'bitek” (p. 31) given his extensive use of the concept in his works. these notwithstanding, the concept of hellenization would be used within the context of the missionaries' interpretation of ekwensu and esu deities in igbo and yoruba traditional religions. ekwensu in igbo traditional religion alongside ani and amadioha, ekwensu represents the testing force or power of chukwu and constitute the greatest gods among the traditional igbo. metuh (1981) describes ekwensu as the spirit of violence and patron of warriors and the son of chukwu. it possessess people who are quick to anger. it was a force of chaos and change and ruled over the wicked spirits and the chaotic forces of nature. death was its perpetual companion. ekwensu is also the god of bargains, very crafty at trade and negotiations. at moments of difficult mercantile negotiations, ekwensu is invoked. isichie (1969), records that among the igbo of asaba, there was a festival called ekwensu festival, and it constituted their major annual feast, during which they displayed their military prowess. this deity was invoked during times of war or conflict, however, was banished during peacetime to avoid his influences in the community, for it can incite bloodshed among the people. usually, warriors set up shrines to ekwensu to help war efforts and destroyed them after victory have been won. this deity was feared as much as chukwu. kanu the hellenization of african traditional deities 4 figure 1: image of ekwensu deity to be possessed by ekwensu can bring about a person committing evil acts which are contrary to what chukwu allows or against the humanity of human beings. whenever an unfathomable act of evil is committed by someone considered incapable of such a crime, possession by ekwensu is a common explanation. without excusing the person's conduct, this attribution of the origins of such criminal depravity to a superhuman power allows the igbo to acknowledge that there are some levels of inhumanity humans cannot reach on their own. esu in yoruba traditional religion in yoruba pantheon, esu (eschu or elegba) is one of the most powerful and temperamental but skillful orisa, that is, a god (samuel 2011). according to toyin (2012), he is in charge of enforcing law and order. it was so popular among the yoruba that every day of the four-day week of the yoruba is its day of worship (falokun 1993); its fame spread through the slave trade to cuba, south america and the united states. he is a trick star god among the yoruba and a messenger of not only olodumare, but other orisas; he is busy taking messages from heaven to the earth and conveying sacrifices from earth to heaven. he is the god of mischief and could make things difficult for people and requires constant appeasement if he must convey messages. he is greatly feared because of the mischief he is capable of. he is called elegbara or shigidi, which means the avenger. esu has a very strong relationship with orunmila because of the favour done him by orunmila. in a battle with death, esu lost his club, and orunmila helped him to get it back. since then, they have remained close friends. he has two hundred names, which speak of the broadness of his character. ifa has several chapters, not less than two hundred and fifty-six. each chapter is called the odu, which contain from six hundred to eight hundred poems known as ese ifa. each of these chapters is governed by an esu. it is in this regard that esu is said to possess a flexible form and can transform into 256 forms at will. (britannica 2021). he is always present as an inspector in matters of rituals and conduct, among divinities and human beings. having inspected a ritual, his recommendation determines if the supreme being will accept the sacrifice or not; he stands before the supreme being accusing both human beings and divinities, especially when it is not properly fed with sacrifices (kanu 2015); however, when he is given his due, he can be benevolent in terms of protection, no wonder, he is also called 'father'. he has eight errand boys called the ajogun (evil spirits). when sacrifices are offered, he presents it to them that the victim might gain his or her freedom. it is the esu that supervises and distributes sacrifices to the ajogun. he protects aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 people from the evil mechanizations of malevolent spirits; no wonder he was very popular among the yoruba traditional societies. aiyejina (2015) describes esu thus: in yoruba philosophy, esu emerges as a divine trickster, a disguiseartist, a mischief-maker, a rebel, a challenger of orthodoxy, a shape-shifter, and an enforcer deity. esu is the keeper of the divine ase with which olodumare created the universe; a neutral force who controls both the benevolent and the malevolent supernatural powers; he is the guardian of orunmila's oracular utterances. without esu to open the portals to the past and the future, orunmila, the divination deity would be blind. as a neutral force, he straddles all realms and acts as an essential factor in any attempt to resolve the conflicts between contrasting but coterminous forces in the world. ….he supports only those who perform prescribed sacrifices and act in conformity with the moral laws of the universe as laid down by eledumare….. without his intervention, the yoruba people believe, no sacrifice, no matter how sumptuous, will be efficacious. philosophically speaking, esu is the deity of choice and free will. (pp. 1-16). figure 2: esu in yoruba religion kanu the hellenization of african traditional deities 6 when the appropriate sacrifice is provided by a victim, he is capable of mediating between benevolent and malevolent spirits on behalf of the victim. if the sacrifice is not offered, esu would not intervene. thus, esu was considered the intercessor god, that devotees of all the other orisas have to pay homage to (meiji 2012). he is feared by both men and divinities and could be unpredictable; no wonder he is called a-bá-ni-wá-?ìràn-bá-ò-rí-dá (he-who-creates-problems-fortheinnocent) and è?ù ? ba ? dìàrà (who has his abode at crossroads). awolalu and dopamu (1979) illustrated this fear thus: “once sango, the thunder divinity of yorubaland, boasted that there was no divinity he could not subdue. but esu asked him promptly whether he included him, and sango immediately replied apologetically that he could not have been included” (p. 83). the hellenization of ekwensu and esu the process of hellenization employed by missionaries and scholars has changed the recent understanding of ekwensu and esu deities. while the nomenclatures (ekwensu and esu) remain unchanged, the content in terms of meaning has changed. this change is even more profound in places where these deities are not venerated among the igbo or yoruba. however, in places where they are venerated, the rich tradition handed on from one generation to another among the particular people or generation has made alterations difficult if not impossible. among the igbo, when the missionaries came, searching for categories within the igbo culture that would help them explain scriptural 'personalities' such as the devil, lucifer or satan, immediately saw in ekwensu, lucifer, the father of lies and evil. it is in this regard that mogo (2016) writes a poem titled 'ekwensu' in which he decried the damage done to ekwensu's identity and integrity: violence to the language is violence to the soul is violence to a people is violence to their history is violence to their future is violence to their identity is tangible violence like ekwensu the trickster in our cosmology, simplified into a white god's black devil so chi became a white god and chukwu became a white god and ekwensu became evil this is what they do to us, simplify us fit our glory into a story where they are the hero flatten our hair, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 our noses, our tongue whip us into conformity then blame us for the mess they left and the mess we have made of the mess that they left sorry ekwensu for how they destroyed your reputation how they maligned your character how, because they did not understand you they decided to spread vicious lies about you you go on being you who cares what they say? focusing on the yoruba experience, meiji (2012) connects the new understanding of esu to the great african missionary, samuel ajayi crowther. it was in 1821 that ajayi was kidnapped from osogun along with his mother and siblings and sold into slavery in the 19th century. he later converted to christianity and became one of the leading missionaries promoting christianity in west africa. he was also one of the leading translators of the bible into yoruba language, especially for his converts who were mainly the yoruba speaking people. while translating the scriptures, the name jesus was yorubanized to jesu kristi, but for the devil, an existing deity in yoruba worldview, esu was chosen and rebranded as the christian devil. oyeyemi (2012) argues in an article titled “esu: the revenge of bishop ajayi crowther” that ajayi crowther did this rebranding on purpose so as to revenge his people's involvement in the slave trade that affected his family. he writes further in this regard thus: esu, in yoruba cosmology is not the devil or satan as has been and is being portrayed by euro-christian religious school of thought. esu, in the authentic yoruba concept, is the enforcer of the will of olodumare and not the equivalent of the euro-christian devil/satan who is out to undermine the work of the almighty god (p.1). while oyeyemi's position on the employment of esu as the yoruba devil by ajayi crowther as intention remains a very difficult position to verify, but the reality remains that the use of esu for devil has led to several misconceptions. this is also true of the use of the concept ekwensu for satan. conclusion whoever the translators of the christian scripture into african languages were, that led to the current misinterpretations and understandings, the reasons for such kanu the hellenization of african traditional deities 8 rebranding or hellenization remain overzealousness to present the christian faith to their converts who were in the main african converts. this was also done in such a manner that reveals poor commitment on the part of the translators to go deeper and spend time in the quest for a more appropriate concept for satan in african traditional languages. moreover, if jesus was yorubanized as jesu kristi and igbonized as yesu kristi, why was it difficult to do the same for satan or devil in the same manner? whatever names continue for these deities, the case remains that the introduction of these igbo and yoruba deities into christianity, has led to the misunderstanding of their functions in traditional igbo and yoruba belief systems. this has led many to think that those who venerate ekwensu and esu are essentially the worshippers of the devil. the consequence of this new understanding is that it has set african traditional religion and christianity in a conflict that would continue until this problem is resolved. a difficulty that this misinterpretation will continue to enhance is the challenge of inter-faith dialogue which should encourage cooperative, constructive, and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions or spiritual or humanistic beliefs, at both the individual and institutional levels. the belief in ekwensu or esu as the christian satan or devil makes it difficult for a cooperative interaction between christians and the igbo or yoruba traditional worshippers. references aiyejina f. (2015). esu elegbara: a source of an alter/native theory of african literature and criticism. https://fliphtml5.com/snvq/rajz/basic ancient world history (2012). hellenization. retrieved 6th june 2021 from http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/hellenization.html awolalu, j. o.& dopamu, p. o. (1979). west african traditional religion. ibadan: onibonoje press and book industry. britannica, the editors of encyclopaedia. "eshu". encyclopedia britannica, invalid date, https://www.britannica.com/topic/eshu. accessed 1 june 2021. dele meiji (2012). esu is not the devil: how a yoruba deity got rebranded. https://www.okayafrica.com/yoruba-esu-is-not-the-devil. dewart, l. (1967). the future of belief: theism in a world come of age. london: burns and oats limited. falola, toyin (march 2013). esu: yoruba god, power, and the imaginative frontiers. carolina academic press (june 24, 2013) http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/hellenization.html https://www.okayafrica.com/yoruba-esu-is-not-the-devil aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 fatunmbi, awo baba falokun. esu-elegba: ifa and the divine messenger. original pubns (january 1, 1993). isichie, e. (1969). igbo and christian beliefs: some aspects of theological encounter. in african affairs. 68. 124. johnson, rev. samuel. the history of the yorubas. research associates school times publications & frontline distribution int'l inc. (august 22, 2011). kanu, i. a. (2013). the dimensions of african cosmology. filosofia theoretica: journal of african philosophy, culture and religion. 2. 2. 533-555. kanu, i. a. (2015a). a hermeneutic approach to african traditional religion, philosophy and theology. augustinian publications: nigeria kanu, i. a. (2015b). african philosophy: an ontologico-existential approach to classical and contemporary issues: augustinian publications: nigeria metuh, e. i. (1981). god and man. southampton: carmelot. mogo, e. r. (2016). ekwensu. retrieved 26/7/17 from https://therisingphoenixreview.com/2016/05/19/ekwensubyebelechukwu-raluchukwu-ijeoma-mogo/ oyeyemi, r. (2012). esu: the revenge of bishop ajayi crowther. http://saharareporters.com/2012/04/11/esu-revenge-bishopajayicrowther p'bitek, okot (1963). de-hellenizing the church. east africa journal. august, a. 8-10 p'bitek, okot (1964). fr. tempel's bantou philosophy. transition 3. a. 17-17 p'bitek, okot (1971). african religions in western scholarship. nairobi, east african literature bureau p'bitek, okot (1972). reflect, reject, recreate: a reply to professors b. a. ogot, ali mazrui and peter rigbey. east africa journal. a. 28-32 rinsum, h. j. (2004). they became slaves of their definitions: okot p'bitek (1931-1982) and the european traditions in the study of african religions. ludwig, f and adogame, a. (eds.) european traditions in the study of religion in africa (pp. 23-38). harrarsowitz verlag: wiesbaden. robinson, j, a. t. (1963). honest to god. london: scm press limited. https://therisingphoenixreview.com/2016/05/19/ekwensu-by-ebelechukwu-raluchukwu-ijeoma-mogo/ https://therisingphoenixreview.com/2016/05/19/ekwensu-by-ebelechukwu-raluchukwu-ijeoma-mogo/ journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract it has been argued that cultural relativism has only created greater problems for humanity in the sense that it has helped polarize the world along the line of difference. put differently, many have argued that, cultural relativism in its many strands, if allowed to stand will plunge the world into a theatre of intolerance and ultimately, conflict. this paper attempted to debunk such assertions and argued that relativism especially from its cultural dimension is what confers identity on a group. it also made the point that we have to acknowledge difference before we can tell where there are overlaps among human cultures. the paper adopted arguments from relativists like rorty, kuhn, quine and anyanwu to place relativism on an enviable pedestal. the analytical, critical and reconstructive methods of philosophy were employed in this work. the analytical method helped in clarifying concepts like relativism, culture, subjective, ethical and identity. the critical method was employed to examine the positive aspects of cultural relativism while the method of reconstruction was necessary in linking the views of the advocates already mentioned. the paper recommended that even if there would eventually be a communion of world cultures, it is quite vital to first give primacy to that which defines a person – his cultural heritage. this summarily underscores the primal support for cultural relativism. keywords: relativism, culture, constructivism, universalism, reality concept of relativism th most theorists hold the view that the idea of relativism is traceable to the works of a 5 century philosopher democritus. further research reveals that protagoras was the first to hold views that may be described as relativistic when he professed that: man is the measure of all things, of the things that they are that they are, and the things that they are not that they are not. russel, (1995:94). this implies that every man is the setter of his standard. what he considers as truth, good, evil, real and meaningful are all dependent on him. to put this differently, it means there is nothing that can be classified as objective – there is no objective truth by which one can be adjudged as being right or wrong, good or bad etc. before we go any further, it is pertinent to first consider an analysis of the term 'relativism.' for pundits like brian longhurst, relativism is a doctrine of social knowledge that has as its tenet the claim that all thought is socially determined. (longhurst, 1989:75) this is to say that what a group socially accept as viable or valuable to its interest is what it 29 a case for cultural relativism in a globalizing world m.e. abam, ph.d projects. for edward craig, relativism is an idea that states that truth, reality and what is right or wrong depends on our point of view (1998:189). the bottom line here is that there is no objective truth or reality as presented by the foundationalists and realists. relativsm is seen in different forms. it could be gleaned from different perspectives – subjective, ethical, and epistemological. it can also be rationalistic, perceptual and conceptual. let us at this juncture shed some light on a few of the strands. subjective relativism: this is in pursuance with the dictum of protagoras that “man is the measure of all things.” the major thrust is that whatever appears to me as the truth is the truth to me irrespective of how you perceive it and whatever appears as the truth to you is the truth irrespective of my take on it. be that as it may, some may argue that this position can easily lead to chaos and anarchy. ethical realtivism: this doctrine denies the existence of one correct moral code that applies to and binds all societies (barcallow 1994:38). put differently, there are diverse moral beliefs and standpoints across society such that what may be seen as right or wrong differ from society to society. invariably, the grounds of moral beliefs are held to be relative to particular position whether such position is individualistic or communal. this position has been attacked on the grounds that it can easily lead society to the abyss. there may be break down in morality as all beliefs and practices are equally legitimated, there being no means of evaluating good or bad practices. epistemological relativism: epistemological relativism or what robert kirk (1999:36) calls “true – for us” relativism states that 'true' always really means “true – by – the – standards – of – x where x could be a group or a whole society”. an example might be a theory which understands truth in terms of what is satisfactory to believe. such a theory allows that truth may differ from group to group or society to society. here there is a break away from the idea of a culturally independent truth. since in traditional epistemology belief and truth are considered essential ingredients of knowledge, and since in relativism what is considered as true and worth believing depends on agreement, it becomes the case that knowledge depends solely on a group's or society's point of view or consensus. we can glean a difference between epistemological relativism and subjectivism. the difference lies in the fact that while it is the case that they both emphasize the relativity of truth, one applies strictly to singular entities while the other transcends the singularity to situate at the collective. ethno methodology or relativism: ethno methodology is constructed on the model of such labels as 'ethno botany' and 'ethno medicine', which are terms for the body of native lore in the realms of botany and 30 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 medicine. ethnomethodology is a discipline that examines the general cognitive methods through which 'natives' understand their world. thus in this variant of relativism, reality is generated by the process through which social agents “think about, describe and account for it, and the consensus they reach about it” (collin, 1997:27). this variant of relativism makes the assumption that social agents of different nativity would view the world differently. cultural relativism this is the main strand of relativism this work is anchored on. we had to bring in other variants to help make the concept explicit. more so, we may not be wrong if we posit that all the forms of relativism so far considered are ensconced in the big umbrella 'cultural relativism'. we shall now attempt to explain this concept as well as other notions that may be associated with it, its features before we make a case for it. but first, what is the meaning of the word culture? to respond to the posed question it is pertinent to go to the etymology of the word itself. the word 'culture' is derived from the latin word 'colere' whcich means to till or cultivate. it refers to production by means of labour and the application of skills over an extended period of time of something that does not exist in unmodified nature. there is both the technical and non technical sense of culture. our preoccupation in this paper is the technical sense. a technical sense of the term culture is exemplified in e. b. tylor's primitive culture. according to him, culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs,art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. again, kroeber and kluckhohn say that culture 'designates those aspects of the total human environment, tangible and intangible, which have been created by man'(dunn, 1972:284). we can deduce from the above that culture consists of certain patterns of behavior which are recurrent and which exist within a social framework and which may serve as a vehicle of identification for those who exhibit such pattern of behavior. the conception of culture kroeber and kluckhohn express is a little removed from the material elements as they seem to be more in tone with the immaterial aspect of culture hence the choice of the word 'intangible.' in the same vein, mary lee ledbetter defines culture as “the way of life of a human society which includes language. a culture produces similar thought among a people. to learn about culture one may ask: what language do a people speak?”ledbetter (2002:1188) the reason why language must not be left out according to ledbetter is because language appears to be the canopy under which any culture strives. one cannot talk knowledge, beliefs, cognitive process and so on without talking about language. furthermore, o'hear sees cultural relativism as a deterministic doctrine which makes culture too definitive of the group to which it belongs, in that any reception of outside influence is going to seem either impossible in appealing to values not recognized by insiders or undesirable in diluting the purity of distinctiveness of a culture (1998:784). this is to say that the ways 31 abam a case for cultural relativism in a globalizing world of men cut across diverse societies leaving no culture insular. this may be what gyekye had in mind when he opined that there is what is called 'descriptive cultural relativism' and 'normative cultural relativism.' normative cultural relativism implies that there is no such thing as common body of social facts, corresponding to a shared human standard of cognition. instead, there are several bodies of fact, each relative to the standards relative in a particular society. this may not be unconnected with gyekye definition of cultural relativism as “that doctrine that denies objectivity or universality of cultural values” (1999:32). to reiterate, cultural relativism holds that values that are held by a people are only true and valid for that cultural group. hence our abstraction, perception, conception of the real, or the good, our conception of rationality, is as valid as any other, there being no simple or common – neutral standard by which the various goods or values can be evaluated. the three fundaments of cultural relativism i. since the value and practices of each culture or society are valid for that culture or society, any attempt by someone outside --that culture to evaluate it would be irrelevant, otiose, inconsequential, and an unjustified interference. ii. since it is impossible for an outsider to fully appreciate or understand the menaces of the meanings and symbols of a different culture system, there would be no basis for anyone's judging and evaluating another's culture. iii. since an alien would have no real basis for evaluating another culture, any attempt on their part to do so would always and unavoidably be conditioned by their own background values and beliefs. this would result in a necessary distortion of the judgments that would be made, as these can only reflect the outsider's cultural perspectives. constructivism and cultural relativism the constructivist sees reality as a creation of the way we think and talk. in other words, reality is generated from language (since our thoughts and speeches are impossible outside the use of language). and since language is relative to culture, it becomes the case that reality is culturally determined. the constructivist thesis comes in two ways – social constructivism and scientific constructivism. according tocollin, scientific constructivists are interested in the construction of facts about the physical world while social constructivists are concerned with the generation of social facts (1997:2). it is in constructivism that we see a bifurcation of reality into social and physical, both depending on cultural constructs. another appendage of cultural relativism is the thesis of incommensurability. according to gyekye, this thesis states that there is no common measure or scale for evaluating different cultures (gyekye, 37). the incommensurability thesis revolves around the idea that cultures cannot be placed in a single normative scale, for they cannot be weighed 32 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 from the same scale. there is no common ground for them. to this end, beliefs, canon of rationality, moral values, concepts and theoretical frameworks, perceptions and reality is relative to cultures and there is no meeting point; this is the basic argument of the incommensurability thesis. from the fore going, we may easily glean certain factors of what qualifies as cultural relativism. the most basic of such factors is that it applies to a group of people rather than to individuals. it is of course possible to argue that an individual living within a community can have her own culture. while this argument may be valid, it is equally a fact that whatever that individual culture is, it has to be subordinate to the collective culture. it has to be in consonance with what is accepted. another point worth making is that cultural relativism recognizes and leaves room for heterogeneity of ideas. it does so because it does not approve of a monolithic view of reality. in cultural relativism, reality is culture dependent. it also does not subscribe to the supremacy of one culture to another. it is succinctly put, predicated on the post-modernist assertion that there is no absolute truth. defense of cultural relativism the prime argument to examine that supports relativism is the one termed “cosmic porridge” (kirk, 52). this argument greatly derives from the constructivist thesis that reality is totally dependent on us, and it represents those categories of arguments that rotate around the fringes of absurdity. according to the cosmic porridge argument all that really exist apart from the perceiver is an indeterminate something; this has no features of its own (kirk, 52). the crux of the argument is that we somehow impose features on the 'undifferentiated stuff'features which depend on which concepts we happen to have. on the one hand something really exists 'out there', but on the other hand, nothing else can be said about it, which is objectively true. hence, nothing else exists which is real. another extreme interpretation of this argument is that there is no indeterminate stuff out there at all. rather everything that exists is all in the mind. the import that these have on cultural relativism is seen when we imagine a situation in which we have a community of people who happen to have the same way of imposing features on the 'indeterminate.'that peculiar way of imposing features would be their culture. the implication is that other communities with their own differentiating peculiarities would have different realities. let us now consider the views of philosophers like wittgenstein, quine, rorty and others. in his works philosophical investigations, wittgenstein states that philosophy “is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language” (wittgenstein, 1967:109). the point he is making here is that philosophical problems especially those bothering on discourses on reality, arise as a result of wrong use of words. he claims then that it is the task of philosophy to ensure that language is properly used. he went further to maintain that our everyday language is governed by rules or norms, which is depicted as the language – game. invariably, people brought up in different cultures will have different language – games with their own rules. to this end, what belongs to a language 33 abam a case for cultural relativism in a globalizing world game is a whole culture. elsewhere he states that “our language game only works, of course, when a certain agreement prevails” (1967:76) where the purported agreement is reached among people who already play the game (people of the same culture). the above implies that each culture has its language, which conforms to a certain language – game. a language game is the way language is used and meanings generated. it is a language game that determines what is true or false, because truth and falsity depends on statement's conformity to the rules and norms of language. consequently, truth, falsity, reality and meaning are all dependent on the rules/norms of a languagegame. where language differs, reality differs and there is no objective source of what is correct or not. more still, quine's view on cultural relativism can be gathered from his opinion on the indeterminacy of radical translation, inscrutability of reference and ontological relativity. in “two dogmas of empiricism”, he proclaimed that there is no demarcation between natural sciences and speculative metaphysics. he, in his empiricism without dogma, seems to have removed any foundation for what is true and meaningful and maintains that our knowledge of reality is man-made (quine 1963:129). to quine, reality transcends empirical verifiability or immediate experience. as a matter of fact reality is like a field of force which is composed of different myths or posits which themselves are cultural; at the centre of the field are myths about gods and theoretical entities, while at the periphery are physical objects. he says that the myth of physical objects have only been more efficacious in explicating reality than other myths not because they are of different kinds to other myths – their differences are only a matter of degree. he writes physical objects are conceptually imported intothe situation as convenient intermediaries – not by definition of terms of experience, but simply as irreducible posits… (quine, 131) invariably, what quine seems to be alluding to is that there is no one way of seeing the world. reality is an embodiment of myths of varying degrees of potency which are all culture dependent. this implies that where culture differs, the myth of its reality will also be different thus giving credence to relativity – hence his work ontological relativity. in this work, quine subscribes to the indeterminacy of translation because it is very possible to have two different translations in english of a remote language, which may both elicit the same observable behavior and disposition to behave on the parts of the speakers of both languages. in conditions as this, it is impossible to ascertain the right translation. for instance, as quine exemplifies, if a native sees a rabbit and overtly behaves in such a way as to utter 'gavagai', the english linguist may be justified for the sake of communication to translate the utterance to “rabbit.” however, it would be missing the point philosophically to just accept that the indeterminacy of radical translation arises from the fact that “we are wondering whether to translate a native expression 'gavagai' as 'rabbit' or as “undetached rabbit part” or as “rabbit stage”, we can never settle the matter…”(quine 1969:28). 34 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 we might likely argue that the matter can be settled by denotative or ostensive means. quine interjected at this point by saying that 'rabbit' is a term of divided reference. he writes that: the indeterminacy of translation now confronts us however, cutting across extension and intension alike. the terms “rabbit,” “undetached rabbit parts”, and “rabbit stage” differ not only in meaning: they are true of different things. reference itself proves behaviourally inscrutable (quine, 35). the implication of the above assertion on language and culture is seen in quine's idea of homophonic rules and translation. he explains that we all have an individual and peculiar string of phonemes in our idiolect, which gives our characteristic interpretation of our environment (quine, 46). thus we as individuals of the same culture have our ways of carrying “each string of phonemes into itself”. homophonic rules that inform homophonic translation are acquired, quine argues, via one's interaction with one's culture. hence, homophonic translation is a product of homophonic rules, which in turn depends on culture. by implication, where culture differs, homophonic rules and translation differ. this view shows then that people from different environment cannot interpret reality in the same way. furthermore, the result of interpretation provided that one is observing the same object with an alien, is unclear. in pursuance with the tenets of cultural relativism, richard rorty maintains a pragmatist stance, which in our opinion culminates into relativism. “heaims to undermine the reader's confidence… in 'knowledge' as something … which… has foundations” (rorty 1990:7). it is his negative attitude towards foundationalism that qualifies him as a postmodernist. his take on relativism finds expression his work titled philosophy and the mirror of nature. in this work, he borrowed from john dewey when he opined that justification is a social phenomenon rather than a transaction between the knower and reality; and james view that “truth is what is better for us to believe” (rorty, 9-10), rather than as the accurate representation of reality. …the notion of 'accurate representation' is simply an automatic and empty compliment which we pay to those beliefs which are successful in helping us do what we want to do (rorty, 10). consequently, for rorty, the attempt to explicate 'rationality' and 'objectivity' in terms of conditions of accurate representation is a self-deceptive effort to eternalize the normal discourse of the day (rorty, 11). in what he calls epistemological behaviourism, rorty explains that the community is the source of epistemic authority. the above statements credited to rorty can be construed as meaning that in a way, truth and hence, reality is culture determined. to corroborate his 35 abam a case for cultural relativism in a globalizing world argument, rorty says: to say that the world is out there, that it is not our creation, is to say ,… that most things in space and time are the effects of causes which do not include human mental states. to say that truth is not out there is simply to say that wherethere are no sentences there is no truth, that sentences are elements of human languages are human creation (rorty, 10). rorty is a bit different from philosophers of the analytic school because he does not hold onto the notion that reality is represented or is the product of a cognitive process. in other words, the usual argument that reality is determined by the way we structure or organize and represent objects, which in turn is determined by language or culture does not go down well with rorty. his own approach to relativism is pragmatic. what is true or real, rather than being a product of a conceptual scheme, is a product of what a society or culture agrees on, “justification is a … convention … of social practice” (rorty, 1989:5). in other words, knowledge (beliefs, truth, reality), is what is workable or convenient for a culture to adopt. when 'incommensurability' is mentioned in a philosophical discourse, it invariably leads one to the branch of philosophy of science where kuhn and ferayabend hold sway. their views are quite relevant in this work. their works to all purposes reflect the tenets of relativism even though kuhn denies this. he holds that progress in science is often characterized by revolution and paradigm shift, in which an emergent scientific theory claims to better deal with any perceived anomaly. kuhn enthused that there is always a concerted effort by proponents of an old rival theory to maintain the integrity of that theory. this leads to a relativism of truth-values, which are held by the different competing scientific communities involved. again, what counts as a paradigm is community dependent this, succinctly put is why kuhn writes that “scientific knowledge, like language, is intrinsically the common property of a group…” (kuhn 1970:210). ferayabend's contribution to this debate can be gleaned from his opinion on incommensurability as well as his notion that science (as presented by the west is the very paradigm of institutionalized rationality) is not necessarily superior to other fields of inquiry. in his irrationalism, he contrasts science with voodoo, astrology and the likes and argues that other inquiry cannot be ruled by recourse to some general criterion of scientificity and rationality (chalmers, 1990:141). thus we can see from the fore going that what informs his idea of methodological anarchism and his assertion that “anything goes”. let us at this juncture mention the views of a notable african philosopher on the problematic in person of k. c. anyanwu. anyanwu maintains that language, apart from being a vehicle of communication, expresses reality. he argues that our language plays important role in perception and interpretation of reality. in other words, our language contains certain framework, which ensures that our pattern of interpretation, generation of meaning and subsequent communication depends on it. the consequence is that where language differs, interpretations, consideration of what is meaningful, and so on also will 36 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 differ. hence, what is 'the real' is relative to the culture from which the language emanates (anyanwu 1982:127). conclusion most arguments point to the fact that if allowed to stand, cultural relativism will plunge the world in to further crisis.our response to this is that the world is already in a worse crisis occasioned by liberal minded 'universalists'. the crisis this time is not direct conflict as seen in terms of war but rather amoral one. we now witness moral crisis all over the world bisexualism, gay men, lesbianism, to mention but a few. some governments are having diplomatic problems with those that may not want to adopt their kind of liberaluniversalists' ideas which mayalso lead to diplomatic problems that might culminate in war. in nigeria for instance, few openly display acts mentioned above in the name of universalism.this is a direct consequence of 'liberal universalists' ideas. ' critics are of the opinion that cultural relativism alleges to preach tolerance while in the real sense as pointed out by williams, doyal and harris, bidney and wiredu is back-handed racism, tribalism and ethnocentrism, which are all basic ingredients for conflict. the question is: should we for fear of being termed tribal and racist imbibe practices alien to us as hinted above? our answer is no. we conclude on the note that, we would rather be termed tribal, ethnocentric and racist than allow those features that confer identity on a group erode us in the name of cultural universalism. more so, reality is too broad to be viewed from universal lenses. the more cultures are encouraged to engage their reality, the more we come to knowledge about our world. to this end, cultural relativism must be emphasized. references bertrand russell. 1995. history of western philosophy. london: routledge. brian longhurst. 1989. karl mannheim and the contemprary sociology of knowledge. london: macmillan. edward craig. 1989. “relativism”, routledge encyclopedia of philosophy, vol. 8. new york: routledge. emmethbarcallow. 1994. moral philosophy. belmont: wadsworth publishing company. nda. f. chambers. 1990. what is this thing called science? 2 (ed). buckingham: open university press. firm collin. 1997. social reality. london: routledge. mary lee ledbetter. 2002. 'culture'. the world book encyclopedia vol. 4. chicago: world book inc. anthony o' hear. 1998. 'cultural relativism' in edward craig (ed.) routledge encyclopedia of philosophy vol. 2. london: routledge. 37 abam a case for cultural relativism in a globalizing world kwame gyekye. 1999. beyond cultures: perceiving a common humanity, ghanaian philosophical studies vol. 3. ludwig wittgenstein. 1967. philosophical investigation. translated by g.e.m. nd anscombe, 2 ed. oxford: basil blackwell. …………………………….. 1966. lectures and conversations on aesthetics, psychology and religious beliefs. c. barret (ed.) oxford: basil blackwell. w. v. o. quine 1963. “two dogmas of empiricism” in h. d. lewis (ed) clarity is not enough. london: george allen and unwin. ……………………… 1969. ontological relativity and other essays. new york: columbia university press. richard rorty. 1990. philosophy and the mirror of nature. oxford: basil blackwell. …………………….. 1989. contingency, irony and solidarity. cambridge: cambridge university press. thomas kuhn. 1970. the structure of scientific revolutions. chicago: university of chicago press. k. c. anyanwu. 1982. “the role of language in perception and cognition”, uche: journal of the department of philosophy, vol. 6. robert kirk. 1999. relativism and reality. london: routledge. 38 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract a cursory glance reveals that anthropologists, philosophers, historians, colonial masters and missionaries have understood africa variously. unfortunately, this understanding has often been in the negative. this has relegated africa to the background of mere obscurantism, and misled the world into believing that africans are savages, primitive and reside in a dark continent where they sleep on trees, eat raw fruits and consort with apes. the need to reconstruct this history, has led to the emergence of positive efforts to re-establish, dig out and recover the stolen and damaged personality of the african by both scholars of african and western backgrounds. okot p'bitek remains one of those african scholars who have distinguished themselves in the critique of western misunderstanding or distortion of the african realities or worldview. this piece, therefore, focused on his critique of the western understanding of the african worldview. this work discovered that while trying to make an amend to the disfiguration of the african reality by western and african scholars, okot showed himself a different class of his western and african counterparts as he is not without the influence of western thinkers. this paper employed the critical approach in the study of okot p'bitek's understanding of the concept of african traditional religion by some western and african thinkers. given the very nature and concerns of this approach in research, it would focus on a reflective assessment of okot p'bitek's perspective in order to reveal the power and challenge the structures of his argument. keywords: okot p'bitek, decolonization, hellenization, african traditional religion introduction africa has been understood variously by western anthropologists, philosophers, historians, colonial masters and missionaries. unfortunately, this understanding has often been in the negative. this has relegated africa to the background, and in the contention of onyewuenyi (1994), denied her of her place as the “mother of world civilization” and “misled the world into believing that africans are savages, primitive and reside in a dark continent where they sleep in trees, eat raw fruits and consort with apes” (p. 21). this understanding of the african people was taught in schools and popularized in books and movies. in his epinomis plato expressed the western cultural pride and superiority, which has continued to affect the thinking of the west. although the greeks had borrowed their gods from egypt, he writes that: “but we may take it that whenever greeks borrow anything from non-greeks, they finally carry it to a higher perfection” (p. 56). the implication being that the movement of these gods from africa to greece, opened a way for a nobler worshipping of these divine beings. taking them from africa, therefore, becomes a noble 22 the ambiguities of okot p'bitek's decolonization of african religion prof. ikechukwu anthony kanu, osa. act. following the path of plato, however, focusing on arts, goldsmith (1774) in his history of the earth writes that: “those arts which might have had their inventions among other races of mankind have come to their perfection” (pp. 230-231). thus, europe becomes the place where they find their perfection. taking away the cultural heritage of a people, whatever be the cost, is also considered a noble action. thhegel (1944) emerged in the 18 century and as a product of his own environment, even though he had never been to africa, relying on the writings of missionaries, anthropologists, historians, etc., had no consideration for anything africa. in his piece on the philosophy of history, hewrites that: one is that which lies south of the desert of sahara. … africa proper… the upland almost entirely unknown to us, with narrow coast-tracks along the sea; the second is that to the north of the desert—european african if we may call it… the third is the river region of the nile… africa proper… the land of childhood, which lying beyond the day of self-conscious history, is enveloped in the dark mantle of night. (p. 91). bentley (1900) who was a missionary to africa, and in fact one of those that hegel relied on for information about africa, sums up his understanding of the african people as such. an african whether negro or bantu, does not think, reflect or reason, if he can help it. he has a wonderful memory, has great powers great powers of observation and initiation, much freedom of speech and many good qualities; he can be kind, generous, affectionate, unselfish, devoted, faithful, brave, patient and persevering; but the reasoning and inventive faculties remain dormant. he readily grasps the present circumstances, adapts himself to them and provides for them; but a careful though-out plan or a clear piece of induction is beyond him. (pp.2728). these perspectives among others denigrated the african personality as everything black was categorized bad and everything white was considered good. it affected not just the history of the african person but his is-ness. this led to the emergence of positive efforts to re-establish, dig out and recover the stolen and damaged personality of the african by both scholars of african and western origins (kanu 2010, 2012, 2014, 2015&2016). it was from this background that scholars such as senghor, nyerere, kenyatta, danquah, azikiwe, awolowo, nkrumah, etc., emerged. however, in this paper, the researcher would focus on the position of okot p'bitek on the perspective of western and african scholars on african traditional religion. okot p'bitek remains one of those african scholars who through their writings challenged the arrogance of the west in their portrayal of africa in different modes that were derogatory and which did not mirror the reality of the african world. his concern was not just about the western scholars and missionaries who did this but also who went the western way in the analysis of the african reality. methodology this paper would employ the critical approach to the study of okot p'bitek's understanding of the concept of african traditional religion by some western and african thinkers, mainly missionaries and anthropologists. given the very nature and concerns of this approach in research, it would focus on a reflective assessment of okot p'bitek's perspective in order to reveal the power and challenge the structures of his argument. this work would rely majorly on primary and secondary sources, that is, books, journals, 23 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 internet sources, etc., written by okot and that have discussed the position of okot p'bitek's on this matter. the evaluation approach would further be employed so as to solve the basic problems in okot p'bitek's position and if need be, to refine his position as a development of the discourse on western conception of african traditional religion. in addition, this piece provides a deeper understanding of okot p'bitek as a scholar with passion for his roots. the man okot p'bitek th okot p'bitek, the ugandan poet, novelist, and social anthropologist was born on 9 june 1931, at gulu, in northern uganda to the family of mr opii bitek (a story-teller and dancer) and mrs serina lacaa (a song composer and dancer). as a young man, okot published a novel in the acholi language, however, later published in english in 1989 as white teeth. he was very good at sports, which explains why he was enlisted in the ugandan national football team. he had his primary and secondary education in gulu, and from 1951-1952 he studied at the teacher training college mbarara which prepared him to teach english and religious education at sir samuel baker's school, gulu. while at gulu, he went into politics and was elected a member of the acholi district council under the uganda national congress. in 1956, okot left for england, where he furthered his studies bagging a diploma certificate in education from the university of bristol in england. he also pursued a bachelor in law from the university college of wales at aberystwyth. developing a passion for his roots, he added to this is a degree in anthropology from the institute of social anthropology at oxford. it was at oxford that he met scholars like evanspritchard, lienhardt, beattie, and in the contention of rinsum (2004) “his stay at oxford played an important role in shaping his ideas about western dominance as manifested… in how anthropologists viewed africa” (p. 26). after his return, he taught at makerere university in kampala, uganda from 1964 to 1966. terminating his appointment as lecturer in makerere university in 1966, he served as director of uganda's national theatre and national cultural centre from 1966 to 1969. he was dismissed in 1969, most probably because of his criticism of politicians in his works. from 1971-1978 p'bitek served as a senior research fellow and lecturer at university college, nairobi, kenya and later between 1978 -1982, he taught at the university of ife in nigeria, while serving as visiting lecturer to various universities in africa. in 1979, when general idi amin had left power, he returned back to makerere university where he became a senior research fellow in the institute of social research. his major works include song of lawino published in 1966 in which he addressed the conflict between the western and african cultures. he uses the image of a woman who lamented on how her educated husband has become a misfit in the face of what traditional african concept of manhood holds. he also wrote the song of ocol published in 1970 which contains the response of the husband to the woman's lamentations in the first book. a third is the two songs which include song of a prisoner and song of malaya published in 1971. they have very important places in any serious discussion on african poetry. his other works include africa's cultural revolution published in 1975; the horn of my love 24 kanu,osa the ambiguities of okot p'bitek's decolonzation of african religion published in 1974 and hare and hornbill published in 1978 (adams, et al 1998). he died thin kampala on 19 july 1982, five months after he was appointed professor of creative writing. okot's perspective on western concept of african religion evans-pritchard (1956) in his work on nuer religion had equated jok (acholi god) with kwoth (nuer god) referring to both as names of the supreme being. the implication being that the nuer and the acholi have concepts of the supreme being in their traditional religion. ogot (1961) agreed with evans-pritchard and employed tempels' concept of hierarchy of forces to explain the relationship between the spiritual forces in nature, and which places the supreme being at the zenith of the forces in the universe. contrary to these positions, okot (1971) argues that the concept jok stood for a totality of the spiritual world and that its meaning is dependent on context. this implies that it does not stand for the supreme being as posited by evans-pritchard and ogot. his reasons are that unlike other tribes like the nuer and dinka, the acholi and lango were more concerned with the ancestors rather than any other spiritual being, ultimate power or god; and also focused on the spiritual causes of particular effects rather than concerned with a particular being that was central and the cause of all effectsthat is a supreme being (okot 1963). from the foregoing, okot (1964) believes that the problem of misinterpretation by the missionaries and anthropologists was due to their employment of a wrong anthropological method of trying to know the african people and their religious believes. the wrong methodology was speculation, through which they tried to get answers to their questions and never minded whether they were true or not; they tried to understand the african people from a distance rather than by being with themthrough participant observation, which he considers a sound anthropological fieldwork methodology. still focusing on the misconceptions of the missionaries, okot (1971) did a criticism of the pattern of religious studies of his time, especially as it relates to the discourse on african traditional religion which limited the content of african traditional religion to the conceptual framework of the west. african religion was understood not the way it is but the way the west could understand it. he called this process of imposition of framework 'hellenization' (okot 1969). he traced the process of hellenization to the time of the encounter between christianity and greek philosophy. he avers that this era was when christian apologists, obviously non-jewish converts to christianity hellenized the jewish yahweh into a person or trinity of persons creating an imposing “theological system that man ever erected” (okot, p. 69, p.6). he argues further that some african and western scholars were in the same fashion, modelling african religion after hellenized christianity of the west. he called these scholars intellectual smugglers with john mbiti as the chief of them who “smuggled enough greek metaphysical material to hellenise three hundred african deities” (okot 1972 p. 29); and they were doing this in three ways by three groups of persons: 1. they were using the african deities to prove that the christian god does exist and is known among the african people. evans-pritchard and lienhardt fall within this category. this became obvious for okot when evans-pritchard spoke of kwoth in relation to the christian god. 2. the second way were basically african nationalists who were trying to prove to the west that the african is also civilized, and thus, they clothed african deities in 25 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 hellenistic as they paraded them before their western counterparts. these african scholars include kenyatta, senghor, danquah, etc. 3. the third group were mainly western missionaries like edwin smith, john taylor, placid tempels, etc., who wanted to demonstrate to their audience of african elites that they, as saint paul in athens are highly religious people. with this, they hoped to win them over to christianity. these notwithstanding, okot's problem with these western and african scholars was their methodology which has led to several false conclusions. critical evaluation okot p'bitek remains one of those african scholars who have distinguished himself in the critique of western misunderstanding or distortion of the african realities or worldview. as a thorough going anthropologist, he rightly emphasized the need for participant observation or a strong anthropological fieldwork methodology rather than loosely arriving at conclusions through speculation; conclusions that lack the required substance for addressing major theological issues and concerns. okot (1971) advices that for a student to understand the religion of a people which is a relationship between human and superhuman powers, “it would be necessary for the student to stay longer than seven months and get a deep knowledge of the language of the people, and also to soak himself in the everyday life of the people” (p. 53). thus, wiredu (1988) refers to him as the pioneer of conceptual decolonization in african philosophy. okot had criticized edward evans-pritchard, godfrey lienhardt and their african colleagues for modelling african gods after the western christian images, and yet, he was also a victim of the same pattern of modelling. the concept hellenization was taken after the western counterparts who had used it before him. he was influenced by dewart (1967) who used the concept when he called on theologians to go beyond demythologization to de-hellenization of the christian doctrine of god within the context of resolving the friction between the experience of post-war generation and the traditional christian images of god. he also rode on robinson (1963), who developed the idea that traditional christian images of god were metaphysical, a pattern of thinking that the new generation of christians were not open to. in this, okot showed himself an african student of oxford, and a hellenized hellenizer. the fact that okot (1972) stated clearly that “i admit i am neither a christian nor a pagan. i do not believe in god or spirits. i do not believe in witchcraft or supernatural forces. heaven and hell do not make sense to me and for me metaphysical statements are nonsensical” (p. 31), raises several questions regarding his position on hellenization. his understanding of heaven and hell, god and spirits, witchcraft and supernatural powers as nonsensical also points to the influence of david hume's thorough going empiricist philosophy on his thinking. although he was interested in the decolonization of the african people, he employed western patterns in his philosophy of decolonization. it is also interesting that although he had denied the existence of god and spirits, he still preoccupies himself with defending the acoli/lango-african concept of god. how a person borders himself with a reality that he considers non-existent is very surprising. also observable is that while he opposed the use of concepts like 'primitive' and 'savage', he did not consider it equally offensive to use the concept 'pagan' as can be seen in the above quotation. the concepts 'primitive', 'savage' and 'pagan' are all derogatory 26 kanu,osa the ambiguities of okot p'bitek's decolonzation of african religion concepts. more so, okot went further to condemn the use of concepts by african scholars like john s. mbiti; concepts such as omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscience, eternal, etc., as christian concepts in replacement for african traditional concepts like great, strong, wise, old, etc., respectively. this manifests a major concern in okot's pattern of argument: he condemns without being able to make a replacement that carries at least the same weight with what he has condemned. in relation to the divine, omnipresent is not a match for great; omnipotent is not a match for strong; omniscience is not a match for wise and eternity is not a match for old. one would have expected a concept that stands stronger than the ones employed by the hellenizers. it is also questionable why okot made evans-pritchard and lienhardt the major objects of his concern in his works. could it have been a revenge mission? trying to pay back the people he could not face as supervisors in england. evans-pritchard and the linguist a.n. tucker were his supervisors and they made it clear in their report about his thesis that it had too many typing, spelling, grammatical and other errors; they also raised questions about the clarity of his position and the content of the work; they observed that his thesis was not on the approved topic. what was approved by the anthropology and geography board was: 'religious ideas of the jopalwo of northern bunyoro'. since he eventually did not fulfill the conditions for obtaining a doctorate, it is possible that his critique of these scholars was only a spillover of his frustration. conclusion the foregoing, reveals that okot stands on an academic ground that rejects a blind and slavish embrace of the western culture that looks down on or makes a false presentation of the african world by both the western cultural colonialism and the african elite that accepted to be its tool. whether this be a product of his experience or an academic passion in him, the truth remains that he pursued a worthy cause. he was proud of who he wasan african; thus, altobbai (2020) writes that okot: like the negritude poets, okot is proud of the afri-can ways of life and he romanticizes them. to him they are graceful and beautiful. he asserts their value and emphasizes the need to preserve them. he attacks not only the european institutions and practices responsible for the cultural alien-ation of africans but he also targets almost everything west-ern. thus it can be concluded that okot (in song of lawino) subscribes to the idea that the african culture and ways are superior to the western culture and ways. (p. 25). okot would always be remembered as one of those post-colonial writers in africa who constructed serious criticism on the colonial and missionary discourse on who the african was and what constituted his environment. 27 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 references stadams, a., et al (1998). okot-pbitek. britannica. retrieved on 31 may 2021 from altobbai, a. a. s. (2020). okot p'bitek's attitude towards the african past: a study of song of lawino. international journal of comparative literature & translation studies. 8. 3. 16-25. bentley, w. h. (1900). pioneering on the congo. cambridge: cambridge university press dewart, l. (1967). the future of belief: theism in a world come of age. london: burns and oats limited. evans-pritchard, e. e. (1956). nuer religion. london and oxford: oxford university press hegel, g. w. (1944). the philosophy of history. new york: willey book co. kanu i. a. (2015b). a hermeneutic approach to african traditional religion, theology and philosophy. nigeria: augustinian publications. kanu, i. a. (2010). towards an african cultural renaissance. professor bassey andah journal of cultural studies. volume 3, pp. 146-155. kanu, i. a. (2012). inculturation and christianity in africa. international journal of humanities and social science. vol. 2. no. 17. pp. 236-244. kanu, i. a. (2014). igwebuikology as an igbo-african philosophy for catholicpentecostal relations. jos studies. 22. pp.87-98. kanu, i. a. (2015a). african philosophy: an ontologico-existential hermeneutic approach to classical and contemporary issues. nigeria: augustinian publications. kanu, i. a. (2016). igbo-african christology: a cultural christological construct in post-missionary africa.germany: lambert publications. ogot, a. a. (1961). the concept of jok. african studies. 20. 123-130 oliver goldsmith, m. b. (1774). history of the earth and animated nature. vol. 1. philadelphia: claxton, remsen and haffelfinger. onyewuenyi, i. (1994). the african origin of greek philosophy: an exercise in afrocentrism. nsukka: university of nigeria press. p'bitek, okot (1963). acholi folk tales. transition 2. a. 21-24 p'bitek, okot (1963). de-hellenizing the church. east africa journal. august, a. 8-10 p'bitek, okot (1964). fr. tempel's bantou philosophy. transition 3. a. 17-17 p'bitek, okot (1971). african religions in western scholarship. nairobi, east african literature bureau p'bitek, okot (1972). reflect, reject, recreate: a reply to professors b. a. ogot, ali mazrui and peter rigbey. east africa journal. a. 28-32 plato (987 d; 2008) epinomis. germany: uitgeverij bert bakker. rinsum, h. j. (2004). they became slaves of their definitions: okot p'bitek (1931-1982) and the european traditions in the study of african religions. ludwig, f and adogame, a. (eds.) european traditions in the study of religion in africa (pp. 23-38). harrarsowitz verlag: wiesbaden. robinson, j, a. t. (1963). honest to god. london: scm press limited. wirendu, k. (1988). towards decolonizing african philosophy and religion. african studies quarterly 1. 4. https://www.britannica.com/biography/okot-pbitek 28 kanu,osa the ambiguities of okot p'bitek's decolonzation of african religion https://www.britannica.com/biography/okot-pbitek page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract surrogacy arrangement is the carrying of pregnancy for intended parents by someone who is genetically unrelated to the surrogate mother. the practice of surrogacy has been identified as the term motherhood which began to be used at the end of the nineteenth century. motherhood is associated only with women since the state of motherhood has a direct impact on women's live. motherhood is generally known to begin when a woman gives birth to a baby. women are under pressure to bear children. this practice however appears to have deviated from the traditional african norms and standards of gestation and childbirth which recognizes one natural mother who reproduces through natural sexual and reproductive procedure. the problem that was addressed in the research is centered on the practice of surrogacy as it violates the identity and dignity ascribed to a mother. the research employed analytic method. keywords: surrogacy, traditional surrogacy, gamete donation, motherhood and gestational surrogacy. introduction our central focus in this paper is on surrogacy, its meaning and the clarification of other associated concepts. in the first section we are going to look at definitions of the keywords used. secondly, is to examine critically the implications of gestational surrogacy on motherhood. the traditional ways of motherhood and the values attached to it have undergone dramatic changes consequent upon the advancements in biomedical technology. thomas shanon shannon (1997) said that there have been three major revolutions in this century. the first, which occurred in the 1950s, was the introduction of oral conception; the second was the introduction of in vitro fertilization (ivf) in 1978 and finally surrogacy motherhood was introduced in the 1980s. this marked the separation of sex from reproduction, reproduction from sex and both sex and reproduction from the traditional family model. (shannon, 1997) surrogacy arrangement or surrogacy agreement is the carrying of pregnancy for intended parents. there are two main types of surrogacy, gestational surrogacy and traditional surrogacy. in gestational surrogacy, the pregnancy results from the transfer of an embryo created by ivf, so the resulting child will be genetically unrelated to the surrogate. gestational surrogates are also referred to as gestational carriers. in traditional surrogacy, an examination of the practice of motherhood and surrogacy in yoruba culture. gladys oluwatosin oludare and titi christian falana, ph.d 196 the surrogate is impregnated naturally or artificially, but the resulting child is genetically related to the surrogate.( falana,2013). however, intended parents may seek a surrogacy arrangement when pregnancy is medically impossible or delayed, a pregnancy presents in unacceptable danger to the mother's health or same sex couples wish to procreate. scientific and technological innovations have produced changes in so many ways of perceiving the world around us. this is evident in the technology of surrogate motherhood. surrogacy involves impregnating one woman to gestate a baby who is raised by another woman. in western culture, the practice of surrogacy is very common. surrogacy the word 'surrogacy' is derived from the latin word 'subrogare' which simply means one woman the surrogate mother carries a child for another person or persons( the commissioning couple) as result of an agreement prior to the conception that the child should be handed over to that person after birth. surrogacy arrangement or surrogacy agreement is the carrying of pregnancy for intended parents. there are two main types of surrogacy, gestational surrogacy and traditional surrogacy. in gestational surrogacy, the pregnancy results from the transfer of an embryo created by ivf, so the resulting child will be genetically unrelated to the surrogate. gestational surrogates are also referred to as gestational carriers. in traditional surrogacy, the surrogate is impregnated naturally or artificially, but the resulting child is genetically related to the surrogate. (gibbs,2008). however, intended parents may seek a surrogacy arrangement when either pregnancy is medically impossible or delayed, a pregnancy presents in unacceptable danger to the mother's health or same sex couples wish to procreate. scientific and technological innovations have produced changes in so many ways of perceiving the world around us. this is evident in the technology of surrogate motherhood. surrogacy involves impregnating one woman to gestate a baby who is raised by another woman. traditional surrogacy traditional surrogacy arrangements uses artificial insemination(a1) to impregnate the surrogate mother's egg with the sperm of a man who is not her husband. the sperm that is used is usually the intended father's sperm. artificial insemination is probably the least complicated of the assisted reproductive therapies and refers to the process of introducing 14sperm into the female reproductive organs by other means other than sexual intercourse . gestational surrogacy instead of using the method of artificial insemination(a1), gestational surrogacy uses a more complicated procedure known as in vitro fertilization (ivf). this procedure refers to the process by which a doctor stimulates woman ovaries, removes several eggs and fertilizes the egg outside her body. the fertilized egg is then introduced into the gestational surrogate's uterus. the gestational surrogate carries the child to term, however she never has a generic link to the baby. 197 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 gamete donation this is the using of eggs, sperm, or embryos from someone else in order to help intended parents to have a child. intended parent is the term used for the persons who will raise the children. donors which are people who donate either the eggs or sperm and they can be known to the intended parents or introduced through a reproductive center. motherhood the term “motherhood” which we started using at the end of the nineteenth century refers to the state or condition of being a mother. (motherhood,www.encyclopedia.socialsciences). motherhood is often defined as an automatic set of feelings and behaviour that is switched on by pregnancy and the birth of a baby. it is also viewed as a moral transformation whereby a woman comes to terms with being different in that she ceases to be an autonomous individual because she is one way or the other attached to another person. in many societies, a central feature of motherhood is that it should ideally occur within a heterosexual relationship, where a man and a woman cohabit and preferably legally married. motherhood is generally known to begin when a woman gives birth to a baby. generally, women are under pressure to bear children and motherhood is often associated with their maturity and achievement in life. being a mother is also considered to be a normal life course stage for women. this perception is also common in other societies. (akujobi,2011) . a mother is someone who carries pregnancy; give births and nurtures till the child reaches adulthood. adoption motherhood is when a woman adopts a child . foster motherhood is very close to adoption, it is a situation whereby a woman who is not the mother of a child takes up the responsibility of caring for the child. however, the foster mother does not have any legal claim over the child unless the child is adopted, for example, in china, many chinese women accepted without question, the view that child bearing was a natural and necessary part of their family life course, therefore, few people considered the option of not having children. the pressure for women's childbearing is derived not only from their personal network or relations and friends but also from society. (akujobi,2011). historically, despite changes in women's labor force participation, fertility rates and age at first marriage, the experience of motherhood has remained a central aspect of most women's lives. motherhood is socially constructed as an essential part of adult feminity so that women who do not become mothers, for whatever reason are usually unhappy. many women share the idealized view of motherhood common in many societies so it is not the case that they are forced into having children. motherhood, which is having an experience of carrying pregnancy and giving birth to children, wherein the mother finds joy in doing her duty as a mother should not be jeopardized for money or bio-medical advancement.(jones,2002). 198 oludare & falana an examination of the practice of motherhood and surrogacy ... types of motherhood §genetic motherhood a genetic mother is the one whose contribution to the child was the ovum, and hence the genes.the genetic link a mother has to her child is an important component of motherhood. in today's society, the genetic connection between parent and child has an almost divine reverence. some cultures and religious traditions that do not believe in a formal afterlife believe that we live on through the genes of our children. parents often see their own genetic child as a small link to immortality, thus going to great physical emotional and financial lengths to produce genetically related children. §gestational motherhood another component of motherhood is the pregnant woman's biological and emotional bond created with the child by simply gestating the embryo in her womb for nine months. therefore, the resulting child is impacted in some part of the gestational mother regardless of who contributed the genetic materials. biologically, the placenta, an organ that is genetically part of the fetus and controls the transfer of hormones from mother to fetus connects the mother and the fetus. throughout the pregnancy, the developing fetus and its placenta form a unique interrelated partnership in large part controlled by material contributions. in addition to the placenta, the mother's entire body and overall health play a large role in the development and health of the fetus. many pregnant women report the development of an attachment to their fetus especially after quickening, the point at which a woman begins to feel the movements of the fetus. §intent motherhood the contractual aspect of motherhood is not traditionally seen as a component of material rights but with the advent of surrogacy contracts and increased medical advances, intent plays a new role in reproductive process. the intended mother is the woman who has orchestrated the entire gestational surrogacy arrangement including the reproductive relationship between the gestational mother and the gamete donor therefore she should have connection to the child because she was essentially responsible for the birth of the child. the implications of gestational surrogacy on motherhood before the advent of new reproductive technologies, motherhood in western societies referred to the biological mother. the concept of motherhood was not ambiguous. it was traditionally accepted that the mother of a child is the person who physically gives birth to the child. the status of motherhood used to be self-evident by the pregnancy and birth of a child. (shannon ,1997) however, the concept of motherhood in recent times has been changing from the generally known or accepted form. the introduction and wide development of new reproductive technologies have complicated the concept of “motherhood”. gestational surrogacy which embraces whole heartedly reproductive technologies has radically re defined motherhood from what it ought to be. in gestational surrogacy, several types of motherhood are possible.(hisano ,2011) 199 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 1. the genetic mother, who is the source of the egg; 2. the gestational mother, who carries the pregnancy, 3. the nurturing mother, who raises the child; 4. the genetic-gestational mother, who is the source of the egg and carried the pregnancy but does not raise the child; 5. the genetic-nurturing mother, who is the source of the egg and raises the child but does not carry pregnancy and; 6. the whole mother, who is the source of the egg, carries the pregnancy and raises the child. (jones, 2002) the above raises the potential of multiple claimants to the rights and duties of motherhood. the legal system is therefore currently faced with the challenges of defining motherhood and the various relations contingent in conception and pregnancy. there can now be multiple actors in the reproductive process who may have or desire recognized social roles regardless of their biological ones. (niekerk, 1995) for example, under the british law, the woman who carries the child is considered the mother, whether or not the child is genetically linked to her. furthermore, the husband of the woman who gestates the child is considered the child's father, regardless of genetic link to the child. the intention to treat a person as mother is a social construction which may contrast with the natural facts. in the past, the natural facts that define a mother always seemed more comprehensive than those defining her partner. she both donated genetic material and brought the child to term, elements combined in the former cultural assumptions that child birth was a supreme natural fact of life. the increase in the number of women involved in gestational surrogacy arrangements could lead to a complicated analysis in maternity disputes. in adjudicating maternity disputes, different courts base their decisions on three different components of motherhood: genetic, gestational and intent motherhood. (zyl,1995) owing to the fact that most states have no legislation specifically governing the gestational surrogacy arena, most maternal rights disputes are resolved in the court. to adjudicate such matters, state courts have developed tests to determine material rights based on three components of motherhood which have been earlier discussed under types of motherhood : 1) the genetic component 2) the gestational component 3) the intent-to-mother component the courts have been forced to choose one woman's contribution to the child over the other. each of these three components contributes to motherhood but alone does not define motherhood. therefore, the court hierarchical system have always been inherently unfair and ineffective.( emeka, ekeke& ucheghue 2010) it is evident that gestational surrogacy. this has produced complications in maternal rights disputes including the once impossible separation of the genetic and gestational contributor. gestational surrogacy coupled with the technological intervention it embodies, has clearly complicated the traditional understanding of motherhood, such that the 200 oludare & falana an examination of the practice of motherhood and surrogacy ... fragmentation has caused a lot of social and ethical problems. it has challenged our understanding of 'motherhood' and forced us to question what it means in our society. gestational surrogacy creates the new situation in which a child had not one but two biological mothers – one genetic and the other gestational. evaluation a serious moral weakness of reproductive surrogacy is that it can be harmful to the children who are created. the practice of commercial surrogacy operates only in the interests of the adults involved not in the interests of the child involved who is created. whether 'surrogacy” is seen as the purchase of a baby, the purchase of parental rights. or the purchase of reproductive labor, all the three views shares the same significant flaws. they endorse the transfer, for a fee, of the infant from the woman who gestated it those who commissioned but without justifying such a transfer; they fail to demonstrate that the commissioners haveany entitlement to the infant, or for that matter, suitability to be the infant's parents; they fail to take the any notice of the infant needs, interests and wellbeing.(overall, 2015). judging from experience, we can say in the words of charles f. curren (1978) that it is a truism that medical science and practice has contributed immensely in recent times to correct birth defects, cure diseases, shed light on our ignorance and ultimately conquered all the ailments biotechnology and medical science is appreciable, for at least man now has at his disposal ever more effective therapeutic resources which constitutes progress in the service of man. although the unenforceable consequences of some other new technologies that are fundamentally non therapeutic, can also involve serious risks. they can also expose man to the temptations to go beyond the limits of a reasonable dominion over nature. furthermore, it is worthy to note that in the interventions on procreation, the value and rights of the human person must be safeguarded. hence, the need to take into cognizance an ethical look into biotechnology. this evaluation should be based on the criteria of moral judgment as regards the applications of scientific research and technology especially in relation to human life and its beginnings. these criteria are for the respect, defense and promotion of man, his primary and fundamental rights to life and his dignity as a person who is endowed with a spiritual soul and with moral responsibility. through this way, man will be helped to recognize and respect his rights and duties. in this light, gestational surrogacy can be questioned on the grounds as to whether it fulfils the criteria such as respect, defence and promotion of man, his primary and fundamental rights to life and his dignity . ethical evaluation of gestational surrogacy will be viewed under the following sub topics below: (a) procreation in marriage (b) economic perspective of gestational surrogacy (c) the psychological effects of gestational surrogacy (d) human life in embryo 201 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 (e) attack on motherhood. §procreation in marriage the gift of life, which god has entrusted to man, challenges him to appreciate the inestimable value of what he has been given and to take responsibility for it. this fundamental principle must be placed at the centre of one's reflection in order to clarify and solve the moral problems raised by gestational surrogacy with artificial interventions on life, as it originates in the process of procreation. doefler john in his examination of reproductive technology to ascertain whether it assists or replaces the divine act of procreation in marriages notes the following criteria to be followed: (1) there must be a natural conjugal act open to life; (2) the child must be the fruit of the conjugal act that is, the child must be a principal course of conception; (3) there must be a natural uninterrupted continuity from the conjugal act to conception.(burell & edozien, 2014). in essence, doefler john (2000) brings to the fore the fact that where these criteria are not met, it replaces the conjugal act of procreation in marriage. thus, the artificial reproductive technologies used by gestational surrogacy fall short of the above mentioned criteria. this is because they separate procreation from sexual intercourse. the means of trans-military life should be more carefully considered and understood in marriage because the human life is sacred, unique and different. thus, should be treated with respect and dignity. §economic perspective of gestational surrogacy the issue of economy is central to the unethical background of gestational surrogacy. through this mode surrogacy launched a huge attack on the human person by demeaning and denigrating his moral value, spiritual value and distinctive state of the human person. the introduction of money where the surrogate mother is being paid off for the service she has rendered, and the argument that women should be allowed to do what they want with their body, that their autonomy should be respected. however, this will lead to prostitution. this is against kantian ethics that we should not be seen as a means to an end but ends in themselves. ethically and morally, gestational surrogacy raises concern. kant, in his theory of morality, claims that we as people, have a duty not to use other people as a means to our ends, as all people should be treated as ends in themselves. i believe that kant's. categorical imperative draws too stark a bright line §psychological effects of gestational surrogacy gestational surrogacy has inevitable psychological trauma as one of its consequences. this psychological imbalance affects the commissioning couple, the surrogate mother and children resulting from surrogate arrangement. most surrogate mothers go into the practice of surrogate not because it is the right thing to do, but most times, because of the financial answer to material problems it provides. after getting pregnant and giving birth 202 oludare & falana an examination of the practice of motherhood and surrogacy ... to the child, the surrogate mother may decide to keep the child because she is bonded with the baby in her womb.(agnafors,2014) the child may also suffer psychological trauma if such a child get to know the history of situation surrounding his or her birth. the child may suffer from loss of identity and self confidence. §human life in embryo another reason why gestational surrogacy should be rejected in line with non-therapeutic experimentation or diagnosis is the fact that it promotes the manipulation of human embryos and does not regard them as potential human persons or as having equal moral status with the human person. surrogacy has the implication of preventing people from believing that human embryos have life and soul and so should be accorded respect and dignity and treated as sacred entity. instead, it treats human embryos as things for experimentation, (hill, 1990)the church pronounces that at the moment of conception, a new life or new individual is formed. this individual has a right to life, to be protected and cared for in all ramifications as a human person. §attack on motherhood another strong reason why gestational surrogacy should be rejected is its effect on motherhood. gestational surrogacy has bastardized the term motherhood which was traditionally known as biological mother. it has succeeded in bringing separation between the genetic and gestational mother who was supposed to be one person. this calls for a serious demand for the redefinition of motherhood. consequently, many have argued that gestational surrogacy has divided into fragments the concept of motherhood such that four or five women could share in the procreation of a child which is against the traditional conception of motherhood. it has led to the misinterpretation, misconception and redefinition of the value of motherhood. conclusion the main thrust of this paper is an attempt to ethically evaluate gestational surrogacy and motherhood . therefore, we have been able to do some concept clarifications, so also consider motherhood vis a vis surrogacy. we have also considered, critically the meaning of motherhood and the types. we reviewed the idea motherhood via surrogacy which connotes multiple mothers. we examined the artificial reproductive method which gestational surrogacy involves and highlighted the flaws in its attempt to remedy infertility. we also considered the implication of gestational surrogacy on the concept of motherhood. how possible is it for a child to have multiple mothers who could claim a right to him or her because they shared in the process of his or her birth? we, therefore, submit that surrogacy in its entirety should not be encouraged because the confusion it creates cannot be commeasurable to the fact that it solves infertility. 203 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 references niekerk anton van and zyl liezl van (1995), the ethics of surrogacy: women's reproductive labour, journal of medical ethics, 21: pp345-349 c.f. charles curren (1978), issues in sexual and medical ethics (indiana: university of notre dame, p.7. erin .y hisano (2011), gestational surrogacy maternity disputes: refocusing on the child (california, lewis & clark law review, p. 520. european centre for law and justice, surrogate motherhood: a violation of human rights, report presented at the council of europe, strasbourg, on 26 april 2012 falana, titi christiana (2013), surrogate motherhood a philosophical discourse, academic journal of emerging trends” in educational research and policy studies vol. 4, june hill, j. l. (1990) the case for enforcement of the surrogate contract. politics and the life sciences, ; 8(2):pp147-160. john f. doefler (2000), assisting or replacing conjugal act: criteria for moral evaluation of reproductive technologies(published in linacre quarterly vol. 67) p53. rebecca gibbs (2008), surrogacy: medical ethical and legal issues to be considered (north east essex primary care trust, 2008. rev. emeka c, ekeke & dr. christian o. ucheghue (2010), solving the problem of infertility among christians: a bioethical appraisal in american journal of social and management sciences. overall cristine (2015) reproductive 'surrogacy' and parental licensing, bioethics journal vol 29(5) pp353-361) rdshannon thomas (1997), an introduction to bioethics, 3 edition ,new york: paulist press, p.57. williams bryn jone (2002), commercial surrogacy and the redefinition of motherhood in journal of philosophy, science and law vol 2 p2. surrogate motherhood, , accessed on (06/06/2018) th the new encyclopedia britannica 15 vol 19 london: encyclopedia britannica inc. 2002) p. 66. strasbourg (2012), european centre for law and justice, surrogate motherhood: a violation of human rights, report presented at the council of europe, strasbourg, on 26 april https://www.britanica.com 204 oludare & falana an examination of the practice of motherhood and surrogacy ... https://www.britanica.com page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 1 comparative analysis of rationalism and critical rationalism: implications for general studies and national development samuel otu ishaya, ph.d. abstract much has been said and written about the concept of national development in nigeria: lectures, workshops, seminars and conferences have continued to be organized for the purposes of articulating justifiable foundation upon which the structures of the nation's development can be laid. national development refers to an increase or expansion of the total volume of production of goods and service of a country accompanied by improvement in the scientific and social lives of the people. it is however a fact that no sustainable development will take place in any society until a change occurs in the fundamental constitution of the people's mode of thought. this paper holds that the individual is of first importance than any development plan. thus, the most important task of tertiary education in developing countries today should be to produce graduates sound in reasoning. rene descartes and karl popper developed models that should aid the individual to attain reasonableness. the paper submits that for sustainable development to take root in the nation, the course content of philosophy and human existence in the general studies curriculum of nigeria's tertiary institutions should be strengthened by providing the right and necessary environment to study that will reflect the importance of reason over matter. keywords: philosophy; rationalism; critical rationalism; general studies, national development introduction questions about the status and extent of our knowledge of the world, of ourselves and other people including particular branches of knowledge such as history, mathematics and the sciences have occupied the attention of philosophers for nearly as long as philosophy itself. samuel stumpf (1994) captured it succinctly when he averred that 'philosophy began when human's curiosity caused them to ask – what are things really like? and how can we explain the process of change in things?' what prompted these questions according to stumpf was the gradual recognition that things are not exactly what they seem to be; that appearance often differs from reality (p. 1). this is so because we often fall into error even with regard to things for which we claim certain knowledge. for example, various theories about the nature of the universe which were ishaya comparative analysis of rationalism and critical rationalism 2 once held to be established truths have today been discarded on account of being either inadequate or no longer tenable or completely misleading. such inadequate and misleading truths caused rene descartes (1997) to take another look at the knowledge claims of his day and declared that “…what i take to be gold and diamonds is perhaps no more than copper and glass” (p. 72). this kind of observation poses serious questions to claims to knowledge and questions the veracity of that which we think we know because even seeming obvious facts could possibly be illusions. to overcome illusions in knowledge acquisition, descartes embarked on a rigorous methodic doubt with the aim of constructing a firm foundation based on indubitable truth for the sciences and for social development. to achieve this objective, he decided for a whole-sale rejection of long held truths. according to stumpf (1994) , since descartes' system of truth would have to be derived from his own rational powers, he would no longer rely on previous philosophers for his ideas nor would he accept any ideas as true only because it was expressed by someone with authority. neither the authority of aristotle's great reputation nor the authority of the church could suffice to produce the kind of certainty he sought (p. 238). the outcome of this decision was rationalism. rationalism is a theory that emphasizes reason as the basis for certain knowledge rather experience. karl popper (2002) on the other hand did not completely disagree with descartes: for him reason is important in knowledge development but affirms that “there are no ultimate sources of knowledge; every source, every suggestion is welcome; and every source; every suggestion is open to criticism” (p. 35). this is the crux of his theory of critical rationalism. critical rationalism advocates continuous criticism, falsification and refutation of our knowledge claims. the seeming differences between descartes and popper concerning the certainty or otherwise of our knowledge claims; and its implication as tools for sustainable development in the physical and social sciences informed the need for a comparative study of these theories. this paper believes that both theories are crucial for all-round development of the nation but argues that the method of impartation used in teaching philosophy and human existence be strengthened to emphasize rationality/openness over and above indoctrination/dogmatism. and if the purpose of creating the general studies unit in the nations' universities would be achieved; then its usefulness in arousing curiosity and wonder which are essential ingredients for scientific and technological development of any nation should be emphasized. for, according to uduigwomen (1992), “the aim of the general studies courses is to encourage broader knowledge as opposed to narrowness of knowledge in intellectual specialization” (p. iv). a broad-minded individual is therefore a potential agent for change and development because he/she is equipped to take dispassionate look at throbbing existential problems with logical reasonableness. the paper will argue that for sustainable development to take root in the nation; the course content of philosophy and logic, and the history and philosophy of science in the general studies curriculum of nigerian universities should be strengthened by providing the right atmosphere and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 necessary environment to study that will reflect the very importance of reason over matter. rationalism dissatisfaction with current realities induces psychological restiveness that produces doubt, curiosity and inquisitiveness. rationalism is a product of mental dissatisfaction and it holds that knowledge could be reached through 'logicomathematical' reasoning. rationalists maintain that reason alone is capable of leading one to certain knowledge (ozumba: 2000: 47). the programme of rationalism according to stumpf (1994) was to provide philosophy with the exactness of mathematics (p. 235). rationalists believe that the mind of an individual is structured in such a way that simply by operating according to the appropriate method, it can discover the nature of the universe. they believe that reality has an intrinsically logical structure and because of this, they argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. the initiator of modern rationalism is rene descartes. having graduated from one of the best schools of his era and seeing himself among the class of the learned, he was embarrassed at the discovery of errors in things he had learned and subsequently became doubtful of their certainties. he came to the conclusion that he had advanced no farther in his attempt at learning than the discovery at every turn of his own ignorance (descartes, 1997: p. 73). he thus embarked on a program of self-discovery through which he can establish a firm foundation for indubitable and certain knowledge especially in the sciences. the outcome was his system of doubt known as the methodic doubt. using this method, descartes (1997) vowed to dispense with all his previous learning; arguing that the confusion in the sciences arose from the fact that they had been built up by many people over a long period of time. insisting that there is usually no order or plan in houses or cities built by successive generations in contradistinction to those that are the work of one man. he therefore decided that the best way to start was to make a clean sweep of the old and begin anew. asserting: but as regards all the opinions which up to this time i had embraced, i thought i could not do better than endeavor once for all to sweep them completely away, so that they might later on be replaced, either by others which were better, or by the same, when i had made them conform to the uniformity of a rational scheme. and i firmly believed that by this means i should succeed in directing my life much better than if i had only built on old foundations, and relied on principles of which i allowed myself to be in youth persuaded without having inquired into their truth (p. 79). descartes' desire to build a new foundation made by himself had some implications which he was prepared to surmount. one of such implications was the method by which ishaya comparative analysis of rationalism and critical rationalism 4 to begin the construction of his foundation. but first, he outlined basic rules and maxims that should guide the enterprise. the rules include: 1, never to accept anything as true if there is no evident knowledge of it being so. 2, to divide each difficulty under examination into as many parts possible as might be necessary for its adequate solution. 3, to conduct thoughts in such order that by commencing with simple and easy to know objects, one might ascend little by little to the knowledge of the more complex. 4, in every case, to make enumerations so complete and review so general that one is assured nothing was omitted. for the maxims he vowed: 1, to obey the laws and customs of his country. 2, to be as firm and resolute in his actions. 3, to try always to conquer himself rather than fortune; and 4, to review the occupations of men and chose the best (descartes, 1997: p. 85). with these rules and maxims in place, descartes averred that the chief ground of his satisfaction with this method was the assurance he had of thereby exercising his reason in all matters, if not with absolute perfection, at least with the greatest attainable by him. besides, he was conscious that by its use, his mind was gradually being inured to clearer and more distinct conception of matter. thus, with the methodic doubt and the rules guiding it, descartes was sure of arriving at certain and indubitable truth in the sciences or any area of knowledge. descartes' programme of philosophy 'revolutionized' the study of philosophy in the 17th century; leading to the birth of 'modern philosophy' and earned him the sobriquet father of modern philosophy (stumpf, 1994: p. 236). critical rationalism critical rationalism is a theory developed by karl popper to answer the question 'how can we detect and eliminate error?' for him, the best way to answer this question is by criticizing the theories and guesses of others (popper, 2002: p. 34). critical rationalists hold that scientific theories or any claim to knowledge should be subjected to tests which may falsify them. popper (1971) regards the critical attitude as the most important virtue those seeking knowledge could possess; calling criticism the life blood of all rational thought. he made the point that all criticism consists in pointing out contradictions or discrepancies; that scientific progress consists in pointing out contradictions wherever they may be found (p. 39). falsificationism critical rationalism is hinged on the principle of falsification. popper (2002) opines that if a theory is to be scientific, then it must be possible, in theory, for it to be falsified. the falsification principle operates by conjectures and refutations. by conjectures, popper means unjustified anticipations, guesses and tentative solutions to problem. for him, knowledge, especially the scientific knowledge progresses by aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 conjectures. these conjectures are then controlled by attempts to refute or falsify them (p. ix). according to chalmers (1990: 38), in falsificationism, some theories can be shown to be false by an appeal to the results of observation and experiment. a theory is falsifiable if there exists a logically possible observation statement or set of observation statements that are inconsistent with it, that is, which if established as true would falsify the hypothesis. for example, the statement that 'it is raining' is liable to falsification if on observation it is discovered that it is not raining. the fact that it is not raining falsifies the initial statement that 'it is raining'. comparing rationalism and critical rationalism the differences between descartes' rationalism and popper's critical rationalism are hinged on the certainty or otherwise of a given knowledge claim – old or new. while descartes uses his own rational powers to derive his system of truth; popper suspends judgment on any knowledge claim until it passes through severe critical examination. also, while descartes tries to achieve certainty of knowledge through the exactness of mathematics; popper (1972) maintains that no one can be certain of any knowledge claim whether rational or empirical. he makes the point that the rationalists' quest for certainty 'is mistaken'. he believes that no particular theory may ever be regarded as absolutely certain nor is any scientific theory sacrosanct (p. 360). popper's position is particularly true of events in the sciences. the history of science shows that scientific knowledge grows rapidly with new theories replacing old ones. for example, albert einstein's relativity theory displaced newtonian physics amongst many scientific and social dislocations brought about by fresh insight, logical and rational reasoning. notwithstanding the differences in descartes' and popper's rationalism, both theories are however committed to the eradication of ignorance from those that should wear the toga of the learned. both theories hold criticism as essential element to the growth and development of the individual and society. both convey the message of never accepting any doctrine or idea without first subjecting it to rational and critical evaluation, hence their importance in the general studies courses taught in nigerian universities. rationalism in general studies general studies courses were introduced in nigeria's universities in 1990 by the national universities commission to among other objectives encourage broader knowledge as opposed to narrowness of intellectual specialization (uduigwomen, 1992: p. iv). the general studies course exposes students to courses of liberal education through which they can develop and expand their knowledge of their social, cultural and natural environment; increases their curiosity and ignite their rational, critical and analytic capabilities. descartes' rationalism and popper's critical rationalism are sub-themes in the course content of philosophy and human existence. the aim is to expose every undergraduate to the power of rational thinking and curiosity which incidentally is the ishaya comparative analysis of rationalism and critical rationalism 6 hallmark of philosophical studies. before the introduction of general studies courses to include philosophy courses, so much emphasis was laid on the study of science and technology to the detriment of the humanities. it took the concerted efforts of some nigerian philosophers to point out the abnormality and dangers inherent in a society where philosophy is relegated to the background. according to prof. udoidem (2006), before the intervention of the national universities commission (nuc), “so much emphasis was led on science and technology without recourse to the foundation of science and technology.” for him, not to study philosophy which is the foundation of all knowledge is to remain perpetually ignorant even in the subject one claims to know (p. 66). rationalism and national development national development is a composite of the words – national and development. national means that which pertains to a nation. a nation is a body of people inhabiting the same country. development according to caroline thomas (2005) “is a structural transformation; the economic growth of national economies, coupled with a material improvement in the lives of their citizens evidenced in poverty reduction and increased equity” (p. 318). thus, national development shall here be seen as the structural, economic, material and social transformation of a nation by those inhabiting it. it refers to an increase or expansion of the total volume of production of goods and services of a country accompanied by improvement in the scientific and social lives of the people. this means that for a nation to be seen as developed, it must be characterized by economic productivity, high standard of living, technological advancement, stable political order, the availability of basic necessities such as food, clothing, shelter and high level of literacy and education. the nigerian nation is yet to achieve obvious success in any of the above developmental indices and this to a large extent, may be attributed to the neglect of philosophy and all other courses in the general studies curriculum of the nation's educational priorities. the neglect of these courses, especially in the mode of impartation, bearing in mind that these courses are among the very first that fresh students are exposed to on admission into the university leaves much to be desired. first, students from one or two faculties are lumped together to take these courses with a population of between '200' and '400' and the lecture theaters for these courses are often too small to contain the large population of students. the second challenge is power supply to the universities; because of epileptic power supply, the public address system in lecture halls seldom functions and lecturers in most cases have to shout to be audible. also, because of the large population of students attending these classes some of the lectures are held in open spaces within the school such as stadium, car parks or convocation arenas. the result of this mockery of teaching and learning is seen in the output of graduates produced over the years. it is no secret in nigeria that 'some' young people go through university education and come out more confused and unlearned than they were before admission into the university. the nigerian media calls them “half-baked graduates.” but they are simply the unfortunate byproduct of a nation's misplaced priorities. the nigerian public aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 education system suffocates the fire capable of making proper cakes. no one bakes a perfect cake from a lukewarm oven. the question then is where lies the blame? chinua achebe (1983) in his the trouble with nigeria had identified weak leadership as the trouble with nigeria (p. 1). this weakness in leadership, in agreement with achebe, comes as a result of ignorance; ignorance of the true nature of the common good and its relationship to private good. here, the system of government or administration is not the cause of underdevelopment as some are wont to believe, rather, it is the kind of people that run the system and the type of knowledge they bring in running it. krishnanmurti (1978) had hit the nail on the head when he averred that “the individual is of first importance, not the system, and as long as the individual does not understand the total process of himself, no system, whether of the left or of the right can bring order…. (p. 16) ” order, peace and development are achievable when there is a fundamental change in the constitution of the individuals' mode of thought; a complete metamorphosis of the mind, soul and spirit. this has to do with changes in ideas, attitudes, values, policies, beliefs, traditions and so on that can stand the test of time. these are the challenges that rationalism and critical rationalism seek to address: the total liberation of the individuals' mind from the dark world of ignorance to the light of rational knowledge to comprehend reality for self and nation. implications for general studies and national development the general studies courses taught in tertiary institutions in nigeria have the potential to transform the nation and exorcise it from the degrading class of 'third world' to the elite class of 'second' or even 'first world' nations. the myriad problems responsible for the nation's underdevelopment could be traced to irrational actions taken by those whose charge it was and is to take rational actions. an individual, no matter how highly placed can act only as much as he knows. socrates was absolutely right when he averred that knowing the good will amount to doing the good. (see plato, the apology 7a and meno 87c). no nation can develop above the intellectual capacity, capability and depth of its leadership's intellectual capacity. a nation is therefore a perfect reflection of its leadership. rationalism and critical rationalism are theories taught in philosophy and human existence; as espoused in this paper, rationalism seeks to arouse and fine-tune the rational capacity of the one engaged in mental inquiry. rationalism challenges ideas without been confrontational; analyzes and tests ideas in the light of evidence and argument. a rationalist does not accept an idea simply because 'that is the tradition' or because a charismatic leader has propounded the idea. he/she applies the rule of 'never to accept anything as true without evident knowledge; to divide difficulties under examination into many possible parts; to conduct his thoughts without bias; and to do proper review of every issue before taking a stand'. critical rationalism, on the other hand promotes the idea that development of any sort should require the freedom to subject all ideas to rigorous scrutiny and criticism. it promotes the right of an individual to criticize administrative or traditional practices and in that way eliminate undesirable traditions, customs and practices that are inimical to development. critical rationalism ishaya comparative analysis of rationalism and critical rationalism 8 smoothly resolves differences between people through discussion and argument rather than force. in other words, critical rationalism is a way of letting ideas, traditions, and taboos perish in the place of man. from the foregoing, it should be obvious that both theories seek to liberate the mind of the individual thereby making one a potential change agent in any environment one may find oneself. by making philosophy and human existence a compulsory course in universities in nigeria, the progenitors appreciate the transformative power of philosophical learning. prof. udoidem (2006) in a paper entitled “philosophy and the future of higher education in africa”, had reminded african policy makers that if they wanted science and technology in africa, they should remember that albert einstein said that without the influence of his readings in philosophy, he would not have developed the special theory of relativity. he also cited the example of karl marx who abandoned his law programme to study philosophy which helped him to liberate his mind and thought process (p: 67). the implication here is that those desirous for all-round development take the study of philosophy and its theories seriously. even though it is now a compulsory course for all the universities in the country, the seriousness which it deserves is yet to be seen. students merely pass the courses to graduate without the intellectual burden to know. and those that teach it are most often not committed because of the type of environment where they are made to teach; and the governments' inability to address educational challenges without engaging in political fisticuff with academic unions is a greater challenge. but, despite these challenges, the teacher still has very important roles to play to realize the core objective of the general studies courses and to make them attractive to students especially the philosophy courses; first, the courses should be taught in the language the students can easily comprehend; in other words, philosophical verbosity should be minimized as much as practicable. second, the teachers should stimulate the curiosity of students by analyzing prevailing existential themes of the society vis-à-vis philosophical concepts and third, make students realize that everyone is a philosopher provided they seek to know the how and why of all things in the universe. curiosity has never failed to engineer all-round development. conclusion to achieve the aim for the introduction of general studies course in the nations' universities, those charged with the responsibility of developing the mental and rational abilities of nigerian students should show commitment to their charge. school administrators should equally endeavour to employ more lecturers to teach these courses. a situation where one lecturer is made to teach crowds of students does not augur well for intellectual development of the students. the teacher is equally overworked and stressed. the employment of more teachers for general studies courses will also solve the problem of space and overcrowding. the paper also advises that everything should be done to halt holding general studies courses in stadiums and open aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 spaces. rationalism and critical rationalism are theories that demand intuitive and logical reasoning; these cannot be achieved in crowded, open and noisy spaces. if the nation must develop, its young people should be given the necessary privileges and opportunities to develop their rational capacities and capabilities and it can be done by providing them with the appropriate environments to think and study. references: achebe, c. (1983). the trouble with nigeria. enugu: fourth dimension publishers. chalmers, a. f. (1990). what is this thing called science? 2nd edition. milton keyness: open university press. descartes, r. (1997). discourse on the method of rightly conducting the reason and seeking for truth in the sciences. in enrique chavez-arvizo (ed.). descartes key philosophical writings. hertfordshire: wordsworth editions limited. krishnanmurti, j. (1978). education and significance of life. london: victor goiiancz limited. ozumba, g.o. (2000). “isms in philosophy”. in uduigwomen, a. f. & ozumba, g.o. (eds.). concise introduction to philosophy and logic. calabar: centaur publishers. popper, k. (1971). the open society and its enemies, vol. 2: the spell of plato. new jersey: princeton university press. ……………., (1972). objective knowledge. london: oxford university press. ……………., (2002). conjectures and refutations: the growth of scientific knowledge. new york: routledge classics. stumpf, s.e. (1994). philosophy: history and problems. new york: mcgraw-hill inc. thomas, c. (2005). globalization and development in the south. in john ravenhill (ed.). global political economy (pp. 315 – 343). new york: oxford university press inc. udoidem, s.i. (2006, may 18). the philosopher in the market place. an inaugural lecture. port harcourt: university of port harcourt press. ishaya comparative analysis of rationalism and critical rationalism 10 uduigwomen, a.f. (1996). a text book of history and philosophy of science. aba: a.a.u. industries. aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract the duhem-quine thesis on crucial experiment in physics states that the scientist can never submit an isolated hypothesis to experimental test because our statements about the physical world are inseparable and interconnected. using the method of critical expository analysis, paper examines the plausibility of this thesis in relation to adequate description of the nature of science and its historical development. in doing this, the paper argues that the thesis is veracious because it captures the true nature of scientific inquires, debunks the existence of crucial experiments in science, unveils the underdetermination of scientific theories, punctures the hegemonic claims of modern science and in so doing encourages the use of different scientific methodologies in the attempt to explore, grasp, explain and exploit physical reality for human well-being. consequently, the paper concludes that the duhem-quine thesis tends towards the conceptualization of science as a value-laden and culture sensitive enterprise and, as a result, rightly suggests that the falsification, nay condemnation, of certain knowledge claims as illegitimate and unscientific, using the canons of modern science, is inadequate and misleading. keywords: duhem-quine thesis, underdetermination, duhem, quine, hypothesis or proposition introduction the first sentence in aristotle's metaphysics is that: “all men by nature desire to know” (1). the implication of this is that the human person is a knowledge seeking being. human beings have an irresistible urge to explore, penetrate, grasps, understand and explain reality. as rational beings, they always strive to demystify the mysterious, predict, manipulate and exploit nature to advantage. it is this natural human desire to know that makes human beings develop and adopt different methods that they think can help them to understand, explain, manipulate and exploit their complex, nay mysterious world better for the common good of humanity. however, the development and adoption of different of methods of exploring and explaining reality by different groups of people interested in different aspects of reality has led to the emergence of different disciplines that can be broadly classified into three an appraisal of duhem-quine's thesis on crucial experiments in physics: an essay in philosophy of science victor c. nweke university of koblez-landau & martin f. asiegbu university of nigeria, nsukka 12 groups, namely; the humanities, the natural sciences and the social sciences. among these groups, the natural sciences are of the opinion that the ideal method for understanding and explaining the physical world is universal, objective and ahistorical. this method is known as the scientific method. the scientific method is presented by the natural sciences as the only method that has the capacity to help man understand and transform nature presumably because of “its ability to epitomize reality in its pure form” (asiegbu 2005, 117). the implication of this is that anyone, who hopes to acquire “authentic” knowledge, which physical sciences offer, necessarily to follow this scientific method” (agbo 2004, 116). in otherwords, the scientific method is the “the very paradigm of institutionalized rationality” (newton-smith 1981, 1). at this point, it is pertinent to note that the basic tenets of scientific method include empirical observation, the formulation of hypotheses, logico-mathematical explanation, prediction, experimentation and verification (eboh, 94 – 95; alozie 2003, 19 – 20). this statement implies that scientific method claims that true knowledge proceeds from facts given by the observation of natural phenomena. these facts must be objective and interpersonal in the sense that they are accessible to and indubitable for all normally equipped human observers. in addition the facts must be susceptible to logicomathematical explanation and crucial experimentation. the acceptance of any of these facts as knowledge depends on the result of a series of tests and experiment they undergo. any of the facts whose result is negative is falsified and rejected as a candidate for scientific theory. what this comes to is that knowledge in science is acquired piecemeal through observation, theory formulation and experimentation. ”therefore every new theory must be logically consistent with existing ones” (alozie 2006, 214 – 15). contrary to this position, the duhem-quine thesis posits that no one can subject a single hypothesis derived from a given fact to experimental test independent of other facts (hypotheses) because our propositions, facts, hypothesis about the physical world/natural phenomenon are necessarily interconnected and inseparable. in what serves as the outline, although still part of the introduction, the paper is divided into four sections. section one is gives the general view of the thesis that prepares the audience for section two. this section considers duhem's formulation of the thesis himself. quine's formulation of the thesis exposes the singularly unique contribution of quine and how he imposed his signature on the thesis. the significance of the thesis and a critical evaluation of same, before the conclusion. duhem-quine thesis on crucial experiment the duhem-quine thesis on crucial experiment in physics refers to the position of two different erudite scholars – from different continents, different disciplines and of different centuries – concerning the nature of crucial experiments in physics in particular and the natural sciences in general. these two renowned scholars are pierre maurice marie duhem and willard van orman quine. pierre duhem, as he is popularly known, was a french physicist, historian of and philosopher of science. in spite of his relatively short life (1861-1916), his intellectual output was outstanding enough to immortalize his name in the annals of great theoretical physicists. 13 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 willard von orman quine (1908-2000) is regarded as one of the most influential american philosophers of his time. out of the ninety-eight years he spent on earth, sixtyfive were spent in the academic world of research, writing and teaching. this comparatively long career enabled him to contribute greatly to the development of different branches of philosophy notably in logic, epistemology, philosophy of language, philosophy of logic and philosophy of science. no wonder ullian (2006, 270) argues that: “no one since russell has contributed so much to both philosophy and logic as quine. no major philosopher has given anything much to logic nor has any important figure in logic borne quine's stature as a philosopher” (270). in a more elaborate manner, gibson summarized the intellectual legacies of quine's when he avers: from the foregoing biographical sketch, one will understand that there is a big historical and theoretical gap between duhem and quine. historically, quine was only but eight years when duhem died. theoretically, duhem was primarily a physicist while quine was a philosopher. the point underscored here is that quine neither met duhem nor was he a student of duhem. the only point of connection between duhem and quine, which can be deduced from our biographical sketch, is that they both had an interest in and contributed to the development of philosophy of science. in this connection, their major, rather unique contribution in philosophy of science is what is today known as duhem – quine thesis. the thesis was, though, first conceived and developed by duhem, it became more pronounced and popular in contemporary times due to its appropriation, further development and reinvigoration by quine. let us take a look at the original thesis of duhem about science, on the one hand and then proceed to present quine's version of the thesis, on the other. duhem's thesis the prevailing view about scientific knowledge during the days of duhem is that every proposition or hypothesis about the physical world can be confirmed or falsified through experiment. thus, after observation, a scientist documents and uses empirical observations to form an hypothesis about the observed phenomenon. but the hypothesis becomes a scientific theory/law when it is confirmed by crucial experiments. it ceases to be a scientific theory/law the day it is falsified by any empirical experiment. the import of this statement is that scientific knowledge is essentially objective, value-neutral and cumulative; therefore scientists can always detect and falsify an erroneous hypothesis whenever there is a conflict between a scientific theory and the result of an experiment. crucial experiment is the view that we can discover and falsify an erroneous hypothesis that is found to be in conflict with experience independent of other hypotheses, making up a given scientific theory. contrary to this position, duhem in his book, the aim and structure of physical theory stresses the holistic character of verification and falsification in physics and in the process debunks the existence of crucial experiment in physics. according to duhem, “a single hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation, since other auxiliary hypotheses will always be needed to draw empirical consequences from. the duhem thesis implies that refutation is a more complex matter than it might appear” (blackburn, 110). the crux of duhem's original thesis is that our propositions about the physical world are essentially interconnected and, as a result, cannot be falsified singly by 14 nweke & asiegbu an appraisal of duhem-quine’s thesis on crucial experiments in physics experiments. all that experiments tell us about a given scientific theory, which is in conflict with experience, is that something is wrong with the theory. yet, it cannot help us to pin-point and falsified the specific proposition or hypothesis that is erroneous. the implication is that the duhem thesis is originally concerned only with the nonfalsifiability of physical propositions or hypotheses through empirical observation and experimentation. in line with this view, ariel (2003) calls the original position of duhem “non-fasifiability thesis.” the point envisaged here is that duhem debunks the claim that we can refute any given proposition about the physical world in an isolated manner whenever they conflict with experience. this is because our propositions about the physical world are necessarily interconnected and inseparable. thus, the attempt to falsify any given physical proposition necessarily affects other propositions about the physical world. this view was appropriated, further developed, reinvigorated and popularized by quine. the question now is how did quine appropriate, further developed, reinvigorate and popularized the duhem thesis? quine's thesis although different scholars can develop similar theories independently, even without knowing that their contemporaries are doing something similar. however, this case is not applicable to the duhem – quine thesis. quine's appropriation of duhem's thesis of non-falsifibility of isolated propositions about the physical world was acknowledged by quine himself. in his famous essay “two dogmas of empiricism”, quine uses the duhem's thesis of non-falsifiability to buttress his rejection of reductionism as a mere dogma of empiricism that lacks empirical evidence. hence, quine writes, the dogma of reductionism survives in the supposition that each statement, taken in isolation from its fellows, can admit of confirmation or infirmation at all. my counter suggestion, issuing essentially from carnap's doctrine of the physical world in the aufbau is that our statement about the external world face the tribunal of sense experience not individually but only as a corporate body (41). anyone, who grasps the duhem thesis of non-falsifiability as espoused in the preceding paragraph, immediately realizes that this citation from quine is more or less a paraphrased repetition of duhem's position. of course, when one further discovers that quine super-imposed the above citation with a footnote where he acknowledged: “this doctrine was well argued by duhem” (41), then, our claim of quine's appropriation of duhem's thesis of non-falsifiability becomes indisputable. the duhem-quine thesis is therefore primarily the claim that the confirmation or falsification of our propositions about the physical world is a holistic enterprise. it particularly posits “the non-separability and the non-falsifiability of single theoretical hypothesis” because empirical predictions can only be deduced from clusters of interconnected hypotheses (soberg 2002, 3). to this extent, one may think that quine simply repeated the position of duhem, but when we dig further, one definitely realizes the unique contribution of quine. the first fundamental thing quine did to the duhem's 15 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 thesis is to extend its scope. this is evident in quine's position that: the totality of our so-called knowledge or beliefs, from the mist causal matters of geography and history to the profoundest laws of atomic physics or even pure mathematics and logic, is a man-made fabric which impinges on experience only along the edge or, to change the figure, total science is like a field of force whose boundary conditions are experience (42). at this point, one can notice that while duhem restricts the scope of his nonfalsifiability thesis to theoretical physics, quine extends the thesis to the whole edifice of human knowledge including mathematics and logic. in this sense, quine's nonfalsifiability thesis “respects no boundary” (soberg 2002, 7). in addition to extending the scope of the non-falsifiability thesis, quine also introduced the revisibility thesis thus, a conflict with experience at the periphery occasions readjustments in the interior of the field. truth values have to be redistributed over some of our statements. a re-evaluation of some statements entails re-evaluation of others, because of their logical interconnections… but the total field is so underdetermined by its boundary conditions, experience, that there is much latitude of choice as to what statements to re-evaluate in the light of any single contrary experience. no particular experience is so linked with any particular statements in the interior of the field, except indirectly through considerations of equilibrium affecting the field as a whole…. any statement can be held true come what may, if we make drastic enough adjustments elsewhere in the system… conversely, by the same token, no statement is immune to revisions (42 – 3). quine makes the point that all knowledge is circumscribed by experience. quine is of the opinion that if we wish to hold a particular proposition as true, come what may, we can always adjust other proposition. this position is uniquely quinean. in this regard, quine appropriates, further developed, reinvigorates and popularizes the duhemian nonseparability (non-falsifiability) thesis in relation to theoretical physics by applying it to the entire edifice of human knowledge and by introducing the revisibility thesis. it is against this backdrop that some scholars such as barbosa (2008, 55) argues, “there is no such thing as the duhem-quine thesis. as famous as this “thesis” may be, pierre duhem and w. v. o. quine held different points of view concerning natural science and how its theories affects other branches knowledge.” the veracity of this claim lies in the fact that the position of duhem and that of quine are neither logically identical nor equivalent. for, although quine's position necessarily incorporates duhem's non-falsifiability thesis concerning crucial experiments in physics, duhem's thesis does not necessarily entail quines thesis concerning the non-falsifiability and revisibility of the totality of knowledge. duhem did not claim that, when there is some conflict with experience, we can always make enough adjustment elsewhere in the theory. he simply claims that when there is some conflict with experience, what is disconfirmed is necessarily ambiguous 16 nweke & asiegbu an appraisal of duhem-quine’s thesis on crucial experiments in physics... (arielo, 2013). notwithstanding the above acknowledged differences, the duhem-quinean thesis on crucial experiment in physics (see pierre duhem's the aim and structure of physical theory) and w. v. o. quine's “two dogmas of empiricism” argues that “a single scientific hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation, since other, auxiliary hypotheses will always be needed to draw empirical consequences from it” (blackburn, 111). the thesis in this sense implies that refutation is very complex in nature. what this comes to is that scientific theories are necessarily underdetermined and value-laden. the claim of modern science to value neutrality, objectivity and external validity is therefore suspect. a scientific hypothesis can only be validly refuted holistically using its background theoretical framework and not isolatedly, independently and singly. accordingly, soberg adequately captures the crux of the duhem-quine thesis in a succinct manner thus; the duhem-quine thesis refers to the relationship between theory and evidence. in particular, the thesis posits the non-separability and nonfalsifiability of single theoretical hypotheses (…). non-separability means that empirical predictions can only be deduced from clusters of interconnected hypotheses. anomalous evidence consequently implies falsity somewhere inside a theoretical network. in such cases nonfalsifiability obtains because pure logic cannot pin-point the exact culprit(s) in a theoretical maze responsible for a false prediction. thus, even if the evidence is indisputable, the thesis essentially questions whether any empirical assessment of theory can be conclusive (3). duhem-quine thesis debunks the validity of crucial experiment in physics by insisting that scientific propositions about the physical world are necessarily interconnected, non-separable, and non-falsifiable. from this, we infer that all scientific hypothesis, or propositions about the physical world, are necessarily underdetermined by their theoretical background, and value-laden, and as such renders it impossible for pure logic to help us pin-point and falsify any recalcitrant proposition or hypothesis that conflicts with experience in isolation from its theoretical background. the question that is now left for us is the plausibility and significance of the duhem-quine thesis in relation to the nature and development of science. evaluation and conclusion a critical look at the duhem-quine thesis, in relation to the historical evolution of modern science, shows that it is a valid and veracious thesis. the historical evolution of modern science shows that every scientific proposition is always a product of a given logically interconnected theoretical matrix. hence any attempt to falsify any given scientific proposition or hypothesis necessarily affects, if not usurps, the entire background theoretical framework. hence, if scientists have been using crucial experiment to falsify scientific hypothesis as they claim, science would have remained static, sterile and dogmatic. the growth of modern science is predicated on the fact that scientists do not strictly adhere to the dictates of their methodological rules in practice. 17 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 for as kuhn (1970, 77) “no process yet discovered by the historical study of scientific development at all resembles the methodological stereotype of falsification by direct comparison with nature.” the off-shot of this is that the duhem-quine thesis captures the true nature of science. indeed, the emergence of quantum theory in physics clearly substantiates the plausibility and veracity of the duhem-quine thesis. this is the case because quantum theory led eminent modern scientist to the conclusion that scientific propositions are relative to the theoretical framework of the observer; hence, their acceptance of the nonseparability and non-falsifiability of scientific propositions and by extension the nonexistence of crucial experiments. the prevailing interpretation of quantum theory is known as the “copenhagen interpretation”. it is called the “copenhagen interpretation” because it was in copenhagen, the capital of denmark, that nobel winning physicists namely, werner heisenberg, niels bohr, wolfgana pauli and a few other eminent physicists met, deliberate and present what they consider to be a suitable interpretation of quantum theory. a succinct presentation of their view will help to make our position more vivid. accordingly, alozie did a nice job when he writes: we can summarize the copenhagen interpretation of bohr and heisenberg by saying that quantum theory of relativity is statistical and oppose to determinism and objectivity, as we know it. copenhagen interpretation makes the point that it is meaningless to talk about the physical properties of quantum entities without precisely specifying the experimental arrangement by which we intend to measure them. quantum reality is in part an observer-created reality, and human intention influences the structures of the physical world (physics, 113 – 4). the point envisaged here is that the prevailing interpretation of quantum theory shows that theoretical physics, the core of the natural sciences, is fundamentally probabilistic, indeterministic and subjective. and it is impossible to talk of crucial experiment in a place where there is neither objectivity nor determinism. the import of this is that scientific propositions and hypothesis are essentially non-separable, underdetermined, non-falsifiable and value-laden. progress in science is therefore revolutionary did not evolutionary. “the normal scientific tradition that emerges from a scientific revolution (that is, after the conflict between theory and experience) is not only incompatible but actually incommensurable with that which has gone before” (kuhn, 102). consequently, the significance of the duhem-quine thesis is that it helps us to understand the true nature of scientific knowledge in contrast to the ideological propaganda of the scientific community dictated and peddled by western powers (alozie critical rationalism, 218 – 19, kanu, 285). in this connection, the duhem-quine thesis saves us from the unnecessary attempt to falsify, negate, eliminate and discard important knowledge claims, beliefs and propositions simply on the ground of crucial experiment as dictated by the procedural rules of a particular western oriented, nay empiricist inspired scientific method. the corollary of this is the decentralization and liberation of scientific 18 nweke & asiegbu an appraisal of duhem-quine’s thesis on crucial experiments in physics... knowledge so that every human culture and society can seek, devise and use any method at their disposal to explore, penetrate, exploit and harness nature towards meeting their existential needs, transform their societies and ensure their well-being. against this back drop, one can argue that the logical conclusion of the duhem-quine thesis is methodological anarchism in science as buttressed and authenticated in paul feyerabend monument of a book, against method: outline of anarchistic theory of knowledge. our contention here is that feyerabend's philosophy of science is in-line with the duhem-quine thesis and that their major significance is the liberation of knowledge from the devastative canons of scientific method in order to encourage the unlimited progress of human knowledge. owing to this, we conclude that the duhem-quine thesis just like feyerabend's philosophy of science entails that every proposition about the world is essentially interconnected with its theoretical background. therefore it challenges and allows every culture including the african culture to justify its propositions nay hypothesis or knowledge claims about the world from its unique theoretical framework. and as ojong rightly wrote: “the challenge to develop african science with an alternative methodological approach is not an impossible task” (221). this challenge is very valid albeit possible and indispensable for africa's scientific renaissance and development because the theoretical framework of african science and that of modern science and fundamentally different. references agbo, j. n. “the mode of knowledge in science and social science”. introduction to philosophy and logic, ed. e. nwokereke, enugu: faqon (press) services, 2004. akpan, c. o. “feyerabend's philosophy of science and its implications for national development in africa”. journal of indian council of philosophical research, vol. xxii, no. 4, (2005) pp. 45 – 64. alozie, p. i. philosophy of science: a panoramic view: positivism; critical rationalism and some alternatives”. ed. p. i. alozie, history and philosophy of science (4th ed) lagos: el-sapphire limited, 2006. alozie, p. i. philosophy of physics, calabar: university of calabar press, 2003. aristotle, metaphysics (trans w. d. ross). the complete works of aristotle, ed. j. barns, princeton: princeton university press, 1984. asiegbu, m. f. “scientific relationality as metaphysical framework for conceiving reality”. essays in philosophy ed. c. umezinwa, nsukka: afro – orbis publishing company, 2005. arielo, r. “pierre duhem”. the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2013. available at http://plato.standford-edu/archives sumzo13/entries/duhem. blackburn, s. oxford dictionary of philosophy, oxford: oxford university press, 1996. barbosa, r. m. p. the relation between formal science and natural science, (3rd ed), morrisville: lulu enterprises, 2008. feyerabend, p. against method: outline of anarchistic theory of knowledge, london: nlb, 1975. gibson, r. f. “willard van orman quine”. the cambridge companion to willard van 19 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 orman quine, cambridge (companion online): cambridge university press, 2006. john, e. o. & edey, p. d. “the scientific method”. philosophy and the rise of modern science, ed. a. f. uduigwomen, uyo: el-johns publishers, 2011. kanu, m. a. “science as an ideology” history and philosophy of science (4th ed), ed. p. i. alozie, lagos: el-sapphire limited, 2006. kuhn, t. the structure of scientific revolution (2nd ed), chicago: chicago university press, 1970. newton-smith, w. h. the rationality of science, boston: routledge and kegan paul, 1981. ojong, k. a. a philosophy of science for africa, calabar: african pentecost communications, 2008. quine, w. v. o. “the two dogmas of empiricism”. from a logical point of view: logico-philosophical essays by w. v. o. quine, new york: harper and row publishers, 1961. soberg, m. “the duhem-quine thesis and experimental economics: a reinterpretation”. discussion papers, no. 329, (statistics norway research department), 2002. ullian, j. s. “quine and logic”. the cambridge companion to willard van orman quine, cambridge (companion online): cambridge university press, 2006. 20 nweke & asiegbu an appraisal of duhem-quine’s thesis on crucial experiments in physics... page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 1 beyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents and the quiet violence of dreams chinyere t. ojiakor, ph.d. & asso. prof. aloy nnamdi obika abstract the world has been distressed for centuries. almost all nations have experienced all sorts of traumatic events and feelings in time. among those nations, the blackman seem to be the most unlucky and ill-fated, suffered from traumatic disasters. however, among those black nations, the natives of south africa have been the most piteous. their misfortune began with the oppression and persecution of white european colonists and settlers on natives. those natives were not allowed to have equal rights with white people and to share same environment in public premises. the natives put up resistance against the racial and colonial practices of white settlers which excluded them from all living spaces; that culminated in the democratically elected government in 1994. today their exclusion and violent racialism still go on and they are still subjected to inferior treatment by (post)colonial dominant white powers as shown in most post-apartheid narratives. this study aims at explicating how duiker has reflected on the trauma, black people of south africa have experienced as a consequence of racist practices. as duiker's works make eminently clear, the era of struggle literature is over in south africa. today, the country is contending with the complications of freedoms. a racial divide once enforced by law has become an economic divide that falls mostly along racial lines. everyone is profoundly uncertain of his place. this paper is informed by an old-fashioned liberal humanist vision and demonstrates clearly that a nation is a place where people can only consider themselves as one entity belonging to the same nation if and only if, they are willing to accept one another. if such a will is absent, then division and hatred become the norm as demonstrated by duiker's characters. key words: race, fictive, beyond, duiker, narrative introduction racism is rooted in alterity—that is, in the act of creating difference and otherness— a phenomenon that cannot be separated from the identity process. identity and alterity go together in the never-perfect exercise of establishing boundaries between ''us'' and ''them;'' inventing categories of naming, and in so doing, exercising power. in the first, social relationships are racialized (ascribing superiority or inferiority) and exclusion is expressed in racist attitudes, such as prejudice, and in racist practices, such as discrimination, segregation, and exploitation of the other. this may even reach the point ojiakor & obika eyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents... 2 of ethnic cleansing, genocide, or the planned exercise of a racist political program. penelope andrews contends that in the wake of the newly democratic south africa, only the urgent task of abolishing apartheid and designing the new non-racial order occupied the attention of the architects of the new south african democracy(326). the leading parties to the negotiations, namely the african national congress and the national party, had political and legal differences about the shape and substance of the post-apartheid order. the impulse to think beyond race, to produce a paradigm that enables an alternate, transformative, view of social arrangements is an old, but by no means, unimportant project. there was, however, a general consensus that racism, in all its manifestations, needed to be eradicated. the demand for a non-racial south africa is the common ground that unites a wide range of forces for change. more than a decade after the celebration of the first democratic elections in south africa—an event that sealed the end of apartheid—new forms of discrimination can be identified in discourses and violent acts. in every human society, there is the tendency and temptation for one group to think that it is superior and more important than the others. in fact, this tendency is very visible in racialised and ethnocentric societies where one culture or race tends to dominate the others. according to julie frederikse, “to be democratic, the future south africa must be non-racial: that premise is fundamental” (3). race as category, functions according to ania loomba as “one of the most powerful and yet most fragile markers of human identity; hard to explain and identify and even harder to maintain” (121). while skin colour is taken to be the prime signifier of racial identity, the concept of 'race' receives its meaning contextually and in relation to other groups and hierarchies such as gender and class. it is a relational concept and it is therefore important to link according to paul gilory, “the various sites in which oppression is felt…by a concept of racism, understood not as a separate or external feature of society but as an integral element in the system or process…” (116). anderson cited in bryson, defines race as “…a social structure, constructed through social interaction and manifested in the institutions of society, interpersonal interactions, and the minds and identities of those living in racially based social orders”(51). it is in this sense that the concept of race is adhered to in this study rather than in the biological sense of the word. bhabha comments that, “…the epidermal schema is not… a secret. skin, as the key signifier of racial and cultural difference in the stereotype, is the most visible of fetishes, recognized as 'common knowledge' in a range of cultural, political and historical discourses, and plays a public part in the racial drama that is enacted every day in colonial societies”(78). at its most basic level, race is a concept, which opines howard winant “signifies and symbolizes socio-political conflicts and interests in reference to different types of human bodies” (270). in south africa, says m.j. daymond, “given our specific history of apartheid, there is not only a challenge to universalism, there is also a need to uncover hidden power relations …simultaneously with efforts to establish a community of purpose within the recognition of 'difference'” (xix). rather than being a matter of personal identity or characteristics, racism in the words of alex bryson, is “a source of social identity and power which involves relations of domination and oppression” (52). it identifies specific groups as racial groups within a hierarchy of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 inferiority or superiority and within this hierarchy; the dominant racial group exercises power in order to discriminate against subordinate groups. duncan et al also believes “racism can be considered as a set of ideas and discursive and material practices aimed at (re)producing and justifying systematic inequalities between 'races' or racialised groups” (2). the preamble to the 1996 constitution — perhaps the most significant document to emerge from the post-apartheid period, if not the country's entire history — says, in the words of rachel donald, “south africa belongs to all who live in it, united in our diversity”(retrieved dec 3 2006). the unity is willed: not quite a facade but not quite a foundation, either. south african heritage the history of apartheid can be interpreted as the history of an attempt to control population movement, through the creation of internal borders, the construction of the homelands and of ''independent states'' for certain sectors of the population, together with a de-nationalization and re-nationalization of domestic population based on racist criteria of exclusion. the economic purpose was to achieve growth on the basis of huge disparities of wealth and power and to assign roles to individuals according to racial identities imposed by an authoritarian state. the dismantling of apartheid put in motion a new process of nation building whereby, although in a provisional way, the discursive authority of the state fixed the borders and the meaning of the nation. numerous practices—including symbolic and cultural resources used and interpreted by government officials, politicians, community leaders, and the mass media—turned to influence official policies in order to produce a national identity. an important element in the redefinition of national identity in the words of sheila croucher, “is related to immigration through the establishment of a given immigration policy, which is in turn determined by citizenship” (642-3). post apartheid literature moves away from the exterior binaries and the protesting voice to a preoccupation with the inner, the intimate, the individual, and the intermingled ordinary. it is, andries oliphant argues, a move away from “instrumentality” to “explore the new freedoms promised by the transition” (27). a new generation of novelists like phaswane mpe and sello duiker took up this newfound freedom and were seen as creative pioneers at the beginning of the new century, not only because of the focus of their fiction on contradictory entanglement of new and old, but also because they were seen to be “more formally innovative.”(32). the apartheid government's racial allocation of resources in education, health, welfare, housing and many other areas of government spending ensured that black people were locked into a spiral of dispossession, dislocation and poverty. not only did the system racialise the availability of resources from government spending, but a labyrinth of laws and policies ensured that black south africans' private access to economic resources via employment, property ownership and other private economic activity was severely circumscribed. ojiakor & obika eyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents... 4 the laws and policies which regulated the movement of black labour and access to housing, with their deleterious impact on family life, cemented the economic inferiority of black south africans. the apartheid state was typified by rigid racial segregation and stratification in which whites occupied the most favoured positions in the racial hierarchy, followed by indians, 'coloureds' and africans. this racial hierarchy was reflected in government expenditure in a host of areas. in classic divide and rule mode, the south african government ensured this rigid segregation through various racially restrictive legislations. social interaction and marriage was also severely restricted by legislation. it is for this reason that the campaign against race is of special significance in those societies where racial categorization has significant purchase, where race is at the root of societal conflict, where the very history of the locale is over determined by race. this paper explores the construction of an antiracist/ racialized politics in the new, south africa, structured by specific, historicized racial hierarchies. it examines the entanglements of race as it obtains on the terrain of the nation's politics, conceived here in both its electoral, (post-apartheid) constitutional formation, and in its extraparliamentary, anti-apartheid articulation. the researcher wonders going by the characters in the novels under the present study how we can think politically beyond race in a society where race thinking pervades all aspects of life. exponentially, in the words of grant farred, “race is always, politically and philosophically speaking, in play in south africa” (55). in south africa, to think politically is to think racially and, possibly, racist, so precarious is the epistemological slippage between the two concepts. in the apartheid past south african identities were experienced differently, because they were firmly racialized – the “fundamental divisions” were different, ensuring that the new process of constructing a post-apartheid shared identity will be equally arduous, working against and along racial fault lines that the new nation is only beginning to map. it requires a process of suturing which it is finding incredibly difficult to do – necessarily so, one might add. it is in this way that arguing against race, working for its institutional death, means nothing. the illusion of non-racialism sello duiker's life straddled the dying days of apartheid and the post-1994 period. he was born in the iconic johannesburg black township of soweto, the place synonymous with the student revolts of 1976 that helped break apartheid's stranglehold on the country. his parents wanted their firstborn to be well educated. they sent him to a reputable roman catholic school in a neighbouring “coloured” area. in an interview with bafana khumalo he says, “it was at [this] time, “[that] i was becoming aware of my race. i discovered that in the coloured community there was a lot of politics around hair, the smoothness and the colour.”(22). as a schoolboy in his teens in the equally turbulent 1980s in soweto he says in another interview with victor lackay, “he was witnessing necklacing [and] kangaroo courts”(19). duiker, like all south africans, lived with the legacy of violence resulting from more than three and a half centuries of colonial and apartheid domination and divide-and-rule. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 in both his first novel, thirteen cents and his more recent the quiet violence of dreams sello duiker, i will argue, desires to live in a world devoid of the questions of race but the reality of racialism constantly intrudes pushing one to think that non-racialism is an illusion in south africa. it is arguable that duiker desires a world free from the shackles of racial segregation setting his works at the turn of the millennium when south african democracy and its constitution holds out the promise of equality and freedoms. told from azure's and teshpo's perspectives, duiker weave the narratives that lays bare the exploitation, racial and sexual politics found just under the surface of south african society. cape town stands as the premier tourist destination in africa, popular among western visitors who are drawn to the area's warm climate, beautiful landscape, and the natural environment. the city's prevailing mythic image, however, conflicts with late south african writer k. sello duiker's perception. he described how he experienced cape town in an interview with victor lackay saying, “i immersed myself in the culture of cape town, but in the end i had to run. i was too absorbed; i needed to escape. it was just meant to be a stopover” (20). his statement here comes across as light criticism whereas his literary works more vehemently problematize the city. in his first two novels, thirteen cents and the quiet violence of dreams, duiker's characters experience a cape town that would make the city's tourists reconsider their choice of destination. in particular, duiker appears ready for the city to come to an apocalyptic end. duiker's issue with cape town seems to lie in the covert ways the city operates, as evinced by his novels. in thirteen cents, duiker concludes by depicting a cape town apocalypse during which natural forces destroy the city and its inhabitants. in thirteen cents, duiker seemingly transgresses the binary categories of black and white to explore broader themes of crime, corruption and homosexuality as experienced by azure. yet, due consideration is still given according to shaun viljoen to “race and how it affects the lives of the characters in the novel” (xxii). racial identity and hierarchy comes to the forefront of the novel when gerald believes that azure likened him to a kaffir and when vincent attributes allen's unhinged violence to his inability to conceal his coloured blood. thirteen cents was published a mere six years after the first democratic elections, when duiker was twenty-six years old, to critical acclaim and wide readership inside south africa and abroad. azure's position as a twelve-year-old who turns thirteen in the novel situates him on the threshold of the world of adults and subjects him to the rites of passage that induct him into particular forms of adulthood—in this case a particularly exploitative, destructive social order. he is a critical outsider to this world and continually resists incorporation—“grown-ups are fucked up,” he asserts (42). it is this significant turning from boyhood to manhood, this becoming thirteen to which the title alludes, that positions him as a critical commentator moving into and out of the dominant matrix of hierarchies and power. azure's physical appearance is as unsettling as is his narrative positioning. his blue eyes, to characters like the gang leader gerald, are anomalous, given his dark skin, and provoke and interrogate stereotypical ideas of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kaffir_%28racial_term%29 ojiakor & obika eyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents... 6 race, identity, and social hierarchy. azure troubles the main racial categories of apartheid identity, “white,” “coloured,” and “black”—he is none of them and at the same time all of them. not only do his looks defy inherited racial classification, but his dress sense has no regard for conventions that are racially associated. azure's childhood friend from johannesburg and one of his few protectors, vincent, warns him that gerald is out to get him: “he thinks he's white because he's got straight hair and a light skin. if you show up with those shoes and your blue eyes, he'll kill you. he'll say, who the fuck do you think you are? trying to be white?” (39–40). thirteen cents is as much about azure's interrogation and exploration of the temporal and spatial dimensions of his urban world as it is about the social and sexual dimensions. one of the other men that pay azure for sex in the novel falls into the same pattern despite claiming to be different. he is a married man called mr. lebowitz who hires azure while his wife and children are away. in addition to the sexual favours, mr. lebowitz plays classical music for azure and tells azure about his investment banking career. edgar nabutayni states that by interacting with azure in this way, lebowitz “cultivates a veneer of respectability that a contrast starkly with what he really is – a mere exploiter” (46). while he does warm up to lebowitz, azure is not surprised when the man changes behaviour after being confronted with the reality of azure's life. when lebowitz asks if azure needs more pillows to sleep, azure's answer triggers him: “will this pillow be enough? i can get you another one if you want.” “no, it's fine. actually i like sleeping without one.” “the street, i can hear him thinking, but his maddening manners prevent him from saying it” (107). azure can see lebowitz getting angry at the thought of azure's daily conditions. the unsettling notion causes a slight hostility in him toward azure, who is ousted from the room immediately and subsequently ousted from the house the following morning. lebowitz's actions further support nabutanyi's claim that “notwithstanding the socially interactive connection between azure and lebowitz in this episode, azure is still that 'flea-infected dog' whose sexuality is all that has allowed him to cross divide between post-apartheid luxury and its ugly twin, urban poverty” (46). apart from the sexual exploitation, men like lebowitz castigate azure to the underbelly of cape town in order to retain a sense of peace. in the final third of the novel azure makes two ascents up table mountain, which rises out of the heart of cape town and towers above it. these episodes are marked by insistent movement up and out of the cityscape and again down and into its innards as azure tries to overcome the debilitating forces that engulf and consume him on the streets. not only does his quest for a life of belonging beyond these destructive forces allow him to literally rise above them, but according to vijoen, “it also helps him imagine, through intensely sensory, hyperrealist dream sequences, a different genealogy and a new city as the old is being destroyed before his very eyes” ( xvi ). unlike thirteen cents, duiker does not destroy cape town in the quiet violence of dreams, but apocalyptic notions still pervade the novel. the book mostly covers the lives of characters so captivated by cape town that they seem blind to the evil in their aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 midst. near the end, however, tshepo wanders to a township on the city's margins and realizes cape town's secrets. upon this revelation, tshepo describes an irredeemable city that has fallen from grace and envisions impending destruction: no matter, our luck has run out. the forces of light and darkness have united in an unholy marriage that will cleanse the ugliness that we are left with. for even darkness aspires for better, higher…it is too late for talk and fancy words. the bell tolls past midnight. someone is blowing the ancestral horn heralding the end of time, history. (436-437) the quiet violence of dreams, tells the story of tshepo, a young black university student who winds up in a mental hospital, given the diagnosis “cannabis-induced psychosis” and unable to make sense of his life, his inner turmoil a reflection of a broader societal confusion. he eventually turns to prostitution. the novel also examined the melding of black and white through consumer culture. in the tempo and euphoria of the new rainbow nation duiker wrote: when you go out in some places in cape town no one really cares that you're black and that your mother sent you to a private school so that you could speak well. no one cares that you're white and that your father abuses his colleagues at work and calls them kaffirs at home. on the dance floor ... people only care that you can dance and that you look good... (274). despite most critics' avowal that duiker's novel is not particularly concerned with race and its resultant issues and the euphoria of the above quote, tshepo, his friend mmabatho and azure constantly interrogate race and encounter racism in one form or another. as can be seen, duiker has carefully crafted the introductory paragraph of the novel, and its firstperson narration by tshepo, in order to give the reader an idea of the crux of the story. as in thirteen cents, duiker in the quiet violence of dreams further explores the concept of racial injustices and societal dysfunctional as tshepo, as well as the other characters in the novel, all display signs of psychological challenges which, in some cases, affect these characters' abilities to deal with life in post-apartheid society. tshepo, in the quiet violence of dreams, is said to suffer from cannabis induced psychosis; however, it is evident that there is more to his mental illness than cannabis, as his psychological issues are so severe that these result in him experiencing identity issues as well. tshepo himself avers: what does “cannabis induced psychosis” mean? there is more to it than that. this is what the medical profession will never understand. i'm looking for a deeper understanding of what happened to me; not an easy answer like cannabis induced psychosis (10). in the first chapter narrated by tshepo the reader is merely presented with the idea that he could have experienced some sort of traumatic experience which has permanently scarred his psyche. this is in line with frantz fanon's point in black skin, white masks: ojiakor & obika eyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents... 8 it can never be sufficiently emphasised that psychoanalysis sets as its task the understanding of given behaviour patterns – within the specific group represented by the family. when the problem is a neurosis experienced by the adult, the analyst's task to uncover in the new psychic structure an analogy with certain infantile elements, a repetition, a duplication of conflicts that owe their origin to the essence of the family constellation (141). this quotation from fanon thus helps one in understanding tshepo's situation in the quiet violence of dreams. tshepo moves from being a cannabis-induced psychosis patient at valkenberg psychiatric hospital to a waiter at the waterfront to a male prostitute at steamy windowsa brothel for gay sex. his quest is to make sense of the present and the past-a very violent pastexposed later in the novel when he tells mmabatho about the tragic night that his mother was murdered. hence, from the sequence of events recounted by tshepo in the novel, it is his mother's death that seems to have the most impact on his emotional anguish. he even mentions to mmabatho that “he lost it” on the day of his mother's funeral. he blames his father who he describes as, “a big mafia boss now, stinking rich. i don't like to speak about him, that's why i tell people he died in a car accident with my mother. i suppose i felt like an orphan the night she died” (78). a sense of family is finally regained when he joins the young men working at the brothel and the bond that exists among them, black and white, is likened to a “preraphaelite brotherhood”(256), until racism exposes that sentiment as fraudulent, a just another ploy to keep up efficient production and profits. shaun, the manager of the brothel, comments to tshepo about the strange behaviour of a difficult client who has just been with angelo (tshepo's trade name). the incident is narrated by the protagonist: so that's why he was like that. for a minute i thought he was going to go kaffir on us last night,' shaun says and looks up suddenly. 'sorry, i didn't mean it like that'. i'm shocked, offended. the word has always stung, but i smiled to dismiss the comment. the bubble had to burst sometime i say to myself, my mind still reeling from the word (285). tshepo's yearning for acceptance entails others seeing him in the same way he looks at them— “i have become comfortable with seeing people before naming their race” (343). this impulse towards wanting to live beyond race, in a truly non-racial society, according to viljoen is “constantly frustrated by the reality of racism and the questions of race” (51). thus, in the very paragraph he states this desire to see beyond race, he also immediately adds, 'but that does not mean i am not aware of their race', and also, “i have gone deeper into my blackness” (343). tshepo felt absorbed in gay life and the brotherhood it seemingly displayed until he is excluded from a gay pub because he is black. he says: “i feel... naive for ever fooling myself that gay people are different. they are white people before they are gay” (343). racism has once again belied the notion of a gay fraternity. duiker most importantly aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 focuses on the inner feelings of the characters as he makes extensive use of the interior monologue technique. in this way the reader is able to experience the thoughts and feelings of the characters. one character whose inner feelings are clearly and extensively displayed is tshepo. from the beginning of the novel duiker allows the reader into the mind of this character, thus providing insight into his psychological turmoil. one such instance is when tshepo muses, “i'm bleeding in the dark. this is what my life has come to” (25). tshepo's inner thoughts here highlight how he feels as if he is psychologically wounded. this is particularly evident in his use of the word “bleeding”. therefore tshepo's inner dialogue also elaborates on psychological damage caused by the horrific incidents that he encounters in his life which have inflicted psychological damage on his psyche. in his notion of racial identity, he includes racial stereotypes and how these racial stereotypes impact on the characters and their behaviour. one of the principle differences between the quiet violence of dreams and thirteen cents is duiker's narrative method. in thirteen cents he presents the reader with one character's point of view: the story is told through the experiences of azure. however, in the quiet violence of dreams, the story is told through multiple characters' perspectives, therefore giving the reader a better understanding of all the characters in the novel as well as a first-hand account of all their experiences and the societal issues that they face in the post-apartheid society. duiker's narrative is filtered through the consciousness of the standpoints of ten different characters in the story, namely the perspectives of tshepo, mmabatho, zebron, david, patrick, akousia, chris, west, angelo and sebastian. therefore, the reader is not presented with a biased opinion from one character regarding societal issues and sexual struggles. the reader is presented with the viewpoints of several of the characters; even the secondary characters are given the opportunity to express their plight and experiences. this multi-focal approach is interesting, as it allows the reader to get a better understanding of duiker's fictional world, providing a more thorough and well rounded account of post-apartheid society and the effects on not just one character, but on various characters. for many of the characters the expectations defined in terms of race have a negative effect on them, as they feel that they ought to act and behave in a certain way in society. mmabatho emphasises this point in a conversation with tshepo. she says: “ja, but you know what it's like in cape town. if you're black and you don't do the whole darkie thing then they say you're trying to be white and all that crap” (33). thus, this places additional pressure on the characters to adhere to social expectations in order to avoid social prejudice and scorn. furthermore, this also emphasises the fact that characters are under continuous scrutiny by other members of society. this is an aspect that most characters are consciously aware of and are constantly reminded of while living their everyday lives. mmabatho illustrates her frustration regarding these expectations in the quote: ““doesn't it bug you though, that people are so narrow-minded? if you're black you can't listen to rock or go surfing or wear anything you like. you have to fit into this and that” ojiakor & obika eyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents... 10 (34). therefore, in some cases, this contributes to some of the characters' anger, anxiety and identity issues in the novel. prejudice as exposed in this novel is as two-dimensional as it is not only in white's minds, but in the blacks as well. this is exploited through for example, in the bigoted hostility of mmbatho to makwere-kwere, a black foreigner. attacks in the words of m. monare quoted in monica cejas “against so-called ''illegal foreigners''—including legally recognized refugees —early in the 1990s were growing and confusing their pattern, affecting even black south africans who ''look'' like foreigners” (475). the oddest aspect of this phenomenon is that black male south africans (principal victims of apartheid's racist regime) become especially violent against ''foreigners.'' the subtle use of the term ''illegal foreigners'' helps to criminalize migrants coming from african countries, who are blamed for south africa's high crime and unemployment rates, as well as for the spread of aids and other diseases. instead of more neutral terms like ''undocumented'' or ''irregular'' migrants, they are first of all defined as what they are not: non-south africans, noncitizens. this very act of not naming them suggests the intention of excluding them. intolerance is also expressed through physical abuse and the denial of basic human rights. next is that directed by blacks towards blacks who do not adhere to social expectations? example is the hostility towards mmabatho for dating arne, a white guy and later falls pregnant with his baby. there are many instances in the novel where race differences and racial issues are highlighted where for example, some clubs are deemed for white people and others are more suitable for blacks. on the long run, tshepo sees himself not as a psychotic man or a black man or a gay but rather a rich combination of intermingling identities but still wonders if, “it is possible to feel south african and not to always source my culture to a particular group? can i claim afrikaans, coloured tsotsi taal, indian cuisine or english sensibilities as my own” (347) ? conclusion the desire to think beyond race is, however, a double-edged sword. it marks the ambivalent process of mobilizing against racism and yet working within – and against – established racial categories. race, and racism, is, for this very reason, not only dialectical, it is epistemologically foundational. it constitutes the very architecture within which the debate about race takes place: race cannot be transcended. it is impossible to be “against race” without, as it was, “doing” race – as a theory of politics or as a way of accounting for its deleterious ontological effects. it is for this reason that paul gilroy, despite being against race, acknowledges how ambivalent, contradictory and potentially destructive (to historical subalterns) such an imagining might be: “the dramatic gestures involved in turning against racial observance can be accomplished without violating the precious forms of solidarity and community that have been created by their protracted subordination along racial lines” (13). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 in thirteen cents duiker depicts a violent racial society as seen through the eyes of azure, similarly, in the quiet violence of dreams violence and racism is also an integral part of the society as this is an inescapable part of most of the characters' lives in the text. in fact, there are many parallels between the life lived by azure and tshepo's life, which is also pervaded by violence and his exposure to violence at an early age. institutionalized violence is a fundamental part of both these characters identities. tom odhiambo reaffirms this point: “in the quiet violence of dreams it is the childhood of azure that is transformed into the youth of tshepo – the older protagonist also lives in cape town and experiences life in circumstances quite similar to those of azure” (86). “post”-racialism, however contentious such a condition might be, constitutes the dialogic project of recognizing race as the primary discourse to be at once engaged and disarticulated; post-racialism cannot be achieved “without violating the precious forms of solidarity and community” – practices essential to sustaining a black bio-politics in moments of degradation, disenfranchisement, or repression. within the discursive project of transcending racial affect and effect, race is centred even in the attempt to oppose it. hence the paradox: race is constitutive and yet it can only be epistemologically liquidated – which is to say, worked through and beyond as a philosophical terrain – upon the terms of its historically racist making. race is a politics that in-forms, and de-forms, even in the efforts to disarticulate it, to take it apart, and render it socio-politically null and void. unlike the morrisonian “white girl,” in farred “non-racialism cannot be summarily “killed,” unlike the “rest” of paradise's convent women, its fulfilment cannot be postponed indefinitely. it has to have a presence, however ghostly, unhomed, or unachievable, in a society in which race functions as the founding myth” (68). in south africa, race and racism constitute an impermanent conundrum, a conceptual incorrigibility in and for a society trying to imagine itself as non-racial. blacks continue to live, materially, in the time before – in the conditions of the original struggle except that the state is now governed by their, physionogmically speaking, representatives. for the expanding class of black subalterns, race is not only the dominant language of their social existence, it is the lingua franca of their lives: non-racial citizens in a world still stratified by the inequities of the racist past; philosophically non-racial, economically racialized, negotiating not so much between the present and the past as between the past and its double-edged, shadowy, as-yet unformed future. in south africa race and class has historically been mutually constitutive. thinking them discretely has never really, except for the interregnum that was 1990 to 1994, been a viable political option. mbeki returned to this theme a couple of times in his short “speech at the youth conference on nationbuilding” in 2000, “the racism . . . defined black people as sub-human, barbaric, incapable of sharing the same moral norms as the white minority, incapable of being civilized – and therefore menacing, requiring to be watched, contained and tamed at all costs” (2). post-apartheid society in 1994, where black “enthusiasm” contrasts sharply with a “certain degree” of white “unease,” announces the revitalization of ojiakor & obika eyond race, fictive and illusory: k. sello duiker's thirteen cents... 12 racialized discourse, affect, and identity. race lives even as it is being constitutionally buried. works cited alex bryson. “the impact of employee involvement on small firms' financial performance”, in sage journals. july, 1 1999. pp. 720-30. ania loomba. colonialism/postcolonialism. routledge. 1998. andries. w. oliphant. “a changing topography: tracing some recent developments in south african writing”, in mzamane, words gone two soon. pp.230–50. edgar nabutanyi. “powerful men and boyhood sexuality in k. sello duiker's thirteen cents.” matatu: journal for african culture & society, vol. 48, no. 1, jan. 2016, pp. 33-48. frantz fanon. black skin, white masks. grove press inc. 1967. grant farred. “shooting the white girl first: race in post-apartheid south africa”, in globalization and race. duke up. 2006 . pp. 49-69. gareth cornwell, dirk klopper and craig mackenzie. the columbia guide to south african literature in english since 1945. columbia university press, 2009. howard winant. “race and racism: towards a global future”, ethnic and racial studies vol. 29, issue 5. pp. 986-1103. homi bhabha. the location of culture. london, routledge. 1994. julie frederikse. the unbreakable thread: non-racialism in south africa. ravan press. 1990. monica cejas. “racial discrimination in postapartheid south africa: a new irreducible other”, in safundi. 8:4. pp.473-487. m. j. daymond. south african feminisms; writing, theory, and criticism, 1990-1994. garland pub. 1996 penelope andrews. “the stepchild of national liberation: women and rights in the new south africa” new york law school. 2001.https://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/facarticles chapters. paul gilory. against race: imagining political culture beyond the color line. cambridge: harvard university press. 2000. rachel, donadio. “post-apartheid fiction.” in times book review, retrieved december 3, 2006. sheila croucher. ''south africa's illegal aliens: constructing national boundaries in a post-apartheid state”. ethnic and racial studies 21, no.4 . 1998. pp. 639–60. sello k duiker. “interview with bafana khumalo”, in mzamane, words gone two soon. pp.22–23. ———. “interview with victor lackay (courtesy of co-author carl collison): 'i'm a travelling salesman”, in mzamane, words gone two soon, 19–21. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 13 ———. the quiet violence of dreams. kwela, 2001. ———. thirteen cents. david philip, 2000. shaun viljoen. “k. sello duiker's thirteen cents: an introduction”. thirteen cents: a novel. ohio university press, 2013, pp. v-xxxiii. _________. “non-racialism remains a fiction: richard rive's 'buckingham palace,' district six and k. sello duiker's the quiet violence of dreams.” english academy review 18, no. 1 (2001. pp. 46–53. thabo mbeki.“speech given at the youth conference on nation building”, june 16. centurion city hall. 2000 tom odhiambo. “socio-sexual experiences of black south african men in k. sello duiker's thirteen cents and the quiet violence of dreams”, in weiss, b. ed. the end of unheard narratives: contemporary perspectives on southern african literatures. kalliope paperbacks, 2004. pp. 83-97. 1 an assessment of kwasi wiredu's democracy and consensus in african traditional politics: a plea for a non party polity. mayokun joyce olowoniyi abstract at the onset of democracy in africa, it was ordinarily a tool by the colonialist to make africans believe they were free but this was not the actual case obtainable in reality. hence, the africa's drive towards democracy during the past years could be said to be the effect of the sustained western pressure. this paper seeks to examine wiredu's idea of consensual democracy through the assessment of his claim about common interest and rational discussion for substantive representation. the paper discovers that democracy as practised in africa is not what democracy is and recommends that for africa to progress, there may be the need to jettison what we currently practise as democracy but need to adapt, change, and even in some cases abandon some traditional ideas and behaviours. the methods of critical analysis and reflective argumentation were adopted to pursue the aims of this study. introduction inter and intra political instability in africa can be traced to the effect of western colonization on africa. hence, the africa's drive towards democracy during the past years could be said to be the effect of the sustained western pressure to adopt the multiparty way of life. though africans have gained so-called 'freedom' but this is yet to reflect any substantial influence on the african by building on the strength of the african's indigenous political institutions. to do this, in his paper, democracy and consensus in african traditional politics: a plea for a non-party polity, kwasi wiredu offers a strong defense for a return to what he calls 'consensual democracy' in africa. consensual democracy is a political system that dates back to the pre-colonial africa. wiredu traces the roots of consensus to african societies where he finds that 'there is considerable evidence that decision by consensus was often the order of the day in african deliberations and on principle (wiredu 1995: 53). with this, he places emphasis on the role of consensus in the decision-making process in the traditional african life and as a result of its utility in the past, pleaded for a return to this consensual democracy or nonparty polity as he called it. for him, the key to effectively address contemporary issues lies in reclaiming and revitalizing indigenous traditions that have been suppressed and degraded in the wake of colonialism. olowoniyi an assessment of kwasi wiredu's democracy and consensus 2 wiredu's position has been taken up in various forms by thinkers such as, dennis masaka (masaka 2019: 68-78), michael onyebuchi eze (eze 2008: 386-399), emmanuel ani (ani 2014:342-365), bernard matolino (2016: 36-55) among others. this paper seeks to examine wiredu's idea of consensus through the assessment of his claim about common interest and rational discussion for substantive representation in his plea for a non-party polity in the modern africa or the post-colonial africa viz a viz its practical viability. this will be done with a view to offer some modifications to wiredu's theory in order to make it more suitable for practice in africa. the paper has three sections. the first entails an overview of the traditional accounts of wiredu on the idea of consensual democracy. the second section highlighted the major issues that has been generated by some scholars given wiredu's analysis while the last is a re appraisal of wiredu's argument. the methods of critical analysis and reflective argumentation were adopted to pursue the aims of this study. traditional consensus on wiredu's account african traditional political system for wiredu displayed considerable variety. there were societies with centralised social authority or order as well as societies with less centralised social authority/order. the idea of consensus was basically appreciated according to wiredu in the context of the second variant where the exercise of authority rested purely on moral and metaphysical prestige. although it is also practiced in some of the most centralised societies of that era. wiredu bases his analysis on the ashanti political system which is one of the centralised society of that time. the ashantis are a matrilineal group and the lineage is their basic political unit. (wiredu 1995: 55) in ashanti society, decision was by consensus at all levels but the first point at which consensus first makes itself felt in the ashantis' political system was at the point which the head of the lineage is elected. the principle of consensus was a premeditated option based on the belief that 'ultimately the interests of all members of the society are the same' (wiredu 1995: 57), although this belief remains challengeable. consensus for wiredu plays important roles in the ashantis' traditional life. evidences in decision-making has been shown as a rule by consensus. although consensus was not a peculiarly political phenomenon, but it is a manifestation of an immanence (inherent) approach to social interaction (wiredu 1995: 53). the implication of this is that social interaction or relatedness of everyone to everyone else was inherent in the african traditional set up given the lineage approach. this is because for wiredu, consensual basis for joint action was taken as axiomatic. (wiredu 1995: 53). the idea of consensus in the traditional ashanti's society was of importance to wiredu because of the bearing it has on democracy. current forms of democracy are generally systems based on the majority principle which he refer to as majoritarian democracy while those based on consensus as consensual democracy. for wiredu, both are forms of democracy aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 because their government was by consent and subject to the control of the people as expressed through their representatives. in wiredu's analysis, the ashantis prize rational discussion as an avenue for reaching consensus among adults with the capacity for elegant and persuasive discourse. the idea of persuasive discussion however needs re-examination. i shall return to this later. the pursuit of consensus was a deliberate effort to go beyond decision by majority opinion (wiredu 1995: 57) which he regards as majoritarian democracy. in order to attain peoples' consent, wiredu holds that there are various ways but one is the most admirable way and it is when the representative has direct approval of the people and is closely connected with their aspirations. in view of this, wiredu argues that working towards the attainment of consensus is a better form of democracy compared to majoritarianism. this is because in consensual democracy, (1) the political players seek each other in their efforts to reach a consensual position whereas in majoritarian politics, the losers become the opposition and may oppose just for the sake of opposing. hence, competition for power increases and position are not reached because of might and (2) it offers substantive representation over and above formal representation. his emphasis on substantive representation is due to the fact that one of the major political challenge facing democracy in africa is the lack of adequate representation and participation of citizens in democratic processes and institutions. this is highly manifested in the way in which power is vested in some sectional group within the african society to the exclusion of others within the same society. in respect of this, wiredu emphasises the incompatibility of majoritarian democracy as a means of decision making and governance with consensual democracy in the african traditional life. wiredu further distinguishes his idea of non-party from the idea of one-party. for him, one-party does not have any ancestry in the african consensual democracy and any attempt to compare the two yields an illusory analogy. given the title of wiredu's paper however, it seems there is a little contradiction. this is because, in the broad sense of the term, wiredu acknowledge the existence of parties in the traditional system wherein his consensual democracy. there is the need for a clarification about the strict or broad sense in his title. issues generated by wiredu's plea wiredu's ideology has been severally challenged by scholars. in what follows this paper briefly identify some of these several issues. on the issue of consensus, emmanuel eze disagree with kwasi wiredu over what was responsible for arriving at consensual positions. for the workability of consensus in the ashanti traditional setting, wiredu holds that rational persuasion was responsible for converting people from their contrary view to a consensual view. eze holds a contrary view. for him, reason alone could not have been responsible for the conversion of people. there are other factors besides reason and these other factors must be taken into consideration as influencing decisionolowoniyi an assessment of kwasi wiredu's democracy and consensus 4 making processes that would lead to consensus (eze 1997: 317). another issue eze has with wiredu's position is that eze does not believe that the factors that worked well in the traditional society would still be able to work well in this modern society and therefore there is the need to discard them and invent new ones unlike wiredu's position that we should return to them (eze 1997:318). in respect of the above, eze is of the opinion that consensus should not be seen as easily workable as wiredu suggests. although i do not intend to follow eze's line of argument in addressing the idea of consensual democracy but i think eze actually misinterpreted wiredu's idea by his use of 'reason alone'. in line with eze, paul hountondji on the other hand suggests that africans must make a 'clean break' with the premodern past in order to address the most urgent demands of the present. modernization, for him, requires a mental; orientation commensurate with the problems of the present, not an attempt to resurrect ideas from societies of the distant past (hountondji 1996: 48). although emmanuel ani also raised objection against wiredu in support of eze but from an addition as well as different angle. from an additional perspective, he shares same position as eze by expressing his doubt on the possibility of purely rational deliberation leading to consensus; and from a different perspective, he examined wiredu's account of traditional african consensual practices by examining the issues of immanence, pure rationality and their implications for deliberative theory (ani 2014:345). due to his interpretation of wiredu, he rejects wiredu's suggestion of the immanence of consensus to africans and argues that immanence should be seen as a human feature as opposed to a peculiarly african characteristic. ani proposes aristotle's three components of persuasion as more appropriate in influencing the acceptability of a position. bernard matolino however read misinterpretation into ani's understanding of wiredu by identifying a kind of relationship between the words of wiredu viz: 'immanence' and 'axiomatic' (matolino 2016 : 39-40) as well as by using joe teffo's set up description on communocracy ( joe teffo 2004:446). matolino further wiredu's outline on decisional influence as not so much at odds with what ani is suggesting (matolino 2016 : 44) olanipekun among others also raised a critique on wiredu's idea on consensus (olanipekun 2020). using the tool of analyses, he juxtapose consensual democracy with its majoritarian democracy counterpart as identified by wiredu, olanipekun argues that the two are not mutually exclusive. for him the implications and challenges of majoritarian democracy identified by wiredu do not necessarily undermine majoritarian democracy, neither do they make wiredu suggested decision by consensus a workable decision making process in the contemporary african society. he concludes that at certain level of discussion, wiredu's idea of consensual democracy has some similarities and also faces similar challenges to those that majoritarian democracy faces. in support of wiredu's consensual democracy, barry hallen further gives substantive grounds for revisiting wiredu's proposal of consensual governance in africa. in his aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 article, 'reconsidering the case for consensual governance in africa', hallen argues for the necessity of revisiting the conversations around consensual democracy in african states given the serious political instabilities being experienced in liberal democratic experimentation on post-colonial africa, despite its dismissal as unrealistic. for hallen, consensus is the 'intentional, negotiated, rational exchange that are taken as a conventional part of everyday life' (hallen 2019:5). to corroborate wiredu's point, barry hallen further observes that interpersonal relationship in african societies have always been generally on any level a prioritized consensus, that is, interpersonal relationships in africa society is primarily consensus oriented. this is because hallen further supports wiredu's conception that traditional african societies were essentially communalistic in form and operation with interactive communication which involved a sense of belonging, connectivity and sharing at its base. according to hallen, the beauty of the consensual process is that the voice of the minority is heard and incorporated during decision making process. hallen attempts the negation of the authoritarian change against the political structure of the pre-colonial african society through his introduction of the term 'palaver'. he argues that palaver 'has the positive sense of organised and open debate on various issues in which everybody, regardless of age or sex is encouraged to participate with a view to reaching consensus and keeping the community closely linked'(hallen 2019: 16). in order to drive home his points, hallen further shows the relevance of concensus to postcolonial african societies even if multicultural or multi-ethnic on the grounds that it is a non-party system which promotes and sustains effective participation of the citizens in governance using john rawls' idea of overlapping consensus in reaching political agreement about justice and the principles of social organisation among plurality of ideas that cut across different individuals' belief systems such as religion, ethics and aesthetics(hallen 2019: 18) aside the above mentioned issues, the arguments of wiredu and some other scholars have actually degenerated beyond the examination of the terms and concepts entailed in the argument into a major issue. the major discuss is between the cultural revivalist and that of the cultural rejectionist as an argument on tradition and modernity; which is however beyond the scope of this paper but which can be a subject for further examination. assessment of wiredu consensual democracy given some of the issues generated by wiredu's plea raised in the above section, this paper does not seek a repetition of the above listed arguments, rather it seeks to critique wiredu's idea of consensus through the assessment of his claim about common interest and rational discussion for substantive representation in his plea for a non-party polity in the modern africa. olowoniyi an assessment of kwasi wiredu's democracy and consensus 6 to begin with, wiredu's attempt to look inward into the indigenous past of the african society to solve the problem of africa itself is a worthwhile attempt. it even substantiate his arguments being an african himself, as he is arguing from a point of view which is not strange to him. it is actually generating a democratization process not externally generated but that which takes full cognizance of the internal cultural dynamics of the society in which the changes are being introduced; as well as that which is hospitable to the consensual values of the society (walama 2004 : 440) although it may be argued that wiredu presented consensual democracy as if it is free of problems hence his call for return to it. consensual democracy has contemporary problems that come with it, hence a complete return to it may not be too healthy for contemporary africa. rather, a return to it while rejecting the errors within it will be better. although he acknowledge that consensus does not imply that 'it was always attained as nowhere was african society a realm of unbroken harmony (wiredu 1995: 53) and this may be taken that he did not over exaggerate his idea of consensus. the assertion that democracy is centred upon consensus in the ashanti society by wiredu has its root on the claim that all humans have common interest. this is why he holds 'yes, human beings have the ability eventually to cut through their differences to the rock bottom identity of interest' (wiredu 1995: 57). but is the claim true? if, it is, then wiredu's call for a return to consensual democracy may be acceptable even for the entire human race and possibly not africa alone, but i think otherwise. hence, a need for another suggestion or revision of the suggested. arising from the above, human beings in general can share some core common interest such as the need for food but given the human natural nature, there will always remain some complex or peculiar individual interest unshared. for instance, in every society, there will be the rich, who will always want to maintain their wealth as well as the poor who will also want a more equitable distribution of resources. there will always be interest that are directly opposing to those of others. this is similar to what eze implies when he countered wiredu's analogy of the ashanti's art motif of the two headed crocodile. according to eze, the two headed crocodile may fully know that the food is heading for a shared stomach and yet, one may still wish to experience the sheer joy of chewing and eating while depriving the other head of this masticatory experience (eze. e.c: 1997). the implication of this is that wiredu's claim that consensus has its root on the common interest of humans does not hold and likewise, the subsequent claim that human beings have the eventual ability to cut through their differences to the rock bottom identity of interests. but, the question that arise from this is that when consensus is not reached such as he acknowledge that 'certain situations do indeed precipitate exhaustive disjunctions which no dialogic accommodations can mediate (wiredu 1995: 54), what approach then becomes useful? and will wiredu be willing to accept that approach over and above his earlier plea? wiredu suggests 'willing suspension of disbelief in the prevailing option on the part of the residual minority' as a tenable solution. this is one of the ways i think aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 his theory or analysis becomes contradictory to his substantive representation in the ashanti political system. substantive representation in the ashantis' society is faced with some fundamental problem in itself. first, it is still regarded as representation, even at its very best, hence the interest of the represented may not be fully 'represented'. this is because a leader who is representing may either deliberately or otherwise present his own interest as that of the 'represented' and there has been such examples even in the african traditional past . in a situation where this occur will it still be termed as consensual or not? another argument against wiredu here is that substantive does not equate to total representation and so what becomes of the few left out, if only a substantive aspect is taken care of. what becomes of the minority left? are they not the ones the so-called substantive in wiredu's argument supposed to take care of? subsequently, will substantive representation not indirectly equate to majoritarianism which wiredu rejected in the end and thereby leads wiredu's argument into a reductio ad absurdum. this is similar to what olanipekun argues in his paper. for olanipekun 2020, wiredu's idea of consensual democracy shares at certain level of discussion, some similarities and also faces similar challenges with majoritarian democracy. this is why olanipekun concludes that democracy and consensus are not logically speaking, mutually exclusive. the argument here therefore is that if consensual democracy and majoritarian democracy are both be-deviled, then, why should wiredu argue that one should be preferred to the other? even if we agree for the purpose of argument that there is a common interest/good of the people, the idea is inconsistent with a pluralistic society like ours. now, i think wiredu might argue that if we return to a non-party system like he suggested, then, it will or may become useful like it did in the past. this will lead me to another argument against wiredu. he portrayed the african tradition system as that which is a non-party system, but in the real sense of it, it is not actually the case that there were no classes in then african society. we have the rich as well as the poor, only that according to nkrumah, the rich then were not in the position to oppress the less privileged. as a matter of fact, there were classes and this indicates that there were parties. this is because the dominant classes will operate on consensus at their class levels while the dominated classes will also have theirs at their own level. in the light of the above, this paper suggests the development of a political institution that move away from authoritarian rule (which is peculiar to modernization through colonialism), toward forms of government that enhance the liberty and welfare of all citizens, rather than a selected few. this is what jay a. ciaffa refers to as the 'modernity of democratization (ciaffa 2008: 122). although the idea of over emphasizing the successes that come with science and modern technology (through colonialism) over and above that of the political, moral/social, and religious (through our tradition) is not what can be called real development. for there to be progress in any society, there may be the need to adapt, change, and even in some cases abandon some traditional ideas olowoniyi an assessment of kwasi wiredu's democracy and consensus 8 and behaviours. not only this, it may also involve borrowing and adapting ideas from other cultural contexts. conclusion this paper examined wiredu's idea of consensus through the assessment of his claim about common interest and rational discussion for substantive representation in his plea for a non-party polity in the modern africa or the post-colonial africa. this paper argued that although human beings in general can share some core common interest but given the human natural nature, there will always remain some complex or peculiar individual interest unshared. hence, as a root for consensual democracy, common interest as argued by wiredu may not hold. also, this paper argued that substantive representation which wiredu used as justification for consensual democracy also indirectly equate to majoritarianism which wiredu rejected. this hereby leads wiredu's argument into a reductio ad absurdum. without totally agreeing with wiredu on his 'return call' but with some modifications to wiredu's theory, this paper suggested, buttressing it the previous works of some scholars, a way to make it more suitable for practice in africa given the issues entailed in todays' africa. references ani, e.i. (2014). on traditional african consensual rationality, the journal of political philosophy vol. 22 no 3, 342-365 ciaffa jay a. (2008). tradition and modernity in postcolonial african philosophy, humanitas vol. xxi, nos.1and 2, 121-145 eze, e.c. (1997). 'democracy or consensus? a response to wiredu' in e.c. eze (eds.), post colonial african philosophy; a critical reader, (pp. 313-323). cambridge, massachusetts: blackwell publishers ltd. hallen, b. (2019). 'reconsidering the case for consensual government in africa,' second order:an african journal of philosophy(new series)vol 3, no 1, 1-22 hountondji, p. (1996). african philosophy: myth and reality. 2nd ed. bloomington: indiana university press p 48 teffo, j. (2004). 'democracy, kingship and consensus; a south african perspective'. k. wiredu (eds.), a companion to african philosophy (pp. 443-449). usa: blackwell publishing ltd matolino, b. (2016). 'rationality and consensus in kwasi wiredu's traditional african polities', theoria, a journal of social and political theory, vol 63, no 146, 3655 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 matolino, b. (2018). consensus and democracy in africa, south africa: nics (pty) ltd. pp olanipekun, v.o. (2020). democracy and consensus in traditional africa: a critique of kwasi wiredu, inkanyiso, journal of humanities and social science vol 12 no, 1-10 walama, e. (2004). 'government by consensus: an analysis of a traditional form of democracy' k. wiredu (eds.), a companion to african philosophy (pp. 435432). usa: blackwell publishing ltd wiredu, k. (1995). democracy and consensus in african traditional politics: a plea for a non-party polity. the centennial review, vol 39 no 1, 53-64 1 a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life and death in igbo onotology ratzinger nwobodo, ph.d. abstract man, from primordial times has been preoccupied with the search for the meaning of ultimate reality life and death. he has continued in the quest to find meaning to his reality in order to be able to properly situate his existence. from the ancient period to this age, the debate concerning the goal of life and death has raged. the cyrenaics, for instance, believe that the ultimate goal of life is pleasure. aristotle in a similar way holds that the end of life is eudaimonia happiness. according to the cynics, good living entails living a moral life. as opinions and worldviews differ on the meaning of life, so has there been a divergent view on the concept of death. while some believe life is transitory, others like the epicureans are of the opinion that death is the ultimate end of man. in igbo cosmo-ontology, like other african societies, the concept of life and death has been approached from their gamuts of meaning. the igbo people hold dearly the sacrosanctity of life. life is respected and protected. ndi igbo believe that life is like a journey, like a market place (uwa bu ahia) where everyone leaves after business transactions. at the end of one's life journey on earth, one joins the ancestors in the great beyond. however, there are criteria necessary if one must be accorded a befitting burial which serves as the gateway to joining the cult of ancestors. while ndi igbo revere body of a deceased family member, such respect is accorded to those who have lived a good life, married with kids and also died at a ripe old age without suffering from strange diseases like leprosy or swollen stomach before death. it is based on these igbo worldview regarding life and death that the research questions: what is good living in igbo ontology? what does death mean for ndi igbo? what is the correlation between good living and a befitting burial? how does a befitting living or burial affect believe in reincarnation?, is anchored. in the bid to do justice to the above research questions, we shall employ the hermeneutic and analytic methods for adequate interpretation and critical analysis of such concepts for proper understanding. keywords: beffiting living, death, befitting burial, ancestorship, reincarnation and igbo society. introduction the search for the meaning of life and death pervades historical evolution of thought. nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 2 man has continued to question the essence of living, the goal of life and death. these consist in man's effort to give meaning to his existence. in african society, different cultures at various eras have approached life and death from their gamut of meanings. there are many and often complicated ceremonies connected with life and death, burial, funeral, inheritance, the living-dead, the world of the departed, the visit of the living dead to their human families, reincarnation and survival of the soul. in igbo society, the sacrosanctity of life is highly revered. life is considered the highest good; hence anything that would lead to loss of life is practically avoided. life is a whole, an entity, a compendium, a mystery and encyclopedia of its own. life is a continuum, such that we are either, dead, living, existing or moribund. life is also transitory. "once conceived, we are old enough to die. after the day of our conception, we await the day of our death," (ezeokafor, 2017:6). life is a journey at the end of which we return to where we came from. ? nw? (death) is a respecter of nobody hence igbo say that ?nw? ama ézè (death knows no king), ?nw? ama dike, ?nw? ama onyeukwu amongst other expressions in regard to death. death occurs at different ages of life, place and circumstances. no amount of carefulness can save one from the cold hands of death. little wonder igbo has the adage: a z?ta nd? e dobere ?nw?. the igbo african society believes that the way a man lives his life while on earth determines how and where he will be buried. death is, on its own, a necessary end, a path everyone must travel. death is one of the most universal and mysterious experience. death is sorrowful, yet, it is also important. in igbo ontology, death is not a complete annihilation of a person, because he moves on to join his ancestors. the bishop of awka diocese, his lordship most rev. paulinus c. ezeokafor (2017:8), states that "even though this transformation does not break all ties of friendship with the deceased's friends and relatives, it brings about a definite change in the mode and manner of their relationship". "death is something that concerns everybody partly because sooner or later everyone personally faces it and partly because it's brings loss and sorrow to every family and community" mbiti (1967)2 opines. the igbo traditional societies like other cultures in the universe have confronted death in their attempt to philosophically give meaning to their experience. the igbo like the majority of the human race, refuses to accept death as the finality of man. according to the igbo, death is a continuation of life, man should not just disappear. according to igbo tradition, the dead continue to live in the memory and activities of the community. their position in the land of the dead determines how well they had lived and how well their progeny had discharged their duties towards them, by according them a befitting burial. in igbo traditional society, the society is the centre of existence. in the world of the dead, the dead exist for the society. they must continue to bid well for the community by granting it favorable auspices from the gods. even when the dead don't make it into the coming of the ancestors, they don't just disappear. they hang around the community, causing great nuisance to the immediate family and the community at large. when an igbo man dies, he does not desire to be united to any god in any heaven or to be punished by any demon in a hell fire; his being is essentially defined as being with the community. in the words of mbiti, (1967:158)3 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 "death is a monster before whom, man is utterly helpless”. relatives watch a person die and they cannot help him escape death. it is an individual affair in which nobody else can interfere or intervene." this paper examines the concept of death, and befitting living or burial in igbo ontology and also to show that death only occur because there is life and it is only a living person ( being) that can experience death. the concept of death death is one of the most fundamental, universal and mysterious of man's experience. it is a respecter of nobody, age or place. it is painful, sorrowful yet an experience that no man can escape. philosophers, scholars and different cultures have approached the concept of death from different perspective. while some conceive death as the finality, the ultimate end of man, others see it as a continuum, as a transition from the physical world to another world. according to plato, life is the coming together of the body and soul where the soul is a prisoner in the body. the soul, at death, is liberated and continues to live in the world of forms where real things exist. plato's conception of death portrays it as a good thing by means of which the soul becomes free. like his teacher, socrates, who hoped to philosophize with the gods after death, plato believes that death is not the absolute end of man. contrary to plato's view, aristotle maintains that death is the end of everything. while everything possesses a soul and body, death brings an end to them all. at death, both the body and soul disintegrates and each returns to its source. heidegger (1962:294) sees death as "the possibility of the absolute impossibility of the dasein". for him, death is the most personal of man's experiences. whereas man (dasein) is full of possibilities, death extinguishes man's transcendental abilities. in other words, death puts an end to whatever man could become. unlike some cultures where death is seen to be a painful experience, heidegger seems to be indifferent to the feelings of people at the death of a beloved one. death, according to sartre, is an area of one's facticity where one exercises and expresses his freedom and authenticity. advocating for freedom, he insists that one can choose whatever one wants as that defines ones essence and authentic existence. he maintains one can as well choose to die end one's life. sartre, like heidegger, sees death as something fundamentally personal. philosophers and non-philosophers have attempted to elucidate the concept of death with little success. mason (2015) holds that philosophers and non-philosophers stand on a level of equality with respect to death. there is no expert on death, for there is nothing to know about it. not even those who study the death process have an edge on the rest of us. we are all equals in thinking about death, and we all begin and end thinking about it from a position of ignorance. corroborating the views of heidegger, mason (2015) posits that "death means the end of my future. however, as long as i am alive, i will be living toward that possibility of no longer having possibilities". death puts an end to all human possibilities. nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 4 the concept of death has also eluded a definite description in the field of medicine and/or science. biologically, death is the cessation of orgasmic functioning of the body. the clinical definition of death was limited to the absence of heartbeat and respiration. however, advancement in medical technology has led to modifications in the definition of death. according to the president's commission for the study of ethical problems in medicine, biomedical and behavioral research (1981:4), death is the "irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem". according to gire (2014), there are other eight criteria that must be met in order for one to be declared dead. he encapsulates it thus: established alongside this definition are eight criteria, all of which must be met before a person is declared dead: absence of spontaneous response to any stimuli; completely unresponsive to even the most painful stimuli; lack of spontaneous respiration for at least one hour; absence of postural activity, swallowing, yawning, or vocalizing; no eye movements, blinking, or pupil responses; a flat electroencephalogram (eeg) for at least 10 minutes; a total absence of motor reflexes; and that there ought not to be any change in the above criteria if tested again after 24 hours. this definition not only represents a largely western conception of death, but is also a basically medical definition of the concept" (gireh, 2014:3-4). the understanding and conception of death varies across cultures and religions. for the buddhists, death is the absence of consciousness. consciousness is that by which the animation of the body is possible. without consciousness, the body cannot function; hence to die is to lose consciousness. according to stanford encyclopedia of philosophy in accordance with luper, holds that death is life's ending.8 many african societies entertain the belief that death is a transformation from this life to another life. man's journey continues even after death. in the words of mbiti (1975:112-3), people refer to death or dying as returning home, going away, answering the summons, saying yes to death, disappearing, departing, ceasing to eat, ceasing to breathe, sinking, fighting a losing battle, refusing food, rejecting people, sleeping, taking one away, saying goodbye, shutting the eyes, being broken up, being snatched away, being taken away, being called away, joining the forefathers, becoming god's property etc.9 these words show that death is not a complete destruction of the individual. life goes on beyond the grave. therefore, people combine their sorrow over the death of someone with the belief that it is not the end, and that the departed continues to live in the hereafter (which is actually the real home). people's conception of death greatly influences how they live their lives. people, who aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 believe that there is life after death and how one's life determines one's fate after death, are likely to live an upright life. the igbo people of nigeria in order to properly appreciate the perception of life and death in igbo ontology, it would be important to shed light on who the igbo people are. the igbo ethnic group is one of the major ethnic groups in nigeria. the igbos are found in the tropical rainforest of southeastern part of nigeria. in the present day nigeria, igbo people occupy dominantly five out of the thirty-six states of the federation, namely; anambra, enugu, imo, abia and ebonyi states. ndi igbo are found in the southernmost part of nigeria in rivers state and cross river state. they can also be found in the west of nigeria in delta state. to the north, the ndi igbo appear in benue state and kogi state, mwakikagile (2006) asserts.15 according to afigbo (1975), the igbos, like any other group of people are anxious to discover their origin and reconstruct how they came to be where they are... their experience under colonialism and since nigeria's independence have emphasized for them the reality of their group identity which they want to anchor into authenticated history.16 onwuejiogwu (1996:81) holds that the traditional history of origin of a given people forms part of their thought system, belief and social life. there are many dialect of the igbo language, the central igbo is understood by all igbo speaking communities.17 the variation in the language clearly indicate that ndi igbo are not of a single origin. there must have been immigration and contacts with other people which clearly shaped the igbo language. however, scholars are of the view that the igbo custom is dominant, hence it continued to be the defining culture even in igbo communities, when there are clear historical evidence of mixture with non-igbo people. this is largely the case among western igbos. despite the ediod influence, the culture is distinctly igbo, kalu (2017) opines.18 the igbo experienced the transatlantic slave trade, which was so traumatic for the ndi igbo because igbo concept of slave trade differed radically from the western concept of slave trade. in igbo community a slave is not required to do more work than any other person in the community, in fact, a slave can equally own a slave of his own and people are rarely slaves for life, olaudah (1837) holds.19 ndi igbo suffered a lot of upheavals with the introduction of christianity and the warrant chief system which led to loss of lives of dissenting voices. the experience of colonialism in igbo nation led to the loss of identity of the igbo as a distinct nation. the igbos became subsumed in nigeria which equally disrupted the igbo traditional way of life. for people in pre-colonial igbo land, things were either done for or against them. for example the birth of twins was a phenomenon not understood by the igbo and as such was against them a sign that the gods were angry. to have a set of twins was a curse, nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 6 an abomination. as such, these innocent children were instantly put to death or abandoned to die in the evil forest. the same fate befell anyone who suffered an unexplainable affliction and contagious disease like leprosy, small pox, tuberculosis or any disease that caused the body to waste or distend. people who suffered these diseases were cast away to die alone in the evil forest without any transitional rites. befitting living in igbo culture life is a mystery. life, like moral is certainly a problematic subject and much of its problems arise from differences in definition, wrong concepts and attitude to life. life is a whole, an entity, a compendium, a mystery and encyclopedia of its own. life is the principle or the source of the activities associated with growth, nutrition, reproduction, breathing, thought. it is manifested through some forms of activities. life is a continuum, such that we are either; dead, living, existing or moribund. but there are varieties of ways of living our lives. it is within these varieties, that we stamp 'self' destroy or better it. ndi igbo believe that life is a precious and sacred gift from god (chi ukwu). a traditional igbo man at the breaking of kola nut appreciates and thanks god for the gift of life, prays for long life in good health. the igbo perception of life is portrayed in the names that the igbo bear such as ndubuisi (life is the first of all things), ndukaku (life is greater than wealth), ndubueze (life is king). all these names express the priority and premium placed on life by nd? igbo. the value of life is never equated with anything else, not even wealth. the sacrosanctity of life is held by the igbo with both hands hence, any form of deliberate destruction of life is abhored in igbo land. ndi igbo believe that one should not destroy life that one cannot give. this is why according to anetoh (2017:63), "it is taboo to destroy the life of an unborn child. any form of abortion is reprehensible in igbo land. the unborn child is already part of the living. he went further to say that: any form of destruction of life is an abomination in igbo land. thus, suicide, murder, euthanasia etc are not morally permissible. in most places in igbo land, a person who commits suicide is not given a decent burial. this is because of the fact that one has no right to take away one's life, and this stems from the fact that life is sacred (ibid., p. 63). in igbo ontology, living a good life entails living a highly moral life. one must not soil one's hand in evil. to live a good life is to live an honest life devoid of lies and deceit. the communalistic nature of traditional igbo people makes it pertinent that one must live a complementary life within the context of accepted social norms and values. in igbo culture an individual is a member of the community and living a good and ethical life speaks of the community and not only the individual. the igbo maintain that ezi aha ka ego (good name is better than wealth). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 to live a good life one must also show solidarity and empathy towards one's neighbours. the igbo believe that a tree does not make a forest hence, one needs the other. the other (ibe) is seen as one's half or part. african world, before the disruptive inauguration of western colonialism was a society built on very clearly defined and articulated values. the values were merged in such a way as to provide internal cohesion and stability in the interaction and in the daily lives of the people, especially as it concerns the fraternal living of the igbo society in particular. communal living abhors the practice of individualism. the life of the traditional igbo societies was that of the communal participation otherwise called “communalism” and this is exemplified in the mutual relationship found in the community. it symbolizes the “we” concept that is dominant in the minds of traditional igbo people. the interest of african igbo society is to live a communal life, a life devoid of individualism, a life of togetherness for the co-operative existence of all. communalism in african igbo view presumes a collective way of living. communalism is the sociopolitical theory that upholds the priority of community over individual. the need for fraternal living is of undeniable importance. this is what is called the “the idea of common spirit”. the need to live together as family is seen as part and parcel of igbo existential statues. the individual in igbo society has meaning only in the context of the community. mbiti (1970:108), emphasizing the communalistic lifestyle of the african state that "i am because we are and since we are, therefore i am". a befitting life for the igbo is a life lived within the community of people, in righteousness and honesty, and in conformity with the social values, norms and customs, with strict observance and avoidance of what is considered an abomination or taboo. the death of an upright person, especially at a ripe old age, is considered a good death and is followed by a befitting burial characterized by a lot of eating, drinking, dancing and merrymaking amidst the pain of death. nevertheless, the concept of befitting living asides the general understanding of good living as already established with respect to igbo communalist ideology implies, connotes and embodies the quality of life and attention given to one, also emphasising the level of care, respect and love one enjoys while alive especially from the loved ones and members of the family. befitting living embraces the beauty of ones' happiness and fulfilment towards the end of earthly existence. needless to say that the greatest need of any man is always manifest at those moments of weakness due to old age either by way of sickness, material challenges, physical disability, loneliness and regrets ( likely unfufilled dreams, mistakes, etc.). it is at this point by which one is confronted with such challenges such that it is practically impossible to do anything for himself but solely depending on the help and solidarity of others. solidarity from friends and well wishers but more explicitly help from children. these challenges makes one to be a dependent irrespective of his age. life is beautiful when such an individual enjoys the benevolence of his children strengthening his weakness and brigthing his paths at this moment of struggle. whatever that is offered at this stage of life, call it the stage of debility can make life a befitting one. nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 8 death in igbo ontology according to ogbonna (2009), in african igbo society, the individual can only be defined in relation to others.26 in igbo culture, one does not exist for himself. he exists for the community. that is why in igbo ontology, death is essentially a continuum. in igbo ontology, a person is made up of body and spirit (soul). the body and soul have to be joined together to make a living person. it is not known exactly when the soul joins the body. but some people believe that this takes place when the husband and wife sleep together at the conception of the child to be. however, it is thought, that the soul joins the body sometime before birth or shortly after birth mbiti (1975:118) holds. 27 according to nwala (1985), death implies merely dissolution of the flesh and not the end of life.28 therefore, the grief at the death of a man is usually because of the sense of loss of his physical presence. in fact, the institution of burial among the igbo is very elaborate and it illustrates much that is found in philosophy of life. for instance, their belief in an unending existence in the next life leads to elaborate burial rites to ensure an honorable place for the dead in the spirit world. a typical burial ceremony in igbo culture embraces a variety of functions and rituals to be mediated by the sons, kinsmen (umunna), age grades and secret societies. in igbo ontology, death is recognized as the point when the spirit separates from the body. because the spirit is closely associated with breathing, people know that the spirit has gone when the person stops breathing. even though the spirit leaves the body, the spirit still lingers on around the body or homestead until the right burial rites are performed to send the spirit off and let him join other spirits (his ancestors). it is equally believed that even if the body remains behind, the spirit is still distinguishable by more or less the same features as it had when the person lived. so in igbo ontology the spirit does not lose the identity it had when it was a living person. this is why ndi igbo strongly believe that death is not the end of human life. a person continues to exist in the hereafter. and this continuation of life beyond death is recognized through a very widespread practice of remembering the dead. death in igbo culture is not a complete annihilation of a person because he moves on to join his ancestors, and continues to live his life as an ancestor if only he meets up with the requirement, or he will become akalogheri, that is, the state of not been accepted by neither the living nor the dead. ndi igbo believe that life is like a pilgrimage: that the real home is the hereafter, since one does not depart from there, but rather continues to live in the hereafter. most rev. ezeokafor (2017) holds that even though death is a transformation, it brings about change in the nature of relationship between the deceased and friends and relatives. death, not as many scholars conceived it, not the finality of man but like life, is a journey to another world, the world of the ancestors. however, death in igbo culture could be divided into ezi onwu (good death) and onwu ojoo( bad death) . ezi onwu (good death) is when a man dies a natural death, by living a good ( ethical) life and being accorded a befitting burial while onwu ojoo (bad death) is when a man dies through accident or disease like leprosy, tuberculosis, swollen aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 stomach, small pox etc. a bad death is abhorred in igbo culture. in the traditional igbo worldview, a dead man has a right to a decent burial. anetoh (2017:63), citing nze (2007:623), states that: a dead man has a right in igbo culture; he is entitled to a fairly comprehensive burial rites. the living is obliged to accord him their last respect and glorification. the dead expect and often demand and enforce the fulfillment of this obligation. failure on the part of the living to award this deserved price induces harassment of the living by the dead (nze, 2007, qtd. by anetoh, 2017:63). however, this right is accorded only to those who led good lives or who died what is considered a good death (?nw? ihi). burial rites in igboland ?kwa mmad?/ozu (funeral ceremony), while it captures the importance placed on the body of the deceased is quite essential in igbo culture. it is intended to restore the breach in human relationship as well as making whole the living relatives who are assumed to have been made unclean by the deceased body. according to most rev. ezeokafor (2017:33), burial has: the connotation of restoring the breach in human relationship caused by death and the relationship between human beings and the spirit-world. the restoration of this will ensure that the dead reach the ancestral home peacefully and do not haunt the living. it is believed that, unless these rites are fully completed, some of which could last for over a year, the funeral is not successful and the spirit of the dead will continue to roam aimlessly as dangerous spirits referred to as akalogheli (2017:33). the igbo traditional society believe that burial or burying a loved one or a family member is the best thing or normal thing, a family can do for their dead ones. because according to igbo tradition, when a man receives a proper burial, he moves on to join his ancestors, if and only if he lived a good and proper life while on earth. according to izunwa (2016:127)20 funeral ceremony appears to cover the entire vistas of the various rites, rituals and observances, whether socio-religious or psychological, which function to accompany the deceased to the world beyond, the burial ceremonies appear specified and limited to the actual symbolic observance that is immediately connected with interment, that is, of the ritual acts linked with committing the dead to the mother earth. in the words of izunwa, when burial is done in igbo land, they compose of a whole lot of symbolic rituals comprising acts from the living members of the human society while establishing in the beyond a company with ancestors.21 from there, a new kind of relationship or some form of spiritual communion with the living can be re-arranged. the workability of this circularity depends, according to metuh (1987:252) on the nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 10 functionality of the burial rituals. it is widely believed by the igbo that where a burial ceremony is unbefittingly organized, the spirit of the dead person becomes unsettled and hover around and will continually hunt the living.22 kalu (1979:15) asserts that once a person is improperly buried, the spirit of the dead person would be unhappy and probably return as an evil spirit for vengeance. a person who is not properly buried becomes what i termed akalogheri, a state of rejection by both the living and the dead. a dead person without a befitting burial, ndi igbo believe, is not accepted into the abode of the ancestors nor does he partake in anything in the great beyond. the spirit of such person turns to a malevolent spirit that torments the family members until he is accorded his rights, a befitting burial. most often, the organisation of another burial is always the best remedy to such infernal onslaught.23 izunwa (2016:129) holds that the igbo view death as a movement from the "here" to another similar in character, with the possibility of a return to "here".24 a befitting burial is a prerequisite for joining the great beyond; hence the premium igbo people place on it. in igbo traditional society, the type and quality of burial that is accorded to a person depend on how well he lived his life and the type of death that followed. metuh (1987:133) says that, in igbo community, a person who died naturally as in ripe old age is called onwu chi, that is a person who lived a good life, married with children and did not die within a solemn festivity nor die of strange disease. anybody who dies outside this set criteria for good death, is said to have met a bad death ajo onwu.25 the burial rites of a person who died naturally and led a good life is richly celebrated, carried out with a mixed feeling of sadness for having to miss his or her presence, jokes, love etc. such burial are usually with a lot of eating, drinking, dancing and cultural displays. the burial of a person who met a bad death, (ajo onwu) such as suicide, leprosy, tuberculosis, swollen stomach (otoro) etc. are usually low key and in some communities in igbo land, they are usually thrown into the evil forest since it is a taboo to bury such corpse. ndi igbo believe that death is not a complete annihilation of a person, because he will continue to live in the hereafter. in some part of igbo land, people are buried with their belongings such as money, tools, ornaments, bead, foodstuffs, spears, arrows etc which will be placed on the grave afterwards. formerly, in some places, servants and wives of kings and other rich people were also buried with the body. the belief behind this custom is that the departed needs weapons to defend himself along the way to the next world, or food to eat on the journey, wives and servants to keep him company when he reaches there and property to use so that he would not arrive empty-handed or remain poor. ancestorship in igbo traditional society, not every man that dies becomes an ancestor. ndi igbo believe that ancestorship is not meant for every person that dies especially when a man didn't lead a good life while on earth. according to igbo tradition, for one to be called an ancestor, one must reach the following requirements: aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 i. one must live a good (ethical) life while on earth, ii. one must attain ripe age (must not die young), iii. one must be given a proper and befitting burial, iv. one must not die from a contagious disease like small pox, tuberculosis, leprosy etc. according to ebo (2019:24), those who died before ripe age are not considered to have made it into the comity of the ancestors. they simply disappear from existence. they are neither punished nor rewarded. neither are they required to transmigrate in any form.29 in his words, death of a youth is a sad event in the community. no father in the traditional igbo society wishes to bury his son or daughter. in such situation, they are not required to see the corpse. not all who died at ripe age are qualified to enter the comity of the ancestors. the dead must have lived faithfully to the ethical dictates of the community. the ancestors are akin to saints in christendom. they are role models to be imitated by their family members and the community at large. those who lived unethically become wandering spirits akalogheri, who are neither welcome among the living nor among the ancestors. they are said to dwell in the wilderness, away from the rest of the community. their spirit are said to be restless because they are not committed to the comity of the ancestors. among the igbos, certain disease such as leprosy and swollen stomach (otoro) are viewed as bad omens from the gods. people who die from such disease are deemed unworthy of admittance into the comity of ancestors, even when they had lived an ethical live. the community however does not designate their spirit as akalogheri. they are viewed as unfortunate. they just disappear. in igbo traditional society, even when a man dies at ripe age, after leading an exemplary life, if he is not accorded a befitting and proper burial, he is not worthy of admittance into the comity of ancestors. this requirement has made traditional igbo burial very expensive. which means, the higher the social status of the dead the more expensive the burial. the more the title, the more elaborate the rituals will be at death. if the dead person's progeny are not able to meet up with these requirements, the dead person will not qualify to enter the comity of ancestors. their spirit will now become akalogheri and hover around the family, causing bad omens among them until the dead person is given a befitting burial and committed to the comity of ancestors. reincarnation in igbo tradition while the surviving relatives remember the departed, the spirit more or less left a personal continuation of life, and become what we call the living dead. people regard it as being much like a human being although it is dead. if it appears to members of the family, they will say that they saw so and so, up to that point it has not lost its personal name and identity. during this period which may last up to four or even five generations, it is possible for something of the features and personality of such a spirit ( the living dead) to be noticed in a newly born child. then people would say that so and so has nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 12 come back, has returned or has been reborn. the child may be given the name of that deceased person or people may make sacrifices and offerings to express joy and gratitude. this idea of partial rebirth is called reincarnation. according to ebo (2019:24), ndi igbo believe that their ancestors come back to them in the form of newborns.30 ndi igbo do not believe that the newborn is the same person as the ancestor. they recognize the newborn as a brand new person with a unique identity. however, the newborn is a reincarnation of an ancestor, and the newborn is viewed to be under the influence of the ancestors. as the child grows older, ndi igbo look out for the traces of the personality of the ancestors in question in the attitude of the child. this phenomenon can be viewed like the seed. although the planted seed is manifested in the new seed it yields, the new seed is not said to be that very seed that was planted. yet, there are always attributes of the planted seed in the new seed. so is the concept of reincarnation among the igbos. in igbo ontology, the ancestor does not leave the comity of ancestors at reincarnation while reincarnating among the living. the ancestor continues to dwell in the comity of ancestors from where he will intercede for the family he has left among the living. he continues to perform the important task of watching out for his family against the spiritual harm. reincarnation of an ancestor is not limited to only one newborn. an ancestor may reincarnate in more than one newborn. the dead who did not qualify to be committed to the comity of ancestors cannot reincarnate. among the igbos, only the dead who have been fully committed to the comity of ancestors have the power to reincarnate. remembering the dead in igbo culture the igbo african societies believe that death is not the end of human life. a person continues to exist in the hereafter. this continuation of life beyond death is recognized through the widespread practice of remembering the departed. there are four ways of remembering the dead (i) food and drink for the dead (ii) consultation and rituals (iii) naming the dead in prayers (iv) naming children after the dead. i. food and drink for the dead: in igbo african society, the heads of families pour out beer, water etc on the ground for the spirit of the family. they may also put bits of food on the ground for the same purpose. in the traditional igbo society, there are often family shrines in the homestead or behind the houses, set apart for remembering the departed. kola nuts, beer and other food items are placed, with words to effect that the food is being given to those who have departed; sometimes their names are being mentioned. ii. consultation and rituals: in igbo culture, another way of remembering the departed is to consult them through a medicine man or the diviner, when a major family decision is about to be made or when there is a major ilness. during family rituals and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 13 ceremonies, such that mark the birth and initiation of children, the departed are often remembered in a definite way. iii. naming the dead in prayers: in igbo culture, it is important to mention the names of the departed relatives when one is praying to god. these departed members of the family are believed to relay the prayers to god. iv. children after the dead: the departed can also be remembered by naming children after them, especially if their features have been inherited by those children. sometimes, sacrifices and offerings are made to the departed in order to honour them and appreciate them for returning to us in human body. conclusion in the words of epicurus, death need not bother anyone because only a living person has sensation either of pain or of pleasure. after death there is no sensation, since the atoms that make up bodies and minds come apart. there is no longer this particular body or mind but only a number of distinct atoms that return, as it were, to the primeval inventory of matter to continue the cycle of new formations. death should be a welcome development in igbo culture because; it is a mystery all men must face one day. in igbo society, death is not a complete annihilation of a person, because he moves to join his ancestors and continue to live his life in the hereafter. befitting burial is one of the qualifications a dead person needs to be made ancestors. this is why ndi igbo are cautious of how and where a dead person is buried. a dead person is not readily forgotten, they are always remembered by their family members. in igbo communities, the heads of the families pour out drinks and water on the ground for the spirits of the family. there are shrines in the homestead or behind the houses, set apart for remembering the departed. kolanuts, drinks and other food items are placed or poured out to them on daily basis or occasionally to remember them. the grave is the seal of everything, even if a person survives and continues to exist in the next world, there is an accelerated rhythm from death through the state of personal immortality (as the living dead) to the state of collective immortality (as ordinary spirits). this final ' beat' of the rhythm may or may not have an end. however, there is nothing to hope for, since death is the destiny for everybody; though older people do not seem to fear, and may even long for 'death' from this to the next world. the dead person does not grow spiritually towards or like god, though some may act as intermediaries between men and god or may have more power and knowledge than human beings. such is the anthropocentric view of the destiny of man, as far as igbo traditional african concepts are concerned, death is death and is the beginning of a permanent ontological departure of the individual from mankind to spirit hood. death is the end of real and complete man. finally, having understood death as a continum and a befitting burial as a gateway to the after life, our argument is; attention must be given to one while alive especially at the dark hours of one's existence to enhance quality and healthy living. a lot of effort must be made to enlighten the minds of our young nwobodo a befitting living or burial: perspectives of life... 14 ones towards their poor mentally and attitude in taking care of their aged parents, denying them the opportunity of reaping the fruits of their labour only to give them a befitting burial after death. it makes no sense when you say "the celebration of life" because you want to show your flamboyant burial knowing fully well that the deceased in question died with the denial of such benevolence while alive. life cannot be celebrated alone by the virtue of the number of years lived but by the quality of life and fulfilment one enjoyed. to whatever extent the befitting burial is important to ensure a free passage of the deceased to the after life, greater it is a beffiting living for the deceased to die a happy death. recommendation it will be stating the obvious to say that while death brings about pain and sorrow, burial has been trivialized just as it has become a show of one's or family's affluence. as prof. pita ejiofor (1985:88) remarks, "except for the immediate relations, death is no more a source of sorrow, but an opportunity for conspicuous consumption". most rev. ezeokafor (2017:20) laments that: beginning from the time of death to the conclusion of the funeral ceremonies, bereaved families engage in mundane, flamboyant, and wasteful practices and ceremonies, largely in a bid to meet up with demands made on them by the society and those they lay on themselves. therefore, burial and funeral ceremonies have become a multi-million naira project, such that many families unable to meet up with the demands do borrow or sell some of their property and real estates. some postpone the burials and funeral to such a time they are able to finance the huge bills that may accompany the funeral ceremonies (ezeokafor, 2017:20). it has degenerated to the ugly situation that many young people neglect their aged parents in the villages while they enjoy life in the city; and upon death (of their parents), return to give them magnificent burial. it is against this worrisome development that this paper makes the following recommendations. 1. haven seen that igbo traditional burials are becoming more and more expensive, thereby making family members who could not afford the richly and elaborated burial ceremony for their dead ones, to neglect and abandon them in the mortuary and also allowing their bodies to stay in mortuary more than three months all in the name of gathering money to throw a richly and satisfactory burial. hence, the idea of expensive burials should be discouraged. 2. it is also recommended that ndi igbo should understand that giving someone a befitting richly burial is super good, but we should equally pay more attention in giving them food and taking care of them while they are still alive than a richly and elaborated burial, when it was obvious that the person died because of hunger and lack of care. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 15 3. worthy of note is the fact that life and death are polar concepts because human being can speculate on the origin of life and death but may not be certain about it. it may not be possible for human reason to understand life as a whole. it is suggested that less emphasis be placed on the origin and nature of death, but rather to accept it as the fundamental reality of human existence that brings to an end man's earthly struggles and possibilities. references 1. afigbo, a.c. 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(2018). igbo cosmology: the concept of death as a means to final rest. idosr journal of current issues in arts and humanities, vol. 4, no. 1, 10-30. 1 towards africa's transformation in the twenty first century: a dialectical appraisal of authentic nationhood sirajudeen owosho, ph.d. abstract the economic, political and socio-cultural realities among african nations reveal a gruesome picture of inauthentic nationhood. that is, nations that lack the capabilities for genuine transformation, creativity and innovativeness. it is against the backdrop of these crises that have bedeviled the african societies that this paper proposes to examine the problem of attaining genuine development in the continent. this paper reveals the need for africa to liberate itself from the bondage of perpetual exploitation and underdevelopment. it emphasizes the imperative for africa to re-assert its being and redefine its identity. this paper advocates the adoption of the philosophy of dialectics as a process for occasioning the desired change in africa. it considers the logic of dialectics as the appropriate philosophical method for appraising the trend of genuine development with a view to creating authentic platform, which would guide the thoughts and activities of african nations in order to have rapidly improving societies. it concludes that africa must rediscover itself and fashion out a new philosophical ideology from the background of its cultural experience in order to evolve a meaningful development. this is the way towards the objective realization of genuine development and authentic nationhood; it is the path leading to meaningful and sustainable transformation of africa in the new millennium. keywords: africa; authentic nationhood; development; logic of dialectics; sustainable transformation introduction in contrast to the surging growth and development taking place in the advanced world today, is an unquestionable fact that a large proportion of the underdeveloped countries are in unimaginable stagnation and uncertainties. these are vivid manifestations of inauthentic nations. inauthenticity no doubt impedes growth, progress and development. it is imperative for african nations to begin the process of change. obviously, change is necessary since mankind develops economically, socially, mentally and politically from time to time. the concept of transformational development demands extensive investigation in order to formulate the strategy and tactics of african's emancipation and create the path leading to the attainment of authentic nationhood. owosho towards africa's transformation in the twenty-first century 2 the idea of dialectical appraisal was informed by the nature of opposing forces or antagonisms in the historical development of african nations, and this is clearly evident in the nature of growth, development and international relations between africa and the west. the notion of dialectical method in philosophy started among the greeks in the ancient period with the activities of philosophers like socrates, plato and aristotle. it was however popularised in the modern period by hegel as a kind of logic in which a thesis is negated by an antithesis and both the thesis and antithesis are taken up in a synthesis. the synthesis thus reached becomes a new thesis, which in turn is negated, and the process continues ad-infinitum. (hegel, 1953). this is the philosophy of dialectics, in which conflicts, interests, classes and contradictions are synthesised into a new development, a new forward. the purpose of this study is to explore the possibilities of concretely tackling the problem of underdevelopment in africa using the dialectical approach. this study also aims at how dialectical reasoning can be applied in the quest for sustainable growth and development africa. more importantly, it is intended at making a case for the need by african nations to be self-determined and self-reliant. africa and the struggle against oppression scholars have traced the problem of africa's underdevelopment to both external and internal factors. those who traced it to external factors made reference to the european colonisation of africa, while those who traced it to internal factors blame the failure of the african states on african leaders. it should be noted that in this study, we are influenced by the logic of dialectical and historical materialism. no event, no phenomenon, examined in isolation can be fully understood. with this at the back of our mind, we strongly believe that the problems of africa, and by extension, the third world underdeveloped countries, can only be fully understood when analyzed from its proper historical perspectives. from, the beginning of the interaction between africa and europe, africa had been subjected to series of oppressive activities and since then, african countries had been struggling to raise their heads among the comity of nations. indeed, the nature of relationship, which took place between africa and europe, could be described as the causative factor of the huge calamities that had befallen africa since their first contact with europe. the problem of underdevelopment of africa started with “trade in slaves”, the term used to refer to the shipment of captives from africa to various other parts of the world where they were to live and work as the property of the european. (rodney, 1972, pp. 9-10). the whole process by which captives were obtained on the african soil was more of “warfare, trickery, banditry and kidnapping”. (p.104). without going into details of slave trade, the point to underscore here is that slave trade led to sharp reduction in the population of africa. the massive loss to the african labour force was made more critical because it was composed of able-bodied young men and women. i emphasize population loss here because of its enormous relevance to the question of socioeconomic development. population growth played a major role in european aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 development in providing labour, market and pressures, which led to further technological advancement. in essence, enslavement caused africa to lose their battle to tame and harness nature – a battle, which is at the basis of development. many factors are responsible for the underdeveloped nature of the african continent. these same factors are responsible for the current african struggle against oppression. development means a capacity for self-sustaining growth. it means that an economy must register advances, which in turn will promote further progress. unfortunately, africa could not achieve this as millions of youths and young adults who are human agents from whom innovations and inventions spring have been lost to slave trading. those who remained in areas badly hit by slave capturing were pre-occupied about their freedom rather than improvement in production. in our modern days, african countries are still losing their young talented and ablebodied men and women to “neocolonialism” and “brain drain”. these african countries are finding it extremely difficult to come to terms with the challenges of modern world and globalization. the europeans deliberately made africans underdeveloped. when a society, for whatever reason, finds itself, technologically training behind others, it catches up not so much by independent inventions but by borrowing. in fact, very different people have discovered few of man's major scientific discoveries in different places. once a principle or a tool is known, it spreads or diffuses to other peoples. why then did european technology fail to make its way into africa during the many centuries of contact between the two continents? the basic reason, according to walter rodney, is that the very nature of afro-european trade was highly unfavourable to the movement of positive ideas and techniques from european capitalist system to the african pre-capitalist system of production. afroeuropean trade was by nature exploitative (in favour of europe). it was intended by europe to stabilize and to continue to exert its domineering influences over africa. it is such that would make africa to continue to be dependent on europe for sustainability. (rodney, 1972). the effort of the african people to liberate themselves is even jeopardized by the type of leaders they have. indiscipline and corruption on the part of african leaders are worsening the situation. even when we blame the colonialists for their devastating activities, we should not lose sight of the activities of our leaders. thus, the struggle by the african people is not just against the oppressive activities of our former colonial masters but also against the current activities of our leaders. the scholars who traced africa's predicament to internal factors on the other hand insist that the reason for the underdevelopment of african countries is the failure of corrupt and incompetent leaders. african leaders must accept responsibility for the africa's backwardness in the field of development. owosho towards africa's transformation in the twenty-first century 4 the concept of dialectics the dialectics is a theory, which was popularized by one of the most important political philosophers of modern history, georg wilhelm friedrich hegel. hegel developed a theory of history in which change is the central theme. hegel believed that the world was progressing towards a goal that was predetermined by the absolute spirit. he called the goal the “idea”. history, in other words, was the unfolding of god's idea. both marx and hegel saw the dialectics as a means of achieving historical “progress through struggle”. (baradat, 1997, p. 117). hegel believed that history was spiritually motivated. he suggested that the dialectics was a divinely created force by which the idea (history) was caused to unfold. he believed that any reality is two things. it is itself, and it is part of what it is becoming. thus, the only consistency hegel saw was change itself. to hegel, history was simply the process of change brought about by struggle. in this process, no truth was ever lost, since today's reality would become part of a more perfect truth tomorrow. perhaps, we can better understand hegel's theory by considering the following example. let's call the existing state of affairs by a new idea, which we will call “antithesis”. a conflict between the thesis and antithesis will follow; this is called the dialectical process. the result of this conflict according to hegel will be a synthesis of all the good parts of the thesis and of the antithesis. then, the synthesis becomes the new thesis to which another antithesis eventually develops. struggle between them ensues, and a new synthesis, and eventually a new thesis evolve, and the process begins again. hegel believed that the dialectical process always led to something better than what existed previously. (p. 178). he argued that good features were never lost in the dialectic process; rather they became part of a new, more complete goods. negative aspect of the thesis and antithesis, however, were destroyed in the dialectic process. this hegel called the “negation of negation”. hence, hegel saw history as inevitably progressive, with each new era improved over the last. and he expected the dialectics to continue refining and improving human institutions until the idea was fulfilled. (p. 178). understanding dialectics and historical materialism dialectical materialism is very vital for an accurate understanding of the role of dialectics in national development. it is called dialectical materialism because its approach to the phenomenon of nature, its methods of studying and apprehending them, is “dialectical”, while its interpretation of the phenomena of nature, its conception of these phenomena, its theory is materialistic. historical materialism is the extension of the principles of dialectical materialism to the study of social life, an application of the principles of dialectical materialism to the phenomena of the life of society, to the study of society and its history. in dialectical aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 materialism as enunciated by marx, dialectics does not regard nature as an accidental agglomeration of things, of phenomena unconnected with, isolated from, and independent of, each other, but as a connected and integral whole, in which things, phenomena, are organically connected with, dependent on, and determined by, each other. (stumpf, 1994, p. 330). again, dialectics holds that nature is not a state of rest and immobility, stagnation and immutability, but a state of continuous movement and change, of continuous renewal and development, where something is always rising and developing, and always disintegrating and dying away. the dialectical method therefore requires that phenomena should be considered not only from the stand point of their interconnection and interdependence but also from the stand point of their movement, their change, their development, their coming into being and going out of being. further. dialectics does not regard the process of development as a simple process of growth, where quantitative changes do not lead to qualitative changes, but as a development, which passes from insignificant and imperceptible quantitative changes to open fundamental changes, to qualitative changes; a development in which the qualitative changes occur not gradually, but rapidly and abruptly, taking the form of a leap from one state to another; they occur not accidentally but as the natural result of an accumulation of imperceptible and gradual qualitative changes. (p. 331). the dialectical method therefore holds that the process of development should be understood not as a movement in a circle not as a simple repetition of what has already occurred, but as an onward and upward movement, as a transition from an old qualitative state, as a development from the simple to the complex, from the lower to the higher. evolving a philosophy of change unlike a people with a clearly defined historical orientation principle who, as a result, live very much in history and for history, african people appear to be a drift in an historical void. in fact, it seems african people are incapable of learning adequate lessons from its past history. after many african nations regained their once lost independence, they still have not learnt and unable to formulate and device for themselves some fundamental criteria, which would serve as a measure for judging their overall internal and external activities as a people. whereas meaningful development should be seen as a considerable increase in nation's capability to regulate both internal and external relationships, and also to adequately cater for the well-being of its citizenry. if we (africans) must avoid re-experiencing a situation similar to the past period of historic and cultural assault on our very human dignity by outsiders, we must consciously devise for ourselves an orientation, which would determine and constitute the foundation and characteristic feature of our identity as a people. in other words, africans need to develop the necessary awareness for national survival. we need to evolve the allimportant attitude of paying attention to details of issues, events and history. there is urgent need for a change. here enters the philosophy of dialectics. the theory of dialectics regards nothing as isolated. every event, every phenomenon owosho towards africa's transformation in the twenty-first century 6 must be considered in its relation with other events, other phenomena. this is a holistic view of reality. thus, african problem must be considered in its relation with other world events. this experience is not static. it is part of the world's history, which is constantly evolving. for example, as part of an overall strategy for a total liberation from the yoke of the roman empire, one of the very first steps taken by england as an emerging sovereign state was to evolve a national language, which replaced latin as a medium of communication, set up a new national church organization to replace the roman catholic church. (ogundowole, 1991, p. 16). these and other similar concrete measures of initial dissociation from the colonizers enhanced the process of evolving the relevant spirit and attitude necessary for a rapid, effective national growth and progress. appadorai also noted that in contrary to the political idea of the middle ages universality, england was the first country to develop a strong feeling of nationalism and to attain the full stature of organized and conscious nationhood. (appadorai, 1978, p. 235), the same goes for american history. the americans did not spare even the imperial system of measurement. they altered it and created from it, the american standard measurement. the americans manipulated the english language to create their own, thereby, dissociating themselves from their former colonizer. (ogundowole, 1991, p. 16). our socio-cultural and politico-economic life represents special behavioural pattern, which are highly changeable and transformable. the psychic make-up of any group of people expresses itself through culture, depends on cultural, and manifests itself in and is governed by the language spoken by the group. since psychic make-up is constantly evolving and changing, the historical predicament we (africans) now find ourselves, as a people, cannot be viewed as unchangeable. as africans we must begin to devise effective means of liberating ourselves by consciously planning for meaningful economic development. a nation's mode of production at any given time explains its political and indeed its whole cultural condition of that time, and changes in the system of production explains the corresponding changes that occur in its politics and culture. (sabine & thorson, 1973, p. 690). the change we are talking about here is orderly and not accidental. conscious efforts must be directed towards its realization. the change must begin in a form of leap from small, imperceptible quantitative changes to open fundamental qualitative changes. i strongly oppose the view of some scholars who are calling for a return to africa's glorious past. the process of africa's development should not be circuitous, not a simple repetition of what has occurred. it is an onward and upward movement, a development from the old to the new, from the lower to the higher. therefore, we must put our problems in proper historical perspective, and liberate ourselves from the conditions that have perpetually put us in this quagmire for long. this is a question of self-determination. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 the clamour for genuine self-determination of nations self-determination has helped european and many north american countries to achieve the much needed growth and progress. this principle is equally working for some asian countries now. but then, how can a nation be self-determined. one of the marks of selfdetermined nations is their aggressive pursuance of scientific discoveries. for african nations to be self-reliant, they must create and develop their own technologies, which will truly reflect their social realities. the extent to which a nation is selfdetermined is a combined factor of scientific and technological advancement. to be sure, to be scientifically and technologically oriented is not a finished activity. it is an ongoing process. but there must be some measure of achievement in that area. for african nations to be fully self-determined or self-reliant, we must consciously plan for its achievement. for any development plan to succeed both in the immediate and in ultimate senses, it must as a first step succeed in taking every member of the society along both in the material process of its implementation and in the normative ideal setting. since self-reliance or self-determination is a natural product of the passion of selfdefence in the face of forces that tend to suppress, or try to keep one in perpetual subjugation, african leaders must be competent, dedicated, confident, patriotic, and above all, original and creative. if the leaders are serious about national projects, it is expected that followers will follow suit. another point to note is that there is need for total mobilization of all resources among african states as a matter of necessity for economic survival and progress; a vital lever for social change (ogundowole, p. 103). education of the citizenry must equally be tailored along development. scientific education should be promoted. the current level of research in our universities is not vibrant enough; the public and private sector must participate and sponsor research activities to be able to withstand the challenges of the millennium. proper economic planning for both short term and long term gains must be embraced. dialectical mode of reasoning teaches us that growth and decay are continuous and are both in tense unity, or, simply put, are two ends of the same process. the difference between a period of expansion and contraction in economic activities lies in the relative importance of the growth in industrial activities. when a better way of satisfying consumer's needs is devised, consumer demand shifts towards the new product and away from the old. when consumer demand shifts, some segments of the economy are stimulated, others are retarded, and if innovation or adaptation has been pervasive through several important sectors of the economy, the entire economy will be stimulated and the structure of industrial relationship will be significantly changed. economic reforms among africa nations must put great emphasis on home-made goods instead of importation of foreign goods. no nation whose major source of goods and services come through importation can be self-determined. we must encourage local owosho towards africa's transformation in the twenty-first century 8 manufacturers. as developed as the united states of america's economy, it placed embargo on the importation of certain clothing materials from china in recent months. this is done so as to protect the interest of local manufacturers of the same product. african nations must emulate this. the drive towards authenticity authenticity derives from the word authentic, which literary translates to originality. authenticity therefore means the quality of being real or true (summers, 2001, p. 72). authentic nationhood can be interpreted as a nation that appreciates the independence of the sovereignty to determine for itself political structures in which possibilities are abundant for a higher form of integration into the mainstream of global recognition. such a nation realizes the inevitability of its factical givens, and the need to make projections within it, as well as being responsible for the outcome. by this, such a nation distinctively defines itself. this implies a high level of originality, borne out of strong character of maturity, as well as the display of self-reliance. an authentic nation in this sense is a nation that is self-determined, self-oriented, a nation that does not bring hook-line and sinker foreign policy for the sake of embracing political order, but because such policy is in tune with the reality of its historical projections. “a nation that keeps testing one alien system of government after another in the hope that one of them would provide a permanent solution to it social and economic problems is an inauthentic nation” (unah, 1996, p. 119). in the words of jim unah, such a nation is: a nation without a sound ideological framework of its own to guide social action, a nation that goes about copying every available piece of ideology is vulnerable, and like an edifice without foundation, such a nation easily falls prey to the windstorm of imperialism. such a nation is not genuine and is therefore lost in the inauthentic “they world” where failure and misfortune are explained away in terms of sabotage. (p.103). for martin heidegger, authenticity consists in not being submerged in the anonymous crowd of the “they world”, that is, being free from any outward determination and control. (heidegger,1962). to this extent, authentic nation is a nation that is not under the influence of external control in the name of any alliance. by this we mean that authentic nation is a nation that does not cripple the possibilities of human existence in its environing world for the sake of aligning with international regulations, especially, if such alliance is a distortion of quality life. to be precise, a developing nation that goes about implementing the policies of international monetary fund, and world bank at the detriment of its domestic economy without prudent management of its endowed natural resources is doomed to be lost in the “they world”. such a nation will perpetually fall prey to the antics of the imperialists and will be inauthentic in its outlook and constitution. african nations must strive to attain the level of authentic nationhood to be able to effectively confront the challenges of the global world in the twenty first century. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 conclusion for a nation to develop, individual members of that nation must as a rule realise the need for a change when necessary. this is the thrust of the doctrine of constant renewal and reordering of society as envisaged by confucius of ancient chinese civilisation. further, when members of a nation stand up to their true callings, when a teacher performs the role of a teacher, a minister the role of minister, a scientist the role of a scientist, then, there will be order, peace and development in society. granted that africa's colonial experience dealt a devastating blow on us as a nation, what do we have to say about the diversion of money meant for developmental purposes into private purse by our leaders? it is not just enough to put our entire problem on our colonial experience. to do that would amount to inauthenticity. authentic appraisal of africa's situation should take into account the role of african leaders since independence. what african nations need at this point is an aggressive pursuance of technological breakthrough. the mode of production says much about a nation's economic development. economic development, in turn, is an index for the development of other social variables. but we know that technology is the basis of an effective mode of production. the europeans were able to colonize africa and other parts of the world because of their superior technology. had it been that africa was technologically advanced before its contact with europe, perhaps it would not have been colonised. the point i am making here is that technological advancement is the key to sustainable development and transformation. in arriving at this conclusion i assume that members of a nation are conscious of their unity and have a strong sense of national loyalty and identity, and that they are ready to embark on creative and innovative endeavours. the need to embrace science and technology is even more pronounced in the face of globalisation. it is now that africa need to be more authentic than ever before, african nations must make funds available for research activities. enormous capital is required for research and communication. i conclude this work by reiterating the statement that the overall socio-cultural and political-economic development of african nations depend largely on discipline, dedication, patriotism and how well africa is able to develop in the areas of science and technology. references appadorai, a. (1978), the substance of politics, madras, oxford university press. baradat, l.p. (1997), political ideologies: their origins and impact, new jersey, prentice-hall international inc. hegel, g. w. f. (1953). reason in history, trans. r. s. hartman, new york, the bobbsmerril company inc. owosho towards africa's transformation in the twenty-first century 10 ogundowole, e.k. (1991), echoes of social change, lagos, john west publications ltd. omoregbe j. i. (1991). a simplified history of western philosophy, volume two, maryland, lagos, joja educational research and publishers limited. rodney, w. (1972), how europe underdeveloped africa, london, bogle l'ouverture publications and dar es-salam, tanzania publishing house. sabine, g. h. and thorson, t. l. (1973), a history of political theory, new delhi, oxford and ibh publishing co. pvt. ltd. stumpf, s. e. (1994), philosophy: history and problems, new york, mcgraw-hill pub. inc. summers, d. (ed). (2001), longman dictionary of contemporary english, england, longman inc. unah, j. (1996), heidegger's existentialism: an essay in applied ontology, lagos, panaf publishing inc. 1 overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological engagement between heidegger and sartre isaac chidi igwe ph.d. abstract there is hardly any concept in any human language that is as terrifying and frightening as the term death, perhaps due to its enigmatic status. in fact, no normal human being, except a suicide which itself has been established to be a mental disorder, wants to die. even serial killers, when apprehended, are often seen pleading to be allowed to live. to many human beings, the word death is anathema which extinguishes all enthusiasms. the only time, it seems, the mention of death is trivialized is when referring to the death of a distant person not attached to us. in effect, human beings do not want to die but to live endless time and timeless end, to the extent that even those promised a heavenly place of bliss and sage-hood after death are equally caught in the web of the fear of dying. what an existential paradox! thus, it therefore elicits the question; do human beings really fear death or they fear something else concealed by the phenomenon of death? the position of this paper is in the latter. it posits that concealed by the phenomenon of death, which are more fundamental than the simple act of dying includes; the unknown, the unaccomplished projections, the unceremonious parting of ways with loved ones, sweet memories of human sojourn and the attendant existential goodies. these are the actual undisclosed fears. on the strength of this new understanding, the essay attempts to examine the asymmetrical conversation between heidegger and sartre on the value of death, with the goal of teasing out how humans can surmount its fear and actualize earthly possibilities. as an inquiry in existential ontology, it adopts a phenomenological approach. with this method, the paper presents death as not just that event which happens to human beings which leads to cessation of life. rather, as a being that is and has always been present in the very being of man right from birth. building on this new dimension, the paper alleys the fear of death among the living. keywords: authenticity, being-towards, dasein, death, existentialism, fear introduction death is arguably the most terrifying and uncannily striking theme in human discourse. it is viewed as the cessation of the connection between our mind and our body. death is real and marks the final end of an individual's biological and corporeal existence. the igwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 2 adjectives 'biological and corporeal' are meant to distinguish the nature of death under consideration as against what i call the consolatory view that those who died, still live in a way; or as against the notion of life as a prison of the soul. therefore, biological and corporeal death is the inevitable fate of all men and all families without exception. it is the law of nature that whatever is composed must eventually be decomposed. death is so enigmatic that jean paul sartre sees nothing good in its being. for him, death makes the human life absurd and meaningless. in his being and nothingness, he contends that if all the aspirations and achievements of life will be extinguished in death, then death is meaningless and undignifying to human existence. however, martin heidegger presents a radically different interpretation of death. in being and time, death does not simply spell the end of one's existence. all death is the ending of that which lives, “man's death is not an event that happens to man; it is rather, a phenomenon to be understood existentially” (omoregbe, 1981, p.31). in opening up this new vista of understanding death, heidegger aims to formulate a more authentic mode of relating to death; one which goes beyond the notion of death as the coming to an end of life or the final annihilation of all possibilities. this more authentic relation to death is a being-toward-death which he calls a “running ahead [vorlaufen].” because the certainty of my death is futural, because death will surely come to me out of the future, my anticipation of death in the present makes me, so to speak, ahead of myself. i am thrown to the certainty of my own death. insofar as i exist, i am running ahead of myself, because i am related to a futural possibility that is essentially always a “not yet,” namely, my death. this kind of existential attitude towards death, heidegger says, is a blessing to humanity because it propels us to actualize all our existential possibilities. for the african, death is a transition to begin another life. it is not the end of life and does not cut off family relationship as it extends to the world of the ancestors. the christians also hold the same view apart from the idea of ancestral connection. for bolaji idowu and j.s. mbiti as captured in offiong asuquo; olodumare (god) is the creator of death as a means of recalling man to the world of the spirit after his life on earth. mbiti sees death as the process of removing the living from the physical world and this process is one which every living must partake in (asuquo, 2011, pp. 171173). asuquo was critical of both views, especially, the creationist views of idowu. to say that god is the creator of death comes with metaphysical, epistemic and moral challenges. thus, asuquo contends: the problem with this view is that it does not explain whether it is god who causes premature and undesirable deaths such as those caused by suicide, violence, accidents and drowning. moreover, will god deliberately inflict such pains and sorrows that death often brings when he is seen as a loving father? (asuquo, 2011, p.173). in earnest, the creationist account of death is burdensome, which is why the existentialist intervention with the view that the fact of death lies in the ontological structure of human reality appears more satisfying to the question; from where comes the phenomenon of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 death?. irrespective of this little challenge, the african believes that dying is a homecoming which confers on life its meaning. the african views death as a coming home because human life on earth is a sojourn which began from the world of the spirits to the world of the material, full of troubles and imperfections (ogungbemi, 1997, pp.16). man is born into struggle. struggle for food, struggle for shelter, struggle for a better life, struggle against evil and in the end, everything becomes elusive. thus, the phenomenon of death becomes a transition to a blissful realm of existence where human life finds rest, although it depends on how one lives one's life on earth. this african view is however reinterpreted existentially in heidegger and sartre, but stripped off afterlife and creationist contents, in a way that charges humans to take ownership of its ever-present and its possibility. in view of the forgoing, the task in this paper is to provide these authors' views and how such understanding can be channeled into making human earthly sojourn a triumphant existence. the phenomenon of death while there are those who see death as a cessation of life which reality does not come into being the very day it occurs but had always being present since the day life assumes its being; there are others who believe it is a closing of human earthly account and a mere passage to another form of life. irrespective of which party wins the debate, the undeniable substance of the argument remains the fact that the subject death, has been a mystery throughout the history of human reality on earth. it is so puzzling that the history of it can be said to be a history of self-reflection. self-reflection in the sense that death itself is about the cessation of being. as such, when human reflects on death, he or she can be said to be engaged in self-reflection because death is his/her fate and destiny. while engaging in this self-reflection, questions which occupy the mind include: who am i? where do i come from and where will i go after here on earth? is there an afterlife? if there is an afterlife, what is it like and how can i prepare for it? “but if this life is the fullness of our time, how best might we live it, knowing we are going to die”? (davis, 2006, p.1) humans feel so challenged by this phenomenon of death that we always seek to know what is the meaning of life in itselfif its ultimate destiny is dying. this perennial and ever-present puzzle was reiterated in st augustine's expression when he averred that: “our entire life is nothing but a racing towards death, in the course of which no one is permitted to stop for a little while: all are forced to keep instep, all are driven on the same speed” (reinchardt, 1960, p.137). by this, augustine further lends credence to the view that death is an inevitable necessity of which everything that has life must go through. as stated earlier, it is a mystery. further reinforced by igboaja, “it is a mysterious mystery that man is alive today and tomorrow he is no more” (nyong, 1996, p. 57). for davies, at the event of death lies not igwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 4 only the emotion of grief and the breaking of bonds between each other and our place in the world, but also the hope of answering the queries and resolving the injustices of a life time (davis, 2006). in the light of this reality, humans are consistently involved in search of how to perfect the absurdity of existence, hence, the hope of afterlife existence. in honest, the first encounter one has of death is always the death of others. in other words, no human being can experience his or her own death. that is why one often hears phrases like; that man, that woman, that person has died. thus, meaning that he or she is no more. to some scholars, death, since it is a negation of life, is nothing. in other words, anything that has no being, and that brings sorrow and chaos, is valueless. along this line of thinking, ira byock writes: phenomenologically, death is nothing. the essential nature of life entails activity, purpose, and making order from disorder. death is the antithesis of life. nonlife is inactive, and despite its stillness, death is chaos. life generates its own meaning. in contrast, on its face death appears devoid of meaning and value (byock, 2002, p.27). from the foregoing quote by byock, death is not a good phenomenon. it is not so because it seems to bring an end to life, full of activities. in his thinking, why should there be death when life is so enjoyable and meaningful. it is only in the act of living that possibilities can become actualities. it is only in life that purpose and dreams can come to fruition. all of these are extinguished with the arrival of death. thus, byock concludes that anything that removes meaning is devoid of value and therefore a bad omen. this view brings us to the theme proper, most especially, as discussed by the existentialists of which heidegger and sartre represent. the issues in the existentialist conception of death before we delve into the existentialist view of death, it is compelling that we make some clarifications on the concept of existentialism. existentialism, designates the series of thinkers in the post-hegelian tradition of european philosophy. it became the most influential philosophical movement for several years. existentialism is better classified as a movement rather than a school. the reason for this is because it is not a coherent system of philosophy like rationalism, thomism, platonism, and the like. the movement is not a homogeneous school of philosophy, but, rather, it should be seen as a style of philosophizing. they generally treat the same themes, although differ in their interpretations, based on their theistic biases. with reference to the two great existentialists under our consideration; heidegger and sartre, their strongest point of intersection is that they do not believe in abstract speculation, instead they are interested in concrete human existence and its attendant predicament. as such, their mode of philosophizing begins from man rather than from nature (unah & osegenwune, 2010, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 p.129). “what they have in common is simply their belief that existence precedes essence; or, if you prefer, that subjectivity must be our point of departure” (sartre, 2007, p.20). properly conceptualized, to exist means to be set forth or dynamically set in motion, to be constitutive of action, to live precariously and sometimes dangerously, and to work out a consistent course of action in order to introduce meaning and value into an apparently meaningless world. that is why existentialists say that only human beings exist; other things merely are. this kind of thinking, was the binding cord of philosophers like soren kierkegaard (who is often referred to as the father of this movement), martin heidegger (although would not like to be called an existentialist), fredrick nietzsche, dostoevsky, albert camus, karl jaspers, gabriel marcel, simon de beauvoir , jean-paul sartre and host of others. the condition and quality of the existing human individual remains the kernel of their philosophies, hence they are classified as existentialist thinkers. the biggest among them in contemporary scholarship are heidegger and sartre (omoregbe, 1981, p. 31). properly understood, the term existentialism is a derivative of kierkegaard's frequent use of the word 'existence'. it was the need to understand and find solution to the seeming futility of human existence in an organized society that inspired these thinkers. in addition to this, were the frequent wars and human carnages of the 18th and 19th centuries in a supposedly civilized and rational human society, which disregarded human feelings and aspirations of man. in the aftermath of the first and second world wars, it became clearer that, humanity, left at the mercies of science and technology, was doomed to collective suicide. in response, the existentialist movement emerged as an effort to give the world a human face and save human civilization from total decimation arising from human activities aided by over bloated emphasis on the rational and the calculative. in the existentialists' determination to make humans live an affirmative, authentic and responsible form of existence, most of the members of the movement denied all forms of abstractions and esoteric values in respect to existence. “against all objectives and abstractions, existence, for these philosophers, takes precedence over essence” (nyomg, 1996, 37). they believe that against all odds, man must make every effort to live his life to the optimum on earth. however, they realized that there are some human “givens”, otherwise known as facticity of existence, which might not allow man to affirm himself and achieve all his earthly possibilities. one of these facticities is the phenomenon of death, that is, the fact of human temporality. accordingly, in response to the aforementioned fundamental questions of existence, that is, what will be the fate of man after his sojourn on earth, the existentialists argued that man is a dying being. irrespective of their nonconcordant and inharmonious views on other issues such as; afterlife, human freedom and the existence of god, they unanimously agree that death is a phenomenon which every man must experience individually. by individual death, they mean that no one can die for another. you will igwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 6 die your own death, while i die my own death. secondly, it equally means that there is no collective death except by accident. even if two people were born together as twins, in the same day and hour, by the same mother, their dying day may not follow the same pattern. like we observed earlier, although death is a destiny which all living will experience, another fact in it is that no one can experience his own death. people will have to talk about other people's death. it is this fact that brings home the essence of man as a beingwith-others. it is in this sense also that “death is said to be a loss, for it is a loss that is experienced not by the deceased himself but by those around him since he is a being-withothers” (omoregbe, 1981, p.32). again, in the existentialist belief, contrary to some religious beliefs, death is not transferable. this argument follows from the earlier statement that no one can die for another. this is because, to say one died for another, will mean that the benefactor will not have to die anymore. furthermore, there is existential belief that our existence implies at the same time, our imminent non-existence and our impending death. for percy walker, this is also called “nothingness, nothingness of our life now and then. according to him, we are aware of either a conscious or subconscious level (or a mixture of the two)” (walker, 2017). here, a new dimension to the discourse is introduced, that is, death consciousness. speaking about death consciousness, unah, on his part, tries to separate it from public death which according to him is a social fact, and an ordinary way of looking at death. thus, he writes: “in this kind of dying and understanding death, epitaphs are written, dirges (sorrowful songs) are presented, condolences and sympathies are expressed by way of commiseration with the living members of the dead person's family” (unah, 2002, p. 119). on the contrary, he (unah) conceives the consciousness of death to mean existentialontological death which according to him is something rooted in the very being of human existence. but again, one needs to ask at this juncture: how does this consciousness of death affect our feelings, our actions, why we act, how we should act? the answer to all these questions can be summarized into two: the consciousness of death makes us to either existentially confront its inevitability and push forth to attain our possibility or we inauthentically resign to fate and give in to fear and passivity. when we resort to fear, we debase our existence to merely what happens at the point of the last breadth. put differently, death consciousness and the event or act of dying are quite distinguishable. the latter is a loss while the former is a gain only if we do not give in to its dominance over the human existential resilience of meaning making. according to kierkegaard, death consciousness simply brings an underlying sense of anxiety or dread in all that we do. again, we shall return to this later, but first, let us proceed to engage the views of sartre on the question of death proper. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 sartre's view on death as mortal blow to man at the introductory part of this paper, we briefly captured the views of heidegger on death as ontologically ingrained in the very fact of human reality. however, sartre thinks otherwise, “he rejects the view that death is the final cord of a melody giving meaning to what has gone before” (warbarton, 1998, p. 201). in other words, he refuses to see death as an essential nature of man; neither does he see any essential role which it plays in the affairs of man's existence. in fact, according to him, “death is a meaningless absurdity which removes all meaning from human existence”(nyong, 1996, p.56). in being and nothingness, he asserts thus: “what must be noted first is the absurd character of death. in this sense every attempt to consider it as a resolved chord at the end of a melody must be sternly rejected”(sartre, 1969, p. 533). for sartre, death has no meaning whatsoever, it is absurd. he reasons; how can a life full of glorious activities, surrounded by family bonds and loved ones, with all the achievements, with all the pains human go through in the process of raising children, with a view that these children will in turn bring smile on the faces of their parents but behold, this same life is crowned with death on either ways? this pattern of rewarding life, to him, is definitely meaningless and valueless. more so, equally rejected by sartre, is the view that death is part of individual's life. “death is not a part of the individual's life of his situation except in very special circumstance, such as death sentence that he knows will be carried out” (ndubuisi, 2006, p.70). in other words, man is not a being awaiting death as heidegger opined. sartre speaks: “if only deaths from old age existed (or deaths by explicit condemnation), then i could wait for my death. but the unique quality of death is the fact that it can always before the end surprise those who wait for it at such and such a date” (sartre, 1969, p. 536). what sartre tries to debunk in the above quotation is the view that death is a fate which every human being waits for. it is only a convicted person that awaits the day of his death by way of execution. this is a case of a determined situation. but even with that, as observed by friday ndubuisi, there are possibilities that there could be a change of government or authority or jail break which will alter the awaited fate. equally debunked by sartre, is the notion that death is something which no one can do for another. on the contrary, he contends: if my acts in the world are considered from the point of view of their functions, their efficacy and their result, it is certain that the other can always do what i can do. for instance, if loving a woman means giving her security, making her happy, raising a home with her, then somebody can love for me. my death can fall in this category. if to die is something meant to inspire, to bear witness to one's country, then igwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 8 anybody can die in my place. in fact, there is no personalizing virtue that is peculiar to my death. a death becomes mine only if i place myself already in the perspective of subjectivity (sartre, 1969, pp. 539-540). the illustration from the above citation simply implies that even death is transferable. as such, to argue that no one can die for another becomes untenable in the views of sartre. i think he definitely mistakes the point heidegger makes by individualization of death as we shall later see. but our preliminary response is that, to die for another as understood in heideggerian conception, simply means that one who is died for would not have to die anymore. this is definitely an impossibility. every mortal owes individual death as debt. again, sartre equally contends that we cannot determine when we will die; hence, the position that death is the end of human life is not true. to say that man is condemned to die, according to sartre, is to equate him with a condemned criminal who awaits his death. it is certain that mortal being will die some day, sartre agrees, but the particular day and time it will happen, no one knows. it can be at one's prime or old age. no one can await death as though it is an event, it is an unforeseeable enigma, and it is equally wrong to believe that i move closer to my death with every passing moment. again, it is equally fallacious to posit that death confers meaning on life. it is only a subjective being that gives meaning to his life, not from the outside. as much as death does not appear on the foundation of man's freedom, it can only remove meaning from man's life and not add. according to him, death does not give life its meaning. its principles only remove all meaning from life. if man lives to die, then his life has no more meaning. this is because the problem of life has ended up receiving no solution whatsoever. explicit and compelling as these views seem to appear, this is the pessimistic picture which sartre paints of death. however, he agree just like we shall later see in heidegger, that death ought not be faced with fear, rather, it should be confronted with an existential equanimity of mind through which we push further to affirm our individual freedom. to sartre, therefore, even sudden death is always a possibility but not my own possibility. instead, it is rather a remover of all my possibilities because it brings an end to all that makes me human. thus, for him; “death, in so far as it can be revealed to me, is not only the always possible nihilation of my possibles, a nihilation outside my possibilities. it is not only the project which destroys all projects and which destroys itself, the impossible destruction of my expectations” (sartre, 1969). against the sartrean thought-provoking understanding of death, taylor becomes disturbed and gets soaked in his own thoughts as he interrogates the enigma called death; “dying and then being dead, being no more, being nothing-why this fatal calamity? why this to crown the most beautiful of lives: lucky the beasts who fear, but know not what they fear. we know; it is concealed from us. we know with the same stark realization as the prisoner being led to the gallows” (sartre, 1969). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 arising from these gloom and doom dictions which are characteristics of sartre's conception, heidegger's approach resonates a succour aimed at freeing humanity from the grips of the fear of death. heidegger on the authentic mode of understanding death as a being-towards heidegger insists that death is one of the fundamental structures of dasein, that is, it is in the very nature of dasein. for the purpose of clarity, he uses the term dasein to designate human being. so, when we talk of dasein here, we mean human being or man as present in the world. death for heidegger does not simply mean an end per se. in his view, the death of dasein does not simply mean end. rather, dasein in itself is a being towards the end. it is a way to be, which dasein acquires as soon as it is. i relate to the possibility of my death with resolute certainty, because what i am most certain of in the world is that i will some day die. i am always a being-toward-death. according to him, this being-toward-death is precisely what makes my being possible, for death is the most extreme possibility of my existence, my “ownmost potentiality of being [das eigenste seinkönnen]” (heidegger, 1962, pp. 232-233). consequently, as soon as man comes to life, he is old enough to die. to that end, in his book, being and time, he writes: “death is a way to be, which dasein takes over as soon as it is. as soon as man comes to life, he is at once old enough to die”(p.289). in this sense, for the heideggerian understanding, expressions such as: gone so soon, sudden, untimely and premature deaths mean nothing other than exercises in existential and linguistic absurditity. in an ordinary or layman sense, man prepares, hopes, and looks forward to his death as though it is an event such as a wedding day or a day for birth celebration. as such, quite often, we are reminded of the need to prepare for the last day, the day of death, we are sometimes presented with a case study of someone who had just died as a way of reminding us that such would be our fate someday. but the existential understanding is that the one who has just died did not just die that very day per se. the death began many years ago. he/she only lived to actualize it. for heidegger, death is not an event which happens after man's years on earth. it is present in the very nature of man right from the first day one comes into this world. expressing this view differently, unah writes that the phenomenon of death is the most individualistic charade of man. he however notes that it is not just the ending of life per se. according to him; “death is not an unfortunate incident which befalls man but a vitalizing structural component of the human being. man is essentially a being-onto-death. he begins to die the very day he is born. in fact, man is born to die” (unah & osegenwunem 2010, p.205). the phenomenon of death permeates the totality of man's life. it is a possibility of dasein. in other words, more than just an end, the ending which existential death speaks of is a special kind of ending which end begins from the very beginning. thus, it becomes safe to assert that man is a dying being whose death begins from the beginning. reiterating this view further, omoregbe observes; igwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 10 death, in the wildest sense, says heidegger, is ending of that which lives, but man's death is not an event that happens to man. it is, rather a phenomenon to be understood existentially. an existential interpretation of death shows that it is a phenomenon that involves the whole being of man right from his birth. dying is not just an event that occurs to man at the close of his life, but man's mode of being. for man is a being-towards death, a being who begins to die the very day he is born and lives all his life towards death (omoregbe, 1981, p. 36). for heidegger therefore, the best way to understand death is to understand it existentially. such existential understanding of death reveals its absoluteness over all mortal. hence, for him, it is the “possibility of the absolute impossibility of dasein” (heidegger, 1962, p.294). the absolute possibility in this sense refers to the fact that in death, all human possibilities are grounded to a halt. in other words, everything about dasein as a being-in and being-with the world loses meaning in death since he cannot experience his own death. dasein gains experience of death from the death of others (p.281). again, this brings about the individualizing fact of death. in essence, beingtowards-death presents death as an anticipated possibility of dasein. it avails man his individuality and temporality and launches him into achieving all his potentialities. the individualizing and salutary dimensions of death the individualizing phenomenon of death uproots man from the inauthentic and crowd form of being and makes him take ownership of death as his distinct possibility. a being towards death which dasein acquires right from being, urges him to comport himself existentially without losing guard to “everydayness” demand. this individual character of death, this “ownmost possibility is non-relational” (p.308), meaning that death is not transferrable. thus, in anticipation, dasein is unveiled with the understanding “that portentiality-for-being in which its ownmost being is an issue must be taken over by dasein alone. death does not just 'belong'to one's own dasein in an undifferentiated way; death lays claim to it as an individual dasein. the non-relational character of death, as understood in anticipation individualizes dasein down to itself”(p.308). further captured in omoregbe, “this individualizing effect of the anticipation of death leads man to a sense of self-awareness; becoming aware of his individuality and possibilities, he becomes aware of his freedom and personal responsibility. he becomes aware of his freedom to die” (omoregbe, 1981, p.33). the awareness of death propels us to live a more responsible, authentic and purposeful life. that is exactly what heidegger means by the individualization character of death, and that is part of the characters of death which confers meaning on existence. “thus, the realization is absolutely certain, that no one can die my death for me, that i can die at any moment… that i might as well not have existed, and that i may at any moment dissolve into nothingness” (unah & aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 osegenwune, 2010, p.205), throws up the radical contingency of my being and instigates me to have a meaningful and purposive engagement with my existential givens. however, unlike the gloomy picture which the layman's understanding of death conveys, the heideggerian conception tells us that death is a meaningful part of human life. to the everyday conception of death, death is sorrow, it is grief, it is an ending of a sweet melody and it casts condemnation on the purpose of existence if human life is rewarded with death. but for heidegger, there is a positive value of death in relation to human earthly engagements. as reemphasized by nyong, death “confers on human existence its uniqueness and meaning” (1996, p.57). what this means is that when one takes the phenomenon of death as a personal possibility, as something that can happen any moment, one ceases to live a life of crowd, the impersonal form of existence. in this way, according to unah & osegenwune, “i free myself from the servitude to the anonymous “they” and thereby open myself up to my own most potentiality for being, actively using time to realize my projects before death supervenes to extinguish all my possibilities. thus does death becomes the most vitalizing fact of life – the cardinal indicator of authentic selfhood” (2010, p.206). this way of understanding death distinguishes dasein (man) from other mode of being. this is because man alone regards death as the universal and inevitable phenomenon, hence, the consciousness of which equips us to separate ourselves from the crowd's form of life. in other words, it propels man to existentially confront his day to day life challenges, by striving harder to achieve his aspirations – knowing full well that he does not have the whole of eternity to live. therefore, death is that which ushers life into nothingness state. the awareness of this human temporality “gives vitality to life for it prompts one to urgency of action”(omoregbe, 1981, p.38). to be sure, heidegger, in his treatment of death as the mode of being of dasein, did not state the cause of fear of death neither did he discuss fear in relation to death per se. for him, fear is a state of mind and it is towards something which we encounter within the world. in other words, it is a disposition of the mind toward something threatening to self. it has an object, that is, that which threatens the self. thus, for heidegger, the phenomenon of fear lies in its threatening character. when that which is threatening is removed, the fear ceases. fear is an existential possibility of the essential state of mind of human beings (1962, pp.140-143). fear is the fear of something in particular while anxiety is anxious about nothing in particular, but being-in-the-world as such. sartre on his part attributes fear to existential freedom, that is, being aware of the enormity of freedom and the attendant burden of responsibility causes a sense of anguish (ndubuisi, 2006, pp.26-27). thus, fear for him is an unreflective escape and an attempt to negate a threat in the face of helplessness (sartre, 2004, pp.42-60). therefore, this clarification makes the effort to relate fear to death and a way to overcoming it ingenuously autochthonous to this research. it is the import of the analysis made on the phenomenon igwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 12 of death by heidegger and sartre that is of particular interest to this study as relevant in addressing the ever-present fear of death. overcoming the fear of death often times, human beings are daily lurked and wrapped in the fear of death, and this ushers us into the state of anxiety and in some cases this perpetual life of anxiety ends up hastening the occurrence of that which we fear. my position is that, ontologically, the origin of this fear is not farfetched. it is fundamentally derived from man's innate disposition for pleasure/happiness and the avoidance of pains/sadness. it is also linked with man's ontological desire to perpetually remain young, healthy without aging. to remain connected with family members, loved ones and the goodies which life confers on existence. in other words, impressions of the things, people and aspirations make on our consciousness in our daily experience of the world, the nothingness and uncertainty which permeate our imagination of death insidiously incite the desire to live and the disdain for death. therefore, the expression of fear of death is an expression driven by non-willingness to part ways with those impressions on our consciousness for the world of uncertainty. ironically, even those who believe in an afterlife of blissful realm of reward, still express this fear. this informs the position of this paper on the fact that what people fear about is not the act of dying itself but the unwillingness to let go of the 'known' world for the unknown world. on the other hand, the existential instruction for the cause of the fear of death is the understanding of death as an event which ushers in the last day on earth. hence, to overcome this fear, it is necessary to underscore fundamental characteristics of death. these are: the fact that human beings are contingent beings and we probably could not have existed; that death is not an event but ontological structured in our being alive; that we begin to die the very day we take in our first breath on earth; that daily as we take in further breath and count our years, we are gradually bidding goodbye to life and finally, that the fear of death is misplaced because the individualizing factor of death implies that nobody experiences own death. for this reason, why do i need fear that which i cannot experience? often times, we get so afraid of the event of death to the extent that it throws us into that realm where we become afraid of everything and at the same time, afraid of nothing. being that this state has no object, according to unah, “it is both disturbing and easy to smoother; both creative and destructive” (unah, 1996, p.83). on one hand, it is creative because the mere awareness of our finitude and temporality, should spur us to assert our individuality and actualize our possibilities. it ought to propel us to make hey while the sun shines. on the other hand, it is destructive in the sense that man can decide to resign to fate, throw-in all motivations, become pessimistic and consequently live inauthentically. according to unah, “it is thus that anxiety snatches a man out of the distracting cares of the world, encloses him in a cubicle of thought where he is urged to either own its self or disown it and take solace in the comforting delusion of the anonymous 'they'” (1996, p.94). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 13 therefore, for heidegger, the authentic mode to relate to death is to confront its fear headon and understand it as part of the existential structure of human being as a beingontodeath, which journey we begin the very day we took the first breath. and because it is the absolute possibility of all impossibilities, the only thing we can do of it is to view it in the light that “i am to die”. by this mindset, the significance of death is brought home to me. in so doing, death becomes no longer an external and public fact, but an internal possibility of my own being. it becomes no longer the sad end of a sweet story, but something that enters into the story and invests it with a dramatic character (unah, 1996). it is in the light of this awareness can man achieve his authentic personal existence. again, for heidegger, death is linked to the notion of authenticity. our most authentic mode of being is being-towards-death. death is our own-most possibility. unlike sartre, it can not be passed off to another person, and its importance to us cannot be diminished by heroic rhetoric. we know that people die all the time, and we know that one day we too will die but the death that will come upon us will not be an event. it is right within us here and now. we known people who have died. but death is non-relational: death is the extinguishing of all relations, and our knowledge of the death of others has no parallel to our own death. to know about the death of another does nothing to prepare us for our own death because ours is right here with us. as an intellectual conversation, the existential logic does demand that the most plausible position on any issue, whatsoever, is one which upholds the flourishing of the concrete human being and which equips man to surmount his thrown facticities towards self-affirmation. it is for this reason that this essay considers the heideggerian position more comforting owing that it charges man not to give in to the fear of death, instead, cease the fact of its inevitability and its ever-present status to chart a good earthly course for himself and the world at large, always bearing the phenomenon of time in mind. conclusion the authentic way is to face death not as an event, but as always a “not yet” which constitutes every moment and second of my existence. this means that i anticipate death not as an actuality that i expect, but as an omnipresent, immanent possibility to which i am always already thrown. in other words, one countenances death as constitutive possibility, that is, as constituting life. put differently, it means that the notion of life implies the absolute possibility of death. so, if one asks the question why death, the answer would simply be; because there is life. for heidegger, death is a possibility of being which da-sein had to take upon itself at birth and must be confronted with an existential doggedness, not with a defeatist or surrendering mentality but with authentic selfhood. the being-possible of death is not a possibility of something that may become actual, for death is an existential possibility that is at the same time an impossibility to the extent that it cannot, strictly speaking, be actualized. in other words, that death is not an actuality means that death can never be present as such because it is beyond the reach of cognition and therefore not available to phenomenal experience. heidegger insists that, as a futural possibility (i.e., as a certain end that cannot be bypassed), being-towardigwe overcoming the fear of death: a clue from an ontological 14 death is what makes the present possible. being-toward-death is what possibilizes the present. heidegger views death as that which throws dasein back upon its “ownmost potentialityof-being and discloses his ontological structure as possibility. in the final analysis, it is worthy to note that what is most significant in heidegger's view on death is not that it has any meaning in the true sense of the word but that the awareness of the temporality of human earthly sojourn has the propensity to reawaken our sense of urgency for active participation towards the actualization of self-affirmation, radical finitude and autochthonous footprints on the sands of time, against the risk of resigning to the irresponsible world of 'they” often occasioned by the consciousness of human finitude. again, more instructive from the existentialists' account of human finitude includes the point that even death as an event ought not be feared since no man experiences his own death. according to lucretius as made available by anthony kenny: “for thou shall sleep, and never wake again, and quitting life, shall quit thy living pain. but we, thy friends shall all those sorrows find which in forgetful death thou leaves behind. no time shall dry our tears, nor drive thee from our mind. the worst that can befall thee, measure right, is a sound slumber, and a long goodnight” (kenny, 2004, p.102). from his view, once we understand the material nature of the soul, we realize that death ought not be feared. this is because a dead body cannot feel and death leaves no self behind to suffer. it is those who survive who are left with grief and speak about the event. but again, this is not to say that we should live our lives in such a soulless manner that our death becomes a hell to the living. instead, it instructs us that while we are alive, we should strive to live a life worthy of blissful memories when we might have gone. this is because, in most cases, it is the living that bears the grief, brunt and consequences of our irresponsible and wayward earthly existence. this stirs up the new realm for future scholarship, that is, the 'otherness' of human actions. references asuquo, o. o. 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(2017). brief summary of existentialism. available@ http:/wwwkareyperkins.com/percy/exist.htm 19/08/2017 warbarton, n. (1998). philosophy: the classic. london and new york: routledge. 31 against methodism: a socio-historical perspective of science lukman ademola lawal abstract the received view of science is that of an objective enterprise which possesses the rational methods of inquiry which produce knowledge that is based on factual experience. science claims to be the most reliable inquiry into the nature of reality; due to the supposed supremacy of the so called “scientific method” over those of other intellectual endeavours. however, the idea of “method” in science is itself a source of controversy to philosophers of science over the years. indeed, scientists themselves do not bother so much about matters of methodology and as such, there is no unanimous agreement amongst scientists of the specific method which determines the techniques and procedures guiding their inquiry into nature. this notwithstanding, there have been several formulations of the scientific method as evident in the works of some scientists and philosophers of science alike over the years. the method of induction which was first explained by aristotle was elaborated by francis bacon and later prepared the groundwork for logical empiricism and modern empirical science. inductivism later became challenged by karl popper who declared that science only progresses by “conjecture and refutation.” this paper argues in line with the socio-historical and pragmatic conception of science advanced by the likes of thomas khun, paul feyerabend, richard rorty among others that the scientific enterprise is not guided by a definite method, but by certain arbitrary activities that are relative to socio-cultural backgrounds. the paper further contends that the very idea of science is not to be viewed solely from a western perspective, which gave birth to the appellation “western science,” rather it should be seen in the light of the systematic attempts by every society and culture to understand, explain and predict their natural environment. keywords: science, empiricism, socio-historical method, inquiry 1. introduction science has crafted for itself an identity, which is that it serves as the paradigm of rationality and as the sole model of truth. it also prides itself as possessing the most powerful problem-solving tools of objectivity and rationality. however, one fundamental question that bothers philosophers of science is: what exact method, if any, is responsible for the tremendous successes recorded by science in the past two to three centuries? peter medawar (the nobel prizewinning scientist) attempted to respond to the above question when he contends that even scientists themselves do not have a unanimous agreement upon a specific scientific method that guides all scientists in carrying out their inquiries on natural phenomena. thus, in the words of medawar, scientists “are not in the habit of thinking about matters of methodological policy. ask a scientist what he conceives the scientific aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 32 method to be, and he will adopt an expression that is at once solemn and shiftyeyed: solemn, because he feels he ought to declare an opinion; shifty-eyed, because he is wondering how to conceal the fact that he has no opinion to declare” (medawar, 1984: 80). furthermore, and in allusion to the thoughts of medawar, scientists are of the habit of regarding disciplines such as political science, theology, education, and even philosophy as pseudo-sciences (false sciences) or as falling in the class of the so called “irrelevant disciplines”, but they (scientists) themselves are unable to state with precision, “what it means to be scientific.” moreover, if we do not have a clear-cut understanding of the specific methods, principles and techniques that aid scientists in going about their everyday inquiries, then we obviously cannot make much sense of the very idea of science. however, only a few scientists have shown interest in the methodology of science, as such; thereby leaving the conceptualization and critical evaluation of the idea of scientific method to philosophers of science. this explains richard feynman’s claim that: “philosophy of science is about as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds” (nola & sankey, 2007: 2). in view of the foregoing, the task we set out to achieve in this paper is to attempt a succinct clarification of the very idea of “scientific method”, while also delving into some of the key issues and concepts involved in any discussion of scientific method. this paper would examine contentious debate in the philosophy of science about whether there exists or not a method of operation in the sciences. 2. the very idea of “scientific method” as hinted above, science is supposed by its practitioners (particularly of the positivist orientation) to be the paradigm of rationality, but the methodology and techniques of operation that have aided its success have not bothered scientists themselves so much. alan chalmers, in the introduction to the third edition of his work, what is this thing called science? expresses that: science is highly esteemed. apparently, it is a widely held belief that there is something special about science and its methods. the naming of some claims or line of reasoning or piece of research “scientific” is done in a way that is intended to imply some kind of merit or special kind of reliability. but what, if anything, is so special about science? what is this “scientific method” that allegedly leads to especially meritorious or reliable results? (chalmers, 1999: xix). for the purpose of conceptual clarification, robert nola and howard sankey in their co-authored work, the theories of scientific method, trace the origin of the lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 33 word “method” to ancient greek methodos, which according to them “has its roots in the idea of being crafty or cunning. later for the greeks it came to mean “the pursuit of knowledge” or “a way of enquiry” (literally, “way of pursuit”)(nola & sankey, 2007). in modern times, the common understanding of the word, “method”, is that of a way of carrying out an activity in accordance with a plan or set out procedure. according to isaac sheffler, “scientific method” “is the way techniques are selected in science; that is, the evaluation of alternative courses of scientific action” (sheffler, 1963: 5). this definition already contrasts the term “scientific method” with “scientific technique”. this makes it imperative to draw a distinction between both terms. scientific technique is the particular way of applying a scientific tool or way of undertaking a scientific course of action. it involves how a scientific course of action or research program is being carried out, while scientific method refers to the rules of decision that guide the scientist on which particular technique to employ. put simply, methods are the rules of making choices, while techniques are the choices being made. one must acknowledge the fact that the distinction between scientific method and scientific technique is difficult to spell out. however, there is a more technical sense in which the concept of “scientific method” is employed, to refer to the general procedures for carrying out research in the sciences. this is the sense in which arthur c. danto construes the term. for him, scientific method consists in “(a) explaining natural processes through identification of the natural causes responsible for them and (b) testing any given explanation with regard to consequences that must hold if it is true”(danto, 1972: 448). this conception of “scientific method” has received wide acceptance from scientific theorists, including morris cohen and ernest nagel who endorse it as the “most assured technique man has yet devised for controlling the flux of things and establishing stable beliefs” (cohen & nagel, 1934: 49-50). there are certain identified procedural stages that are followed in the practice of scientific methods. however, scientists are not unanimous about the specific number of such stages. this is what robert nola and howard sankey both recognize as the different methodological practices within the sciences, which they list out as: “observational practices, material practices in experimentation and mathematical practices.” for them, “they are part of the proper use of acquired skills and abilities embodied in our knowing how to observe, how to experiment and how to calculate” (robert nola& howard sankey,2007: 13). this shares similarity with the three phases of scientific method listed by a. d’abro, namely; the “observational stage”, “the experimental stage” and “the mathematical stage”(d’abro, 1951: 77). 3. rules of inference in scientific practice there are two commonly recognized rules of inference that aid scientists in arriving at conclusions or generalizations, namely: the inductive rule of inference aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 34 and the deductive rule of inference. it was aristotle who first explained how induction works in science in his organon. he explains the principle of induction as a way of getting knowledge of the universal by making inference from our knowledge of particulars. in his novumorganum, francis bacon also discussed the importance of induction in the sciences. as shall be seen in the following section in this paper, isaac newton also appeals to the method of induction in his account of the rules of scientific method, which are clearly stated in rule 3 and rule 4 of his principia, book iii. however, david hume came to hold a fierce attack against the method of inductive inference in science. the deductive rule of inference, as against induction begins from making inferences from a general proposition or statement, then narrowing it down to particular propositions. the deductive system proceeds from the universal to the particular. the logical deductive rule of inference is therefore the method of drawing particular conclusions from general principles or laws as being common in the sciences. both induction and deduction are methods of inference being used commonly by scientists in day to day scientific activities. in the philosophy of science, the both methods have been put under scrutiny as they require justifications as to how reliable they are in leading scientists to accurate conclusions or generalizations. 4. formulations of scientific method in the history of science principles or rules that guide scientific thought and practice can be traced down to earlier formulations by the likes of rene descartes, isaac newton and duhem. it is presumed that the principles or rules of scientific methodology formulated by the aforementioned influenced later theorists of scientific method like karl popper and imre lakatos. rene descartes proposed an early theory of scientific method in his discourse on method. he projected the aim of science as being the attainment of certain or indubitable truths or knowledge. this is evident in his rules 1 and 2. rule 1 states that: “the aim of our studies should be to direct the mind with a view to forming true and sound judgements about whatever comes before it.” rule 2 states that:“we should attend only to those objects of which our minds seem capable of having certain and indubitable cognition” (see rene descartes, discourse on method).however, certainty has come to be criticized as an aim for science, since most scientific theories are specified with a degree of error, thereby making certainty too high an objective for scientific theories to meet. in his rule 3, descartes set out to construct a line of demarcation between science and pseudoscience, by stating that: “concerning objects proposed for study, we ought to investigate what we can clearly and evidently intuit or deduce with certainty, and not what other people have thought or what we ourselves conjecture. for knowledge (scientia) can be attained in no other way” (see rene descartes, discourse on method).here he secludes conjectural and untested beliefs from science and claims that only that which is certified by our intuitions, testing and inferred by valid deductions qualify as scientific knowledge. in his rule 4, descartes endorsed the idea of methodology in scientific practice, by making the claim that “we need a method if we are to investigate the truth of things.” he then lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 35 proceeded to clarify his idea of method in science, expressing that: “by ‘a method’ i mean reliable rules which are easy to apply and such that if one follows them exactly, one will never take what is false to be true … but will gradually and constantly increase one’s knowledge” (see rene descartes, discourse on method). isaac newton on his part helped lay down the platform for inductive inference in scientific reasoning, as being evident in his rules 3 and 4 of his principia, book iii, “the system of the world”, as follows: rule 3: those qualities of bodies that cannot be intended and remitted (i.e. qualities that cannot be increased or diminished) and that belong to all bodies on which experiments can be made, should be taken as qualities of all bodies universally. rule 4: in experimental philosophy, propositions gathered from phenomena by induction should be considered either exactly or very nearly true not withstanding any contrary hypotheses, until yet other phenomena make such propositions either more exact or liable to exception (newton, 1999). in rule 3, newton was particularly concerned with how to make generalizations from particular instances of experiments being carried out. put in other words, he wanted to be assured of the plausibility of attributing properties assigned to particular objects being experimented to other objects elsewhere on earth or in other possible worlds. the essence of his rule 4 is to affirm the status of science as an essentially experimental philosophy or enterprise. for him, whatever is not “deduced from the phenomena”, or inferred from experimentation should be discarded as mere “hypothesis” and as such, unscientific. emile duhem is one who weighs against newton’s adoption of the principle of inductive inference, claiming that there is bound to be a contradiction in inference from premises to conclusion when taking such rules seriously. this he expressed in the following words: “we have recognized that it is impossible to construct a theory by a purely inductive method. newton and ampere failed in this” (emile duhem, 1954). 5. scientific method according to logical positivism logical positivism is a 19th century movement which proposed a radical view of science and philosophy, thereby changing the entire outlook and perceptions of those two fields. logical positivism gave rise to the bifurcation of human knowledge into two broad divisions, which include: knowledge or statements based on empirical verification or fact and statements that are true in virtue of their meanings or terms. the likes of alfred jules ayer, moritz schlick, carl g. hempel, and others are considered as logical positivists, due to their quest of ridding philosophy of its metaphysical or non-scientific impurities. the movement of logical positivism or modern empiricism proposed a criterion of meaningfulness, which applies to all intellectual endeavors, including philosophy, theology, science and the rest. for the positivists, it is important to seek the authenticity or credibility of every idea of claim before accepting such ideas, and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 36 this can be done by demanding for the original sense impressions from which the ideas were derived. the criterion of meaningfulness developed by the logical positivists is often considered to be a fall-out of the theoretical hypothesis developed by david hume concerning the two criteria of significance, which involves seeking the impression from which every idea is apprehended, and also by distinguishing between the relations of ideas and matters of fact. hume expresses this fundamental criterion of significance in the following passage: when we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make? if we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance, let us ask, does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? no. does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? no. commit it then to the flames for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion (hume, 1975: 165). the demarcation between knowledge that contains abstract reasoning (analytic statements) and knowledge that contains fact and existence (synthetic statements) in the above passage attributed to hume gave solid grounds to the principle of significance and demarcation developed by the logical positivists, which is regarded as the verifiability principle. the verifiability principle or empirical verification implies that for any piece of knowledge or discipline to be regarded as being meaningful or significant, such knowledge must have to pass the test of empirical verification, and as such, must be in principle, verifiable by experience. the emphasis on empirical verifiability by the logical positivists implies that any discipline that is devoid of meaningful statements which are classified on the basis of their analytic and empirical features; are to be regarded as being irrelevant to the progress of human knowledge, and should therefore be jettisoned. the verifiability principle represents not only a tool of demarcation between science and pseudoscience, both also method of identifying and solving scientific problems generally adopted by the logical positivists. this is more affirmed in moritz schlick’s contention that: “the meaning of every proposition is finally to be determined by the given, and by nothing else” (ayer, 1959: 88-89). the “given” mentioned by schlick implies propositions testable by empirical evidence. 6. the critical rationalism of karl popper a thorough-going antagonist of the principle of inductivism is karl popper, who considers every attempt to ground scientific practice on the foothold of inductivism a misguided endeavour. karlpopper is notable for his popular doctrine of falsificationism which he prefers as an alternative to inductivism. this, alan chalmers expresses in the following words: “karl popper was the most forceful lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 37 advocate of an alternative to inductivism which i will refer to as “falsificationism” (chalmers, 1999: 59). popper associates his principle of verificationism with his vision of a scientific method. popper illustrates the idea of method in science in the following words: a scientist, whether theorist or experimenter, puts forward statements, or systems of statements, and tests them step by step. in the field of the empirical sciences, more particularly, he constructs hypotheses, or systems of theories, and tests them against experience by observation and experiment. i suggest that it is the task of the logic of scientific discovery, or the logic of knowledge, to give a logical analysis of this procedure; that is, to analyse the method of the empirical sciences. but what are these ‘methods of the empirical sciences’? and what do we call ‘empirical science’?(popper, 1959: 3). closely associated here, as reflected in the above passage, are ‘methods of empirical sciences’ and the conception of what ‘empirical science’ is. for popper, the falsifiability principle is the criterion of demarcation of what falls within empirical science and what fails to. this principle is also closely identified with his idea of ‘logic of discovery’ which is the scientific method. the scientific method therefore aids us in understanding what science is. popper expresses the link between his principle of demarcation (falsificationism) and his idea of scientific method in the following passage: in accordance with my proposal made above, epistemology, or the logic of scientific discovery, should be identified with the theory of scientific method. the theory of method, in so far as it goes beyond the purely logical analysis of the relations between scientific statements, is concerned with the choice of methods – with decisions about the way in which scientific statements are to be dealt with. these decisions will of course depend in their turn upon the aim which we choose from among a number of possible aims. the decision here proposed for laying down suitable rules for what i call the ‘empirical method’ is closely connected with my criterion of demarcation: i propose to adopt such rules as will ensure the testability of scientific statements; which is to say, their falsifiability (popper, 1959: 27). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 38 however, popper does not conceive of the idea of scientific method in terms of rules of discovery, or rules of justification of hypothesis or theory or principles for ascertaining the truth of a theory. for him, the aim of science should not be the attainment of truth, nor should scientific theories be judged or evaluated on the basis of meeting the criterion of truth. rather, scientific theories can only serve as approximations of truth. alan chalmers, expressing popper’s idea of methodology, puts it thus: falsificationists freely admit that observation is guided by and presupposes theory. they are also happy to abandon any claim implying that theories can be established as true or probably true in the light of observational evidence. theories are construed as speculative and tentative conjectures or guesses freely created by the human intellect in an attempt to overcome problems encountered by previous theories to give an adequate account of some aspects of the world or universe. once proposed, speculative theories are to be rigorously and ruthlessly tested by observation and experiment. theories that fail to stand up to observational and experimental tests must be eliminated and replaced by further speculative conjuctures. science progresses by trial and error, by conjectures and refutations. only the fittest theories survive (chalmers, 1999: 60). it is not appropriate to consider a theory as being true following popper’s line of reasoning, but what we can say about a theory is that it is the best available confirmation of observed experience that is available to us and is more reliable than the previous theories. what according to popper, can be considered as method in the empirical sciences are succinctly expressed by jack aigbodioh as “continuous efforts on the part of scientists to refute or falsify existing theories on the basis of some possible or conceivable observations” (aigbodioh, 1997: 25). what scientists should be preoccupied with therefore is the activity of fixing truths and beliefs and trying to prepare them for acceptance or justification. on the basis of these central assumptions, popper goes on to give two examples of rules of scientific method: rule (1): the game of science is, in principle, without end. he who decides one day that scientific statements do not call for any further test, and that they can be regarded as finally verified, retires from the game. lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 39 rule (2): once a hypothesis has been proposed and tested, and has proved its mettle, it may not be allowed to drop out without ‘good reason’. a ‘good reason’ may be, for instance: replacement of the hypothesis by another which is better testable; or the falsification of one of the consequences of the hypothesis (popper, 1959: 32). underlying these rules of method given by popper is the falsifiability thesis which is the rule of demarcation of science from pseudo-science. falsificationism simply states that a theory which is not falsifiable does not belong to empirical science. therefore, any theory which claims to be compatible with all observable facts is not falsifiable and therefore unscientific. such theories never go wrong as they always find ways to accommodate any instances of change. according to chalmers, “popper drew the moral that genuine scientific theories, by making definite predictions, rule out a range of observable states of affairs in a way that he considered freudian and marxists theory failed to. he arrived at his key idea that scientific theories are falsifiable” (chalmers 1999: 60). imre lakatos came under the influence of karl popper, whose approach to science he finds interesting. lakatos also drew influence from kuhn’s epic publication, the structure of scientific revolutions. although popper and kuhn proposed rival views of science, their views share much in common. both popper and kuhn roundly reject positivism and inductivism, basing their accounts of the acceptance or rejection of the results of observation and experimentation in science on the background of theory or paradigm. lakatos was careful not to follow the relativist dimension of kuhn’s account of science. just like kuhn, he considered scientific research or activity as taking place within a framework, which he called “research program.”lakatos’s major task was to modify popper’s notion of falsificationism while examining some of its deficiencies. popper’s falsificationism does not state it clear how to identify faults with scientific theories, that is which particular aspect of a theory should be held liable to revision. popper only suggests that it is left to the discretion of the individual scientist to identify where the fault is within the theory. for lakatos, science cannot progress that way, not all parts of a scientific theory are equal, rather, what we have are basic principles or laws which form the core of a theory and the less fundamental ones which only form the peripheral parts of the theory. the basic principles represent the defining feature of a science and as such are not to blame for any failure that occurs in the theory. what should be held responsible for any apparent failure within the theory are the less fundamental components. alan chalmers summarizes lakatos’ conception of science in the following articulation: “a science can then be seen as the programmatic development of the implications of the fundamental principles. scientists can seek to solve problems by modifying the more peripheral assumptions as they see fit. in so far as their efforts are successful, they will be contributing to the development of the same research program however different their attempts to tinker with the peripheral assumptions might be”(chalmers 1999), p. 131.over time, the task of scientists is to continually fix the “protective belt”, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 40 that is, the sum of the additional hypothesis occupying the periphery in other to protect the hard core from falsification. in the words of lakatos: scientific research programmes may be characterized by their ‘hardcore’. the negative heuristic of the programme forbids us to direct themodus tollens at this 'hard core'. instead, we must use our ingenuityto articulate or even invent 'auxiliary hypotheses', which form aprotective belt around this core, and we must redirect the modus tollensto these. it is this protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses which has tobear the brunt of tests and get adjusted and re-adjusted, or even completely replaced, to defend the thus-hardened core. a research programme is successful if all this leads to a progressive problem shift; unsuccessful if it leads to a degenerating problem shift (lakatos, 1978: 48). lakatos sets out guidelines for work within a research program, in terms of negative heuristics and positive heuristics. a heuristic is a set of rules or hints which serves as a tool in aiding invention or discovery. making the essential distinction between negative heuristics and positive heuristics, lakatos writes that: the negative heuristic specifies the 'hardcore' of the programme which is 'irrefutable by the methodological decision of its proponents; the positive heuristic consists of a partially articulated set of suggestions or hints on how to change, develop the ‘refutable variants’ of the research-programme, how to modify, sophisticate, the ‘refutable’ protective belt(lakatos, 1978: 50). the negative heuristics help to specify what scientist are advised not to do, such as tampering with the hard core of the program. the positive heuristics of the program on the other hand specifies what scientists should do rather than what they should not do, guiding on how to protect the hard core by additional hypothesis which constitute the protective belt, which is in turn in need of constant modifications. what counts as the indicating factor of the merit of a research program is the extent to which it leads to novel predictions that are confirmed rather than falsified. when a research program leads to confirmed novel predictions, while retaining its coherence, it is said to be progressive, while a research program is degenerating when it fails to retain its coherence and at the same time is unable to yield novel predictions that are confirmed. the switch from lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 41 degenerating research programs to the progressive ones represents lakatos’ own idea of a scientific revolution. 7. reviewing science socio-historically as earlier discussed in this paper, science is widely acclaimed to be the paradigm of rationality and as well possessing the scientific method, which is said to be responsible for the achievements recorded by science over the past two centuries. it has also been brought to fore in this paper that the general procedures for carrying out research in the sciences that we may call the scientific method, lacks clear-cut procedural stages. how then can a method that lacks defined procedural stages be held superior to other methods of inquiry? the popular and rational image of science, that of being the paradigm of rationality and objective knowledge, and the possession of a powerful method of enquiry which is superior to other methods, as well as the popperian notion of science as a system of falsification coupled with lakatos’ idea of science as a research program have all come under attack by thomas kuhn and his allies. kuhn argues that neither logic nor observation, or any rational method plays a role in the account of theory formation. for him, science is not guided by any definite method but a system of arbitrary activities. as against the popular image of science as an intellectual engagement in constant pursuit of truth, kuhn gives an account of scientific progress in terms of a shift in paradigms. thomas kuhn’s 1962 publication, the structure of scientific revolutions, had a revolutionary implication for scientific practice and changed the popular outlook of science as a system of falsification and as a paradigm of knowledge. for kuhn, science should not be regarded as the only paradigm of knowledge and model of truth. kuhn’s contention is that the scientific enterprise is not guided by a definable method but by a system of continual shifts from one paradigm to another. kuhn clarifies his notion of scientific paradigm by stating that they are “universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of researchers” (kuhn, 1970: 10).a scientific paradigm incorporates a set of theoretical assumptions or axioms that are agreed upon or accepted at a given time by a ‘scientific community.’ for kuhn, the use of scientific paradigms by scientists to solve particular problems that arise in the scientific community is ‘normal science.’ according to kuhn, there comes a time, no matter how successful a scientific paradigm is, when it becomes incapable of solving the problems it encounters. the consequence of this is that new paradigms are developed to solve and accommodate the problems that were ab initio unresolved by the old paradigm. in this kind of situation, where there is a problem of choice between the former paradigm and the new paradigm, a scientific revolution is said to have taken place. this further leads us to kuhn’s notion of incommensurability, since it is assumed that there are no common grounds or “common coordinate systems” on which to compare and choose between two paradigms. the choice of a better paradigm, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 42 (whether the old or the new) is not facilitated by an objective system or method. the notion of incommensurability is that two paradigms can be so different that they cannot be compared in any way. the implication of kuhn’s revolutionary philosophy for our discourse is that the idea of objective truth or knowledge should be rejected, since for kuhn, there are no fixed sets of facts about the world that are paradigm-neutral. for kuhn, beliefs, opinions, theories and hypothesis about the world are dependent on paradigms and can change when paradigms change. theories are therefore relative to paradigms. this contradicts the notion of the universal excellence of scientific enterprise that stands superior to all other systems of inquiry. paul feyerabend, the renowned methodological anarchist, in his 1975 publication, against method, attacks the very idea of the superiority of science to all other forms of inquiry. his fundamental assumption is that there is no such thing as scientific method which represents the surest and most reliable system of attaining rational certainty and objective knowledge. feyerabend expresses his distaste for the idea of the universal excellence of science and the superiority of its methods of inquiry. in articulating feyerabend’s contempt for methodism in all forms of inquiry, john preston has it that feyerabend raised such questions as: “what’s so great about knowledge?” “what’s so great about science?” “what’s so great about truth?” “how does science differ from witchcraft?” “does it (science) provide the only rational way of cognitively organizing our experience?” “what should we do if the pursuit of truth cripples our intellects and stunts our individuality?” in response to these questions, feyerabend held no idea or no person sacred(preston, 2002: 183). for feyerabend, philosophers and scientists alike should free their mindsets and open doors to “ideas from the most disparate and apparently farflung domains, insisting that this is the only way they can understand how knowledge grows.”27(jimoh, 2013: 183). in feyerabend’s writings, he opines that the history of science does not project a unique or unifying rational method of inquiry, but a series of opportunistic, chaotic, and inventive attempts made by a particular “community” (whether social or intellectual) to cope with immediate problems confronting them. the background of his methodological anarchism is that rationality is not only peculiar to science. in the introduction to his against method, feyerabend writes that “science is an essentially anarchic enterprise. theoretical anarchism is more humanitarian and more likely to encourage progress than its law-and –order alternatives” (feyerabend, 1975: 9).he then goes further to write that: “this is shown both by an examination of historical episodes and by an abstract analysis of the relation between idea and action. the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: anything goes” (feyerabend, 1975: 14). the summation of his anarchist thesis is that there are no fixed, universal and absolutely binding principles that guide in conducting the business of science or other modes of inquiry. lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 43 the socio-historical account of the nature of science can also be explained from the perspective of african traditional cultural practices. this can be regarded as a cultural conception of science, which regards science as being predicated upon the cultural attempts to explain, understand and interpret the natural phenomena surrounding a group of people. the cultural conception of science falls in line with what robert bishop aptly describes as the activity conception of science, when he characterized science “as a mode of human activity by which we have progressively gained control over our environment” (bishop, 2007: 9). bishop further notes that this view is “closely connected with craft traditions, artisans and technology, and emphasizes that scientific practices grew out of our ordinary ways of coping with the world” (bishop, 2007).the african conception of science is based on the african conceptual scheme which gives an ontological categorization of reality which is essentially driven by the three-valued trait in african thought system. this three-valued trait which obtains in african thought systems is being described by jonathan chimakonam as consisting of the “physical, the nonphysical as well as the union of the two” (chimakonam, 2012: 33). the union of the physical and the non-physical dimensions of existence in african thought systems represent a comprehensive interpretation of reality, which stands in contrast to the two-valued trait conception of reality often attributed to western science. the two-valued trait bifurcate reality into the physical and the spiritual while giving utmost preference to the physical over the spiritual or metaphysical aspects of reality. this explains why western scientific knowledge is regarded as being essentially based on the facts of existence devoid of metaphysical excesses. however, the african cultural perspective of reality gives preference to a fuller dimension of reality, while combining the physical, non-physical and the union of the two in a unified system of explaining, understanding and interpreting the african reality. 8. conclusion this paper began by drawing attention to the popular and rational image of science in which science is regarded as the most reliable system of inquiry that yields objective knowledge. science is so regarded because there is believed to be a system or method of inquiry that guarantees success or accuracy of experimental results in the sciences. this method itself is however, not so much taken by scientists with utmost seriousness, as they mostly fail to characterize what should constitute the scientific method. part of what we have been able to do in this paper is to help analyze the concept of scientific method itself, taking us down through the trajectory from the earlier formulations of principles or rules of scientific methodology to the more recent ones. as evident in this paper, any worthy discussion of scientific methodology should not be deemed complete without an account of the ongoing discourse in the philosophy of science about the very existence of a method of inquiry in the sciences. however, most scientists would want to reckon that there is a “scientific aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 44 method” that aids in carrying out operations in the sciences, but this position is currently a controversial one in the philosophy of science. references aigbodioh, j. 1997. philosophy of science: issues and problems. 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(ibadan: ebony books &kreations). sheffler, i. 1963. the anatomy of inquiry (new york: knopf publishers, inc.). 1 political exclusion and domestic terrorism in africa hyginus chibuike ezebuilo abstract many scholars have noted the prevalence of domestic terrorism in africa and elsewhere. scholars argue that ethnically motivated terrorism is caused by problems of political exclusion, and many nation-states have alienated distinct ethnic groups, even under domestic constitutions and practices. this study examines whether the exclusion of ethnic groups from political power is an important contributing factor to domestic terrorism. if political exclusion causes ethnic terrorism, can reforms promoting greater ethnic inclusion and democracy reduce risks of terrorism? global concern over terrorism and how to reduce the severity of terrorist attacks have been growing. although much attention has been focused on transnational terrorist events, most recorded terrorist activities tend to be fully domestic, and often tied to groups with claims against their home government. previous studies have shown that ethnic exclusion and restricted political access can motivate civil war, and evidence indicates that ethnic accommodation and political reform can reduce the risk of civil war. the same logic should apply to ethnic terrorism as well. this line of research is to examine whether political inclusion can reduce terrorism by lessoning motivation and expanding opportunities for alternative actions. this goes beyond the question of whether ethnic groups that are excluded/included engage in more/fewer terrorist attacks, and examine whether resort to terrorism by the group decline after inclusion. keywords: ethno-political, exclusion, inclusion, terrorism, africa. 1. introduction irrespective of the measure of terrorism and estimation method, ethno-political exclusion fuels domestic terrorism, and as nwabunka (2004:23) rightly noted, many countries have alienated distinct ethnic groups, even under domestic constitutions and practices. ethnic groups are not formally deprived of political rights or systematically discriminated against, but often have felt marginalized in a nation-state with a dominant group. some groups have pursued national liberation from foreign domination through political violence, and terrorism. this is a plausible strategy for small groups with few opportunities to take on the state directly through conventional warfare. empirical studies deem the political exclusion of ethnic minority groups to be a significant cause of civil war, rebellions and mass political violence (moore 1998; regan and norton 2005). however, the question of whether or not the political marginalization of ethnic groups motivates and sustains terrorist activity is largely unexplored. to the best of my knowledge, piazza’s (2012) and choi (2010) as well aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 2 as choi and piaza (2016) studies are the only empirical researches that examine the effect of minority political discrimination on domestic terrorism, reporting no significant effect. thus, with a special focus on domestic terrorism, i extend the existing researches on minority political exclusion and terrorism, contending that political exclusion creates frustration and political grievances among ethnic groups who in some instances resort to terrorist violence in an effort to address such grievances. one may wonder why such ethnic groups would resort to terrorism rather than instigate civil war; this study argues that these groups turn to terrorism because ethnic ties enhance their collective security and because fewer material capabilities are necessary when limiting operations to a local area. when people resent a government that has failed to recognize their tribal, racial, religious or linguistic group, it is more common strategy to withdraw from government control through autonomy or semi-autonomy rather than to jump into an insurgency movement; the former requires fewer material capabilities and less sophistication while still allowing disgruntled people to address their grievances. terrorism, then, is more cost effective than civil war and thus becomes a more viable option for some individuals in an ethnic group that intend to pursue their political rights through the use of force. this paper is divided into eight sections. the first is introduction; the second contains fundamental statements while the third attempts an understanding of terrorism as a concept. sections four and five contain a survey of the effects of political exclusion on terrorism and how this phenomenon is hostile to the african traditional heritage respectively. the sixth section suggests inclusion as a prospect for reducing domestic terrorism, the seventh attempts policy oriented advice through which the destructive effects of domestic terrorism can be minimized or eradicated, while section eight concludes the paper. 2. hypothesis/theses statements let us state our first thesis here as follows: countries with large numbers of people that are politically excluded due to their ethnic background will experience more domestic terrorist attacks. we reason that as the population size of politically excluded ethnic minorities increases, terrorist attacks become more severe and result in higher number of casualties. there are two components to such reasoning. first, we regard numbers of casualties due to terrorism to be a reliable accompanying indicator to raw count of terrorist attacks; while the number of domestic terrorist attacks occurring in a year indicates the frequency of terrorist activity, the count of persons killed or injured in terrorist attacks indicates the scope and level of intensity of terrorist activity. taken together, they provide a more complete picture of overall domestic terrorist activities in a country, thereby increasing our confidence in the findings of this study. secondly, previous research suggests that ethno-political exclusion will ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 3 have a particularly strong effect on terrorist casualties. for example, kaufman (1998:13) demonstrates that violent inter-ethnic conflicts result in higher casualty rates and more frequent atrocities committed against civilians by participants. these findings are not trivial given that recent studies have noted changes between the ‘old terrorism’ of the 1970s and 1980s, which was motivated by ideology, to the ‘new terrorism,’ which is motivated by religious and ethnic identity choi & piazza (2016:12). this new trend indicates that while the number of incidents is declining, the lethality of incidents is rising, giving way to our second hypothesis, namely: countries with larger numbers of people that are politically excluded due to their ethnic background will experience higher casualties from domestic terrorism. the terrorist group is not necessarily of an ethnic origin fighting a course for an ethnic group, as is the case with boko haram in nigeria, but much of the recruits will likely be constituted by members of the excluded group who have been nursing grievances against an unjust government. in this study, therefore, we argue that ethno-political exclusion is a cause of domestic, as opposed to transnational, terrorism. domestic terrorism is conventionally defined as terrorist attacks in which the perpetrator and the victim, or target, are of the same nationality and the attacks transpires within one country. transnational terrorism is defined as attacks where the perpetrator and victim are of different nationalities and the attack is either cross-border, launched in a different country from that of the perpetrator, or lunched locally against foreign targets, such as embassies, tourists, or other foreign nationals choi & piazza (2016:13). both the qualitative case studies alluded to above and the theoretical framework developed by gurr (2000:24) and crenshaw (1981:34) depict ethnopolitical exclusion as a precipitant of domestic political violence and terrorism. in a similar vein, we assert that the experience of political exclusion leads to a rise in localized grievances against the state and sometimes, prompts the formation and maintenance of terrorist movements that select local targets. we do acknowledge the possibility that terrorist groups motivated by political exclusion might perhaps choose to commit some transnational terrorism to better popularize their grievances and political agendas. however, this is a very rare occurrence, mostly due to the fact that it requires a much higher level of sophistication and capacity on the part of the domestic terrorist group. 3. understanding the concept of terrorism the history of terrorism is probably coextensive with the history of political violence. the term ‘terrorism,’ however, is relatively recent; it has been in use since late 18th century. its use has repeatedly shifted in some significant respects. moreover, in contemporary political discourse, the word is often employed as a polemical term whose strong emotional charge occludes its somewhat vague descriptive meaning. the state also becomes terrorists in many occasions to some aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 4 target or enemy citizens. as a matter of fact, the regimes of totalitarianism adopt terrorism as their method of rule. as hannah arendt (1958:464) put it, “terror is the essence of totalitarian domination.” sometimes, the representatives of totalitarian regimes, sensitive to the pejorative connotation of the word, portray the practice as defense of the state from internal enemies. however, state terrorism is not the preserve of totalitarian regimes. some non-totalitarian states have resorted to terrorism against enemy civilians as was the case in nigeria and several african countries, and elsewhere. all this tends to get in the way of sustained rational discussion of the nature and moral standing of terrorism and the best ways of coping with it. nevertheless, there are two fundamental and related questions with regards to terrorism. the first is conceptual: what is terrorism? the second is moral: can terrorism be morally justified? philosophers have offered a range of positions on both questions. with regard to the problem of defining terrorism, the dominant approach seeks to acknowledge the core meaning ‘terrorism’ has in common use. terrorism is understood as a type of violence the proximate aim of which is the experience of terror or fear. neither violence nor terror is inflicted for its own sake, but rather for the sake of a further aim such as coercion, or some more specific political objective. but there are also definitions that sever the conceptual connection of terrorism with violence or with terror. with regards to the moral standing of terrorism, philosophers differ both on how that is to be determined and what the determination is. consequentialists propose to judge terrorism, like everything else, in light of its consequences. nonconsequentialists argue that its moral status is not simply a matter of what consequences, on balance, terrorism has, but is rather determined by what it is. positions on the morality of terrorism range from justification when its consequences are good, or when some deontological moral requirements are satisfied, to its absolute, or almost absolute, rejection. after the heyday of totalitarian terrorism in the 1930s and 1940s, arendt (1958:23) domestic terrorism continued to be practiced by military dictatorships in many parts of the world, albeit in a less sustained and pervasive way. but the type of terrorism that came to the fore in the second half of the 20th century and in early 21st century is that employed by insurgent organizations. many movements for national liberation from colonial rule resorted to it, either as the main method of struggle or as a tactic complementing guerrilla warfare. so did some separatist movements arendt 1958:25). some groups driven by perceived injustices, political exclusion or some ideologies took to terrorism as the way of trying to destroy what they considered an unjust, oppressive socio-economic-political system. this type of terrorism is, by and large, indiscriminate in its choice of target: it attacks men and women of whatever political (or apolitical) views, social class, and walk of life; young, and old, adults and children. it shoots at people, or blows ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 5 them up by planting bombs in office buildings, places of worship, markets, cafes, cinemas, places of religious worship, on buses or planes, or in other vulnerable public places. and as terrorism has by now acquired a very pejorative meaning, no-one applies the word to their own actions or to actions and campaigns of those they sympathize with. insurgents practicing terrorism portray their actions as struggle for liberation and seek to be considered and treated as soldiers rather than terrorists or criminals. they often depict their enemy – the government, or the agencies of the social, political and economic system – as the true terrorists. for them, perhaps, the test of terrorism is not harms done but rather the ultimate aim of doing it. if the ultimate aim is liberation or justice, the violence used in order to attain it is not terrorism, whereas the violence aiming at maintaining oppression or injustice is. government, on the other hand, tends to paint all insurgent violence with the brush of terrorism. they typically assume that terrorism is by definition something done by non-state agents, and that a state can never be guilty of terrorism (although it can sponsor terrorist organizations). for them, the test of terrorism is not the harm done but who does it. when a state agency uses violence, it is an act of war, or reprisal, or defense of the security of the state and its citizens; when an insurgent group or some freedom fighters does the same, it is terrorism. under these circumstances, one person’s terrorist is indeed another’s freedom fighter, and public debate about terrorism is largely conducted at cross purposes and to little effect. today, the evaluative meaning of terrorism has shifted considerably. so has its descriptive meaning, but to a lesser degree. whatever else the word may have meant, its ordinary use has typically indicated two things: violence and intimidation (the causing of great fear or terror, terrorizing). the dominant approach to the conceptual question in philosophical literature reflects this. terrorism is usually understood as a type of violence. this violence is not blind or sadistic, but rater aims at intimidation and at some further political, social, or religious goal or, more broadly, at coercion. per bauhn defines (political) terrorism thus: “the performance of violent acts, directed against one or more persons, intended by the performing agent to intimidate one or more persons and thereby to bring about one or more of the agent’s political goals” (buahn, 1989, p.28). it is the deliberate use of violence, or threat of its use, against innocent people, with the aim of intimidating some other people into a course of action they otherwise would not take. it is noteworthy that the above definitions put aside both the question of who the actor is and the question of what their ultimate objectives are, and focus on the action itself as well as the aim. they present terrorism as a way of acting that could be adopted by different agents and serve various objectives (mostly political). it can be employed by states or by non-state agents, and may promote national liberation or oppression, revolutionary or conservative causes (and possibly aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 6 pursues some nonpolitical aims as well). one can be a terrorist and a freedom fighter; terrorism is not the monopoly of enemies of freedom. one can hold a high government or military office and design or implement a terrorist campaign; terrorism is not the preserve of insurgent. in this way, much of the relativism concerning who is and who is not a terrorist that has plagued contemporary public debate can be overcome; the general traits of terrorism being violence, against noncombatants or innocent people, intimidation, and coercion. meanwhile, this study adopts the definition of terrorism by the global terrorism database (gtd): “the threatened or actual use of illegal force and violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation. the question remains in any case, whether terrorism can be morally justified. there is no single answer to this question, as there is no single conception of what terrorism is. philosophers generally tend to hold the view that terrorism that targets non-combatants or innocent persons is much more difficult to justify than that which attacks only those who cannot plausibly claim innocence of the injustice or oppression at issue (and which accordingly does not count as terrorism on a narrow definition of the term). our discussion therefore focuses on terrorism understood as violence against innocent civilians or common citizens, intended to intimidate and thereby to achieve some further (political) objectives. one might try to justify some acts or campaigns of violence of this kind in two ways. one could argue that the victims may be non-combatants or common citizens, but nevertheless are not innocent of the wrongs the terrorists are fighting against. alternatively, one could concede the innocence of the victims and argue that attacks on them are nevertheless justified, either by their consequences or by some deontological considerations. in showing that an instance of violence was justified because targeted were not really innocent, we will have shown that the act of violence at issue was actually not a case of terrorism. this paper will not delve into the broad problem of morality of terrorism. it suffices to note that certain violent acts are truly triggered by social injustices, and they can be avoided by a reversal of injustices on the group concerned. in the long run, the perpetrators of both the violence and the injustice are equally terrorists. 4. political exclusion: an incentive to domestic terrorism it should be noted that piazza’s (2012) study failed to find political discrimination against minority groups to be a consistently significant and substantive predictor of domestic terrorism when it was evaluated along with economic discrimination; we expect, however, to find a different result in this study as we operationalize political exclusion differently. we find that countries in which certain ethnic populations are excluded from political power are significantly more likely to experience domestic terrorist attacks and to suffer from terrorist casualties. furthermore, ethnic group political exclusion is a more consistent and substantive predictor of domestic terrorist activity than general political repression or economic discrimination. ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 7 when people resent a government that has failed to recognize their tribal, racial, religious or linguistic group, it is more common strategy to withdraw from government control through autonomy or semi-autonomy rather than to jump into an insurgency movement; the former requires fewer material capabilities and less sophistication while still allowing disgruntled people to address their grievances. terrorism, then, is more cost effective than civil war and thus becomes a more viable option for ethnic groups that intend to pursue their political rights through the use of force. furthermore, a terrorist movement which develops from a group of people with social, cultural or family ties provides a relatively stable support system. shared ethnic ties may allow politically discriminated people to organize more easily into terrorist cells, to more readily provide emotional encouragement to their members, and more effectively prevent desertion or a breach of security. that is, ethnic groups may be better equipped to carry out successful terrorist operations as their deeply rooted social and cultural bonds provide an enhanced security and loyalty structure. as domestic terrorist organizations tend to create fewer cells and specialized teams, they are smaller in size than international terrorist organizations which often operate in several countries (choi & piazza, 2016). there is also a micro-foundational argument to be made linking the political exclusion of ethnic minorities to the increased probability that members from the excluded community will engage in terrorism. terrorism is frequently defined as a form of political violence perpetrated against civilians. research by goodwin (2006) indicates that members of terrorist movements hailing from segments of society experiencing repression by the government frequently opt to target other civilians who they perceive as ‘complicit’ with, or as benefiting from government policies, particularly if complicit citizens are viewed as significantly more powerful ‘others.’ we use this framework to anticipate that radicalized individuals excluded from political life due to their ethnic background are, therefore, more likely to see the use of terrorist attacks against ‘complicit’ citizens – members of the ethnic majority – as legitimate behavior. note that several case studies find the political exclusion of ethnic groups to be an import and precipitating factor for the formation of terrorist movements, community support for terrorism, and the maintenance of terrorist campaigns (for a summary, see laqueur, 1999). for example, formal and informal barriers to influence representation in government have been credited with starting and fueling kurdish terrorism in iraq, turkey and iran, moro terrorism in the philippines, the basque eta movement in spain (choi & piazza, 2016). survey research by nwabunka (2015:34) finds that political – along with socioeconomic – exclusion fosters feelings of alienation among south east of nigeria and helps to drive radicalization and support for extremism by some members of the area. other terrorist movements nominally motivated by different concerns frequently invoke ethnic issues centering on political marginalization and exclusion as a core driving aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 8 force. for example, the maoist naxalite movement in india began in the late 1960s as a non-sectarian urban guerilla movement aiming to foment a communist insurrection in the state of west bengal. however, when the communist party of india took power in the state legislature of west bengal, the naxalites shifted their struggle to the disenfranchisement of the aboriginal population living in the rural areas across south and eastern india (choi & piazza, 2016). one expect exclusion to most significantly affect the local, rather than the transnational, environment for political violence. although domestic terrorism is more pervasive than transnational terrorism and results in substantially more casualties (choi & piazza, 2016), it has, strangely, received less scholarly focus. we argue that the political exclusion of ethnically different people within a country increases the propagation of disgruntled individuals who, in the absence of access to executive power via orderly and nonviolent means are more likely to support the use of domestic terrorism to address grievances. one may suggest that the turn to terrorism is more likely if an excluded population consists of several smaller groups, whereas one large excluded group is more likely to instigate rebellion. by the same token, it is not difficult to imagine that a large excluded group would engage in domestic terrorism, as opposed to insurrection, because they do not necessarily possess a united military power capable of challenging the government. simply put, whether an excluded population consists of one large ethnic group or many smaller ones, we expect domestic terrorism to arise in most cases where such groups are politically excluded due to their ethnic background. we find that the political exclusion of ethnic groups is a more significant and substantive predictor of domestic terrorism than general restriction of political participation (see li 2005) or minority economic discrimination (see pizza, 2012), a finding which holds true even after accounting for a possibility of reverse causality. what follows is an assessment of how previous studies are related to our research topic. while the role of ethno-political exclusion as a precipitant of terrorism has been rarely addressed in the context of analysis, related topics, such as the role of regime type and restriction and/or tolerance of general political participation, have been widely discussed and examined. though empirical research has generally found that domestic regimes experience more terrorism than do dictatorships (e.g., pizza 2008), a frequently cited study by li (2005) determined that some elements of democratic institutions promote terrorism, while others significantly reduce it. li found that constraints on executive power, a hallmark of democratic rule, actually make states more likely to experience transnational terrorist attacks; however, he also found that countries with higher rates of popular political participation experience fewer terrorist incidents, suggesting that broadening democratic participation will reduce rates of terrorism (see also chenowet, 2010). ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 9 more importantly, li’s political participation variable (through voting) may be misconstrued as a feature that leads to a decrease in transnational terrorism when it may have only a spurious effect. li’s study conceptualizes that the higher the voting rate in democracies, the less likely transnational terrorism is to occur (li, 2005). however, because political nonparticipation (i.e., no voting) is pervasive within many full-fledged democracies such as the u.s., but less so within some emerging democracies like nigeria, the high level of political participation may not necessarily be associated with a low level of terrorist incidents (see deluca, 1995). furthermore, as powell (1982) properly points out, the voter turnout rate is affected by many institutional and attitudinal factors and may have little to do with whether citizens have a reasonable chance to have their interests represented through elected officials. simply put, the actual patterns of political participation through voting are quite complex and may vary from country to country. this study argues that political participation may not affect terrorism. low voting rates may simply indicate the prevalence of political apathy; political exclusion, on the other hand, exacerbates terrorism because it is likely to compel ethnic groups to fight for the political rights of which they are deprived. in this context, we expect that the political status of ethnic communities – the degree to which the political system in their home country integrates them into or excludes them from political decision making – is a more likely causal trigger for domestic terrorism than the overall measure of rates of political participation. recent research by piazza (2011) finds that countries qualified by economic discrimination against minority groups – defined using data from the minorities at risk (mar) database as groups that collectively suffer from disadvantages in income, housing, employment and unequal access to government social services – experience higher levels of domestic terrorism. while we expect our research to confirm the above, we have theoretical reason to suspect that ethno-political exclusion is a distinctly strong and consistent predictor of terrorism even while considering the possibility of economic discrimination against minority groups. for example, research by fox (1999, 2000) uses gurr’s basic theory of exclusion, grievance, group identity and mobilization to link cultural identity-based grievances to political violence. for fox, cultural identity (he focuses mainly on ‘religious cultural communal identities’) are essential to people’s everyday lives. when they are threatened, or disparaged, potent group grievances are produced that are easily manipulated by extremists; this explains why conflicts over religious identity often result in higher levels of political violence. juergensmeyer (1993) and rapoport (1991) make similar observations about the intensity of conflicts over religious and cultural identities, and identify such conflicts as prime vehicles for terrorism. in this study, one regards the political exclusion of ethnic minorities to be an affront on group identity insofar as excluded groups share similar religious and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 10 cultural heritages. we then argue that when their access to state power is deprived, these groups are likely to express high levels of grievances and intensified resentment which will, then, motivate the turn toward domestic terrorism. undoubtedly, the experience of economic discrimination will also produce collective grievances as distinct from motivations of identity politics and, accordingly, control for minority economic status in our empirics. there is a strong theoretical base to support the notion that countries with large ethnic populations excluded from political power would experience higher levels of domestic terrorist activity. gurr’s (2000) work on deprivation as a root precipitation of riots, rebellion and civil war helps to provide some of the theoretical motivation for our assertion that political exclusion due to ethnicity is likely to lead the excluded to support or engage in domestic terrorism. gurr argues that when ethnic and religious – and, in principle, socioeconomic – subgroups within society face collective political and economic deprivations, such as discrimination or lack of opportunities to participate in mainstream political or economic life, several transformations occur, which make political violence more likely. initially, core anti-status quo grievances are formed and enhanced among group members by the experience of exclusion. this experience of grievance prompts the group to develop an enhanced sense of collective identity as well as a strong sense of alienation from the ethnic or religious majority in society, which, in turn, only serves to further reinforce the salience of group grievances. then, enhanced group identity, alienation, and salient group grievances are exploited by elites within the community to radicalize members and mobilize opposition – both nonviolent and violent – to the state and status quo (choi & piazza, 2016). though gurr is primarily interested in explaining the onset of episodes of mass political violence like rebellions, the thrust of his argument has been applied by other scholars to the formation of terrorist movements within aggrieved ethnic populations and the mobilization of community support for terrorism. work by crenshaw (1981) maintains that regimes characterized by political exclusion of ethnic minority groups are particularly likely to experience terrorism. the fact is that when ethnic communities experience political discrimination and formal and informal barriers to equality, crenshaw (1981:383) specifically depicts this situation as ethnic minorities…that are discriminated against by the majority population,’ they develop grievances against the state and larger society. these grievances fuel the construction of social protest movements seeking representation and political change. choi and piazza write: fringe elements within the community will demand that direct action take place outside of mainstream governing institutions and processes and will, in extreme cases, ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 11 advocate for terrorist violence. in the face of state unresponsiveness and continued repression, they will siphon community support away from mainstream nonviolent leaders and will cultivate their capacity to commit armed attacks (2016). not surprisingly, the demands for inclusion or equal treatment that characterize the social protest movement will grow into stipulations for wider sociopolitical change, for greater ethno-political autonomy and/or calls for irredentism and independence. this change in demands is easily manipulated by extremists, greatly radicalizes the community, and raises the likelihood of involvement with terrorist movements. 5. political exclusion is inimical to the african obviously, the issue at stake in ethno-political exclusion is unity and inclusiveness. the founding fathers, of the organization of african unity (o.a.u), according to nyerere, set themselves two major objectives, namely the total liberation of africa from colonialism and the unity of africa. he regrets that the reality is that ours is the poorest and weakest continent in the world, and that our weakness is pathetic. nyerere (1968:54) argues: unity will not end our weakness, but until we unite, we cannot even begin to end that weakness. so this is my plea to the new generation of african leaders and african peoples: work for unity with the firm conviction that without unity, there is no future for africa. he noted unequivocally his rejection of the glorification of the nation-state we inherited from colonialism, and the artificial nations we are trying to forge from that inheritance. for the implication is that we are all africans trying very hard to be ghanians or tanzanians, which is impossible. for him, the outside world hardly recognizes our ghanianess or tanzanian-ness. what is recognized is our africanness nyerere (1968:34), which is being-with, and this is fundamentally hostile to political exclusion and its sister, terrorism. that is the way we – the people of africa are all being perceived: as brothers. so, accepting the fact that we are all africans: all nigerians, all ghanians, etc (and not that i am from yoruba or ashanti) gives you a much worthwhile challenge than the current desperate attempts to fossilize africa or its various countries, into the wounds inflicted upon it by the vultures of imperialism. this is rather shameful; and we should not be proud of our shame. we must reject the return to colonialism or to the tribes. we must reject sociopolitical exclusion of our brothers. for there is aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 12 richness of culture out there which we must do everything we can to preserve and share. an african, no doubt, has a distinctive outlook on life and a distinctive cultural identity. individualism and capitalism are foreign to african traditional society and the african way of life which is communalistic. africans have their own identity derived from a common heritage and different from the european culture, the european values and the european identity. the african for instance is truly religious. he understands that we cannot be truly human without being religious. this is unlike the european who tends to be more inclined to science than religion. the african identifies himself only in the “we” unlike the european who tends to emphasize the “i” at the detriment of the “we.” from the ongoing, it is clear that the traditional african society is not based on conflict, struggle or tension but on what nyerere calls ‘familyhood,’ that is, family relationship nyerere (1968:35). this, for him is the root of authentic african socialism. but in the modern world, this ‘familyhood’ will have to be extended beyond the confines of the extended family, beyond the confines of the tribe; and made to embrace the whole society, the whole country, the whole of africa, and the whole human race. the capitalistic spirit of acquisition, individualism, the exploitation of man by man, class struggle, political exclusion and conflicts will all be excluded from society. inequality will be eliminated and everybody will be prepared to work for the good of the community in any capacity. thus, the individual feels liberated, and only then will he pursue the goals of development and not those of conflicts and violence. the future of africa, the development and modernization of africa, is linked with its decolonization and detribalization. indeed, many africans, especially political leaders, had a vested interest in keeping africa divided. hence, they promote the course for the return to the tribe. that kind of political and social atavism spells catastrophe for africa and should be avoided. indeed, it would be the end of any kind of genuine development for africa; and it would fossilize africa into a worse situation than the one in which we are. indeed, tribal atavism would be giving up any hope for african country and for africa in general. for africa has more need of unity and the strength that comes from unity than europe. ours should be a commitment to the practice of shared power and social wealth and the work necessary to achieve wealth. the government of a people in democratic scenario belongs to the people and not to a faction. in fact, sharing of power and wealth are other forms of communitarian exchange. but it is essential because without the principle and practice of sharing power and wealth, the social conditions for exploitation, oppression and inequality as well as terrorism and other forms of violence increased. the insistence on an african identity is, therefore, a worthwhile corrective against the phenomenon of political exclusion. ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 13 the african identity is based on the assumption of human equality, on the belief that it is wrong for one person or tribe to dominate or exploit another, and on the knowledge that every individual hopes to live in a society as a free person able to live a decent life, in conditions of peace with his or her neighbour. it is above all human centered. it is concerned principally with the wellbeing, happiness and development of the human person; and it is in the context of shared political inclusion that the conditions for such wellbeing, happiness and development are best achieved. 6. prospects for reducing domestic terrorism through political inclusion political inclusion measures the extent to which all members of a society are able to access the institutions of democracy. this is the idea that every citizen, regardless of class, age, gender, group, culture and ethnic or religious background should have an equal right and opportunity to engage with and contribute to the functioning of the government institutions and processes (bhojwani, 2015). for immigrants and ethnic minorities, this access allows them to be seen, be heard and be counted. it is important to distinguish between individual access and group access, specifically as it relates to minority groups. for example, if one individual from these groups, by virtue of her social or economic standing, is able to run for office, or participate in civil leadership, we cannot assume that a society is politically inclusive. a more accurate measure of political inclusion is the ability of any individual, regardless of her socioeconomic background or ethnicity, to access the levers of political power. what are the levers of political power that we need to ensure anyone can access? for the purpose of this study, let us look specifically at the ability and opportunity to be represented in government (president, president’s cabinets, ministers, chief of staff, etc) and to have voice in policymaking. these forms of inclusion allow us to be counted, be seen and be heard. our democracy is strong when everyone participates. lower levels of participation and representation weaken our democratic institutions, preserving power in the hands of a few – leaders, voters, and donors. these political elites then shape policy in their interests, rather than in the interests of the majority. when a society is diverse in ethnicity, in religion, etc, its leaders need to reflect those diverse perspectives. this representation is not simply ‘for show.’ to cast our votes, to speak our minds, and to hear our experiences reflected in policy contribute to our sense of inclusion, our ability to participate, our access to power. if we don’t feel our participation is welcome or possible, we feel marginalized and silenced. in the short-term, that can contribute to isolation and misunderstanding. in the long-term, it can contribute to radical tension and civil unrest. the challenge of integrating diverse populations into democracies often designed to serve the privileged few might seem daunting. but at its core, political integration or inclusion is rooted in three values: authenticity, patriotism, and accountability. this is the true nature of a civil society. specifically, policymakers can ensure that these values are aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 14 embedded into democratic institutions by going beyond diversity and representation to inclusion and equity. societies whose political institutions are more inclusive and participatory tend to be more peaceful and resilient, just as societies practicing exclusion tend to be more vulnerable to fragility and conflict. inclusive political processes are crucial to sustaining peace and conflict prevention, as they contribute to remedying structural inequalities and other root causes of conflict. democracy is more likely to develop and endure when all segments of a society are able to participate and influence political outcomes without suffering bias or reprisal. but in many new and emerging democracies, large portions of the population are excluded from politics based on their ethnicity. sometimes this exclusion is only implicit and not explicit. nevertheless, these groups are practically marginalized and denied access executive powers of the society. our argument is rooted in an analytic perspective wherein non-state actors choose terrorism to coerce a government into granting concessions. if ethnic exclusion motives resort to terrorism on behalf of ethnic groups, then shifts away from discrimination and towards inclusion should also have the potential to reduce incentives for terrorist attacks, raise the attractiveness of other, non-violent strategies for expressing grievances, and undermine the ability of terrorist organizations to recruit active participants. previous research has tended to assume a causal symmetry, whereby inclusion must have the opposite effect of exclusion, and the effects of changes towards inclusion simply follow from the difference in levels of terrorism between groups that are already politically included and groups that are excluded from access to political power. it appears that violence can be difficult to eradicate altogether, especially when there is a history of ethnic terrorist activity. however, even if we see more attacks by the groups, the overall number of terrorist attacks generally declines after inclusion. our analysis provides considerable support for the claim that domestic terrorism declines in response to political inclusion. some scholars have examined the relationship between ethnic diversity and terrorism and find at best limited evidence for a relationship. a state could have limited ethnic diversity but high exclusion, or high diversity without political exclusion of any groups, as in contemporary south africa (gleditsch and polo). yet, unlike ethnic demography, the political status of an ethnic group can change dramatically, as shown by the example of south africa pre/post-apartheid. however, in a more recent study using information from the ethnic power relations data, choi and piazza (2016) demonstrate that countries with large politically excluded ethnic populations are more likely to experience terrorist attacks and suffer more casualties from terrorism. the size of the ethnically excluded population is a clear advance on the binary indicators of discriminated or disadvantaged groups, and better reflects motives ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 15 and opportunities for mobilization and resort to terrorism. yet, focusing on countries at large obscures the role of group agency and how the political status of an ethnic group affects behavior. for example, if both ethnic and other grievances stem from governments that are generally exclusive, then we may simply see more terrorism in general in countries with ethnic exclusion, but not necessarily ethnically motivated terrorism perpetrated by the excluded group. as an extreme example of misplaced agency, we could see organizations associated with dominant groups using terrorism to intimidate excluded groups, perhaps to prevent political mobilization. plausible examples of this include hate crime against minority groups in the united states and south africa. this study applies a group perspective to domestic terrorism, expecting that ethnic groups have potential grievances or motivations to engage in terrorism when they are excluded from political influence or lack autonomy. we believe that the relationship between ethnic exclusion and violence should apply even more strongly to terrorist violence than to civil war, giving differences in the opportunities for and the feasibility of attacks. the wide resource symmetries between ethnic groups and the state should make organizations linked to ethnic groups particularly likely to engage in terrorism, as the covert nature of terrorist tactics makes it possible to evade state repression and target more powerful opponents when conventional warfare is unrealistic or unlikely to be effective (see findley and young, 2012). now, existing research has looked only at how current ethnic exclusion from political power is associated with terrorism and not whether changes away from active discrimination or towards inclusion can reduce domestic terrorism. if ethnic exclusion induces stronger incentives for terrorism, then we should also expect shifts in the direction of inclusiveness to reduce the motivation for terrorism. the above existing arguments on the effects of exclusion could be read as suggesting that any reduction in exclusion or move towards inclusion should likewise lessen terrorist activity. but this issue thus far has not attracted much direct theoretical or empirical attention. as we have observed, inclusion may also have limited ability to reduce terrorism when violent ethnic organizations have been established. reforms to bring greater inclusion could come in two ways. first, and most directly, we can have group-specific inclusion, or changes in the political status of an ethnic group previously disadvantaged relative to a politically privileged ethnic group. group-specific inclusion can include granting access to power for the group at the executive level, concessions offering regional autonomy, or reduction in overt discrimination against the group. improvements in the political status of an ethnic group should reduce terrorist attacks by lessening motives for violent action. changes in political status also will influence the ability of ethnic organizations to recruit for political violence. from our analytical perspective, any concessions towards greater political inclusion should satisfy some group members and induce substitution away from violence after inclusion. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 16 existing models of the growth trajectory of terrorist organizations show that attacks over time are shaped by recruitment (gleditsch and polo). given some rate of attrition, organizations with better prospects for sustained recruitment are able to carry out more attacks, at a higher frequency, and wage more persistent terrorist campaigns. thus, organizations who seek to continue violence on behalf of ethnic group will find it difficult to recruit participants after political inclusion, as long as it satisfies a sufficient number of individuals in their audience. this should lead to a decline in the ability of the organization to maintain a high number of terrorist attacks. indeed, gurr (2000) argued that greater inclusion has promoted a waning of ethnic warfare, and cederman et al. (2016) demonstrate more systematically that ethnic political inclusion appears to reduce the risk of ethnic conflict onset and promote conflict termination. 7. some policy oriented advice/recommendation in reacting to the inscrutable phenomenon of domestic terrorism, governments should reverse the cause of grievances by recourse to political inclusion. if political exclusion causes ethnic terrorism, it follows that promoting greater ethnic inclusion and democracy will, at least, reduce terrorist risks. we find that countries in which no ethnic populations are excluded from political power are significantly more likely to experience relative peace. they will likely be free from domestic terrorist attacks and from suffering from terrorist casualties. moreover, walsh and piazza’s (2010) study produced robust findings, showing that countries with higher levels of human right protection experience less terrorism. our models therefore include the measure of respect for physical integrity rights – the right not to be abused or harmed – used by walsh and piazza (2010). our expectation is that it will be a negative predictor of terrorism because promotion of physical integrity will reduce the level of abuse and thus produce fewer grievances. again, choi (2010) demonstrates that when an independent judiciary with fair-minded judges and police officers is present in a rule of law society, the risk of terrorism is small. similarly, findley and young (2011) posit that independent judiciaries make government commitments seem more credible, thereby dis-incentivizing the use of terrorism. consistent with these findings, we expect that the presence (or absence) of an independent judiciary is likely to decrease (or increase) the frequency of terrorist incidents. several recent studies also consider the effects of poverty and economic development on terrorism (e.g., li, 2005). when a large percentage of a given country’s population lives below the poverty line, terrorist groups may find it easier to recruit the disgruntled. people whose basic needs, such as clean water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter, are not fulfilled find fault with those who discriminate against their social welfare, namely the government and the rich. for this reason, economic development is viewed as an important factor for the control of terrorism. furthermore, countries with large populations often find it difficult to provide adequate levels of security measures, resulting in greater vulnerability to terrorist plots and attacks (eyerman, 1998). in fact, savun ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … 17 and philips (2009) find evidence that highly populated countries experience more domestic terrorist incidents. with this in mind, the population variable is projected to increase the rate of terrorism due to the relative difficulty of successfully policing a large population. the more all the citizens are given free access to political power, however, the less vulnerable to domestic terrorism a populated country will be. 8. conclusion while quantitative research in academic and policy circles has examined transnational terrorism and civil and interstate wars, research on the causes of domestic terrorism is severely lacking. indeed, a serious limitation to the development of terrorism literature thus far has been the lack of domestic terrorism data and the absence of a probe into the connection between political grievances and domestic terrorism. this has slowed the accumulation of required knowledge regarding the relationships between domestic-level political phenomena (e.g. the degree of inclusiveness of the political system of a country) and political violence. given its destructive impact on the daily functioning of human life and on national economies, a deeper probe of domestic terrorism is necessary. this study is one of the philosophical studies to conceptualize political exclusion as a root cause of domestic terrorism, and as such, it will hopefully serve as a stepping stone towards increased research interest in the neglected area of domestic terrorism and its motivations. questions of nationalism, sectarianism, ethnic and communal violence, and the collapse of states came to dominate academic analysis and political debates. the question of the possibility of a meaningful nation, in which all citizens with common national identity that overcome regional, ethnic, religious, clan, and other tensions, becomes critical. we must look back to the idea of african identity as being-with and see in it the deliberate construction of nationalist narrative. the european’s underpinnings of the idea of communal living are perhaps less important than the call for nation building and the humanitarian agenda for justice and peace the african heritage promises. this study has demonstrated that, irrespective of the measure of terrorism and estimation method, ethno-political exclusion fuels domestic terrorism. when people are excluded from state power due to their ethnic background, they are more likely to resort to domestic terrorism in an effort to solve issues and avenge grievances. moreover, this study finds that the size of the politically excluded ethnic population is a more consistent predictor of patterns of domestic terrorism than the general level of political participation in a country or the degree of economic discrimination suffered by ethnic minorities. the results of this study suggests that ethnic group political exclusion is a key element in the generation of domestic terrorism and, therefore, policies aimed at fostering inclusiveness could be a useful counterterrorism tool. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 18 references arendt, hanna. 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(2001). the terrorism reader. new york: rutledge. http://www.citiesofmigration.ca/building-inclusive-cities/political-inclusion/ http://www.citiesofmigration.ca/building-inclusive-cities/political-inclusion/ journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract: this paper problematises the definition challenge for african philosophy and attempts an analytical reconceptualization of african philosophy. attempts will thus be made to examine some of the approaches bothering on the ideation and definition of african philosophy. the aim of such examination is to show that these approaches or discernible senses of african philosophy are influenced by the tripartite factors of identity, method, and relevance. the view of this paper is that an exposition of the various senses of african philosophy vis-à-vis the tripartite factors is essential for the conceptualization of a working definition of african philosophy based on the complementary interplay of the subjective and objective dimension of philosophy. this analytical reconceptualization enhances the frontiers of african philosophy to be more opens in meeting the contemporary demand for africa's development in the age globalization. keywords: african philosophy, tripartite challenges, objective dimensions, subjective dimensions, introduction conceptualizing african philosophy is apt for any philosophical discourse on african existential challenges, i.e., poverty, human depravity, political instability, environmental degradation, civil unrest, illegal migration, and many more. this is in lieu of the fact that such discourse will be a genre of an applied philosophy from an african parlance to solving the lived challenges of the continent. it is therefore imperative that the discussion concerning the quest for panacea to contemporary challenges in africa be situated within the broader perspectives of african philosophy. hence, its conceptualization. a caveat to note, however, is that the attempt at conceptualizing african philosophy is not an apologia of the existence of african philosophy. rather, it gives a justification for explaining the part-whole relationship between applied philosophy and philosophy from an african perspective. in other words, conceptualizing african philosophy would lend us an intellectual framework to explore an african lens through which to evaluate contemporary existential challenges. this paper thus embarks on an analytical reconceptualization of african philosophy to reposition it towards being more enhanced in handling perennial challenges. the first part of the paper considers the background to define african philosophy and identifies the three main discernible senses or approaches on the field. afterwards, effort will be made to highlight the tripartite challenges to defining african philosophy. it must 39 re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool in the age of globalisation. akinpelu a. oyekunle, ph.d be noted that these three challenges of identity, method and relevance form the fulcrum of guides that undergird the various approaches towards defining african philosophy. the paper aims to argue that to conceptualize african philosophy in a manner that it will be fit to address practical issues of reality in the continent is to see the effort in the light of the tripartite factors. doing so is to see african philosophy as a veritable tool in the critical exploration of the social constructions of answers to the existential questions of the continent. to this end, the section that follows will be considering defining african philosophy as a tool for answering the contemporary existential questions, albeit in a manner that recognizes the participatory stance of the continent in the global arena. this informs the consideration of the subjective dimensions of philosophy. the paper concludes that, african philosophy in the attempt to grapple with the nuances of the tripartite factors of definition can be conceptualize on a part-whole relationship between operating in a particular context-oriented form (subjective) and grounding such operations on a general dimension of life realities (objective). an overview of some 'approaches' while the paper, may not go into the old debate of the existence or otherwise of african philosophy, however, attempt will be made to explore some attempts at ideating 'african philosophy'. i elect not to enter this debate based on the varying understanding of renowned african scholars such as kwasi wiredu, ; paul o. bodunrin , ; odera oruka ; kwame gyekye , ; sophie b. oluwole , , ; mogobe ramose ; moses a. makinde ; olusegun oladipo ; doyo guyo ; emmanuel chukwudo-eze pascah mungwini who have held that african philosophy exists. in fact, samuel imbo highlighted three discernible senses of extant african philosophy as “ethnophilosophical, universalist and hermeneutical approaches” , which will now be considered. it should be note at this juncture that this paper is not oblivious of the many trends in african philosophy as opined by oruka : ethnophilosophy; philosophic sagacity; nationalist-ideological philosophy; professional african philosophy; literary-artistic philosophy and hermeneutical theory in african philosophy and later by wiredu : traditional african philosophy and contemporary african philosophy.one of the significant authors in terms of giving a commentary and interpretation of these trends is imbo. the position of imbo, though summative, is found for our discussion here to be apt and comprehensive. imbo's scheme is adopted because his three discernible senses of african philosophy cover all the trends identified by both oruka and wiredu; although with modification that appears fitting for this paper. it is thus more rational to think that within the class of the universalist, for instance, it is not unlikely to have some nationalist ideologists as well as professional philosophers. also, ethnophilosophy and professional philosophy would well feature in the hermeneutical sense of african philosophy. imbo recognizing the possibility of the interplays and overlapping nature of these individual trends thus aptly represented the various trends of african philosophy with the three discernible senses: 'ethnophilosophical', 'universalist' and 'hermeneutical' approaches. these three discernible senses will now be considered. 40 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 ethnophilosophical approach refers to philosophical opinions that are entrenched in mythical, religious, linguistic, anthropological as well as poetical worldviews of different african cultures. with this view, african philosophy is to be known by the nuances of the unique belief system and ethnocentric concepts such as language, mysticism, magic, fables and myths. the ethnophilosophical approach is best seen in the works of alexis kagame , leopold senghor , placide tempels , john mbiti among others. while one would understand the attempts of the ethnophilosophical scholars in situating african philosophy in culturally specific views. their attempt is owing essentially to the urgency of proving wrong, the eurocentric denial of rationality in africa. chief of such westerncentric thoughts is the hegelian description of africa as a continent of savages whose thought and life hinges on primitivity, and as such, without history or proper philosophy. for hegel, africa as a continent. “is unhistorical, undeveloped spirit, still involved in the conditions of nature” . the intellectual reactions against such views like that of hegel culminated into the great debate. however, efforts like the great debate, according to isaac kapila, only present the continent's cultural homogeneity in a bad light as it shows african philosophy as being incapable “of its own unique and consistent logic” . in other words, the great debate presupposes that without the need for the intellectual reactions to eurocentric denial of african rationality, african philosophy may not have been developed. the “universalist worldview” begins with the definition of philosophy as an objective and universal, principle-laden enterprise. this means that the universalist worldview or approach is a stance opposed to the culture-specific method. to the pioneer proponents of this view: innocent onyewuenyi ; kwasi wiredu , ; peter bodunrin and paulin hountondji . philosophy is not expected to be culture-dependent. rather, philosophy is considered to be a “systemic and methodological inquiry that should not be altered by its geographical application” . for the universalists therefore, intellectual skepticism should be cast upon any philosophy that is not written down . as noted by imbo, to the universalist, the ability to develop a “tradition of debate and sustained inquiry” of such non-written philosophy would be of great minimal effect. although there are universalists who give room for oral philosophy–e.g. henry odera oruka, who developed the idea of sagacity–the idea was to present a socratic-alike person he refers to as african sages in the african parlance . in kwasi wiredu (1998b, pp. 19-21), the universalist ideation of african philosophy is that of a “proper” philosophy of the african orientation that includes a critical reconstruction of african traditional thoughts, to reveal philosophical elements thereof. philosophers in the hermeneutical approach is out to challenge both ethnophilosophical and universalist perspectives. as argued by , the hermeneutical philosophers take african traditions as their starting point, as they seek to escape the enslavement to the past by critically using that past to open up the future. it is the understanding of these scholars that philosophy–suitably construed–must move beyond a preoccupation with ethnological considerations and universalist abstraction, by calling into question actual relations of power in africa . the works of theophilus okere , , ; tsenay serequeberhan , ; marcien 41 oyekunle re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool ... towa ; and okonda okolo exemplify this hermeneutical orientation in african philosophy. the hermeneutic approach inheres in the application of tools of philosophy to issues regarding the existential realities of the continents, even in the face of globalization. this is in contrast to the ethnophilosophical worldview, which subsists in holding “culture specific views” . a tripartite challenge for defining african philosophy the three challenges that will be discussed in this section are: identity; method and relevance. one thing that is to be shown in the consideration of these tripartite challenges is that the varying approaches or trends in african philosophy are informed or necessitated by the tripartite factors. that is, the tripartite factors provide a unifying ground of operation to the varying approaches. in other words, the tripartite challenges are factors that inform or necessitate the conception of these approaches. it will thus be held here that the characterization of trends for african philosophy can be identified by the attempt at dealing with the intellectual challenges of identity, methodology and relevance. to put in another form, the quantum of efforts by philosophers to opine for a philosophy that is classified as “african”, could be captioned under their various attempts to deal with this tripartite challenge of intellectualism. on identity:much of the debate that starts the discussion about african philosophy is wired around the quest for african identity, that was set at countering the deniability of african philosophy. the quest for identity is given preference more in the need to deal with the challenge of refuting thecolonialculturaldenigrationofafricans andafrican societies. such colonial induced denigration of colonized culture came with theestablishment or western-centric evaluativeparametersforengaging with the africanbeliefsystems. in the face of such eurocentric engagements, the crisis of identity ensued. thus, the factor of identity became germane in the canonization of various trends of african philosophy. on method:the factor of designating a functional method that would be employable for the discipline of african philosophy is another deciding factor for defining african philosophy. method sets at answering the question of what to include as the subject of discussion; what process of enquiry would be adjudged to be suitable for an intellectual engagement; and what research questions would be essential for determining discourse that could pass for african philosophy. on relevance:the quest for relevance is also another deciding factor for characterizing philosophy as an authentic african philosophy. how relevant is the idea put forward in addressing the existential challenges of africa? how relevant is the philosophic postulations to the socio-cultural experience of the africans even in the quest for sustainable development and in the face of globalization? the africancontinent isnotonlypeculiar because ofitspredicaments, since there is no segment of humanity without its own predicaments. however, the african predicament generates conceptual dynamisms which ensure that any concepts and ideas to be applied to the continent 42 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 must have a unique trajectory that facilitates the twin task of self-definition and development. this informs, to a large extent, the imperativeness of the relevance factor. the relevance of an idea, theory or concept towards addressing the existential challenges of africa is not only essential for defining african philosophy, but also informs the positions of the varying trends or approaches to african philosophy. the position of this paper here is that the discipline and practice of african philosophy is better advocated by the engendering factors of identity, methodology, and relevance. this position is in the lieu of the fact that, defining african philosophy based on the oral/written contention between the ethnophilosophical and universalist approaches appears to be a disservice to the discipline of african philosophy. such disservice is noted by bruce janz when he argues that: while philosophers maybe willing to admit that philosophy happens in social contexts, it still about ideas; while it may happen predominantly through texts, it is not reducible to literary theory; while ideas may have been used to justify the power of some over others, it is not simply politics. (janz, 2009, p. 4) although janz employed this quotation in the quest for the “place” for philosophy, what is instructive thereof, is the inherent demystification of the contentious african philosophic debates to the effect of oral against written for of philosophy. one could, thus, hold that while it may not necessarily be the social context or the written text that confers the label “philosophy”, it is not out of place to argue that the three factors of identity, method and relevance appears to be essential in the quest for an authentic philosophy of any segment of humanity, i.e. western, southern, northern or eastern. furthermore, the tripartite factors discussed above could be seen as serving as rallyingpoint for the various positions argued for by the different discernible senses of categorizing african philosophy. be it through the forward-looking and the backwardlooking approach to the conception of african philosophy as noted by safro kwame –, or through the particularist/universalist distinction of adeshina afolayan –; african philosophy could be explained, aptly guided by these three factors. indeed, a clearer understanding is achievable in the conception of african philosophy via the exploration of the intellectual quest inherent in the three factors. one important thing that could also be obtained from the consideration of the three factors of identity, method, and relevance in the conceptualization of african philosophy is that, the tripartite factor informs the interjections ensued in the opinions and postulations of each of the various philosophic schools in african philosophy. it is the observation here, that the quest for identity, method and relevance permeates through each of the african philosophic school in their varying attempts to argue for what is, or otherwise should count as, 'authentic' african philosophy. hence it would be out-of-tune to define african philosophy in the distinctive line of ethnophilosophy/universalism, particularist/universalist, or forwardlooking/backward-looking. nonetheless, such distinctive approaches should be seen as vehicles for carrying home the philosophic message along the line of the tripartite factors of identity, method and relevance. 43 oyekunle re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool ... conceptualizing african philosophy in the light of the tripartite factors, is to see it as a critical exploration of the social constructions of answers to the existential questions of the continent. it is however expected that, answers to the existential questions must be proffered in a manner that recognizes the participatory stance of the continent in the global arena. in other words, in this age of globalization with global challenges of crime; political instability; scientific and technological advancement; epidemics; environmental crisis; to mention a few, it is expected that solutions from any front would have the ability to transcend geographical peculiarities. such ability for ideas to transcend geographical particularity is the quest for 'abstraction' and is essential for objectivity . since all abstraction, as argued by janz is “derivative on the conditions in which ideas form” , the factors of identity, methods and relevance conveys the condition of meaningfulness to the intellectual efforts set at dealing with the existential questions of everyday life of africans. answering such questions objectively requires a reflection that transcends social or cultural boundaries and still being able to hold ties to cultural orientations. engaging existential questions, as experienced in africa, especially along the line of the three factors of identity, method and relevance also shows forth the continental consciousness required for the birthing of philosophy. this is against the background of theurocentric worldviews of scholars of the late enlightenment and early 19 century, who proposed that africans and africa lacks the required quality for philosophizing, namely reasoning: hume ; kant , and hegel , . this denialability and the response thereof holds sway in the philosophical discourse for africa. however, the legitimacy or quality of african philosophy should not be consequent upon the denial of its existence. nor should responses to such deniability be the preoccupation of the practitioners thereof. this is because, to argue for the non-justification of an african oriented reflective and critical thoughts due to the phenomenon of colonialism and the deniability of rationality, is to beg the question of the rational ability of the people of the continent. another fact obtainable from the consideration of the tripartite factors is that african philosophy cannot be divorced from the experience of the continent's interactions, be it forced or willed, with the outside world. to do that is to put forward an african philosophical worldview that is devoid of its existential realities. the question that would arise at this juncture would be that: should the raw materials for the development of african ideas be necessarily carried over from the outside world? i presume not. neither do i opine that african philosophical stance must not sufficiently be without some form of the resultant effect of inter-cultural conversations. this latter point is imperative for the development of an authentic african philosophy, particularly if we consider the importance of oral tradition in african indigenous ideas and the relatively late commencement of written culture in the continent. there was really no form of written african philosophy before the 1940s, when father placide tempels developed his understanding of the bantu people . the absence of writing draws out the importance of oral tradition in african philosophy, which “contains important elements of critique and abstraction which are as philosophical as anything else” . there is, therefore, a need to go 44 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 beyond the deniability challenge as the crux of the discourse, and to begin to examine the interesting and useful ideas that might come from oral traditions, sage individuals, and from the academy. while cultural worldviews may be the raw material for intellectual or philosophical engagements, they remain at best a particularist cultural orientation, until they are made to pass through the crucible of rational enquiry and critical reflection. this attitude is open to humanity in general by virtue of the ability to reason, holding for any set of persons or culture. thus, african philosophy in the attempt to grapple with the nuances of the three factors can be definable on a part-whole relationship between operating in a particular context-oriented form (subjective), and grounding such operations on a general dimension of life realities (objective). the objective and subjective dimension of philosophy it is the position of this research paper that there is a part-whole relationship entrenching on the subjective and objective dimension of philosophy. by the subjective dimension, i means the contextual components of intellectual resources that informs one's particular philosophic view and is based on one's cultural lived experiences. while the objective dimension holds for the basic components of life realities that is not peculiar to a particular section of humanity but is of general experience of all human creatures and cultures. as i would present below, a full grasp of the subjective-objective relationship holds a sound enlightenment towards a proper definition of african philosophy. in his 'to be is to be known', kwasi wiredu has been able to note the perplexity involved in the bid to define “philosophy” (2004). for him, “there is hardly a single question to which there can be said to be an established answer. here not even on the question what philosophy is” (2004, p. 139). to this end it is pertinent to note that philosophy has been defined from diverse points of view. one thing derivable from various definitions of 'philosophy', which would also be instructive to note in my conceptualization of african philosophy, is the relationship between the objective nature of philosophical questions and our subjective approach to them. the question here should be that: is the subjective approach to defining philosophy or addressing any philosophical issue be enough to address such questions? or would it water-down/play down the merit and authenticity of such activities? to hold a positive answer to such a quest will be to give in to extreme relativism, which often informs the popular view that nobody has said the last word in philosophy. why this study will not give in to such idea is that philosophy can become more than just a subjective opining if clear grounds are given for such personal views. on the significance of putting forward one's thoughts with clarity, peter bodunrin argues: when one is putting forward a philosophical thesis, we expect him to state the issues at stake as clearly as possible so that we know what we are being invited to accept. we expect him to argue for his case – [to] show us why we must accept his case . what is deducible hence is that whatever the various positions and opinions from personal points of view are and whatever importance such views may carry, philosophy 45 oyekunle re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool ... remains a field of study where rationality and critical analysis remains the core criteria. one could thus opine that; it is essential that there should be the interplay of a creative analysis of the system of thoughts employs in canonizing any view. thus, despite the open-ended nature of philosophy, we could identify some ideas that inform what philosophy is. i would be considering two ideas of some of the foremost african philosophers. the first is odera oruka's conception of philosophy. for him, “philosophy is an art of reasoning and provides a critical intellectual weapon and methodology for analyzing and synthesizing the basic problems of man, society and nature” . in other words, philosophy is a critical intellectual engagement with the conditions in which people live. for him, therefore, philosophy cannot exist ex-nihilo, but it would be the creative efforts of thought processes in response to the social conditions (oruka, 1997, p. 143). by the understanding of oruka, all that is needed in defining philosophy is to note it as the “intellectual effort to apply concepts and theoretical tools to the benefit of the community” the other definition of philosophy to be considered, is that of kwasi wiredu. for him, philosophy is a systematic reflective thinking on life (wiredu, 2004, p. 1). earlier, in his p h i l o s o p h y a n d a n a f r i c a n c u l t u r e , h e h a d n o t e d t h a t “philosophyisarationalandcrit icalreflectiononthemostfundamentalideas andprinciplesunderlyingourthoughtabouthumanlifeanditsenvironment,natural and supernatural” . this, for him, is the intellectual orientation that any activity must pass to be regard as philosophy. wiredu(1980, p. 32)also believes that philosophy thrives on criticism, and hence the evaluative aspect of the discipline. he claims that without argument and clarification, there is strictly no philosophy ,thus, the philosopher argues forhisthesis,clarifyinghismeaningandansweringobjections,knownandanticipated (wiredu, 1980, p. 47) one thing that could be deduced from the consideration of the two scholars presented above is that philosophy is an activity that is based on reasoning. as a rational discourse, philosophy thrives on the practioners' ability to critically engage with issues, making such engagements worthwhile. another fact deducible from the definitions above is that philosophy could as well thrive on the two dimensions, i.e., objectivity and subjectivity. while the two authors' views harmonize on the idea of philosophy being a rational engagement, their views could however be categorized further on the dimensions of objectivity and subjectivity identified above. oruka's view on philosophy could be seen from the subjective stance. in the sense that the reflective thinking on a particular life, be it asian, african or european, in relation with other numerous life forms of humanity as a whole could be considered as philosophy along the particularist view. for him, philosophy is a response to social conditions, from which such philosophies are generated mainly for the benefit of the community. on the other hand, wiredu's view will be categorized as philosophy from the objective stance. however, this research sees philosophy from the complementary relationships of these two equal dimensions. in other words, it is possible to conceptualize philosophy from the objective dimension as a 46 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 critical reflection on any life forms that exist. also, applying such reflective thinking to a particular form of life is doing philosophy from the subjective stance. my view could be said to be strengthened by gyekye's view that philosophy, being an intellectual activity is of a universal [i.e., objective, in my understanding] practice, which cannot be confined to a geographical location (1987, p. 9). recognizing the importance of the subjective dimension of philosophy, he noted that “answers to philosophical questions provided by thinkers from different cultures may differ in quality [here, though, i express reservation], sophistication, and persuasiveness”. –. furthermore, on the relationship between the two distinct but related dimensions of philosophy as recognized by this paper, gyekye has this to say: when i claim that philosophical activity is universal, i mean simply that thinkers from different cultures or philosophical traditions ask similar philosophical questions and think deeply about them. it is in terms of the philosophical attitude, of the propensity to raise questions relating to the fundamental principles underlying human experience and conduct and not in terms of the uniformity of doctrinal positions, that philosophy can be said to be universal. this approach to certain fundamental questions about human experience is, in my view, the common denominator of all philosophical activities and doctrines . while it is necessary to undertake or consider philosophy from the objective prism, it is insufficient not to also see it as a strand of subjective application. here, i agree with guyo that the objective dimension “is the proper dimension upon which we should ground any particular philosophy regardless of its origin” . philosophy from the objective view would accord any activity in line with its intellectual orientation as 'philosophy', regardless of geographical locations, socio-economic capacities or ethnicity of the people engaging in such intellectual activity. this explains why this i sees both the eurocentric conception of rationality with the deniability of african rationality and the ensuing “response debates” of such discussions, as intellectually prejudiced and conceptually arrogant. this is because any human being may engage in a systematic reflection on life. to hold thus that the “philosophical epoch of humanity began first among the europeans is to undermine the vastness of reflective thinking and nothing but sheer intellectual chauvinism” . my position on the objective dimension is not however oblivious of the fact that such reflective thoughts processes can be made to bear along particular conditions of the originators of such reflective thinking. in other word, applying or making objective conceptions of philosophy to bear upon one's way of life is a subjective dimension of philosophy. without any form of contradiction, one would thus be able to hold that rational and systematic reflection thus becomes a ground upon which particular philosophy i.e. asian, western or in the case of our discourse, african, will be able to stand. also, upon such standing would intercultural communication be visible/possible. however, this does not 47 oyekunle re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool ... necessarily permit that such philosophy should only hold forth only in the threshold of contextual commission. this bias is further noted by janz when he argued that “philosophy must attend to the conditions in which its question[s] arise… this attention does not diminish philosophy's traditional (although never completely fulfilled) striving for universals” . thus, the quest for struggle to contextualize philosophy in the existential question of africa – even on the earlier explored tripartite challenge – and still maintain the abstractness to universality that gave rise to the intellectual dilemma of what african philosophy is. the word struggle is employed here, because the emergence of philosophical discourse in africa seems to be one that let itself out of the shackles of hegemonic enslavement and existential deniability. the denial of african philosophy has itself entrenched in the subtlety of racism. this has also recently been noted as “a denial of humanity to africans” . thus, the early african scholars see the philosophical journey for the continent as the tool for the liberation from the holds of colonialism. it thus becomes instructive to hold that a suitable view of philosophy must be one that would be based upon the objective stance of rationality and critical reflection, and also be able to transcends particularities or its subjective positions. in other words, being able to hold ties with cultural orientations even on the plain of objectiveness would adjudge any philosophy to be efficient. also, for anyone to discard the objective dimension, especially by arguing that it is a western orientation of philosophy is to, in my view, be assigning only to this segment of humanity the objective dimension and this is “tantamount to creeping relativism” which call to question the ability and value of rationality of other humans from the non-western culture . this paper will thus hold that philosophy is a critical, rational reflection about life from the objective dimension without forfeiture of the subjective dimensions of one's lived experiences. philosophy in this view becomes something to be practiced and employed for the particular usage of its practitioners. a sync of critical activity and subjective participation from individual life's orientations such as india, asia, european or african. conception of philosophy in this form is consequent upon the essence of humanity: rationality. consequently, it would be logically absurd to arrogate exclusive ownership of philosophy to any segment of humanity based on material development, colour or race. it is thus my view that african philosophy should be seen from the complementary relationships of the two equal objective and subjective dimensions of philosophy. to reduce philosophy to either of the philosophical strands is to disregard the grasp of the part-whole relationship between them. for instance, while it would be right to agree that philosophy cannot be done in vacuum and as such will be made to bear on the existential realities of the practitioners, to reduce philosophy to such subjective engagements is to create an intellectual hegemony for philosophy itself. this appears to be the challenges of the response debate in african philosophy. the debate, good as it may seems to be as the particularistic engagement of early african scholars to the forms of life of africans, engages in the reduction of the objective dimension of philosophy to a particular form of life and considers it a particular trait reserved for the africans alone. this, i believe, is a reductive exercise that is coloured with the stance of african ethnocentrisms. thus, 48 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 cultural orientation, social conditions, particular traditional dispositions are important in the creative thought processes of philosophizing. however, not to allow such subjective considerations to transcend particularities so as to absorb into the objective ground of thoughts is a distortion and negation of philosophy as a critical engagement. on the other hand, caution is expected also in transcending subjectivity in order not to universalize a particular conceptual idea. this is perceivable in the european discourses of exclusive models of rationality. for guyo, such a worldview is nothing but a “subjective denial of objective ground, that struggles to globalize a particular ethnocentric view” . african philosophy will be seen as a rational and critical activity done on the objective ground without negating its subjective dimensions. for anyone to reject the objective ground on the idea that it is a re-echoing of an intellectual style of certain section of humanity, is to reduce humanity to that particular section of life. the objective ground of philosophy is for any practitioner's, regardless of race or group. to also reduce philosophy mainly to the particularistic view of any culture without the rigors of the objective dimension is to deny the segment of humanity that such particulars seek to represent, (be it asian, african, european or indian) the intrinsic traits of humanity. this suggests that rationality cannot be an exclusive property of any culture or continent. thus, philosophy of any cultural orientation is essentially expected to be enshrined upon the tenets of objectivity—critical, rational and systematic—while still holding ties to its particular forms of life. what this suggests is that it is impossible to detach any philosophy from the practitioners' 'life-process. the term life-process is employed here tomeans the critical engagement with one's immediate environment and the universe as a whole. such critical grasp, be it social, physical, spiritual, scientific or metaphysical are garnered through the respective encounters with various aspects of life which amounts to the gamut of existential realities of life. life-process should be seen to be beyond a people's worldview or opinion, nor to be seen in the light of masolo's concept of “experience” . also, life-process should be seen as the vivid canonization of human's confrontation with the complexity of life. such confrontations may be in the form of spirituality, ethical, scientific or mere expression of bewilderment. yet it sparks of a process that is not particular to any race, colour or form; but a process that is of a universal phenomenon: hinges on the very essential part of humanity; rationality. this is not however oblivious of the fact that such confrontations with the complexity of life despite the stance of humanness, are borne out of the various correlating factors like, geographical location, cultural or social inclinations. such inclinations make naming life processes along the lines of particularities possible. it would thus suffice to note that particular philosophies, i.e., asian philosophy, african philosophy, german philosophy etc., be named along the understanding of life-process. this reveals life-process as the medium of philosophical reflections on every aspect of human existence. such reflections are born out of confrontations with everyday human life. thus, to do philosophy without the consideration of life process would amount to doing philosophy ex-nihilo. it will be instructive to note that philosophy cannot be 49 oyekunle re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool ... detached from the life processes of its practioners; and this is irrespective of the nationality, race, colour or material development. it is little wonder, then, that theophilus okere was of the view that “for philosophy to be african, it must have some expressions of the african life” . this also syncs with the wireduan view that philosophy is a symbiotic function of theory and practice, albeit his view that it is theoretical before it is practical . this paper thus conceptualises “african philosophy” as a subjective presentation of any practitioner's intellectual endeavour to grapple with the african oriented life-process, situated on the objective ground of philosophy. this definition suggests that while any philosophy is expected to be subjectively written and based upon the life process of the author, such philosophies must be grounded upon the objective dimension of philosophy. in other words, i presents african philosophy as one to be understood from the particular african life-process through the objective nature of philosophy. to do african philosophy is to deal with indigenous essential challenges of african life-process on the precepts of objective factors like rationality critical reflection and ethical standards. as we deal with the particularities of african life-process, such engagements would only be philosophy if done in recognition of the basic and fundamental nature of philosophy. indeed, the paper's position syncs with hountondji's view that “the universality of philosophy does not negate its particularity” . conclusion in this paper, the possibility of an analytical reconceptualization of african philosophy have been examined. while conceptualizing african philosophy on the complementary relationship ensuing between the objective and subjective dimension of philosophy, it has been argued that only upon the interrelation of such distinctive but related dimensions would a proper understanding of african philosophy be arrived at. this is because, seeing african philosophy in this format – like any other philosophy of any culture of the world – will give a stance of engaging the existential challenges of africa from an objective point of view. thus, considering the existential challenges of our time as one of the examples of issues borne out of the lived experiences of people's life-processes that requires intellectual engagement, i have been able to make a case for a reconceptualized idea of african philosophy. in other words, having and african orientation in the discourse of any issue is a practical application of the complementary perspectives of the idea of objective and subjective dimensions of philosophy from that african prism. for instance, african political philosophy, or african development philosophy will be aptly considered as a rational and critical discourse on politics or development from the african parlance. it is, thus, in the conception of african philosophy as a resultant of the complementary relationship between objective and subjective dimensions of philosophy even in the quest to grapple with the tripartite challenges, that i believe the orientation of african discourses on any of the perennial existential challenges of the global world could be addresses. to this end i believe 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(2007). philosophy and authenticity. shibboleths: a journal of comparative theory, 1 (2), 72–80. 53 oyekunle re-conceptualising african philosophy as developmental tool ... page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 138 abstract this paper is an expression of the philosophical worries about the meaning, types and modes of prayer in juxtaposition with two major attributes of god: immutability and immensity; then a brief look at the psychological effects of prayer as well as existential responsibility and prayer. the objective of the essay is to show that prayer, first when looked at from the prism of divine attributes seems superfluous and indeed a contradiction to the meaning and nature of god. secondly to argue that the awareness and promise of divine help that prayer brings weakens and dries up human existential responsibility energy, even as the magnitude of prayer-defying problems in the world today, despite intensive prayers against them puts a lot doubt on the efficacy of prayer. it is noted that even though prayer can have a calming effect on the psyche yet that is not the exclusive reserve of prayer. the methodology used is critical exposition of the philosophical problems of religious practice of prayer. the major contribution of the paper is the projection of the philosophical difficulties of reconciling religious practice of prayer with rationality, thus making imperative the need for more pro-reflections on the rational foundations of prayer and indeed religious exercises of theists. keywords: philosophical, interrogation, rationality, religious prayers introduction the concept of prayer one common feature in most religions, especially the abrahamic religions – judaism, christianity and islam is the phenomenon of prayer or supplication. etymologically, the word prayer is from old french prier and even modern french prière translated into english as "prayer, petition, request." it is also from medieval latin precaria feminine of precarius (from precari "to ask, beg, pray" (from 'pie' root *prek"to ask, entreat") meaning "petition, prayer, obtained by prayer, given as a favour." in the (catechism of christian doctrine 141) of the catholic church, it is a communication-the raising up of minds and hearts to god. to pray is to beg, entreat, ask for a favour and petition. prayer in the hebrew bible, as shown in the account of prayer life of the prophets, jesus and apostles, is an evolving means of interacting with god, most frequently through a spontaneous, individual, unorganized form of petitioning and/or thanking. in religion generally, prayer means to talk to a deity or god; the act of praying is a method of changing a situation for the better. the word prayer can also be used in a non-religious way like in begging for a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers stephen azubuike oguji, phd department of philosophy imo state university, owerri 139 something. for example "i pray you'll really listen to my explanation. the concluding addresses or arguments of counsels in a law court before judgement is given are also referred to as prayers. the concept of prayer to be examined here, however, is that of a devout petition to god or an object of worship, a spiritual communion with god or an object of worship, as in supplication, thanksgiving, adoration, or confession. particularly, this paper is concerned with prayer types, modes and contents of prayer religious prayer, which is the subject matter here may be verbalized in speech, demonstrated symbolically through singing and dancing, could be intrinsic as in meditation, could be a person praying wholly or partially. prayers could be rendered in spoken prose or poetry or songs lent to the sentiments of praise, thanksgiving or petition. it could be vivacious, topical and expressive of the spiritual, psychological and emotional state of the petitioner. it can also be litanic, panegyric, praise poem, stylized ejaculation or short invocation. prayer may take two forms: presentation and invitation. prayers are tailored to fit the occasion and the current frame of mind of the one who utters the prayers. hence prayers can be joyful, hopeful, despairing. despite the tone, items mentioned in prayers have personal dimension, a community orientation and universal application.(ndiukwu 243). for (shorter 3) on types of prayer “prayer is basically petition, but thanksgiving is a further expression of man's conscious dependence upon supernatural powers. finally, self-accusation and penitential prayer are used to buttress the petition and reinforce the plea, acting as a form of persuasion.” there are four primary types of prayer in the west as delineated by (poloma and pendleton, 43) utilizing factor analysis: meditative (more spiritual, silent thinking), ritualistic (reciting), petitionary (making requests to god), and colloquial (general conversing with god).further scientific study of prayer using factor analysis has revealed three dimensions of prayer. for instance, ladd and spilka's first dimension was awareness of self, inward reaching. their second and third dimensions were upward reaching (toward god) and outward reaching (toward others). this study appears to support the contemporary model of prayer as connection whether to the self, higher being, or others. in prayer, the people request such things as good health, healing, protection, safety in travelling, prosperity, preservation of life, peace, procreation, marital bliss, forgiveness of sins, and many others. prayers are also made for deliverance from the devil's hold sometimes called exorcism; from sudden death and witchcrafts. the community at large may ask for reign of peace, the cessation of epidemics or pandemics and or other dangers, success in war or raids, acceptance of sacrifices and offerings, wellbeing of humans as well as animal and crops are also presented. for some mystics, prayer may just be a simple awareness of the divine. as “the speech a man pours out before god which must primarily express – whatever immediate purpose the suppliant may have had in mind – the worshippers earnest desire for a revelation of the divine presence and express that presence dialogically. (buber, 52) aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 140 the problem the problem of this paper however is that the rational foundations of the phenomenon of religious prayer is always a source of worry to any discerning or questioning mind. first among the rational difficulties that agitate the mind is whether it makes sense to pray in relation to the theological attributes of god particularly immutability, immensity, and divine providence. breaking down the rational difficulties of religious prayers provokes such questions as: why pray if god by his nature of omniscience already knows and has ordained the future?” how does omnipotent god in answering prayers interfere with this complex and harmoniously functioning world-machine governed by eternal and inexorable laws? also, from the existentialist perspective, the problem of how prayer coheres with existential realities is also difficult. a very fresh example is prayer for better health which does not seem to have paid off as the world has seen epidemics upon epidemic as seen in ebola epidemic and covid 19 pandemic. it doesn't seem that fewer accidents occur in air, water and land travels. there is no more peace in the world as more countries are in civil rife on a kind of general note, the practice of religious prayer is also disturbed by the philosophical problem of evil which essentially can be put thus: if god is all-good and allpowerful as is generally claimed about him: why is there evil (such as diseases, pandemics, injustice, abject poverty, moral weakness, political wickedness, etc.)? why indeed are there situations that warrant or compel prayer? god should want to prevent evil situations if he is all loving and be able to prevent evil situations if he is all-powerful. in this regard some philosophers, in the light of evidence, after reflecting on the problem of evil, conclude that it is either god is not all-powerful and all-good (he is either one or the other) or he does not exist or he does not answer prayer. the objective the objective of this paper therefore is to interrogate the rational foundation of prayer and that way possibly cause or initiate more reflections and debate on the subject. the paper first interrogates rationally how prayer works in relation to the nature of god and secondly the place of prayer in the existential welfare or success equation particularly as is commonly presented in most religious languages or expressions, pointing out clearly how prayer encourages existential irresponsibility. thirdly, the paper also raises some of the philosophically based questions that agitate the mind particularly about whether god actually answers prayer or not in the light of evidence. it is important to note that essentially, this paper is not an interrogation on the existence of god or supernatural forces but is particularly whether human actions, wishes or intentions can move god to a particular direction as is usually claimed in prayers. the point is to understand whether an unchangeable (immutable) and ever present god can be moved to according to prayer statistics of 2021 as published in statisca.com, in a study on frequency of prayer, average of 55% of those surveyed across both developed and developing nations (85% in developing nations and 25% in developed nations) noted they pray at least once a day. despite many religions in the world and their many undeniable prayer sessions for a better world, the world has experienced less peace, more terrorism, more political instability and generally degenerated or stagnated in many spheres of its existence socially, politically, economically and otherwise. oguji a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers 141 act following prayers. not only is god immutable: he alone is immutable, unlike every creatural being that is subject to change. but religious language and acts of prayer seem to have as its starting point, the presupposition that god undergoes change in one form or another; that he realizes his being successively through passage from potentiality to actuality in the process of responding to human prayers. the gamut of religious prayers presents god in a continuous process of becoming, so that some form of reality is always being acquired and lost through change in response to prayers. some philosophical works on prayer the problem of how an immutable god seems to undergo some changes in response to prayer has been a subject of interest for many thinkers. a renowned christian author in mere christianity (lewis, 32) attempted a philosophical discourse on how the power of god relates with the natural world. he delved into how the power of god usually called into action in prayer relates with the laws of nature. he exalts the law of nature which he calls the law of right and wrong as being above and beyond the actual facts of human behaviour. this is where he locates the power of god which transcends the so-called natural laws. for him natural laws regulate the way things are, the power of god determines the way things should be. lewis makes the point that there is a big difference between “the way things are” and “the way things should be” with regard to natural laws like gravity and what he called “human nature.” he drew a distinction between “facts” and “reality.” he said that the law of nature was based on some reality that was “beyond” what we experience in this world. it is based on what he called “a real law.” in another place, he explained, “there is more than one kind of reality.” lewis stated: when you say that nature is governed by certain laws, this may only mean that nature does, in fact behave in a certain way. the so-called laws may not be anything real—anything above and beyond the actual facts which we observe...the law of nature, or of right and wrong, must be something above and beyond the actual facts of human behaviour. in this case, besides the actual facts, you have something else—a real law which we did not invent and which we know we ought to obey. in his thesis, “a philosophical analysis of petitionary prayer”, (haas 78) presented a philosophical analysis of petitionary prayer, from the perspective of one who engages in petitionary prayer on a regular basis. his paper looked at the basis for petitionary prayer from the bible and some traditional thoughts and practices associated with it from the church. even though he delved into some philosophical problems or concerns that are usually raised against petitionary prayer, he did it with a religious bias hence he is caught in the work doing more of apologetics. he merely defended the christian perspectives of the problem of free will/divine providence, the problem of hiddenness, and the problem of god's goodness. again, even though he tried to show that these problems are nonissues when considered from the christian doctrine of grace of jesus christ, yet he failed to show how divine attributes can co-exist with prayers in general particularly traditional religious prayers which can fall into four types: adoration: praising god, contrition: asking for god's forgiveness, petition: asking god for a favour, thanksgiving: showing god gratitude. haas scratched the basic philosophical problems in the practice of aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 142 petitionary prayer, such as: why pray if god has already ordained the future? does praying even make sense to an almighty transcendent god? and, why should one pray to a god who is invisible, silent, and unknown? he did not deal with the issues objectively given his religious and apologetic biases, appealing more often than not to the scriptures. it is evident that both lewis and lauren haas subtly avoided the problem in question, even though they tried to display their ingenuity yet they succeeded in selling their christian biases as the philosophical basis for prayer. generally many reflections on prayer are usually either exhortations or apologetics and thus does not have much for the worries of the philosopher. similarly extracts from the writings of (ahmad and mahdi 230-232) on the power and acceptance of prayer republished from the second volume of essence of islam only talked about prayer from the human perspective. ahmad generally discussed the effectiveness of prayer. he presented prayer more as primordially a human act that elicits a divine response. in trying to show that to supplicate is human and to respond is divine, he wrote: when a child being driven by hunger cries for milk, milk is generated in the mother's breasts. the child does not know what prayer is, but his cries draw the milk. this is a universal experience. sometimes when the mother does not perceive the presence of milk in her breasts, the child's cries help to draw it. then can our cries before god almighty draw nothing? they certainly draw everything. but those sightless ones, who parade themselves as scholars and philosophers, cannot see it. if a person were to reflect on the philosophy of prayer, keeping in mind the connection and relationship which a child has with its mother, he would find it easy to understand. the second type of mercy comes into operation after supplication. go on asking and you will go on receiving. perhaps it was eleonore stump's essay (81) that came close to feeling my pulse in terms of how prayer is a contradiction in terms to the meaning of god. in her essay “petitionary prayer: is a belief in the efficacy and usefulness of petitionary prayer consistent with a belief in an omniscient, omnipotent, perfectly good god?” stump constructed a thirteen part argument to show the difficulty in reconciling petitionary prayer with divine attributes. stump's argument begins with the notion of god's goodness, and works with the notion of god's providence to produce an argument that seemingly destroys the validity of petitionary prayer. it begins with like this. 1.a perfectly good being never makes the world worse than it would otherwise be if he can avoid doing so. 2. an omniscient and omnipotent being can avoid doing anything which it is not logically necessary for him to do.3. an omniscient, omnipotent, perfectly good being never makes the world worse than it would otherwise be unless it is logically necessary for him to do so the argument continues to these premises concerning petitionary prayer: if what is requested in a petitionary prayer is or results in a state of affairs the realization of which would make the world worse than it would otherwise be, an omniscient, omnipotent, perfectly good being will not fulfil that request. if what is requested in a petitionary prayer is or results in a state of affairs the realization of which would make the world better than it would otherwise be, an omniscient, omnipotent, perfectly good being will bring about that state of affairs even if no prayer for its realization has been made. oguji a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers 143 and finally, she ended with these conclusions: .petitionary prayer effects no change. petitionary prayer is pointless. eleonore indeed struck the bone of contention by showing that an omniscient god does not need to be reminded of the best things he would do for his world or an all loving god would do good things for his creature without a request. reconciling this with prayer is my problem. the few available literatures in this area have left many of the questions unanswered. prayer and divine attributes the philosophical problem with prayer, commonest forms of prayer: petition, worship or praise, prayer of penitence etc is that there is the conscious belief that prayers can dispose the supreme god and that way tend to contradict the attributes of the metaphysical god. (aquinas, 1,2,8) defines an attribute as that which follows by natural necessity upon a fully constituted essence. given the essence, the attribute is also given. the attribute always characterizes the essence, since it flows necessarily from the essence. another term for attribute, practically synonymous with it, is property. as the word indicates (i.e.proprium, one's own), a property belongs to an essence in such a manner that it is proper to this essence. thus the power of speech is an attribute or property of man as a rational animal, only an animal can have organs capable of emitting articulated sounds; and only a rational being has ideas which can be communicated to others by means of speech. attributes reveal the underlying essence. since the attributes flow necessarily from fully constituted essence, there exists an intrinsic connection between the attributes and the essence, and so the mind of man naturally goes from knowledge of the attributes to knowledge of the essence itself. when speaking of god, we understand by the divine attributes all those perfections which flow necessarily from the divine and which are found in no other being but god. some attributes of god pertain to his being or essence, and some pertain to his operations. these attributes are absolute, in the sense that they are present in god irrespective of any creatural being. in the context of this paper, among the various divine attributes the ones that are of interest are immutability and immensity. god's immutability and prayer one attribute of god that is difficult to reconcile with prayer is immutability. as the word indicates, immutability is the negation of mutability. mutability (mutation) means capability of change. a thing is said to change when it passes from one state to another. every change involves two things: a subject who acquires or loses something and a reality which is acquired or lost by the subject. theists generally maintain that god is in no way changeable. god is immutable; he does not change as a matter of fact, he is incapable of intrinsic change, he cannot change his mind because he is complete. this immediately comes into conflict with prayers that tend to ask god to change his mind and have mercy, heal the sick, attend to a situation and so on. most prayers generally try to prevail on god to change his mind. in prayer of penitence, that is asking god for forgiveness, for instance, god is asked to change from being angry to being happy just as in prayer of petition, god is made to move in the direction of the petitioner and grant his request. in responding to prayers of penitence or petition there is an intrinsic change in god from aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 state of being angry to being happy. god is made to change from emotions of anger to that of mercy. the picture presented of god is that of a person who gets angry with his creatures when they behave in ways he does not like (even though given his all-knowing nature, he must have known what they would do even before they did it) and feels better and forgives them when they are remorseful. but an absolutely simple god metaphysically speaking is incapable, despite claims of his absolute power, of moral, physical and intellectual change. prayer of petition claims or tries to inform or remind the god who cannot undergo any intellectual change or acquire any new knowledge of their problems. this is a big contradiction. furthermore since god is infinitely perfect, ignorance, whether antecedent or subsequent, must be excluded from him. god therefore, can neither acquire nor lose knowledge, it follows that god cannot be informed of anything as claimed in prayer of petition another disturbing twist to the issue since god is all-loving and knows what is best for his creatures, is the difficulty for him to answer one of his creature's prayers of petition without offending his love for another of his creatures. for instance between the prayers of the sick who is asking god for medication–less healing and the prayer of the medical doctor or pharmacist who is asking god for business growth, which one should god answer? while the sick needs healing to be happy and feel loved by god, the medical practitioners, the physicians and the pharmacists need to attend to the sick to make money and have a business growth. similar difficult situations will god have in dealing with the prayers of the living who is praying for long life or against the so called untimely death and the prayers those businesses revolve around death: coffin makers, mortuary workers, undertakers. again who will god answer between the prayers of the unmarried young lady who earnestly desires to be married to a loving young man and the young catholic seminarian who is asking god to protect his vocation to the celibate catholic priesthood or the barren couple who needs 'fruit of the womb' and the universal fear for the geometric rise in population and its survival consequences for humanity or the farmer who needs maximum rainfall for his crops and the people living in erosion prone areas who don't need rain at all. there are of course many of such difficult situations where god will find it difficult to demonstrate his love and yet answer to someone's petition. the worst seems to be prayer of exorcism or deliverance which seems to present an almighty god as engaging in a conquest with a lower being, the devil over a soul which properly belongs to god. since god is the only and ultimate principle, (with apologies to the manichaeans), even if he didn't create but at least he knows the origin of the devil. how then will he allow 'his creature' to, against his divine will, possess his creature for destructive purposes and then engage in fight with the devil to free this his creature. in deliverance prayer, the devil appears unwilling to free its victim, hence the military nature of such prayers. even prayer of thanksgiving to god for the good he did equally seems redundant because god by nature is all good and cannot act otherwise. it appears unnecessary to thank someone, a being for acting according to his nature; for doing what he is supposed to do, 144 oguji a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers what he cannot even decide not to do given his necessary goodness, and an action that is inexorably his nature. god cannot decide not to love; to hate, not to be a good god. it is essentially in his nature to love and be good to his creatures. even the prayer hypocrisy is most evident when as heard, in some religious gatherings, people are asked to thank god for the good things he did for them which he didn't do for others. we hear such things as 'thank god for keeping you alive as some are presently languishing in hospitals; thank god for this feat you accomplished which many could not even when they put in more effort. in this case, god is presented as a being partial in his love, limited in power and timed by human events all of which are contradictory to his nature. god's immensity and prayer immensity is taken here as that intrinsic attribute of god in virtue of which he is necessarily present wherever any being exists which is not god. this attribute is eternal because it is really identical with god's eternal essence and is independent of whether creatural things exist or do not exist. even if no creatural beings existed, the attribute of god's immensity would be intrinsic to him and would require that he be present to all creatural beings as soon as they began to exist. if god is everywhere and in all beings then he does not need to be informed in any way about any situation in any of the creatural beings. the omnipresence of god contradicts the acts of prayer where god is told, say, the political crisis in a country. hence, what is being established here is not only that god is in every being; but that it is redundant to inform him about any being where he already dwells. prayer as a disservice to existential responsibility existential responsibility is the full awareness and control of one's life without any or serious recourse to the outside world. one is existentially responsible, according to jeanpaul sartre and most other existentialist philosophers, when he becomes aware that the natural concomitant to human freedom is personal responsibility and acknowledges that he is responsible for his failure or success in life. nothing else, including god, is responsible. once this kind of awareness settles in someone, he responsibly pursues the right values of life, makes careful choices or does the right things with full and proper scientific (cause and effect) attitude. . but since different forms of prayer as have been shown seek for divine help purportedly at the end of human ability, then prayer makes those praying lose the sense of being fully in charge or responsible for their lives and that way provides room for existential irresponsibility. prayer does a disservice to the existential responsibility of the praying person, because believing that there is a ready divine help in a situation, instead of tasking his mental resources to deal with the situation believes and expects god to help. it is no surprise then that today, according to statistics released by gallup in 2014, societies that privilege science over religion make more progress as members generally act as if they carry their fate in their hands, not in god's hands. in a study “how religion affects children's judgment of what is real and what is pretend” (kathleen corriveauet al,65) found among other things “that religious children cannot tell fact from fiction….” because they are taught to think that miracles are possible — and so for them, 145 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 a story that includes a miracle is not obviously fictional. non-religious children, that is non-praying children by contrast, receive less encouragement to think that miracles are possible and so for them a story that includes a miracle is likely to be made up. they are thus unaware and unexpectant of any divine assistance and tend to approach life pragmatically while the religious ones, aware and expectant of divine help, live their lives expecting a miracle. many scientists have regarded the history of miracle in religion as history of superstition, gullibility and fraud. prayer thus deceives those who pray into believing that wellbeing in many areas of life – finance, relationship, health, fruitfulness is more of a function of divine activity than the existential choices made, life styles, economic priorities and general cause-effect existential processes. prayer distorts and in fact destroys the sense of respect for the laws of nature by misdirecting the energy of expectation from the individual to something outside of him and in that way fertilizes mental laziness, dwarfs the person's development-consciousness and reduces the ability to reason scientifically and assume responsibility for his life. (anele 34) argues that religious or praying minds quickly lose the foundation capacities for fostering human and national development in the following words: are prayers answered? the next problem with prayer is that it appears a waste of human time, energy and attention in comparison with its outcomes. on the efficacy and potency of prayer to change human conditions to the better, my experience and feeling is that prayers are not usually answered as much as man prays. the magnitude of evil and discomfort in the human world does not in any way attest to the amount of prayer against such. god does not seem to respond to prayers, at least as compared to the amount of prayers made to him in different religions in different parts of the world. in 1872, francis galton, as reported by (richards 337) used statistical analysis of empirical patterns to refute the belief that prayers evoke miracles. his studies showed that in spite of their prayers, the clergy lived no longer than physicians or lawyers; that ships with missionaries sank as often as others; and that religious lands had their full share of evil. galton's studies conclude that there is no good evidence to hold the position that prayers make any difference in the outcome of human affairs, that those who pray more have again on what prayer can do to the psyche, your reality scans in the fields of neurotheology and neuroscience show that people who spend untold hours in prayer or meditation go dark in the parietal lobe, the brain area that helps create a sense of self. researchers -andrew newberg and richard davidson say these people may be rewriting the neural connections in their brains — altering how they see the world. newberg and davidson 45 have scanned and imaged the brain of a methodist minister mcdermott, some monks of both christian and sikh religion and some franciscan nuns when they engaged in intense prayer for more than a decade and found out according to newberg “that the more you focus on something whether its maths… or football or god – the more that becomes your reality, the more it becomes written into the neural connection of your brain.” he noted that there is increased brain activity during prayers. 146 oguji a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers more advantage over those who don't; that those who are religious suffer less evil than those who are not. evil befall both the religious and the non-religious alike. when large scale earthquakes happen in an area, it does not select its victims. churches are not spared. religious and non-religious societies experience bad leaders; citizens of both societies die in accidents. they slip off to their passion if unchecked, they fail their exams if they refuse to prepare well. praying ladies do not find love if they are asocial and do not enhance their feminine appeal, businesses of praying people fail if they do not work hard, criminals attack them if the society is bad, epidemics visit both the praying and the nonpraying ones if they are not vaccinated, they divorce in their marriages if they refuse to work on their relationships, they go childless if they are impotent, they die in childbirth if the pregnant women refuse to follow doctor's advice and so on. what difference then does prayer make? th what francis galton did in the 19 century was modeled by templeton foundation in 2005 as reported by (mcgee 67) when it funded a study by providing $2.4 million to see how large scale praying might affect patients recovering from heart surgery. about 1,800 patients at six different hospitals were divided into three groups at each hospital. two of these groups did not know whether they were going to be prayed for or not. one of these two in fact did not receive prayers, the other did. a third group was told they were indeed going to be prayed for as they were. three large religious groups, two of the catholic and one protestant were enlisted to pray for 14 days for two of the three groups totaling 1,200 patients, 600 of whom knew the prayers were being offered for them. at the end of the two weeks, the relative health of the members of each group was evaluated by teams that did not know who was to have received prayers and who did not. when the numbers were all properly crunched, the outcome was rather unimpressive. those who were prayed for fared no better than those who were not. one odd result as (barnes 117) noted those who had been told explicitly that they were going to be object of prayers did slightly worse than the others. perhaps hearing that a massive number of prayers were to be made on their behalf, some have speculated, made these patients more fearful that they were in the direst need of prayer, which in turn made them more pessimistic about their health. ost times prayers are blatantly not answered, even the ones from the most beloved of god. any honest person who prays will attest to this. there are many very religious people who are extremely poor which is a complete anti thesis to their wishes and prayers; many of such who are childless or who want certain sex of children boy or girl who cannot get it. many survivors of auto crashes or air crashes have shared their stories of the amount of prayers made as the accidents were about to happen and yet they happened. god most times seems to be absent when he is most called upon in prayers. when prayers are not answered, as is most times the case, we philosophize: god knows the best; who knows what would have been the case if…', we did not have enough faith, we are not tithing enough, we prayed in sin and so it is yet difficult to establish that praying for something has an effect on its specific outcome, whether it be for health, prosperity etc. m 147 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 on. yet all around us we see those who do not care about god and consequently who do not pray enjoy most of the goodies of life sought in prayer: 'sinful' prayerless couples having children as they want, and the sex they want, non-tithing people getting richer just by observing simple financial rules. certainly, there are claims of prayers being answered or miracles happening, but as hume and others would say, these may be mere coincidences, claims that would disappear when subjected to critical scientific analysis. prayer appears to have health implications on the psyche. empirical studies suggest that mindfully reading and reciting the psalms (from scripture) can help a person calm down and focus. three main pathways to explain this trend have been offered: placebo effect, focus and attitude adjustment, and activation of healing processes. when people pray with focus they become more centered and gain better view of the world . this makes them feel calmer and in some people it lowers their blood pressure, he who supplicates god at the time of difficulty and distress and seeks the resolution of his difficulties from him achieves satisfaction … from god almighty provided he carries his supplication to its limit. even if he does not achieve the purpose of his supplication, he is bestowed some other kind of satisfaction and contentment by god. (mcgee, 67) however the argument that prayer plays an important psycho-therapeutic role, gives assurance, calmness and serenity of mind which helps the praying person not to surrender in the face of the distressing circumstances of life can still be challenged because there are also other ways one can get the same calming or 'opiate' effect kudos to karl marx. drug, yoga, committed sexual intercourse, meditation, good human relationship, counseling and so on can produce the same effect even though momentary just as the calmness that prayers brings is also momentary. the american psychologist james h. leuba (1868–1946), in a psychological study of religion, accounts for mystical experience psychologically and physiologically, pointing out certain drug-induced calming experiences. william james was also interested in mystical experiences from a druginduced perspective, leading him to make some experiments with nitrous oxide and even peyote. one component of prayer that brings calmness and hope, that requires further comment, is the meditative component. meditative prayer causes momentary shifting of attention away from habitual or customary modes of thinking and perception, in order to permit experiencing in a different way. meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness characterized by a loss of awareness of extraneous stimuli, one-pointed attention to the meditation object to the exclusion of all other thoughts, and feelings of bliss. but since there are also drugs, as noted earlier, that can bring the same calming effect, then it is not the exclusive reserve of meditation. however, one benefit that has been attributed to prayer from experience, as some studies suggest, is psychological health benefits, even if momentary. and the prevailing situations makes them feel better, feel hope or feel loved as it calms the brain by increasing frontal lobe activity, focus and intentionality. the feeling of release that comes with prayer is articulated below: a recent study by medical news today found that religion activates the same reward-processing brain circuits as sex, drugs, and other 148 oguji a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers addictive activities. it is not necessary therefore, following the principle of parsimony of william of ockham therefore, to invoke extra ordinary solutions, such as prayers for what has natural solutions. conclusion the philosophical problems of prayer is that it is difficult to explain how god answers prayers without losing his nature; without passing from one state to another state acquiring or losing some reality. if god hears my petition for instance, it simply means he does not possess it (the knowledge of what i told him) already and acquires the information by means of change from ignorance to knowledge. hence if god could acquire some reality, he would of necessity, have to be mutable which is a contradiction to his nature is. since he is immutable, he cannot acquire any knowledge hence he cannot hear prayer, nonetheless answer it. the same consequence follows from the infinite perfection of god. if god could acquire reality by means of change, he would not be infinitely perfect before the change; he would certainly be more perfect if he did not acquire it but possessed it already. this same argument holds with the necessity of god's immensity. his presence is not to be conceived as a potentiality of some sort, but as the fullness of the divine being required. this negates in every sense, the practice of calling the attention of god to a situation, say to heal, to help and so on. the mysterious nature of his presence everywhere and in every being says this. again, it has also been argued that the practice of prayer shifts responsibility as those who pray tend to be existentially irresponsible as they expect help from god. even though it has been acknowledged that prayer calms me down, gives some sense of spiritual anchor, a sense of hope yet it is also argued that there are other ways of inducing such feelings. to wrap up while this paper does not discourage prayer as such, yet it calls for more reflections on the content, types and modes of prayers. the work should generally elicit modifications of the words and content of religious prayers in order to straighten things out in the relationship between rational self and believing self. works cited aloysius ndiukwu, authenticity of belief in african (igbo) traditional religion: a critical appraisal in the light of christian faith, wurzburg: european university studies, 2012. ayyam-us-sulh, ruhanikhaza'in, vol. 14, eng. trans in essence of islam, vol.2 clive staples lewis, mere christianity, new york: scribner, 1952 anele, “how religion underdeveloped nigeria”. retrieved from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/12/religion-underdeveloped-nigeria-1/ elenore stump, “petitionary prayer,” american philosophical quarterly, vol. 16, no. 2 (april 1979): 81, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/20009745 (accessed 15 april 2012). daniel 149 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 glenn mcgee and arthur kaplan, “playing with god: prayer is not a prescription” the american journal of bioethics. 2007 catechism of the christian doctrine, no. martin buber, thoughts on god, london. oxford, 1945. michael horace barnes, understanding religion and science, new york: continuum, 2010 paige haas, “a philosophical analysis of petitionary prayer” unpublished thesis submitted to the faculty of religious studies, baylor university in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the honors program thomas aquinas, summa theologica, rome.uup, 1975. robert richards, darwin and the emergence of evolutionary theories of mind and behaviors, chicago: university of chicago, 1987. ……..the journal of speculative philosophy vol. 16, no. 1 january, 1992. poloma pendleton, psychology of religion, new york: urwin,1999 150 oguji a philosophical interrogation of the rationality of religious prayers page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract the worldview created by an african creativity is definable in terms of aesthetic qualities and continuum where contradictions and oppositions form a coherent whole. consequently, cognitive and moral values interact in significant ways to provide us with a non –essentialist conception of art as showcased in emotan (uwaraye) sculpted artform. this paper examines the social-cultural significance of the object of artistic significance via the figural statute of emotan artform and to explain the concept of beauty in bini worldview, for the purpose of this study, the hermeneutical method is employed. the paper is of the view that the statues of emotan erected in some strategic locations in nigeria is not merely decorative, representational, formalistic or for entertainment, rather the artform of emotan celebrates the fundamental moral category of african humanism, honesty, hard work , truthfulness, loyalty and hospitality. one central argument in this paper is that sculptural symbols and statutes constitute the insignia of cultural and aesthetic epitome of cherished african values. the paper is of the view that character-based ethics is one essential contribution africa has made towards humanistic cultural universalism. keywords: african aesthetic, beauty or beautiful, bini worldview, ontology, value introduction plato assigns to the philosopher the task of attaining reality-the essence of things-rather than appearance of things as they seem to be .since plato's time, philosophy has meant “a reflective and reasoned attempt to infer the character and content of the universe, taken in its entirety and as a single whole, from observation and study of the data presented by all its aspect.”(fuller,1945:1) the full field of what might be called “aesthetics” is a very large one. aesthetics as a branch of philosophy studies artistic values and concepts. in conjunction with ethics, it forms part of the division of philosophy known as axiology (the theory or science of values).while ethics is concerned with moral values and standards, aesthetics “is concerned with artistic values and with the nature of beauty and art.”(ome, 2012:1) the form in which the object of an art assumes and presents a symbolic depiction of its beauty patterns.(olubunmi,2020:166) through a display of the formal properties of an object, the appeal to sense experience is essentially relayed in the physical. in line with the above, man's aptitude is capacitated to formulate, to interpret, among other things, his language and culture in general. the aesthetic interpretations of what happens around man have always led man to be described as “homo faber (a working animal), homo religiosi (a religious animal), homo loquen (a speaking animal and homo beauty and community living: an insight into the ontological significance of emotan sculpted artform osawaru, osamede christopher university of benin, benin-city, edo state, nigeria. 182 symbolicus (a symbolic animal)”. (etim,2013:13)all these ascriptions are possible because of man's capacity to create and interpret his environment and the events that goes on in it aesthetically, which often have generated serious metaphysical, epistemological and logical issues given its esoteric nature and its association with symbolism and its integration with beliefs, be it in civilized, non-civilized, developed or underdeveloped cultures. the aesthetic type of reaction to symbols of art and artifacts is practically a universal characteristic of human experience. even the primitive man aspires towards the beautiful; he expresses his aspiration in decoration, ornamentation, dance, and music, and the civilized man objectifies this aspiration in his more artistic creations. (cunnigham,2011:217) wherever a civilized society is found the aesthetic interest ramifies profoundly through the warp and woof of it. artistic value of artefacts can only be appreciated by a thorough understanding of the works that possess them. thus if we are appreciating something as belonging to the art form-sculpture, we are ipso facto appreciating it as art. in an african setting, artworks are made for several purposes such as therapeutic, religious, cultic, cultural entertainment, educational, ethically explicit etc. this paper attempts to explore a non-essentialist conception of aesthetic value as we consider the aesthetic significance of emotan sculptural artform. in essence, a summative understanding of the value of artefacts affirms the existence (non –aesthetic) artistic value. the idea of african aesthetic why do we have to talk about african aesthetics? we are talking about african aesthetics because “philosophy seeks to establish order among the various phenomena of the surrounding world and it traces their unity by reducing them to their simplest elements”(onyenwuenyi,1976/77:515) we can talk about african aesthetics because african culture has its own “standards of value in judging art”; its own “general principles” in explaining the value of any work of art.(onyenwuenyi,1999:593) african has his own view of life which is regarded as the starting point of philosophy, our knowledge of life is above all contained in certain and cultural views of the world which play a prominent role in philosophy. that philosophy of art is universal does not mean that all aestheticians should employ similar standards of value in judging art, to know how a people view the world around them is to know how they evaluate life and this provide a guide to their behavior, consequently, this is leading to discussing the idea of african aesthetics in this section of this paper. african aesthetics perspective clearly or indirectly expressed partly in various forms of oral tradition that contains deep aesthetic insights which reflect the prevalent principles and canons of african”s artistic creativity, criticism, and evaluation. and some african everyday words signifying sense of beauty are intertwined with what is normally adjudged good, proper and appreciable in the african world. by way of definition, therefore, njiofor defines african aesthetics as a “branch of african philosophy—is the normative science of beauty in nature and art, in other objects, and in living experience in 183 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 line with african culture and tradition and ideals of the community for the well-being of all”(njiofor,2018:32) .the term african aesthetic refers to the african perception and appreciation of the nature, beauty, and value of artistic expressions or representations of african origin. it is embedded in the plurality of african cultures and embodied in people's practices within their lived african societal contexts. african aesthetics is drawn from the diverse geographical, environmental, historical, cultural, religious, or spiritual experiences of african peoples and which it also relates with. it is therefore a significant component of african people's tangible and intangible cultural heritage that simultaneously affirms their diversity and reinforces their cultural unity. (ibid) it provides symbolic representations that communicate what it is to be an african to future generations on the continent and in the diaspora. most africans in the diaspora have retained some of their traditional aesthetic elements, which are exhibited in their dress, hairstyles, ornamentation, music (song and dance), and artworks. these various artefacts are symbolic elements defining and sustaining their identity and origin. in the african aesthetic mindset, many reasons undergird the african work of art whether visual, musical, kinetic, poetic, contemplative, spiritual or other non-visual arts. there is always a sense of purpose in whatever the african does. his paintings are informed by traditions, superstition, religion, folklores, conquests, history, etc. art works whether as in building, dress, dance, carving, horticulture, tattooing, theatre, war, etc., are informed by concepts like peace, love, friendship, courage, toughness, strangeness, hospitality, vision, religiosity, harmony, unity, moderation, etc.(ibid.) on the negative side, it may be to inspire fear, hate, rebellion, hostility, wickedness, blood thirsty-ness, aggressiveness, invincibility, etc. the works of art are both emotional and expensive; they are also unique and individual, as they also gain spread and commonality over time. what i am trying to say is that whatever the africans do in terms of arts creation is solely to satisfy some kind of need whether aesthetic, religious, moral or physical. the african concept of aesthetics is predicated on the fundamental traditional belief system which gave vent to the production of the art. now art is usually seen as human enterprise concerned with the production of aesthetic objects. thus, when a people in their leisure time try to produce or create objects that they consider admirable, their sense of aesthetic value is brought to bear. if we see art as being concerned with the production of aesthetic objects, then we can truly say of african aesthetic that it gives aesthetic awareness, knowledge and create a kind of sensitivity about the artistic expressions of the african people which is embedded in the feelings and imagery that these works of art presents and is immensely rich in african culture.(bewaji,2012:243) the notion of beauty in bini thought system beauty is traditionally and universally held as the central concept in an aesthetic experience. different cultures hold different conceptions. the objects that are traditionally considered worthy of sustained appreciation and enjoyment in benin aesthetics includes sculpture, music, dressing, dancing, carving and dancing. but they 184 osawaru beauty and community living: an insight into the ontological ... include many more; that is to say, the focus of benin aesthetics is wider, its concerns much greater. benin aesthetics considers the beautiful to include more in the life of a person than events, scenes, and works of art; it deals also with the standards of value in appraising other aspects of human life and culture, such as humanity itself and morality. beauty is a combination of qualities that gives pleasure to the senses or to the mind. it is a pleasing or attractive feature about an object or somebody. beauty is seen not only in works of art but also in the physical characteristics or qualities of the human being. it can be internal or external. the expression of aesthetics among the benin's covers many artistic forms also. these include expressions that comes in sculpture, paintings, carving, metal works, and architecture, etc. the benin conception of beauty can be understood both internally and externally, beauty has two realities, the outer /extrinsic beauty (osê êgbê) and the inner /intrinsic beauty (ekhoe ose) outer beauty has to do with the surface quality of things or outward appearance in general. inner beauty (ekhoe ose) refers to the intrinsic worth of things. in man, ose egbe is frequently implied in the word “uyinmwen” meaning character, while in the object is implied in the word ogialo meaning functional utility. in benin aesthetics, ose (beauty) is synonymous with oma (good) what lacks ose (beauty) is simply enwin nema(something bad). ose(beauty) in benin thought system is attributed to osanobua (god)who is believed to be the moulder of man's physical feature. as it is in most parts of africa, beauty in benin thought system is interconnected and interrelated, whether to the physical or to the spiritual. this is because life force tends to link everything together. this is what azenabor, referred to as the unitary culture of the people which shows that the society is a network of relations.(azenabor,2002:62) the benin's believe that osanobua is the god of beauty. this is contained in the benin story of creation which holds that osanobua was vested with the power of creation and in the process created many things of which beauty was part of it. the study of beauty as it is conceived in benin can be explained easily when linked to the cultural experiences and worldview of the people. it is impossible and a futile effort for anyone to focus on a specific point when it comes to benin cultural experience because of the vital relations among things. for anyone to understand benin aesthetic experience one must understand properly and deeply benin mythology, religion, ontology, language, social and political doctrines as well as the benin theory of knowledge, hence to understand the concept of beauty among benin people, one must have background knowledge of their culture. the benin's do not see the world as something separate and detached, rather they see the world as a whole, a coherent unit where the spirits, the ancestors, the living and the dead interact. the universe according to momoh “is permeated with both the visible and the invisible beings such as god, man, ancestors, reincarnation, life after death, beliefs, institutions, practices and so forth.” (momoh, 1998:30) similarly, dukor argued that africans (benin inclusive) believe that everything that exist is a force and that none of them can exists in 185 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 isolation. (dukor,1994:20) for them there is a lifeforce that tends to link everything together, there is no way one can talk of any issue in particular as distinct from another issue, the african mode of cognition is said to be holistic. the ontological order is according to mbiti, anthropocentric, it is a complete unity…an ontological holism.(mbiti:1969:15) the next section of the work will give a detailed explanation of how inner beauty connects with outer beauty in the life and times of emotan, a benin heroine. emotan sculpted artform: in praise of beauty and power emotan is depicted in history as a not too successful personality in her life-time. she lived in the benin city of the fifteenth century, in the reigns of oba ohen and his children. she died before ewuare ascended the throne. she made no success of wifehood, and was not known to have been blessed with the responsibilities of motherhood. she even failed to be re-accommodated by the family extended system of her village community when her marriage to her benin city husband came to an end with his death. emotan was born in eyaen village, not far from the present-day aduwawa cattle market on the benin-auchi road in benin-city. her name at birth was uwaraye. when she grew up she was married off to a benin city chief, azama, of ihogbe district. she was the second wife to the chief. azama's first wife was a lady called arabe. arabe was a capable personality in all the departments of wife-hood. she was the one who gave birth to all the children of the household. her husband heavily depended on her for the good management of the home. young uwaraye, on the other hand, did not make much of an impression on her husband. she failed to become pregnant, contenting herself with helping to tend the growing children of arabe. she was also rather slow in the kitchen, forcing her husband to nickname her emitan: "lazy-bones!" the nickname stuck, and in the course of time metamorphosed into the word "emotan".(aisien,2015:90) emotan was good though at some other chores. she was an expert in the preparation of evbarie, the soup-pot seasoning prepared from fermented melon seeds. she was also a notable spinner, spinning the sheerest cotton threads from the cotton bolls which came from the farm.(ibid.) as arabe's children grew up and lent helping hands to the two wives regarding the household's domestic chores, emotan was able to devote more time to her trading activities at the oba market. when her husband azama died, emotan was left with no other life than her already well-developed trading life. her parents had long since died and she could not return to eyaen village. she moved with her wares to the oba market, and there, opposite the market created an abode for herself. in addition to the evbarie condiment which she produced and sold she also became a dealer in the kemwin-kemwin merchandise, keeping an "odds and ends" mart where were to be found all sorts of saleable items, ordinary and esoteric, including red parrots' feathers, dried python heads, fat from boa constrictors, and stones from the gall-bladders of elephants. mothers who came to the oba market with their young would frequently ask emotan for her child-minding services while they did their buying and selling in the 186 osawaru beauty and community living: an insight into the ontological ... market. emotan would usually oblige them.(aisien,2015:91) occasionally such a child under her daycare would take ill. emotan would thereupon become an emergency paediatrician until the loudly grateful mother would surface from the recesses of the market. it was there, in her abode by the oba market that history caught up with emotan, in the person of prince ogun, later oba ewuare the great. she provided succour and shelter for prince ogun during the period of the prince's pre-succession travails. her abode became a listening post where ogun gauged the prevailing public opinion in the town, in his efforts to gain the throne of his father.(ibid.) it was in this house by the market that the conspiracy to topple the usurper oba, uwaifiokun, from power was hatched by ogun and emotan. from there the prince sallied forth to meet oba uwaifiokun who was in a procession to the oba market. ogun slew his junior brother the oba, a deed which cleared the path for him to take over the throne of oba ohen their father. the killing ended the crisis of succession to the kingship of the kingdom and ogun marked it by giving himself the titular name: ewuare: "the heat has abated"(aisien, 2015:92-93). emotan died soon after oba ewuare's accession. as a childless woman, her chattels were inherited by the oba, who buried her in her house by the oba market. later the king marked her grave by planting an uruhe tree over it. the king ordained that honour be done at the site, to her memory, by any celebratory procession in the city.(ebohon,2010:140) the processions which do honour to emotan, there at the oba market include those of the ennobled citizens, and the isoton procession of the funeral ceremonies of a deceased citizen, obsequies by which his or her offspring transform their dead parent from a mere mortal to a god, complete with an altar in the home where he or she is henceforth worshipped and propitiated.(ibid.) the aikaeronmwon, the royal jester, is the personage at present in charge of the emotan shrine, and to him belong the gifts made at the shrine by the celebrants who call visiting. the uruhe tree which oba ewuare planted over emotan's grave lived for over three hundred and fifty years. it fell with age during the reign of oba osemwende. osemwende replaced the fallen tree with another uruhe tree, about one hundred and fifty years ago, and supported the new tree with a companion iroko tree. these two trees flourished at the shrine for one hundred years until they both fell, during a severe storm fifty years ago.(aisien,2015:93) oba akenzua ii, with the co-operation of the british colonial authorities replaced the fallen trees with a life-sized bronze statue of a young woman, moulded after a miniature model cast in igun street, benin city. the life-size figure was cast in britain, and financed by the british council. it was erected over emotan's grave in 1954. (aisien,2015:93) 187 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 emotan sculpted artform: the physical and symbolic celebration of inner beauty in benin aesthetics the aesthetic judgment about one's beauty or the moral judgment about one's goodness is understood as something that supervenes on certain descriptive features or facts about a person, a person's character, actions or behavior .these features and facts define what it means for a human being to be beautiful as opposed to other objects. the benin concept of beauty (ose) is synonymous to character (uyinmwen). as demonstrated by uwaraye(emotan). by definition, character is the intrinsic goodness of a person, unfolding in actions that can be described as either good or bad .it is made of up of traits , that is to say, a set of stable qualities, virtues that are within, which influence outward actions. “moral virtues that are (excellency of character) are the intrinsic qualities and the subject matter of character. they include the general virtues like honesty, courage, diligence, fellow-feeling, empathy, sympathy, humility, justice temperance and so on.” (oyebade & azenabor, 2018:42) beauty does not end in the outer or physical features; there is a place for morality and responsibility which counts as beauty. among the benin's a beautiful person is admired but ose(beauty) is nothing without the inner beauty known as uyinmwen. uyinmwen means character or essential nature, uyinmwen can also be called as (ekhoe ose) which means the beauty that comes from the inside, that is the inner beauty. this notion of inner beauty becomes more than metaphorical and itself takes on the character of a moral attributes. the person who is outwardly beautiful but inwardly ugly may be admired first, but as soon as the inward ugliness resurfaces the person becomes repulsive. the ugliness or beauty of the inner person is attributed to the nature of one's character. the external physical beauty is presumed to mean moral beauty until it was recognized by others as immoral. this could also be in coherence with the western saying of "not judging a book by its cover". a person is morally evaluated according to his or her uyinmwen(character) whether good or bad .a miser(oghwindamwen) is an uyinmwen nema(bad character), a generous person (oziemwinobo) is an uyinmwen noma(good character). a gentle person is an uyinmwen no giamudede,(an attractive character worthy of emulation) a short tempered, aggressive person ( nohunmum) is an uyinmwen nowegbe (harmful character)it is interesting though that each of these evaluations has an adjective attached, suggesting that ose may be good or bad, gentle or tough, generous or stingy. the original meaning of ose(beauty) is “the fact of being, living or existing”. so ose(beauty) means existence, ose(beauty) as character is there a derivative from this original. in its original meaning the perfect ideal ose is nehi iwu (immortality). hence the saying “neghi iwu gie ose ma” (immortality complete existence or immorality is perfect existence). however, ose as character and ose as existence do not just have a homophonous relationship they are also related by etymology and one appear to be a derivation of the other ose existence, has a strong connection with ose as character. the benin expression depicts their understanding of existence itself as constituting beauty, while the cognate expression uyinmwen o ghe ughegbe egbe (good character – good 188 osawaru beauty and community living: an insight into the ontological ... existence is an adornment to human being) depicts the significance attached to good character. both concepts of ose are therefore important for our understanding of benin moral ideas, and attention is normally paid to them in traditional pattern of moral education.(gbadegesin,1991:303) the saying that states that “uyinmwen o gho ose” meaning 'character is beauty' is usually demonstrated in benin art forms such as in proverbs, music, poems, films, storytelling and oratory, all these are didactic in character as they represent beauty in their own forms. they are meant to inculcate in persons, good behavior both at personal and institutional levels. the illustration of the connection between goodness and beauty in african traditions with examples from the benin cosmology and milieu is further buttressed with this understanding that “in ordinary, everyday benin discourse the term most frequently mentioned of fundamental relevance to aesthetic concern is ose, which is normally translated into english as “beauty”. but rather than being primarily associated with the arts or craft, its most common usage, as might be expected, is with reference to human beings”(hallen,2000:45) this idea of beauty as it applies to humans, involves an aesthetic judgment, which is not simply a judgment on one's physical features, but a judgment about one's moral qualities and social ability to behave in acceptable ways in order to meet one's social-moral obligations. such judgments are based on communal values and standards of behavior. the idea of beauty is morally constituted and embedded in a community, social environment, cultural beliefs or traditions, which indicate the normative standards, value commitments, social obligations, interpersonal relationships, and mutual dependencies. it is on the basis of these that one is identified and defined as a 'morally beautiful person' which makes one a person in a vigorous sense. thus the essence of the benin view of the connection between the goodness and beauty of a person is that character is a normative necessary condition for a person to be truly and strictly considered beautiful, and to be evaluated as a beautiful person one can infer that such a person has element of character, and that one who lacks character cannot be described as a truly beautiful person. an individual's action or character is the 'artistic creation' that is responsible or sensitive to the community and its values. this-process of 'character creation' by the individual, which is shaped by the community and its values, requires acculturation and alteration of communal values. one's actions in relation to one's character are aimed at achieving communal goals and interests, on which individual interests and needs depends. as we examine the lifestyle demonstrated by emotan, one can deduce that she possesses the character that is worthy of emulation which in many ways have endeared her to the hearts of the binis because of her courage to stand for the truth with no string attached. the aesthetic and ontological significance of emotan sculpted art form the emotan sculpted art form is very important in the artistic terrain of the benin's; it is often grandiose, noble, intimate and intricate. it helps to record the history of the benin's as they chronicle their times and epochs and it serves as momentous and memorials, 189 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 endearing monuments to and of the time, as well as commemorating for posterity and for self-achievements or the travails of the people as they journey through the ages – that is, as they undergo the necessary transition through space and time. this sculpted art form is very symbolic as it has influence the aesthetic and cultural lifestyle of the people .culture plays an important role in the cognitive understanding of reality and “unless one is intimately familiar with the ontological commitments of a culture, it is often difficult to appreciate or otherwise understand those commitments”(brown,2004:160) therefore, it is important we understand the benin cultural and ontological conceptions of reality to enable us understand the benin's approach to aesthetics as depicted in emotan sculpted artform. central to the traditional benin thought system is the idea that there are ancestral spirits whose intentions we can know. ancestral spirits are individuals who once lived in our physical world. though they are now physically dead, they are still capable of initiating actions on their own; such actions of theirs have intended consequences on our physical world. having the knowledge of their intentions “provides grounds for unending physical occurrences”(brown,2004:158) this implies that for the benin's there is more to reality than what is within the realm of empirical inquiry. according to brown, “a fundamental tenet of traditional african culture is that there is more to reality and to the realm of the experience than that which is readily accessible through empirical inquiry, and that one can acquire an understanding of natural phenomena by appealing to experiences whose characterizations are not empirically confirmable but are nonetheless warrantably accessible.”(brown,2004:159) the point here is that there are spiritual components of nature that influence human experience and perception. therefore, when a phenomenon is not readily explainable by empirical verification, it can be explained by the causal efficacy of the spiritual components of nature. by 'spiritual components of nature' we mean incorporeal components that have consciousness. that means they have an awareness of nature as much as humans have. and they equally have the capacity to respond to perceptions. this analysis by brown represents the african ontological cultural view of reality and by extension that of the benin's which fundamentally is different from the western ontological and cultural view of reality. the fundamental teaching of western culture is that science is the primary determinant of what is real and what is not real. anything that cannot be confirmed or supported by empirical means is considered a metaphysical fantasy or mere superstition. the beauty of benin sculpted art works can convey various feelings and messages to the casual observer. however, true appreciation can only be arrived at through an understanding of the culture and environment that influenced the art. it is in line with this understanding that this paper engages in the examination of the emotan sculpted art form and its holistic beauty upon which a safer moral belief is based, one that can form a better basis for human interaction with the object of artworks. it also highlights the nature and 190 osawaru beauty and community living: an insight into the ontological ... fundamental assumptions of this artefact by evaluating the intrinsic and aesthetic significance of this sculpted art form. in benin, aesthetic value has evolved through interpretation and representation of spiritual and religious iconography, art and relationships between the physical and spiritual state are manifested in many types of expression including painting, sculpture, literature, dance, dressing, architecture, and music. benin creation stories and other spiritual myths are repeatedly portrayed across the genres of art and life and the resemblances of life and love to these stories are imbued with aesthetic beauty. one significant and common feature of what aestheticians call works of art or art object have their expressive power, symbolic effects and functional importance, particularly as systems of information and communication among indigenous people. aestheticians rely in some ways on sculpted art forms as aspects of visual arts in material culture that reveal the essence and sense of the being of a people and their practical experiences, exposing the different levels of identity and human beings relationships with spiritual beings and natural phenomena, that is, sculpted art forms or images tell the story of a people, express their lives and living experiences in communicating their sense and essence of their peoplehood, sculpted art form and images express their imagination, perception, religion, culture ,moral, social and political identities including the relationships of powers(gender, social and political). sculpted art form has become and can become a powerful instrument of constructing the history of the people. it is a hermeneutical tool for the aesthetician in interpreting and explaining the cultural lives of the indigenous people. these two perspectives express the values of historical consciousness and cultural self-awareness within a global context. conclusion though emotan is long dead and is supposed to be forgotten, indeed, yet, owing to her contributions which have redefined the course of history, her story is very much on the lips of people of benin in edo state and the world at large. she has been immortalized and has become source of inspiration to our contemporary women all over the country and the world in general. she came in situation where men failed to provide solution. this was at a time when women were relegated to the background. she broke the usual convention and became the source of freedom to her people. many other women have become inspired by her bravery and wisdom. she has been highly honoured in our contemporary period. king ewuare immortalized emotan so that all benin people in the world at large can remember the brave woman who standing for the truth, helped him to become king. in this paper, we can conclude that african knowledge system has a social context-symbol and meaning through oral history, place, names and spiritual relationship that constitute a distinct cosmology–relations based on reciprocity and obligations towards community members and other beings. africans have a more humanistic and existentialist conception of knowledge that serves as part of the reflective apparatus for understanding, interpreting and harmonizing with reality. african aesthetics which is a branch of african philosophy 191 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 are bound up intimately with a people spirit and constitution and are a factor in their life history subject to the condition of race, culture and civilization. emotan(uwaraye) epitomizes the ideals of 'aesthetic of character' especially in our contemporary times when people switch loyalties with reckless abandon, enduring values of truthfulness, empathy and loyalty should be emplaced as building blocks of our sociopolitical, socio-economic superstructure. equally too, ideas about emotan sculptural artform defines the relationship between morality and the beautiful, and eloquently testifies to the desirable place of women in the society. references aisien, e.(2015) the benin pilgrimage stations, benin-city: aisien publishers. azenabor, g.e,(2002) understanding the problems of african philosophy, lagos: first academic publishers. bewaji, j.a.i,(2012) narratives of struggles, the philosophy and politics of development, north carolina: carolina academic press. brown, l.m,(2004) “understanding and ontology in traditional african thought” in brown, l.m(ed.), african philosophy:new and traditional perspective, newyork: oxford university press. cunningham, g.w.(2011) the problems of philosophy, new delhi: discovery publishing house. dukor, m,(1994) theistic humanism: philosophy of scientific africanism, lagos: chimah and sons productions. ebohon, o,(2010).olokun worship in benin kingdom, (benin-city: ebohon centre publications, 2010. etim, f. (2013) "african metaphysics" in journal of asian scientific research, 3 (1), 2013. 11-17 fuller, b.a.g,(1945) a history of philosophy, revised edition, new york :henry holt and company. gbadegesin, s (1991)“individuality, community and the moral order” in africa philosophy: traditional yoruba philosophy and contemporary realities, new york: peter lang, 1991. hallen .b, (2000) the good, the bad, and the beautiful: discourse about values in yoruba culture, bloomington: indiana university press. mbiti, j.s,(19690 african religions and philosophy, london: heinemann, 1969. momoh, c.s (1998) 'african philosophy: nature, schools and substance' in unah,j.i (ed.) philosophy for all disciplines, lagos: department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of lagos. njiofor,j.c.(2018) “the concept of beauty :a study in african aesthetics”, asian journal of social sciences and humanities 7(3) 30-40 olubunmi, d(2020),' the mathematical nature of curves in relation to art'in lasu journal of philosophy, vol.3, no.1 october 2020, 166-176. ome, e.m, (2012) aesthetics: critical reflections on the philosophy of art, (enugu: folmech printing and publishing. 192 osawaru beauty and community living: an insight into the ontological ... onyewuenyi, i.c(1976/77) “is there an african philosophy? journal of african studies , 3(winter) 513-528 onyewuenyi,i.c,.(1999) “traditional african aesthetics: a philosophical perspective” in christensen,k.r (ed.) philosophy and choice, selected reading from around the world, (california: mayfield publishing company. oyebade,o., and azenabor ,g.(2018) “a discourse on the fundamental principles of character in african moral philosophy” african journal of human culture, vol.10. 193 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 20 reviewing modern scientific knowledge within the scope of nietzsche’s irrationalism oreoluwa idris adesina abstract human knowledge has been constrained into two major bifurcations; knowledge based on factual experience and those based on value, instincts and intuitions. scientific knowledge is claimed to be based on empirically verifiable data; thereby being considered as the most reliable system of inquiry ever developed by human civilizations. scientific knowledge is esteemed to be a systematic inquiry, which emphasizes the superiority of human reason over human intuitions, instincts and impulses. however, friedrich nietzsche expresses strong disgust for the overglorification and exaltation of reason over those elements of human nature that serve as alternative sources of knowledge such as dark strivings, vitalism, intuitions, instincts and impulses. nietzsche criticizes all forms of system-building as expressed in the universalization of fixed scientific methods, universal conceptions of truth and knowledge and the very idea of unquestionable religious morality and social norms. for nietzsche, what is needed for the liberation of the human soul; and the realization of the “will to power”, is the abandonment of reason and the celebration of the dark instincts, creative intuitions and animalistic outbursts, which represent the irrational part of human nature. the “will”, which is a symbol of irrationality, defines human nature in its crudest form. this work proposes two major contentions: the first is that scientific knowledge is exclusive, as it denies the authenticity, validity and efficacy of other non-rational and nonsystematic modes of knowing. the second contention of the paper is that there exist, non-rational, authentic, valid and efficacious elements of human nature that serve as reliable modes of apprehending knowledge, beneath and beyond rational and systematic epistemic modes, which are elaborated by friedrich nietzsche in his philosophical irrationalism. keywords: irrational, rational, science, nietzsche, system, method, knowledge. 1. introduction the modern civilized man is totally overwhelmed by the dominance of rationalism. he embraces reason as the major faculty that is responsible for his choices and decisions. he is totally in praise of science and emphasizes the rational part of his nature at the expense of a part which is more indebt in his nature (i.e. the human will). modern scientific knowledge is being projected to be based on the principles of rationality and objectivity, thereby representing the only form of reliable knowledge available to man. this is exactly the image that the scientific community likes to project of itself, which is considered by wilhelm newtonsmith, as that of “rationality per excellence” (newton-smith, 2003). p.1. according to newton-smith, the “scientific community sees itself as the very aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 21 paradigm of institutionalized rationality. it is taken to be in possession of something, the scientific method, which generates a ‘logic of justification’” (newton-smith, 2003). the assumption that science represents the paradigm of institutionalized rationality, as being commonly admitted and accepted by the scientific community, implies that there is ‘something special’ about science, which distinguishes it from other human intellectual endeavors, such as philosophy, theology, history and the rest. however, most members of the scientific community are of the opinion that a characteristic feature of science, which makes it ‘special’, is the “logic of discovery”, which serves as privileged method of formulating and validating theories, involving continuous problem-solving activities. the overwhelming glorification of science over other human activities derives in large part from the successes of recent science and modern physics in particular. the exclusivity of scientific knowledge in contemporary times was triggered in large part by the emergence of logical positivism in the 20th century, which was a movement that bifurcated knowledge into two, by introducing a criterion of significance: known as the verifiability criterion. the verifiability criterion affirms that a piece of knowledge or intellectual enterprise is only to be regarded as meaningful when it either passes the test of empirical validation or is explainable by definition (ayer, 1959). the verifiability criterion proposes that the meaningfulness, truth and validity of a statement can only be deduced from the possibility of stating the facts that make them possible. a prominent logical positivist, moritz schlick, espouses this view, by stating in clear terms that: “it is the first step of any philosophizing, and the foundation of all reflection, to see that it is simply impossible to give the meaning of any statement except by describing the fact which must exist if the statement is to be true. if it does not exist then the statement is false” (schlick, 1932), p. 88. an implication of the logical positivist’s contention on the place of empirical verification for modern science is that science is an intellectual enterprise that is based on rationality and the facts of experience. scientific claims must therefore by testable by experience. however, friedrich nietzsche, being a proponent of philosophical irrationalism, discredits the scientific and positivist claim that reason and experience alone determines reliable knowledge, while affirming the irrational elements of human cognition, such as “the will”, instinct, intuition, emotion, dark strivings and the rest, as bases for reliable knowledge (nietzsche, 2010). in this paper, we attempt an exposition of the movement of irrationalism, synthesizing and contrasting it with its counterpart; rationalism. the scope of the paper is to project nietzsche as a prominent figure in the dethronement of reason, and the embracement of the nonrational part of human nature, as the initiator of postmodernism, and as well discuss the implications of nietzsche’s irrationalism for the enterprise of modern science. this paper shall also attempt a review of the major contentions of modern science within the scope of the irrationalist pretensions of nietzsche’s philosophy. adesina reviewing modern scientific knowledge … 22 2. the rational image of science modern science is being widely conceived as the paradigm of rationality and the sole model of truth, which possesses the exclusive methods of arriving at reliable knowledge and problem-solving. science is generally considered as “any “systematized”, “organized” or “classified” body of knowledge which has been critically tested and is beyond reasonable doubt” (nagel, 1961), p. 3. therefore, for any piece of knowledge to be tagged ‘scientific’, it must result from a systematized, organized and classified procedure, which is guided by an underlying logic of discovery, mostly described as a method. jack aigbodioh identifies four characteristic features of science, which include the fact that science is said to be specific, public, impersonal and objective (1997), p. 3. the specificity of natural science is evident in the fact that science solely enquires into particular and identifiable objects which are observable in the physical world of experience, rather than merely abstract or metaphysical ideas which are beyond the realm of observable reality. science is being considered as being able to provide us with exact explanations of the nature of phenomena around us as they actually are. the enterprise of science is regarded as being public in character, owing to the fact that the methods, techniques and procedures of science are exoteric, rather than being esoteric. this implies that scientific knowledge can be taught to the generality of persons, and can be interpersonally or inter-subjectively verifiable, rather than being known by a select few who hold an exclusive right to such knowledge. similar to the public character of science is the claim that the enterprise of natural science is impersonal. science is often considered as being devoid of idiosyncratic, sentimental, and imaginative beliefs or ideas, but is rather “dispassionate and unprejudiced” (aigbodioh, 1997), p. 4. science bases its explanations on factual judgments rather than value judgments. the objective character of scientific claims, theories, principles and laws lies in the fact that they are all drawn from the concrete or material facts of the physical world of everyday perceptual experience. science is said to be objective because it is entirely based on facts. the factual nature of scientific propositions is given a clearer picture by alan chalmers, when he writes that: “when it is claimed that science is special because it is based on the facts, the facts are presumed to be claims about the world that can be directly established by a careful, unprejudiced use of the senses. science is to be based on what we can see, hear and touch rather than on personal opinions or speculative imaginings” (1999), p. 1. moreover, the specific, public, impersonal and objective characters of the sciences are said to confer on them “the amazing power to uncover the truth about the world as it actually is, constituting them into knowledge par excellence” (aigbodioh, 1997), p. 5. however, the received view of science that scientific knowledge is derived from the facts of the physical world of perception is often attributed to two schools of thought, namely: empiricism and logical positivism (chalmers, 1999), p. 3. the aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 23 british empiricists, notably, john locke, george berkeley, and david hume share the common view that all knowledge are derived from ideas in the mind which are implanted by sensory perception. these ideas are regarded by david hume as sense impressions which are products of perceptions of external physical objects (hume, 1975). the external physical objects thereby serve as the facts, which every scientific theory should attempt to fit. the logical positivists, such as alfred jules ayer, carl g. hempel, rudolf carnap, moritz schlick, and the rest, also subscribe to the empiricist view that scientific knowledge, and knowledge generally is primarily derived from the facts of experience (ayer, 1959). the logical positivists were more interested in the form of the logical relationship between scientific knowledge and the facts. the positions of the british empiricists and the logical positivists imply that modern scientific thinking is firmly based on the principles of rationality, which include: objectivity, impersonality, precision, soundness, validity, deduction, and induction. 3. philosophical irrationalism the age of enlightenment brought with it, an appraisal of reason as the determinant factor for human personality and guide to all human endeavors. during this age, reason was regarded as sovereign. philosophers therefore, defined human beings by their capacity to think critically. this thought system was challenged by some thinkers in the late nineteenth century. the enlightenment conception of human rationality was questioned, while the irrational aspects of human nature were emphasized. these thinkers now saw existential elements of human life such as blind strivings, animal instincts as the primary fact of human existence. for them, reason exercised a very limited influence over human conduct and that much more than logical consciousness, all forces below the surfaces, such as: impulses, drives, instincts, feeling, and will determine human behavior (russell, 1945). irrationalism is a nineteenth century and early twentieth century philosophical movement which advocated the non-rational aspects of human behavior as being necessary for apprehending human life. that human life could be better explained and understood by expanding it beyond the rational to it fuller dimensions. although, in philosophical history, irrationalists could be found before the nineteenth century, especially in the predominantly rationalistic ancient greek culture in the works of a poets like pinder, dramatists, and even in such philosophers as pythagoras, empedocles and plato, who all share a dionysian (instinctive) influence (perry, 1992). irrationalism is a multi-faceted reaction against the dominance of reason in philosophical history, with various strands, and orientations on the role played by reason in human behavior. some thinkers recognize the weakness of reason, continued to value it and sought to preserve it as an essential ingredient of civilized life, while for others, the creative potential of the irrational aspect of human behavior is to be emphasized. they urged the embracing of the feelings which they considered vital to artistic creativity and a richer existence. there are still others who strongly oppose the claim of scientists and the positivists that only adesina reviewing modern scientific knowledge … 24 mathematical truths or principles and analytical reason was the supreme arbiter of knowledge and the only part to certainty. they argued otherwise that the truths discovered by the intellect were less profound than those grasped by our interior sentiments. “like the romantics, proponents of the non-rational placed more reliance on feeling, spontaneity, instinct, intuition, and other non-rational sources of knowledge than on reason. they belittled the intellect’s attempts to comprehend reality, scorned the liberal-rational tradition, praised outbursts of the irrational, and in some instances lauded violence” (perry, 1992). in fact, new insights were gained into the irrational side of human nature which along with the growing assault on reason influenced political life hugely. in later decades, the various currents of irrationalism mentioned above became ideologized and politicized by “unscrupulous demagogues” who sought to mobilize and manipulate the masses, with their emphasis on a chiefly aristotelian society (perry, 1992). a typical example of such ideological orientation was the fascist movements, which openly denigrated reason and exalted race, blood, action, and will. this runs against the position of nineteenth century liberals who held that reason had triumphed in all of human affairs. in early modern philosophy, even when cartesian rationalism was developing, blaise pascal turned from reason to an augustinian faith, claiming that the “heart has its reasons” unknown to reason itself. irrationalism emphasized things about the life of the spirit and human history that could not be dealt with or handled by rational methods of science (frankfurt, 1982), p. 92. the likes of charles darwin and later sigmund freud made irrationalism a movement interested in the exploration of biological and subconscious roots of human experience. philosophical theories and movements like pragmatism, existentialism, and vitalism (or “life philosophy”) all arose as expressions of this expanded view of human life and thought (stumpf, 2003). arthur schopenhauer, a typical nineteenth century irrationalist, exposited the idea of voluntarism, which expressed the essence of human life meaning a blind purposeless will permeating all existence (russell, 1945). among the pragmatists, charles sanders peirce and william james, the mind evolved as an instrument for practical adjustment and not as an organ for the rational plumbing of metaphysics. for them, ideas are not to be assessed in terms of logic but in terms of their practical results when put to the test of action. irrationalism is also expressed in the historicism and relativism of wilhelm dilthey, who saw all knowledge as conditioned by one’s private historical perspective and who thus urged the importance of the “geisteswussenschaften” (the humanities) (2002). another irrationalist, johann georg hamann, claims that truth could be found in feeling, faith, experience and personal conviction, above mere speculation. friedrich heinrich jacobi exalted the certitude and clarity of faith to the detriment of intellectual knowledge and sensation (perry, 1992). the likes of friedrich schelling and henri bergson who were also preoccupied with the uniqueness of human experience, relied on the idea of intuitionism, “which aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 25 sees things invisible to science.” in fact, they did not attack reason itself, the belief was that it had lost its commanding role in as much as personal insights are not to be tested. bergson’s philosophy and as well as that of nietzsche, was a form of vitalism and as well irrationalistic in holding that instinctive, or dionysian drive lies at the heart of existence (russell, 1945). friedrich nietzsche saw moral codes as mere myths, lies and frauds created to mask forces operating beneath the surface to influence thought and behavior. nietzsche professed that humans are free to formulate new values by claiming that god is dead (nietzsche, 2002). another thinker, ludwig klages extended life philosophy in germany by urging that the irrational springs of human life are “natural” and should be followed in a deliberate effort to root out the adventitious reason; while oswald spengler extended it to history, which he viewed intuitively as an irrational process of organic growth and decay (stumpf, 2003). in existentialism, soren kierkegaard, jean-paul sartre, and albert camus all frowned at making sense out of an incoherent world; and each chose his own alternative to reasonthe leap of faith, radical freedom, and heroic revolt, respectively (barret, 1962). generally, irrationalism implies either that the world is devoid of rational structure, meaning, and purpose; or that reason is inherently defective and incapable of knowing the universe without distortion; or that recourse to objective standards is futile; or that in human nature itself the dominant dimensions are irrational. 4. nietzsche and the irrationalist movement friedrich nietzsche was the principal figure in the “dethronement of reason” and the glorification of the irrational. for him, life abounds in cruelty, injustice, uncertainty, and absurdity and this is a fact man must understand in order to enjoy full existence. nietzsche holds firmly that life is not governed by rational principles, there is no absolute standard of good and evil, no timeless principles, whose truth can be demonstrated or proven by the activity of reflective reason. the idea of a transcendental world or what could be called the higher world of metaphysics and even the christian heaven is for him, a myth. nietzsche claims that nothing is true, all what is available to man is his naked self (naked man) living in a godless, chaotic, meaningless, and absurd world. this is the reality, which no one but the strong must face, for the weak have no will to face it, and thus invent fables about a higher reality and a future life, such as is provided by the christian faith (nietzsche, 1924). in fact, nietzsche claims that modern civilized, mechanized or bourgeois society was decadent and enfeebled, it is a victim of excessive development of the rational faculties at the detriment or expense of will and instinct. against the liberalrationalist stress on the intellect, nietzsche urged the recognition of the dark mysterious world of instinctual desires, which for him, are the true forces behind human life. he affirms that what the modern bourgeois society has succeeded in adesina reviewing modern scientific knowledge … 26 achieving was to smother the will with excessive intellectualizing, the result of which is the destruction of the freedom or spontaneity that sparks cultural creativity and ignites a zest for living. the critical and theoretical outlook of the modern time has for too long stifled the creative instincts that are the real forces behind human life. therefore, for man to realize his manifold potential, he must stop relying on the intellect and begin to nurture the instinctual roots of human existence. this, he expresses as follows: “i have kept a close eye on the philosophers and read between their lines for long enough to say to myself: the greatest part of conscious thought must still be attributed to instinctive activity, and this is even the case for philosophical thought”(nietzsche, 2002). traditionally, the ancient greek culture has been lauded for its rationality, for originating scientific and philosophical thought and for endeavoring to achieve balance, harmony, and moderation both in the arts and in ethics. this ancient greek culture with its overwhelming rationalistic thought system was given an unconventional interpretation by nietzsche. nietzsche chose to emphasize the emotional roots of greek culture with recourse to the ancient dionysian spirit “that springs from the soil of myth and ritual, passion and frenzy, instinct and intuition, heroism and suffering.” for him, this dionysian spirit, rooted in the nonrational, was the source of and the force behind greek creativity in art and drama. this is what nietzsche means by the greek tragedy, which declined when serenity, clarity, order, structure, form, and cold calculation – the apollonian spirit predominated over noble ecstasy and creative intuition. greek tragedy, for nietzsche was killed by rationalism which is life-undermining. the rise of modern theoretical outlook of scientific thought which seeks to separate truth from myth, illusion, and error, nietzsche attributes to socrates. for him, this scientific outlook which began with socrates and attained its height in the hellenistic age during the time of alexandria, had the basis and set the foundation for modern culture. nietzsche claims that the modern westerner values the theoretical man and not the man of instinct and action! as such, they do not appreciate the creative potential and non-rational (irrational) side of human nature. nietzsche then claims that we are beginning to recognize and discover the limitations of science and the cognitive faculty itself or rationality. nietzsche talks about immanuel kant who has already giving reasons for us to doubt the capacity of the cognitive and rational apparatus to apprehend reality in itself, and then science’s claim to the attainment of certainty. for kant, the senses or the human rational and perceptual apparatus are incapable of apprehending things as they are in themselves. 5. nietzsche as the initiator of post-modern thought-system postmodernism represents a united force of diverse intellectual currents with a unanimous desire to undermine all categories of thought and assumptions that are typical of the historical epoch of modernism. all attempts to seek universal standards of truth, beauty and goodness are seen as not only futile but also aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 27 restricting and tyrannizing. in place of the quest of certainty and validity common with modernism, postmodernist thinkers advocate the recognition of infinite differences and acceptance of uncertainty with regards to all knowledge. friedrich nietzsche is the philosopher who can be said to have ushered-in postmodernist orientation in philosophical history. nietzsche objects to all forms of systembuilding, universal standards of truth and morality. according to him: there are still harmless self-observers who believe in the existence of “immediate certainties,” such as “i think,” or the “i will” that was schopenhauer’s superstition: just as if knowledge had been given an object here to seize, stark naked, as a “thing-in-itself,” and no falsification took place from either the side of the object. but i will say this a hundred times: “immediate certainty,” like “absolute certainty” and the “thing in itself” contains a contradictio in adjecto (contradiction in terms). for once and for all, we should free ourselves from the seduction of words!(nietzsche, 2002). nietzsche criticizes descartes’ idea of the thinking self (ego) as being the basis for all human knowledge, while also repudiating the kantian idea of the “thing in itself”, which expresses some sort of objective knowledge that is to be sought after (nietzsche, 2002). for him, there is no immediate certainty that requires only the aid of reason to be grasped (just as we have it in descartes). any form of systembuilding presupposes lack of integrity. the rejection of absolute truth, objective knowledge, universal morality, and all forms of formalisms, brings us to the concept of nihilism in nietzsche’s philosophy. 6. nihilism and irrationalism in nietzsche’s philosophy: a challenge to modern science as being hinted earlier in this paper, modern scientific thinking emphasizes the rational faculty of human cognition as being essential to the production of scientific knowledge, while disregarding other elements of human cognition, such as the “will”, instincts and impulses, as being unable to produce reliable and genuine knowledge. modern science is often projected to possess a rational image, which places emphasis on a fixed, universalisable and objective method of inquiry, devoid of uncritical presuppositions which are considered as products of irrational cognitive apparatuses of man, such as the “will”. however, friedrich nietzsche proposes an opposing view which contrasts the rational outlook of science, as being evident in his nihilistic and irrational reflections. nihilism is the extreme view that there is no justification for values. nietzsche was an ardent critic of commonplace ways of thinking about truth and knowledge, for him, all thinking is perspectival, there are no facts, all what we have are mere adesina reviewing modern scientific knowledge … 28 interpretations (nietzsche, 2002). this explains why he was interpreted as rejecting the idea of truth and knowledge altogether, and was considered as a radical epistemological and moral nihilist. yet, it can be said of nietzsche, that he manifested a passionate commitment to truthfulness, and made philosophical postulations which he himself supposed to have something like knowledge as their aim. “zarathustra” speaks thus: i appeal to you, my brothers, remain true to the earth, and do not believe those who speak to you of otherworldly hopes! poisoners are they, whether they know it or not. despisers of life are they, decaying and poisoned themselves, of whom the earth is weary: so let them pass away! once sin against god was the greatest sin; but god died, and with him these sinners. to sin against the earth is now the most terrible sin, and to revere the entrails of the unknowable higher than the meaning of the earth!(nietzsche, 2010), p. 13-14. nietzsche considers those things which are beneath the human nature, such as intuition, blind strivings, emotions, feelings, impulses, as providing the most reliable source of understanding and knowledge that is required to achieve a fuller existence. in proclaiming the death of god, he expresses the demise of universal morality, while proposing something radical, like self-acclaimed values. nietzsche conceives human thoughts and actions as being constrained by values and at the same time clears the way for a new set of values which are constituent with human needs. systems of values, as well as all knowledge, are for him, a set of illusions. however, the implications of nietzsche’s irrationalist views for the enterprise of modern science is that the underlying assumptions that are often devised in support the rational image of science are mostly misguided. the assumptions often used in support of the rational image of science include the views that scientific knowledge is the only form of reliable knowledge available to man, that science is the paradigm of rationality, that science is the sole model of truth, that science is entirely based on facts, that only reason can guide man to the apprehension of reliable knowledge and a plethora of others. all these underlying assumptions of modern scientific rationality are being faulted and ‘mocked’ by friedrich nietzsche, who upholds the contention that genuine knowledge can only be derived from the more creative elements of human nature which are more indebt in man, such as the will, creative instincts, impulses, animalistic outbursts, and dark strivings (nietzsche, 2010). as fallout of nietzsche’s irrationalist doctrines is the contention that the enterprise of science can be more comprehensive in terms of approach and method by acknowledging and adopting the irrational sources of human knowledge. aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 29 it is therefore on the basis of the above analysis of the challenge posed by nietzsche’s irrationalism to the enterprise of modern science that it is proposed in this paper that the assumption that science is based on fact and objective knowledge presupposes that the enterprise of science is methodologically handicapped, as it can only come to terms with the rational aspects of human cognition, while disregarding the efficacy of the irrational elements of man in the production of reliable knowledge. it will be of immense benefit to the enterprise of science if other non-rational sources of knowledge can be investigated and adopted veritable sources of reliable and scientific knowledge. moreover, the very idea of fact, which science claims to explain is under contention, due to the several numerous interpretations given to the idea in different cultural and methodological contexts (chalmers, 1999). 7. conclusion the basic assumptions that underlie scientific rationalism and the philosophical irrationalism of friedrich nietzsche have been extensively discussed in this paper, while also delving into a general analysis of the idea of philosophical irrationalism as a doctrine that upholds the irrational elements and sources of knowledge and human cognition, such as will, instincts, impulses and emotions. the scientific enterprise has been portrayed in this research work as a rational and objective enterprise, which bases its approach and methods on the principles of rationality. however, having given thorough considerations to nietzsche’s contentions about the misguided assumptions underlying the rational image of science, which include the views that science is not the paradigm of rationality, that reason alone cannot serve as the only reliable source of knowledge, and that the irrational elements of human cognition are more efficacious in the apprehension of reliable knowledge; the paper thereby submits that the enterprise of modern science can be more comprehensive in terms of approach and method by incorporating the irrational sources of knowledge in its research programs. moreover, friedrich nietzsche has been discussed in this paper as being the harbinger of the post-modernist thought system, owing to his critique of all forms of system-building, universal standards and principles of rationality, and grand-theorizing. adesina reviewing modern scientific knowledge … 30 references ayer, a.j. 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(2nd ed.), translated by h.l. menchen (1918). new york: alfred a. knopf. ________ 2002. beyond good and evil, cambridge texts in the history of philosophy, horstmann, r., norman, j. ed. trans. by norman, j. new york: cambridge university press. _________ 2010. thus spoke zarathustra, chapko, b. ed. trans. by common, t. version 4.67. russell, b. 1945. history of western philosophy: united states, by american book-stratford press, inc., n.y. schlick, m. “positivism and realism”. in a.j. ayer, (ed.) logical positivism. (new york: macmillan publishing co., inc. the free press, 1959). stumpf, s.e. 2003. socrates to sartre and beyond-a history of philosophy. new york: mcgraw-hill. 7th ed. journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract th the rapid rise in science and technology during the early stages of the 20 century witnessed the rise in different inventions that geared towards the betterment of human race. this period however, yielded numerous inventions of sophisticated artificial intelligence like computers which functions almost like human mind. despite the various critiques on the use of artificial intelligence, it still stands out to be of massive benefits to humanity. the questions which we intend to elucidate here include, what is the position of the africans as regards to invention of a.i? do africans, like other races of the world, enjoy the benefits of a.i? if not, what is the cause? how does this effect them and .how would the problem be solved? using the critical exposition of philosophical inquiry in here, we discovered that, africa holistically, is not equal to other races of the world in the march of civilization. the total adaptation of artificial intelligence, hitherto, have been so much neglected by africans even at this point in time when the developed countries are working harder to improve more on the usage of artificial intelligence. the use of artificial intelligence by the developed countries of the world is what apparently separates them from the grossly underdeveloped africa. therefore, africa can only develop when they begin to embrace and invest on research that can also create technological products like artificial intelligence (computers). by so doing, there will be massive improvements in every sector of life in african countries. keywords: artificial intelligence, development, and human dignity introduction human beings' inherent desire and quest for self development and improvement from antiquity brought about numerous inventions which geared towards bettering the life of every human. this is reflective on the fact that human beings' inherent quest for better life is what distinguishes him above every other creatures. the technology boom which thstarted from the late 19 century and is still improving in this contemporary times, brought about the invention of sophiscated machines like computers with simulation of human intelligence, which is also known as artificial intelligence (a.i). because of its massive acceptance as the mode of doing things, artificial intelligence however, faces some critiques especially towards its effect on human dignity. but the accuracy, effectiveness and economic benefits which ai possesses, made it too juicy to be ignored. therefore the massive benefits which the adaptation of ai brings are the reasons most developed countries are still massively investing on ai research and developments, while simultaneously promoting science, technology, engineering and mathematics (stem) neglect of artificial intelligence: the bane of underdevelopment in africa chinyere c. emedo, phd &johnkingsley n. emedo 73 education. according to (layton 2021), "technology has become the dominant factor in determining the future of every society. its artifacts he says 'have become the indices of progress, wealth generation and economic development.' it therefore becomes evident that the gap between developing and developed countries of the world is known by the difference in technological development. thus, the question posed in this paper is, what is the status of the african states in the scientific paradigm shifts that prompted the invention of artificial intelligence globally? this paper however, exposes the reality that african states are still massively underdeveloped because they are yet to prioritize things that really matters in quest for development. apparently, ai base computers and machines enhance productivity, accuracy and effectiveness which result to development and advancement. even at the present time when developed countries are working towards developing more sophiscated technologies like ai in order to be further developed, african countries still lag behind massively in every sector. this further widens the gap between african countries from developed countries of europe, america and asia, thereby making africa to be dependent on these developed countries which in turn enhances imperialism. therefore, in this paper, we shall make conceptual analysis of the key words, and this will serve as the purpose of the work. we shall highlight the applications of ai and its impact on our society. under this consideration, therefore, the paper will investigate the current state of ai in africa and at the same time portray the effects of the neglect of the applications of ai in the same continent of our discourse. the conclusion however, will highlight how the role of government can bring ai to limelight which in turn will result to massive improvements and development of africa at large. conceptual analysis since philosophy flourishes in distinction, explicitness and creation of better insight into the meaning of words, unexplained terms might be thwarted to the detriment of proper understanding of the context in which the words were intended. (ezeugwu & chinweuba 2018:29) clarified this saying, "unexplained concepts are largely the misnomers that obstruct understanding and knowledge, but a well explained concepts set the limits and points to the meanings inherent in terms." with that being said, there becomes an undeniable need to explain concepts. artificial intelligence (ai) this refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions. the term may also be applied to any machine that exhibits traits associated with human mind such as learning and problem solving. the important characteristic of artificial intelligence is its ability to nationalize and take actions that have the best chance of achieving a specific goal. another ideal characteristic of ai is its ability to retain information i.e. it doesn't forget, unlike human memory that easily forgets at mere passage of time. as we make use of the expert system, and as another knowledge is coming into it, the one already stored will remain intact, which means that the passage of time is not a barrier to the authenticity of any knowledge acquired or stored (oladele, 1994, 95:28). the expansive goal of artificial intelligence 74 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 has given rise to many questions and debates. this has been so much so that, there is no single limitation in defining ai. al could not only be perceived simply as an act of building machines that are intelligent, being that this conception doesn't actually explain what artificial intelligence is. what then makes a machine intelligent? stuart russel and peter noring (1995:1) approached the question by unifying their work around the theme as an intelligent agent in machines. thus, they defined al as, “the study of the agents that perceive from the environment and perform actions from the inside (i.e. via garbage in garbage out process)." development in a nutshell, development is the process of gradually becoming bigger, stronger or more advanced. before going further on the explanation, walter rodney's definition of development will be helpful to keep in mind in order to understand properly what development is: development is a process of change, many sided involving individualism, social stratification teaser and the society at large. this development is represented in the context of increased skill, greater freedom, creativity, self discipline, responsibility and material well-being (rodney 1972: i).the word “development as used” in this context, is understood as advancement in science in reference to its impacts on the general wellbeing of the society. though, there are of course, many other aspects of development and they include the cultural, psychological, human, religious, economic, political developments etc. in a sense, most of these aspects of development have strong connections with one another. therefore, development here, implies advancements on the general visible conditions and standards of living, infrastructural improvements and in general, keeping abreast with the most recent inventions in science and its applications in technology. development is opened squarely on the reduction of poverty and the improvements of other tangible factors that impinge significantly on the daily life of individuals and communities. (oguejiofor, 2009:253). human dignity is the recognition that human being possesses a special value intrinsic to humanity and as such, are worthy of respect simply because they are human beings. application of ai and its impacts to humanity just like most changes that occurs in life possesses the reality of opposites, the rapid rise in the adaptation of ai, also has the reality of double edge sword, that is, it is beneficial and harmful as well. though it is a reality that ai is still a well known concept by everybody especially in developing countries like africa and some few others in countries of europe and america, as many of them were not sure of what it was or how it would affect their particular companies or business. thomas, d. jeff, l. and david, s. (2017:3), explained al by giving an illustration on when 1500 senior business owners in the united states in 2017 were asked about ai, only 17 percent said they were familiar with it. despite its widespread, lack of its popularity among africans, asians and few of the europeans and america, ai is a technology that is steadily improving and transforming every aspects of life. it is a life-ranging tool that enables us human beings to rethink how we integrate information, analyze data, and use the resulting insights to improve our decision making. at this point, it becomes pertinent to state the applications of ai and also, pointing out the 75 emedo & emedo neglect of artificial intelligence: the bane of underdevelopment in africa positive impacts it brings to human society. first of all, ai is not a futuristic vision, but rather something that is here today and being integrated with and deployed into a variety of sectors. this includes fields such as finance, and economics, healthcare, national security, transportation, government etc. there are numerous examples where ai is already making an impact in the world and augmenting human capabilities in significant ways. talking about ai's application in field of finance and economics, artificial neural networks have long been used to detect changes or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigations. banks use artificial intelligence systems today to organize operations, maintain book-keeping, invest in stocks, and manage properties. ai can react to changes overnight especially when business is not taking place, according to observers in that sector; decisions about loans are now being made by software that can take into account a variety of finely passed data about a borrower, rather than just a credit score and background check. according to nathaniel popper (2016), "investments in financial ai in the united state tripled between 2013 and 2014 to a total of #12.2 billion. moreso, fraud detection represents another way ai is helpful in financial systems. it is sometimes difficult to discern fraudulent abnormalities, outliers, or deviant cases requiring additional investigation that helps managers find problems early in the cycle, before they reach dangerous levels. “ the use of ai machines in the market applications such as online trading and decision making has changed major economic theories. for example, ai-based buying and selling platforms have changed the law of 'demand and supply” in that it is now possible to easily estimate individualized demand and supply curves and this individualized pricing ai machines reduce information asymmetry in the markets and thus making market more efficient while reducing the volume of trades. the application of ai in healthcare system has been on rapid rise for sometime now. ai is assisting doctors to carry out some tasks which hitherto, have been tedious and requires a lot of money. in 2016, a ground breaking study in california found that a mathematical formula developed with the help for ai correctly determined the accurate dosage of immunosuppressant drugs to give to organ transplant patients. ai is helping designers to improve computational sophistication in healthcare for example; merantix is a german company that applies deep learning to medical issues. according to rasmus rothe (2017), it has an application in medical imaging that “detects” lymph nodes in the human body in computer tomography (ct). similarly, eric, horvitz (2016:5), was of the view that ai tools are helpful because they predict in advance potential challenges ahead and allocate resources to patient education, sensing and proactive interventions that keep patients out of the hospitals. ai also brought about numerous test machines that detect any form of disease, while also enhancing the development of the vaccines for the treatments. furthermore, ai plays a substantial role in national defense (security). the main reason for military applications of ai is to enhance communication, sensors, integration and interoperability. ai research is underway in the fields of intelligence collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, command and control, and 76 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 in a variety of semiautonomous and autonomous vehicles jane croft (2019). artificial intelligence technologies enable coordination of sensors and effectors, threat detection and identification, marking of enemy positions tracking etc. military drones capable of autonomous action are widely considered a useful asset. it's also an effective means for combating terrorist insurgencies. because of its massive benefits towards national security, most countries invest so much in developing and acquiring ai base machines for security purposes. according to yannakakis, g.n. (2012: 255-292). worldwide annual military spending on robotics rose from us $5.1billion in 2010 to us $7.5billion in 2015. again, the impact of ai is also evident in transportation sector. apparently, transportation represents an area where ai and machine learning are producing major innovations, done delivery systems, all use advanced technological capabilities. those features include automated vehicle guidance and breaking, lane changing systems, the use of cameras and sensors for collision avoidance, the use of ai to analyze information in real time, and the use of high performance computing and deep learning systems to adapt to new circumstances through detailed maps. a researcher by camron king and jack kaitson of brook invested in autonomous vehicle technology between august 2014 and june 2017. this implies that ai is present in transportation, and makes it even better. artificial intelligence in government consists of the applications and regulations. ai, just as it's relevance in other sectors, also makes the act of governance easy. recently, it is paired with facial recognition systems which may be used for mass surveillance. this is already the case in some part of china. moreso, in 2019, the technology city of bengahuru in india was set to deploy ai managed traffic signal systems across the 387 traffic signals in the city. this system will involve the use of cameras to ascertain traffic density and accordingly calculate the time needed to clear the traffic across streets (george, 2019). ai base machines are now widely used to conduct elections effectively. the introduction of many new technologies for smooth conduction of the elections has brought about credible voting system which improved the confidence of elections. this includes; gps tracking of evms and yy pats, voter helpline, poll data monitoring and election expenditure monitoring via cvigil, pwd, app, etc. ai powered voting could also liberate people from stress of vote from whichever city or place they are. more so in relation with forgoing, the use of facial recognition technology could enable a person to vote from any polling booth in india. this technology has the potential to take voters turnout upwards, giving more indians chance to participate in its democracy. (chandran, 2020). therefore, the rise in the use of ai is not just about trend; rather it is adopted because of its massive benefits to humanity. that is why top countries are investing many resources in artificial intelligence development and research. the current state of ai in africa artificial intelligence which is arguably the most revolutionary technology that humanity ever experienced has also turned out to be the biggest means of development among countries of europe and america. its benefits are the reasons these developed countries are striving to further develop and implement much of it. but sadly, the african continent is still lagging behind, and for ai's potential to be fully harnessed, challenges like 77 emedo & emedo neglect of artificial intelligence: the bane of underdevelopment in africa inadequate knowledge, infrastructure and research capacities, need to be fixed. if africa won't find a solution to harness ai's full potentiality quickly enough, the digital divide will be exacerbated, further widening the gap between this continent and the rest of the world. also because of ai's ability to influence human society so deeply, it will open up a unique opportunity to improve the lives of the wealthy and poor people equally. the current state of ai in africa further proves that it is being neglected and their effect is seen in the countries of africa. the continuous failure of african leaders to prioritize adaptation of ai have been the reason for wide gap in the global inequalities which is further resulting africa to be loosing the little ground it may have gained over the rest of the world. though efforts are recently being made by africans to tackle this lack of development, like; the point rose at the recent “unesco forum on artificial intelligence th th in africa” which took place in morocco on 12 and 13 of december 2018, “that the proper use of local human is the best approach to harness the full potential of ai. in tandem with the foregoing, the implementation of the discussed point at the unesco forum about ai in africa still remains in jeopardy. this is because there is still not an enabling environment for ai to thrive. there is still massive illiteracy, lack of infrastructure, inadequate research facilities etc. this further hinders the growth of ai in africa because ai requires robust networks, immense computing power and stable connections to be able to thrive effectively. moreso, it is said that the reason why developing countries are poor is because they see how productivity is driven in part by limited automation. they are not intensively using technologies invented long ago to raise that productivity. ie, technology indicating tractors and combine harvesters, spindles, bessemer plants, and electricity. (comin, da: 2014). what is behind the slow diffusion of such technologies is complex but again, poverty and lack of well-paid formal sector job is associated with the low use of productive technologies. to tackle these limitations, it becomes pertinent to examine the substantial role of government towards the future of ai in africa. the role of african governments one of the reasons for the growing roles of ai is the tremendous opportunities for economic development that it presents. a project undertaken by price water house coopers estimated that “artificial intelligence technologies could increase global gdp by $15.7 trillion, a full 14% by 2030 (price water house coopers, 2017). with that being said, the role of government in the growth of ai in africa becomes substantial. according to greg, (2016), the us federal government invests only $1.1 billion in non-classified ai technology. similarly, amir, khosrowshahi, (2018), opined that in order to boost economic development and social innovation, federal officials need to increase investment in artificial intelligence and data analytics. higher investment is likely to pay for itself many times over in economic and social benefits. therefore, below are few reasons how the government of africa can enhance ai for the growth of africa: 1) promotion of digital education and workforce development it is said that one of the yardsticks for judging a developed country is the state of their education sector. therefore, as ai application accelerates across many 78 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 sectors, it is vital that we reimaging our educational institutions for a world where ai will be ubiquitous and students need a different kind of training they currently receive. currently, african students do not have within their reach, the skills required in an ai dominated landscape. for these reasons, african government need to step up their games as regards to fixing the system by providing students for a digital future in ibm's teacher advisor program by utilizing watson's free online tools to help teachers bring the latest knowledge in the classroom. they enable instructors to develop new lesson plans in stem and non-stem fields, find relevant instructional videos, and help students get the most out of the classroom. (stephen noonan, 2017). moreso, it is not just technical skills that are needed in an ai world but skills of critical reasoning, collaboration, design, visual display of information, independent thinking etc. similarly, ai will reconfigure how society and the economy operate, and there needs to be “big picture” thinking on what this will mean for ethics, governance and societal impact. 2) encourage greater data access for researchers one of the biggest issues undermining the growth of technology in africa is that the limited data access has so much limited the progress of researchers. this further makes some investors to vacate the continent because it is no longer news that africa's drain of intellectuals is currently at its highest rate because they can't compete with developed countries who made their society enabling for these researchers. therefore, it is the role of african government to encourage greater data access for researchers as it is not going to only benefit africa economically, but educationally and infrastructure-wise. 3) embrace technological trends surprisingly, most african governments still doesn't embrace new changes even in 21 century. this reality is not only ignoramus, but dangerous as its impact is the reason why africa is still grossly poor and underdeveloped. in 2018, ben muray bruce, a nigerian lawmaker saw his introduced electric car bill, discarded on the introduction because the fellow lawmakers hated the reality that electric cars is the new trend and will soon take over the market. this reality will further sink in the oil value, which is the major source of nigeria's economy. therefore, with investment in ai researcher, africa can start leveling up with the rest of the world in technology. and this can only be attainable when african leaders understand the potentials of ai and the opportunities it will create for african to harness their natural resources. 4) penalize malicious behavior and promote cyber security as with any emerging technology, it is important to discourage malicious treatment designed to trick software or use it for the mixed reality of the use of ai, where it is used for good purposes and at the same time, used for malicious purposes. the malevolent use of ai exposes individuals and organizations to unnecessary risks, which in turn undermined the virtues of the emerging technology. this includes behaviours like, manipulating algorithms, hacking, 79 emedo & emedo neglect of artificial intelligence: the bane of underdevelopment in africa compromising privacy, and confidentiality. in relation to this john, markoff (2016:b3) stated that “efforts to hijack ai in order to solicit confidential information should be seriously penalized as a way to deter such actions. therefore, it is the role of the african government to provide measures that will enable technology be used in its positive ways. this is because one of the reasons africa lags behind in technology is that most of them are more familiar to the negativity associated with technology than the benefits it possesses. 5) increase government investment in ai according to greg brockman (2019), the co founder of open ai, the us. federal government invests only $1.1billion in non-classified technology. that is far lower than the amount being pumped into technology research and development by china. the shortfall is not worthy because the economic pay offs of ai are substantial. therefore, in order for africa to boost their economic development and social innovation, the african government needs to increase investment in artificial intelligence and data analytics. for it is by so doing that africa can be set out to the path of development which can only keep getting better. conclusion the only thing that is permanent in this world, according to heraclitusis "change". starting from the stone era, there have been series of change in the world via the applications of the human knowledge. these paradigm shifts however, have put development on the cusp of inventing many sophisticated artificial intelligence like computers and data analytics which aid in revolutionizing many sectors of life to achieve global development. there are already deployments of ai in numerous fields, e.g. finance, national and international security, health care, transportation, governance etc, which have yielded fruits by enhancing decision making, business models, risk mitigations and system performances. technologies i.e. ai, have contributed much in human development and that of the society generally, and thus, become the most influential human innovation in history. though, there are differences in the levels of development amongst the continents of the world. these however, have led to comparative analysis between the developed and underdeveloped societies. africa as a continent is categorized amongst the underdeveloped societies. if africa is statistically weighed in the global developmental scale, it might possibly be the only underdeveloped race in the world. therefore, the place of africa in the ever changing world, still leaves a lot to be desired and there becomes the urgent need to make fruitful changes. because, ultimately, africa still wallows in gross ignorance which is reflective on their poor choice of leaderships, political instabilities, religious fanaticism, poor state of education and shallow mindset. these nonetheless are the factors that undermine development in this part of world. they however, can be overcome only when africans will begin to understand how things work out with the roles which technologies or artificial intelligence like computers exhibit in the development of the human race. whilst the major role of seeing to the progress and development of every society lies in the hands of the government, african leaders should as well understand the benefits of technology and its potentials to change the face of africa in comparism to other races of the world. but in a 80 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 situation where the leaders fail to take appropriate actions as to take care of the above mentioned negatives factors that thwart development in our race by inventing more on artificial intelligence, there is the tendency that our future generations will still suffer the same fate as we are suffering today in the hands of the developed races. references amir, khosrowshahi (2018), “testimony before the house committee on oversight and government reform subcommittee on information technology,” february 14. chandran, c. (2020) india state to test facial recognition in polls as privacy fears mount”, access date: 03/08. comin, d.a. (2020), “the evolution of technology diffusion and the great divergence” presentedat the brookings roundtable: (2014), https//polfs.semantilscholar.org. access date: 26/09. ezeugwu, e.c., & chinweuba, g.e. (2018) “the supreme being in igbo thought: a reappraisal”, philosophia e. journal for philosophy & culture, 21. greg, brockman (2016). “the dawn of artificial intelligence; testimony before u.s senate subcommittee on space, science and competitiveness, november 30. george n. c. (2020) “artificial intelligence – assisted traffic soon” (2019), . access date: 12/08. jane, croft (2019), “ai learns to read korean, so you don't have to”, financial times, may 2. john, markoff (2016), “as artificial intelligence elves, so does it criminal potential”, new york times, october et, b3. horvitz, e. (2016) “reflections on the status and future of artificial intelligence”, testimony before the u.s. senate subcommittee on space, science and competitiveness, 5, november 30. oladele, a.b. (1995), “can machine be equated with men?” nigerian journal of philosophy, vol. 14, 28. oguejiofor, j.o. (2009) “philosophy of development or development of philosophy?, a dilemma in contemporary african philosophy”, unizik journal of arts and humanities, 251. prince water house coopers (2020), “sizing the price: what's the real value of ai for your business and how can you capitalized?” . cc, access date: 28/07. layton, p. (2021). the artificial intelligence battle space. popper, n. (2016) “stocks and bots” new york times magazine, february 28. rodney, w. (1972) how europe underdeveloped africa, london: boglel' owerkure publications. russell, s.j. & nornig, p. (1995) artificial intelligence: a modern approach, new: prentice hall,. stephen, noonov, (2017) “teachers can now use ibm's watson to search for free lesson plans”, edsing; september 13. thomas, d, jeff, l. & david schatsky, (2017). “bullish on the business value of cognitive”, 3. th yannkakis, g.n. (2012) “in proceeding of the 9 conference on computing frontiers”, game ai revisited, 252 – 295. https://www.reuters.com http://www.deccanherald.com https://www.printemponumerique 81 emedo & emedo neglect of artificial intelligence: the bane of underdevelopment in africa https://www.reuters.com http://www.deccanherald.com https://www.printemponumerique page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 1 investigating the foundational relationship between religion and morality: a nigerian perspective. rev fr gerald ohaeri, cssp, ph.d abstract the issue of moral decadence in both our private and public life in nigeria is no longer news. everyone knows it and perhaps everyone decries it. typical of the african, instead of an informed intelligent discussion on the causes of such moral decadence and informed practical solutions to it, nigerians, led by their religious leaders, christians and non-christians alike, take recourse to praying and conjuring religion to come to our aid as if religion has a magic wand for guaranteeing morality not to talk of restoring one that is lost. this article goes to examine the underlying presumption in this prevailing attitude, that of a foundational relationship between morality and religion and the consequent expectation that religion should or ought to guarantee morality and to curb such moral decadence when and where it manifests itself. the verdict of this investigation is that both the assumption namely that morality is necessarily founded on religion, and the expectation namely that religion should therefore guarantee morality are grossly unfounded and misguided. keywords: investigating, foundational, religion and morality. introduction in an article titled “ndigbo in spiritual disarray” and published in the leader of july 26 2009, the catholic bishop of orlu diocese most rev. dr. augustine ukwuoma, lamented over what he called the moral crisis in nigeria. the article quotes him as saying “nigeria is in a moral crisis; south east is in spiritual disarray”. regretting “that all sorts of evil, corruption, immorality are on the increase in igboland”hewondered “how an area believed to be the christian heartland in nigeria, is enmershed with such wickedness” (cf.the leader vol. 1 no. 26 sunday july 26, 2009, p.l) and in a similar vein but with a broader outreachosita t. asogwa, a catholic priest of the diocese of nsukka, writes in nigeria today, there are so many christian groups and churches that it would be most difficult to count them. there is also so much crime, indiscipline, injustice, exploitations and counting, that one begins to wonder if we operate a different brand of christianity that allows such. nigeria is unarguably a country of very religious aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 people, recognized as one of the most religious in the world. in a survey conducted by the gallup international association, nigeria was rated the second nation in the world with the highest percentages of self described religious persons. yet, in the assessment of transparency internationals' 2002 corruption perception index (cpi), which is a measure of domestic, public sector corruption, the same country of outstandingly religious character was ranked one of the most corrupt in the world, second only to bangladesh.what a contradiction! (osita t. asogwa, 2013 p.16) from the northern part of nigeria msgr. cletus t. gotan writes in a paper entitled “authentic christian faith formation in the present religious-cultural crisis in nigeria” which he presented at the workshop for formators' association of nigeria, fan, nov. 48, 2013 one of the complexities of our times is that in an environment where everything is clothed in religious narrative, spiritual languages and much religious posturing, little fruits of deep religious living and acting is seen in the society (p.7). and he goes on to ask but why is it that our religious claims and external show of piety and love of god have not translated into a strong ethical and spiritual force for the renewal of our nigerian society? (p.8). permit me here to make one final citation, this time from a muslim brother. writing under the title “nigeria: religion without faith… is it worth the trouble?” dr. aliyu tilde says foreigners are often surprised to discover how religion is deep rooted in the psyche of the overwhelming majority of nigerians. when the egyptian-american doctoral student of harvard, sara al-tantawi, visited me early this year to ask some questions regarding the impact of sharia implementation on woman, she did not fail to show her amazement at our religiosity (p.1). further in the article he says, i know there are thousands, if not millions, of nigerians that are frustrated with our inability to use our entrenched religious favour to solve our problems, which are essentially none other than our inability to transform ourselves from the level of individuals to that of a community where we [sic] the action of one person has 2 kanu investigating the foundational relationship between religion and morality consequences-good or bad-on the life of all others. (p.3) running through the above cited authors and indeed many nigerians, as tilde noted, is a disappointment and lamentation of a disconnect between religion and morality, a disconnect that is predicated on an assumed original connectedness. the aim of this paper, as the title suggests, is to investigate this assumed connectedness. from this preamble it should be clear that this investigation is undertaken not purely for theoretical or academic interest. there is, as you can already perceive, some practical social interest. our interest is motivated by the nigerian situation. we shall therefore be asking whether the foundational view represented by the cited sources is justifiable. you can now see why the title of this paper has the additional qualification “a nigerian angle”! within the nigerian situation or context, we hope finally to discuss why religion or religious morality cannot solve our problems. morality and the need for a foundation for the purposes of this paper, we shall take morality as having to do with human actions or conducts in so far as these are human actions or conducts i.e. actions or conducts that merit approval or disapproval by the human community. it is in this sense that prof. radoslav a. tsanoff (1947) writes we say broadly that the science of ethics or morals is concerned with character and with conduct that is approved or disapproved. such approval or disapproval, as the case may be, is expressed by judging the action or conduct as “good” or “bad”, “right” or “wrong”. dr. christopher ikechukwu asogwa(2012) of the university of nigeria, nsukka puts it in this way: it has been observed that human actions posses quality in virtue of which they receive appendage terms such as 'right' or 'wrong', 'good' or 'bad' as accolades or judgments. that quality is morality. the issue or problem of foundation for morality comes in when one goes further to question the basis for the approval or disapproval of an action. let me illustrate. a boy takes something that does not belong to him. in the language of morality you tell him, he should not do that, i.e. take what does not belong to him. this is stealing, you may add! and if he goes on to ask you “but why should i not steal or take what does not belong to me?” you are bound to give him reasons. you could tell him that decent boys do not 3 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 steal.you could tell him society does not approve that.you could tell him god commands us not to take our neighbours' belongings etc. ludwig wittgenstein is said to have noted that the language of morality is “ought”. (cf h.o. mounce “morality and religion” in b. davies op(ed), 1998, p. 255).you ought to do this or you ought not to do this. just as you would tell someone sick “you ought to take your medication” and hing this on his express desire to recover from his sickness and the necessary causal relatedness between the medication and his recovery, so also the ought of morality needs a foundation, a basis for its justifiability or universal applicability. there seems to be a consensus among philosophers that morality needs a foundation. where there is certain divisiveness of opinion is on that which serves as this foundation. we shall here briefly examine some of these opinions. they could be subsumed under two or three broad divisions, namely those who maintain that morality's foundation is religion and those who hold the contrary position, and thirdly those who hold that each is independent of the other. for the purposes of this paper, we shall not be concerned here with the views of those who hold that each is independent of the other. morality needs & has religion as its foundation though we made some reference to islam in our preamble in order to widen our base to include other religions and not just christianity, we shall in this subsection be concentrating on judaeo-christian religion. what is said here could apply, ceteris paribus, to all other religions. the locus classicus for those who hold and argue that religion is the foundation of morality is the ten commandments of the hebrew and christian sacred books. in the ten commandments or rather in the structure of the ten commandments one sees what it means for morality to be based or founded on religion. in his article “morality and religion” h.o. mounce (1998) brings this out clearly. therein he writes: …. in earlier cultures, there was no sharp distinction between the moral and the religious. the ten commandments of the ancient hebrews will serve as an example. the first four concern our duties to god; the remaining six, our duties to our neighbor. nowadays, it may be said that the last six are moral, the first four religious. but to the ancient hebrew there was no such distinction. throughout, the commands instruct us in our duties to god. thus the last six do not instruct us in how to serve our neighbor as distinct from serving god. rather they instruct us in how god wishes us to serve him in our dealing with our neighbor. whether in the realm of the religious or that of morality the structure is the same: god 4 kanu investigating the foundational relationship between religion and morality commands or gives instruction. this instruction tells us what to do and what not to do. ours is obedience to this instruction. the goodness or badness of our actions issues forth therefore, from either compliance or noncompliancewith such divine instructions. stealing a neighbour's goat or sleeping with his wife or worst still killing his daughter is judged bad or wrong because the divine command disapproves of these. apostles of religious morality (i.e. religion-based morality) maintain that all human actions, judged as moral, have their origin in a divine command and could not have come to be without this divine intervention/command. morality needs & does nothave religion as its foundation a typical representative of this school of thought is peter schwartz. in his article “moral values without religion,” (2005) he asks: “does morality depend upon religion?” and he goes on to say: most people believe it does, which is a major reason behind the appeal of the religious right. people believe that without faith in a supernatural authority, we can have no moral values-no moral absolutes, no black-and-white distinctions, no firm demarcation between good and evil-in life or in politics. this is the assumption underlying justice antonin scalia's recent assertion that 'government derives its authority from god' since only religious faith can supposedly provide moral constraints on human action (p.1). he then queries and what draws people to this bizarre premise –the premise that there is no rational basis from refraining from murder, rape or anarchism? (ibid). as opposed to a faith-based morality peter schwartz advocates/proposes what he calls a morality of reason. such a morality, he says, begins with the individual's life as the primary value and indentifies the further values that are demonstrably required to sustain that life. it observes that man's nature demands that we live not by random urges or by animal instincts, but by the faculty that distinguishes us from animals and on which our existence fundamentally depends: rationality (p.2). peter schwartz of course does not just advocate or propose a morality of reason. he points to the facticity of its existence. 5 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 there is indeed morality without religion, a morality, not of dogmatic commands, but of rational values and of unbreached respect for the life of the individual (p.3). what lends credences to the position of apologists of morality of reason or morality without religion is the presence of morally upright fellows/persons of atheistic persuasion in our midst. in this regard a. zaman (2007) observes in his work “does religion define morality” thatthere are theists who commit immoral acts and there are conscientious non theists who behave morally. the conclusion he draws from this is self evident. and since there are 'non-theists' who also behave morally so the immediate conclusion is that religious belief is not a necessary prerequisite for being moral john henderson (2007) on this note writes in his book god.com: a deity for the new millennium don't point to the wonderful things that good people do for their fellow man and call that religion. that is morality. there are many good, moral people. most of the individuals whom i know as moral and worthwhile citizens would be that way even if they never went to church and never had a religion. on this same note but arguing from the perspective of the foundational relationship of religion and law, harold j. berman (1974) writes also, anthropologists are able to show by empirical observation that no society tolerates indiscriminate lying, stealing, or violence within the in-group, and indeed, the last six of the ten commandments, which require respect for parents and prohibit killing, adultery, stealing, perjury, and fraud, have some counterpart in every known culture. in fact natural-law theories consider a religious explanation of law to be superstitious and dangerous. such theorists are able to demonstrate by reason and observation alone that basic legal values and principles correspond to human nature and to the requirements of social order. what has critalized from our investigation so far is that morality which the various views discussed above agree to be a necessary component of being human, requires by its very nature a foundation. this foundation could be religion; it could be rationality; it could also be custom or what some authorscall social consciousness. 6 kanu investigating the foundational relationship between religion and morality the nigerian angle we shall now look into what i have called the nigerian angle in this investigation. though there are certainly atheists and agnostics in nigeria, there is no doubt in my mind that the discussion on the foundation of morality is no serious issue for the majority of nigerians, christians, muslims or traditional religionists. most nigerians would certainly subscribe to the view that morality is founded on religion. what i call the nigerian angle here is not just the near consensus on this matter of the faith foundation of morality but the equally near consensus that morality is solely based or founded on religion. this explains for me the constant pointing of fingers to religion in most of the discussions castigating the moral decadence in our society. this explains for me why some critics, like dr. aliyu tilde, in the face of this contradiction, as my good friend osita t. asogwa puts it, are tempted to jettison religion. the next and final leg of our investigation therefore is to examine this view that it is a contradiction for moral decadence to prevail in a supposedly deeply religious society like nigeria. i shall conclude by saying a word on why religion should not be blamed for our moral decadence. put in other words, i shall say a word on why religion cannot solve our problem of moral decadence. the issue of contradiction is it really incongruous, as osita t. asogwa and bishop augustine ukwuoma would have us believe, to be religious and at the same time morally or ethically wanting? by extension is it incongruous for a given society to be deeply religious and at the same time morally decadent? to answer this question, let us look once more at the ten commandments which we have seen above as the basis of both religious and moral practices in the judaeo-christian religion. there is certainly nothing logically and practically impossible in one person keeping the first four (three) commandments and not keeping the other six (seven). in his study of “the relationship between religion and ethics in jewish thought” louis jacobs (1996) observes that even jewish rabbis did recognize that morality did not need religion to be effective. in some of their writings these rabbis, jacobs says, are, in fact, calling attention to the phenomenon that it is quite possible for a man to have a strongly developed religious or numinous sense but to be at the same time a thorough scoundrel so far as his ethical conduct is concerned. at all events it is suggested here that one can speak of a man as having a strong moral character without him having any use of religion, and the rabbis are saying that such an assessment of human character need not be wrong since religion is one thing and ethics another, though, of course, 7 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 for the rabbis, judaism demands both”. the priest and the levite in the parable of the good samaritan perhaps exemplify this. they had certainly strongly developed religious sense with no corresponding developed moral sense. religious morality cannot solve our problem let us conclude our investigation by looking at why religious morality cannot solve our moral decadence problem. to my mind why this is so is both simple and obvious. why our religious morality cannot solve our problem lies in the very nature of both religion and morality itself. unlike ancient judaism and primitive islam the brand of religion we practice in nigeria, whether christianity or islam, has lost what h.j. berman calls its legal tooth. this lost of its legal tooth contributes, he say, in no small way to the ineffectiveness of a religion to play its role of social engineering. writing to the american public in 1974 berman warned to appeal to religion to recue law in america today is like asking a drowning man to recue another mutatis mutandis the same can be said of nigerians. to appeal to religion to recue morality in nigeria today is like asking a drowning man to recue another when we look at morality itself we see the same lost of legal tooth. morality is by its very nature normative i.e. it can and indeed does prescribe but has no legal binding power to enforce compliance to its prescriptions. if the moral tells you “do not steal or do not kill” it does not have any legal binding force to compel your compliance. even when one assumes that morality is founded on religion, this assumption by itself does not guarantee the acceptance of and compliance with the dictates or prescriptions of such a morality. that further step, the acceptance/compliance with the dictates of morality is a free choice of the accepting community and by extension the accepting individual. after moses had read out the decalogue, the ten commandments, it was left to the people of israel to accept it or not. and even when they had said “all that the lord has said, we shall do” we know that the subsequent history of israel is a chronicle of disobedience to these laws. paul taylor (1985) makes the case that ultimately our commitment to moral principles is in no way predicated on whatever foundation such moral principles are said to be based on. such commitment, he argues, “is finally a matter of one's will.” the second element in the nature of morality that makes it impossible for it to solve our problem is that morality is a baby of several mothers or what dr. c.i. asogwa calls morality's “feeder channels”and george anastaplo (1983) calls “private shapers of 8 kanu investigating the foundational relationship between religion and morality morality” on this note asogwa writes: as raw material of moral philosophy, morality has certain feeder channels on which it seems to rest and depend. these otherwise have been referred to as sources of morality. some of these are customs, religion, society, instinct, conscience, etc. they form the corpus of morality. however, necessary and sufficient sources of morality may never be established since morality encompasses these and more that are heavily drawn upon consciously or unconsciously by the moralist. from the above it is clear that any nurturing of morality that does approach this task from all or most of these relevant sources is bound to fail. conclusion from the above investigations it is clear that though morality may require a foundation, this foundation must not be religion and even where religion is said to provide this foundation, religion does not ipso facto guarantee such morality. the bane of the nigerian society is that we as a people have collectively left nurturing our morality from its several mothers. as a people we have laid a disproportionate weight almost exclusively on religion to nurture our morality, both private and public. we close our eyes, for example, to the contributions of positive law and civic education to engineer and nurture public morality. the resultant effect is the moral decadence we see in our supposedly religious society. surely religion is not and should not be blamed for this! references anastaplo george (1983) “aristotle on law and morality” in 3 windsor [ontario] yearbook of access to justice 458 – 64 asogwa c. ikechukwu, (2012) ethics & aesthetics (introduction to moral philosophy and aesthetics). professor's press, enugu asogwa t. osita (2013), more christians less christianity (the paradox of a religious corrupt society) berman h.j. (1974), the interaction of law and religion scm press ltd,bloomsbury street london cotan c.t. (2013), “authentic christian faith formation in the present religious cultural crisis in nigeria” paper presented at the workshop for formator's association of nigeria, fan nov 4-8 9 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 hare, john (2006) “religion and morality”in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy henderson john () “god.con: a deity for the new millennium” cited in austin cline, morality and religion (book notes: god.com) jacob louis (1996) “the relationship between religion and ethics in jewish thought” in g.p. fernandez, morals. mandal sourav (2010) “law an morality” mounce h.o. (1998) “morality and religion” in b.dovis opled packham richard (2007), morality and religion: can we raise moral children without religion? .teleport.com/~packham/morality.htm schwartz peter (2005), “moral values without religion” published in indianapolis post tribune, june 2 taylor paul w. (1985) “the ultimate question” in joel feintberg (ed) reason & responsibility, readings in some basic problems of philosophy, wadsworth publishing company, belmont, california tilde aliyu (2010) “nigeria: religion without faith, is it worth the trouble” published in the nigerian voice tsanaff r.a. (1947), ethics, new york & london, harper and brothers. ukwuoma a. (2009) “ndigbo in spiritual disarray” in. the leader vol. i no. 26 sunday july 26 zaman a. () “does religion define morality” does_religion_define_morality_aparthib.htm http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-morality/ http://atheism.about.com/b/a/258183.htm http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/imor.htm http://home http://humanists.net/aviji/article/ 10 kanu investigating the foundational relationship between religion and morality http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-morality/ http://atheism.about.com/b/a/258183.htm http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/imor.htm http://home http://humanists.net/aviji/article/ page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 97 abstract kwame nkrumah's political philosophy could least be described as a quest for african political liberation from colonialism, imperialism and even neo-colonialism. prior to african political freedom from colonialism and imperialism, the voice of nkrumah resounded the shores of africa; from the west to the east and from south to the north. till date the works of nkrumah still beckons on african leaders who are said to be free for colonialism to avoid a second colonialism best described as neocolonialism. nkrumah as a radical rationalist and the proponent of panafricanism believes that the true and complete independence of african can only be achieved as a united people with a common goal. but the reality before us seems to suggest that africa has already fallen victim of what nkrumah warned against as most serious decisions about many countries in africa are made by either the united states of america or the united kingdom of britain or france. hence, there is a need to review nkrumah's political philosophy in the contemporary african society. this work therefore, is an endeavor to research into how we can use nkrumah's political ideas to better the lot of africa in the area of political development. it shall adopt a critical descriptive method of inquiry and shall make its conclusions based on global practices and standards. keywords: achievement, authentic, contemporary, politics, development, philosophy. introduction for every policy in life, there is philosophy and for every philosophy, there is an idea, and for every idea, there is a human agent. africans and their freedom from colonialism and imperialism are clear cases of this assertion. the political liberation of africa from colonialism and imperialism finds strong roots in the philosophy of kwame nkrumah. however, nkrumah did not end in postulating philosophical solutions to africa's problem of colonialism and imperialism, he also averred possible ways of maintaining the freedom gained. he saw the unity of africa as a strong factor of maintaining political freedom and avoiding neocolonialism. however, the imperialists strive very hard to maintain disunity in africa, for the perpetration of their selfish interests. according to nkrumah, the imperialists of today endeavor to achieve their ends not merely by military means, but by economic penetration, cultural assimilation, ideological domination, psychological infiltration and subversive activities even to the point of inspiring and promoting assassination and civil strife. (1961: p.125 – 134). nkrumah thus, drew the attention of the african leaders to his perceived ways the imperialists were using to separate the african continent, but insist that for africa to be truly free, it must unite against the forces of the colonial lords and push away the devices of the imperialists. this unity, nkrumah said must be three dimensional; the political dimension, the social dimension and the economic dimension. he acknowledged the achieving authentic political development in contemporary africa: a kwame nkrumah's philosophical approach. rev. fr. john justice nwankwo department of philosophy, rivers state university, nkpolu port-harcourt. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 98 emergence of a colonial intelligentsia, the awakening of a national consciousness, the emergence of a working-class movement and the growth of a national liberation movement, as strong factors in the freedom of africa from colonialism and imperialism. these factors led to what he called the african revolution and states his case for socialism as the most valid expression of the african conscience at the present time. political development as a necessity in africa today the entire social life of a people is greatly tied to policies of their government and their method of leadership. writing about aristotle's postulation in politics, nnamdi says “man has been described as a political animal and this postulation of aristotle is believed to have been occasioned by man's social nature”. (2011: p. 3). this assertion means that our existence is closely associated with politics as long as we are social beings. politics in these circumstances means 'the activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power” (oxford languages, 2021: p.1). politics is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions for people, groups, nations et cetera. through the making of decisions, politics strongly affects the life of the people. the adjective 'political' qualifies everything that deals with politics, the powers, the decisions, the impact, et cetera. indeed, africa may have been out of colonialism but not out of neocolonialism and imperialism. on the other hand, “the word development is the growth or formation of something over a period of time”. (bbc, 1992: p. 310). it enjoys synonyms such as “evolution”, “growth”, “maturing”, “expansion”, “enlargement”, and “spread”. (oxford languages, 2022: p. 1). development is a product of the human mind. therefore, the development of any place depends on the development of its inhabitants. according to one of the great philosophers of this era; it stands to reason, therefore, that by developing the nationals of any nation, that nation implicitly gets developed, because 'it is the people who will eventually direct national affairs, manufacture modern facilities and improve social conditions.” advancement is masterminded by human beings. (eboh, 2011: p. 141). but often african leaders mistakenly think that development entails the mere physical upgrade of infrastructures. this demonstrates the extent african leaders understand the logic of existence. they build roads, beautiful edifices and buy the latest gadgets in the world, without realizing that in as much as these infrastructures are important, it is more important to first develop the people who will manage those infrastructures. this could be the reason behind the consistent lack of maintenance of infrastructures in africa. many of the inhabitants neither understand the value of such infrastructures (therefore, prefer to loot them away) nor can they help to maintain them. in support of human development, pope paul vi argues that, “development cannot be limited to mere economic growth. in order to be authentic, it must be complete, integral; that is, it has to promote the good of every man and of the whole man.” (1967: p. 10). thus, the state of the people reflects on the state of the society and vice versa. indeed, looking at the present state of life in africa, it is no doubt that the critical minds j.j. nwankwo achieving authentic political development in contemporary africa:... will be restless, as they search for the best possible way to help a continent such as africa come out of the plaguing difficulties that emanate out of wrong policies or bad measures in the quest for the good life. nkrumah noticed three major areas that africa must be liberated from; economic, political and social dimensions. indeed, these three areas have been the reasons behind the woes of african countries. on economy, it is an obvious truth that the african economy is on a continuous downward turn. all african currencies measure their relevance and strength using other foreign currencies such as the dollar, pounds and euro. but that has evidently thrown the whole of the african economy into greater tension and steady declivity. the social and political strength of africa, definitely affects the output from africa. in turn, the output from africa will have its consequence on the economy. on the social level, it is high time africans realized how strong and special they are. the very fact that africans, even those often neglected in their various countries, do exceedingly well, once they find themselves in other continents with better systems of operations, show that africans are special breeds. unfortunately, on many occasions, hardships and the quest for survival have often turn them to use their intelligence negatively, but the other truth is that a person who can utilize intelligence negatively, will be awesomely electrifying when such intelligence is channeled towards positivity and supported by a working system of operations. but unfortunately, nkrumah noticed that the imperialists are continuously making efforts to dominate in africa through economic penetration, cultural assimilation, ideological domination, psychological infiltration, and subversive activities. it is seeming that africans have accepted the western conditions as the right standard of doing things and consequently, play down on the avalanche of raw talents that are denied supports to come to universal limelight. on the remaining factor mentioned by nkrumah being political factor, it is evidently visible that african leaders do no seem to know how they can positively influence existence in their various countries through political decisions. most of the policies used to run the african governments are borrowed from other countries. the truth is that no two places are exactly the same and using what works in other places to govern another place may likely fail the test if the circumstances are varied. the method of coming into power without a clear idea of how to navigate it must change. it is true that leaders in africa hardly come with the mindset of helping their various countries, but with the intention of getting wealth and power. as such, the african leaders are often bereft of ideas in leadership. based on this reality, the political sector in africa has suffered underdevelopment and continues to yearn for development and improvement. this development must be built on what is original to the people and their environment. the continuous borrowing of policies from the west must improve through the adoption of native talents. african leaders must realize the necessity of developing the african political life on what will assist the continent to achieve selfrealization. political liberation of africa in nkrumah's philosophy the concept of liberation in kwame nkrumah's philosophy entails total and complete freedom from external influences on economic, social and political matters. the existence of such influences, nkrumah describes as imperialism. this term which is an old term in political history can be traced back to time of the disintegrated roman empire. according to internet encyclopedia of philosophy, “imperialism can be described as an orientation which holds that a country can gain political or economic power over another 99 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 through imposed sovereignty or more indirect mechanisms of control.” (internet encyclopedia of philosophy, 2021: p.7). it is particularly focused on the acquisition of power by a state over another group of people. it is also described as a state policy, practice or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. having studied outside his immediate country and continent of origin and with exposed knowledge and experiences in the united states, nkrumah realized that the african experience in the hands of the imperialists and the colonial masters left africa exploited and underdeveloped. he noted three ways the imperialists can use to hold on to power in ghana and africa at large; through political control, economic control and social control. (a) political factors: one of the factors that nkrumah believes the colonial masters and the imperialists used to get through to control of the african continent is political leadership. in exception of ethiopia and liberia, every other african country is said to be colonized at a point in time by one country or another, with most of them being either france, britain, belgium or portugal. according to alistair boddy-evans; “there are two countries considered by some scholars to never have been colonized: ethiopia and liberia.” (boddy-evans, 2021: p.1). as debatable as this might be, every other country in africa was colonized and politically ruled by other countries. algeria, benin, burkina faso, cameroon, chad, comoros, congo, cote d'ivoire, djibouti, gabon, guinea, madagascar, mali, mauritania, morocco, niger, senegal, tunisia; were all colonized by france. botswana, egypt, gambia, ghana, kenya, lesotho, malawi, mauritius, nigeria, seychelles, sierraleone, 'somalia, sudan, tanzania, uganda, zambia and zimbabwe; were all colonized by britain, burundi, congo dr congo and rwanda were colonized by belgium. angola, cape verde and guinea bissau were colonized by portugal. a few african countries; ethiopia and egypt particularly also colonized eritrea and sudan respectively in parts. thus, nkrumah was right to sense a deliberate interest from foreigners to control the political affairs of africa that aided imperialist's exploitation. nkrumah noted that: the inevitable results of imperialism thus are: (a) the emergence of a colonial intelligentsia; (b) the awakening of national consciousness among colonial peoples; (c) the emergence of a working – class movement; and (d) the growth of a national liberation movement (1962: p. 3845). as such, with better knowledge and awareness and united fronts, the africans sought for freedom which eventually came at different times for different countries. however, this freedom is yet to achieve its fullest realization from neocolonialism and imperialism. nkrumah, therefore, advocates for true african independence in political matters. africans must rise to the point of making political decisions based on the circumstances that are before them and not based on the expectations of a master/mistress who must detect what must done and how it must be done. africans must rise up to the point where the leaders will only seek political advice from the other parts of the world as mere suggestions that may or may not be enshrined into their existence and not as commands that must be obeyed and meticulously preserved. 100 j.j. nwankwo achieving authentic political development in contemporary africa:... (b) economic factors: another factor that aided the colonialism of africa is the economy. through economic necessity, the colonial lords and the imperialists gained dominance of africa by using african resources to improve themselves while releasing very minute fractions to africans. the emergence of a colonial intelligentsia and the awakening of national consciousness among people and the emergence of the working class, led to revolution against colonialism and its monopoly and control of capitals by imperialists against their dependent colonies. according to kwame nkrumah, the dominance of finance capital in the advanced capitalist countries; the export of capital to the sources of raw materials (imperialism) and the omnipotence of a financial oligarchy (finance capital), reveal the character of monopolist's capital which quickens the revolt of the intelligentsia and the working-class elements of the colonies against imperialism, and brings them to the national liberation movement as their only salvation (1962: p.38-45). this shows that the imperialist controlled the capitals and continued to extend their colonies until “… the transformation of capitalism into a world system of financial enslavement and colonial oppression and exploitation of vast majority” (nkrumah, 1962:38-45) led to the realization of the inalienable human rights of the african people to rule and govern themselves. the realization of these rights to self-government, eventually took away that direct control of the economy from their dominant masters and placed it on africans. nkrumah encourages africans to work hard to maintain this freedom. however, the reality we see show that this freedom is far from africa in a neo-colonized world of today, where africans will even export their own natural materials to be refined by their former colonial lords and then sell back to them. what of the african currencies that are printed outside its continent? for a complete control of its economy, africa must be willing to control of her goods and services. (c) social factors: the human person is both individualistic and social in nature. at the individual level, the human person relates only with himself and does not interfere in the existence of any other person. the internal biological processes of the human person should have no interference on the life of others except the human person external expresses them to affect others. the fact that such expressions could be otherwise done, shows that expressing them to interfere in the existence of others is not a necessary part of such process, rather the choice of the individual to interfere in the existence of others. but at the social level, the human person relates with other people and the entire society. expressions of emotions, respect or disrespect for others, community worship, external interactions; all find their existence within the social aspect of human existence. according to daniel j. sullivan, “philosophers and scientists are right when they insist on the strength and importance of man's instincts and sense appetites, and when they assert that he is deeply immersed within the impersonal forces of the physical universe.” (2012: 101 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 p. 63). at the level of the social dimension of the human person, he is impersonal and through it, he also relates with the forces of nature. colonialism, neo-colonialism and imperialism; all find themselves at this level of the human existence. since the individual dimension combines with the social dimensions to eventually influence human decisions, it is sometimes noticed the influence of one aspect of the human existence on another. the colonial lords manifested their individualistic interests through the monopoly of the economic, political and social factors in their colonies; thereby dividing the people and causing class consciousness, both within nations and internationally among nations. according to nkrumah; the monopolistic possession of 'spheres of influence' and colonies; the uneven development of the different capitalist countries leading to a frenzied struggle between the countries which 'have' and the countries which 'have not'. thus, war becomes the only method of restoring the disturbed equilibrium. (1962: pp. 38-45). nkrumah believes that the struggle for even development of the different capitalist countries strongly affected the social life in the society against the capitalists. he explained that the feeling of injustice and inequality led inter-capitalist alliance which helped the amalgamation of the front of the working class of the capitalist countries and the front of the toiling masses of the colonies for colonial emancipation. this alliance weakened imperialism and aided the freedom of the various colonies. having realized the powerful destructive power of disintegration, nkrumah called for a united africa as the key to a true and complete freedom. nkrumaism as a possible solution nkrumaism also known as consciencism could be called a trademark for nkrumah's political philosophy. “nkrumaism (sometimes consciencism) is an african socialist political ideology based on the thinking and writing of kwame nkrumah.” (wikipedia, 2020: p.1). influenced by marx-leninist theory, nkrumah postulated his philosophy of a united africa as the only way of achieving true and complete freedom from colonialism and imperialism. according to him, “to draw the most from our existing and potential means for the achievement of abundance and a fine social order, we need to unify our efforts, our resources, our skills and intentions.” (1963: p. 216). unity therefore could be described as strength in the philosophy of consciences. this unity advocated by nkrumah must be a strong bond to control the political, economic and social life of the africans. nkrumah maintains that; in my view, therefore, a united africa-that is, the political and economic unification of the african continent – should seek three objectives: firstly, we should have an overall economic planning on a continental basis …. secondly, we should aim at the establishment of a unified military and defense strategy …. the third objective which we should have in africa stems from the first two which i have just described. if we in africa set up a unified economic planning organization and a unified military defense 102 j.j. nwankwo achieving authentic political development in contemporary africa:... strategy, it will be necessary for us to adopt a unified foreign policy and diplomacy to give political direction to our joint efforts for the protection and economic development of our continent. (1963: pp. 216-222). thus, nkrumah believes that unity in our economy, security and foreign policies will lead to a developed africa. according to him, “so long as we remain balkanized, regionally or territorially, we shall be at the mercy of colonialism and imperialism.” (1963: pp. 216222). the theory of uniting africa into one on economic, military and political foreign policies, was tagged african socialism. nkrumah wrote that; from the ancestral lines of communalism, the passage of socialism, lies in reform, because the underlying principles are the same. but when this passage carries one through colonialism the reform is revolutionary since the passage from colonialism to genuine independence is an act of revolution (2021: p.1). it is a common knowledge that ancient africa was communalistic in existence. nkrumah advocates a passage into socialism can only come through a reform. for this reason, he supports the process of revolution, even when it demands some force. the truth is that many countries in africa got independence through revolutions and demonstration. nkrumah believes that for there to be a reform, there must be a revolution. by extension, this revolution remains a valid form of bringing reform, not only before the colonial lords, but even before bad leaderships. the philosophy of nkrumah, therefore, is an ideology that supports forceful reforms, even when the leadership fails at the national level. africans must therefore, rise up to the challenge, so that their leaders will understand that it is not enough to win elections and assume the places of power. there is a possibility of a revolution when the leaders fail in their duties and also refuse to act responsibly. african leaders must realize that the days in which they lead now demand accountability and responsibility. when there is failure, there will be consequences. critical assessment of nkrumah's political philosophy unity is strength and nkrumah was not wrong to have advocated for a united africa. the fact is that uniting and maintaining a united front within and beyond africa, will always form a stronger bond and yield a better result. this was what kwame nkrumah understood very well and advocated for as a tool for african political development. however, the extent of this unity he sought for needs more time to be achieved if it could ever be achieved in this present life. he advocated for unity in three fronts of the african existence, being economic, military and socio-political dimensions. his philosophy of economic unity no doubt will be to form a united africa and help africa's industrial and economic powers. in fact, presently, the dream of having a common currency “eco” in west africa finds its root in nkrumah's political philosophy. according to mandisa xuba, “the eco is supposed to boost economic development in west african region and improve cross border trade”. (2021: p.1). this dream being pursued is one of the key postulations of nkrumah in his zeal for african development. secondly, his interest in a united military force is also necessary but not to the extent he postulates. the various african countries as long as they are independent cannot have a common military control. 103 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 if this is to happen, which country will be in charge of it? but unity of our military in fighting common foes is not out of place. the present-day experience in the hands of terrorists' groups in africa exemplifies the need for unity in attacking a common enemy. the third perspective is the socio-political dimension, where he involved foreign policies. on this point, nkrumah sought for a united front towards the rest of the world by africans on policy-making. however, it seems clearly that nkrumah tends to ignore the powers bequeathed on people and their sovereignty through political independence. each country's policies are influenced by their needs and circumstances. since the needs and circumstances of various countries are different, then their policies will differ as well. for the actualization of this socio-political unity, a bigger union with a competent authority must established first. but nkrumah did not highlight the necessity of this higher union in his philosophy. thus, nkrumah's political theory lacks coherence. henry bretton also supports this position in his criticism on nkrumaism. according to him; nkrumaism was a verbalization of the requirements of the personal political machine. professional scribes and amateurs, along with the ghanaian left, were set to the task to providing the coherence and internal consistency required to give a semblance of philosophy to the chaotic assemblage of ideas and fantasies borrowed from all parts of the world and from all periods of history, frequently out of context (1964: p.87). the aspect of nkrumah's personal interests in pursuing a united africa presumably gets a backing of ama biney. according biney, “from the beginning his personality dominated ghana's external relations, because he felt that he had a specific mission for africa which could be fully realized only under his control at the helm.” (2021: p. 3). nkrumah therefore wanted to extend his sovereignty to the entirety of africa and to achieve this, he pushed first for the unity of africa. as at the time of this push for this unity tagged panafricanism, ghana's voice could be likened to nkrumah's voice and nkrumah's interest was almost one and the same as ghana's interest especially before foreigners. since nkrumah was the central instrument in the pursuit of a united africa, the achievement of this interest would made ghana the capital of africa and nkrumah the general president of africa. as true as this might be, we must not deny the relevance of the philosophical ideas in nkrumah's thoughts. even philosophy itself is used for personal interest at times and till date has remained a discipline of individual arguments and theories. conclusion permit me to paraphrase a statement in the fourth chapter of nkrumah's consciencism which says that thought without practice is empty and action without thought is blind. (2021: p.10). nkrumah reflected his political philosophy in line with the political challenges of africa at the time of his reign in various positions in ghana. from his exposure in united states of america and england, he realized that colonialism and imperialism would not have africa in his desired state of existence. he pushed for the liberation of ghana and africa at large from political and economic manipulations in the hands of the colonial lords and the imperialists. he held conferences, traveled the length and breadth of africa, postulated the unity of africa as a way forward. however, no 104 j.j. nwankwo achieving authentic political development in contemporary africa:... human work is perfect. as such, he also received criticisms which should help in sharpening his philosophy for a united africa. as such, contemporary africa must adopt his philosophy to the extent that it can help africa and jettison what is not necessary for the growth, progress and development of africa. africa must unite, but not exactly in the same sense of nkrumaism. africa can unite through a committed process of supporting one another through trade, sports, education, justifiable exchange of facilities, common pursuit of a peaceful and secured region. as such, this research condemns any form of violence among africans irrespective of the cause of provocation and supports any form of supports that will bring about a greater africa through a united front. unity will be the strength of africa's political development. references augustyn, a. (2021). “kwame nkrumah: president of ghana” in encyclopedia britannica. retrieved from https://www.britannica.com. bbc english dictionary: a dictionary for the world (1992). london: bbc english bush house. biney, a. (2021). nkrumah's foreign policy, 1958-1966. retrieved from links.springer.com. boddy-evans, a. (2021). countries in africa considered never colonized. retrieved from https://www.thoughco.com. bretton, h.l. (1964). the rise and fall of kwame nkrumah: a study of personal rule in africa. new york: frederick a. praeger. eboh, m.p. (2011). introduction to philosophy and philosophizing. port harcourt: pearl publishers. nkrumah, k. (1961). “the african philosophy”, in speak of freedom. london: panaf books ltd. nkrumah, k. (1962). “what must be done”, in towards colonial freedom. london: wir. nkrumah, k. (1963). africa must unite. london: helnermann educational books ltd. nkrumah, k. (2021). nkrumah on socialism. retrieved from https://en.m.wikipedia.org. nnamdi, b.s. (2011). political obligation & civil disobedience in hannah arendt: a politico – philosophical perspective. nigeria: blestgrafix. osowo, e. 2019. (2021). definition of terms. retrieved from facebook.com. oxford languages (2021), politics. london: oxford university press. paul vi. (1967). the great social problem. london: catholic truth society publishers. sullivan, d.j. (2012). an introduction to philosophy: perennial principles of the classical realist tradition. north carolina: tan books. wi k i p e d i a . 2 0 2 1 . “ n k r u m a i s m ” i n wi k i p e d i a . r e t r i e v e d f r o m https://en.m.wikipedia.org. xuba, m. (2021). the eco-currency: a new chapter for west africa. retrieved from https://futureafricaforum.org. 105 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 98 a philosophical reflection on plotinus’ concept of beauty as an ecstatic experience of the soul justin nnaemeka onyeukaziri abstract this paper posits plotinus’ conception of beauty as not only one of the answers to the question on how to fill the lacuna created by the demise of religious sublimity and awareness in many. but is the most persuasive and transforming way for individual spiritual transformation and by extension the transformation of the world. it focuses on plotinus’ concept of beauty, from the perspective of the human person. attention has been given to plotinus’ aesthetics mostly within the general scope of platonism, focusing on the notion of beauty as form (intellectual beauty) and on the question of whether or not beauty is conceived as symmetry both in plato and plotinus. this paper claims that the notion of beauty for plotinus is an ecstatic experience of the soul. thus, for plotinus, beauty is not just aesthetical, it is more so a spiritual experience in the soul. this focus on plotinus’ notion of beauty is considered important as an alternative way for the cultivation of the interior life, in a world that is increasing becoming secularized. it is also relevant because the philosophical focus on beauty has largely been on the object out there. even when a subjective focus is given on the concept of beauty, it is not largely focused on the spiritual transformation of the human person. hence, this paper, is an analytical exposition of plotinus’ works on beauty. keywords: aesthetics, beauty, ecstatic experience, soul 1. introduction plotinus (203-270 ce), as the father of neo-platonism no doubt occupies a very important position in the history of western philosophy, especially in the ranks of hellenistic philosophers. his impact and the influence of his thoughts on christian philosophy and religion in general during its earlier period is enormous. thus, his works are not unfamiliar to many christian and islamic religious and philosophical scholars, especially during the early medieval period. while attention has been sizably given to his metaphysics, comparably less has been given to his aesthetics. on many occasions, when attention is given to his aesthetics, it is done within the general scope of platonism. by focusing on the question of whether or not beauty is conceived as symmetry or in sense-perception, this work thus, aims at focusing on plotinus’ notion of beauty, from the perspective of the human person. that is to say, what does beauty do to the human person; how does beauty affect and transform the human person. this paper claims that the notion of beauty for plotinus is an ecstatic experience of the soul. thus, beauty is not just aesthetical, for plotinus it is more so spiritual. this focus on plotinus’ notion of beauty is considered important as an alternative way for the cultivation of the interior life, in a world that is increasing becoming secularized. it is also relevant because the onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 99 philosophical focus on beauty has largely been on the object out there. even when a subjective focus is given on the concept of beauty, it is not largely focused on the spiritual transformation of the human person. therefore, to execute this research, focus would be given primarily to plotinus’ works and reference to other texts would be provided if it is necessary to understand plotinus’ own text. the methodology implored would be more an analytical and personal reflective reading of plotinus. hence, to put in perspective the plotinus notion of beauty as the ecstatic experience of the soul, a brief exposition of plotinus’ cosmology will be exposed. this will help to clarify plotinus’ understanding of the soul and its relationship with the realities in his cosmology as its relates to his notion of beauty. thus, to execute this, the following steps are taken: first, concisely expose plotinus’ cosmology. second, plotinus’ analysis and critique of the general concept of beauty will be exposed. third, a reflection on beauty as an ecstatic experience of the soul will be expounded. then there will be a conclusion reflecting on the transforming effect of beauty in the individual and the world. 2. plotinus’ cosmology plotinus is a thinker of an acutely active and rigorous critical mind, yet deeply spiritual and transcendental in his thinking and speculation. o’meara (2010:301), describes plotinus thus: “among the philosophers of late antiquity plotinus stands out as a thinker of exceptional depth, subtlety, originality and power.” he is indeed a man fully devoted to the transcendental life, whose last words to his pupil and his doctor, eustochius, is: “try to bring the divine in us to the divine in the all” (quoted in o’meara 2010: 302). as a diehard platonist, to understand the philosophy of plotinus, and specifically his notion of beauty, one has to understand at least the fundamental positions in the philosophy of plato. for instance, with respect to the concept of beauty, yount (2014:49), notes: both philosophers hold the following claims to be true: beauty is a form; beauty is similar to but not identical with the good; one can have a transformative vision of beauty; the imitator (artist, poet) of beauty does not know if the imitations are in fact beautiful or how bad his imitations are. besides, the philosophical kinship shared between plato and plotinus, to understand plotinus’ philosophy, one also, needs to understand the positions where aristotle differs from plato. more so, how aristotle attempts to resolve the problems he considers inherent in plato’s philosophy. this is because plotinus, though being the most outstanding and faithful platonist, especially during the hellenistic period, he never considered aristotle as an adversary of plato. plotinus, considers aristotle as walking on the same philosophical paths as his master, plato, and that he misunderstood certain positions of plato. this, he tries to rectify by aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 100 mutually employing the philosophical thoughts of both plato and aristotle in his own philosophical discourse. keeping with the philosophical spirit of the hellenistic roman periods, plotinus thoughts are not merely rational philosophical positions separated from life, but a philosophy of life. a seeking, that is aimed at being a source of moral and spiritual ways of life for a person. during this period, in fact, philosophy as spirituality, the training and preparing of the soul for death, was at its peak. keeping this in mind, the perspective of the cosmology of plotinus could be understood. as a platonist, plotinus’ world-view or cosmology is idealist, thus, he maintains the key trends of plato’s cosmology and cosmogony. plato’s main exposition of his cosmology is in the dialogue entitled, timaeus. and plato’s cosmology is the fruit of his reflection and the discussion with his students in timaeus. plotinus believes in a world that is structurally ordered, with three hypostases/principles: the one, the intellect (nous) and the soul (psuche). o’meara (307: footnote no. 11), observes: ‘modern studies sometimes refer to soul, intellect and the one, in plotinus, as “hypostases”. however, plotinus uses the term hupostasis to refer, not to the one, but to the realities it produces, and a better term for all three would be “principles”, as suggested by gerson 1994:3.’ he holds the existence of an ultimate transcendental reality, the first principle, which he calls the one or the good. the one is the first, “in the sense that it is simplest, and the self-sufficient, because it is not composed of a number of parts” (against the gnostics, bk ii, 9(1),10). from the one comes the divine intellect which contains the forms of all things. after the divine intellect comes the soul, and then the bodies and all other lower realities of purely corporal nature. the one is the generative force of all things, thus it is the transcendental absolute being, good, beauty and truth. thus, the one is beyond the complete grasp of every human language. hence, he maintains, ‘whenever we say “the one” and whenever we say “the good,” we must think that the nature we are speaking of is the same nature, and call it “one” not as predicating anything of it but as making it clear to ourselves as far as we can’ (against gnostics, bk ii, 9(1), 5-10). thus however, language is used, however, because it is the only way to communicate or engage in a discourse of the one. the one is not like the judeo-christian god, that is, a creator outside the world. the one is eternally transcendent from the world and immanent in the world. in the same way, other levels of being in the plotinus’ universe, are not completely apart from another. hence, though the divine intellect, the soul and body are distinct beings, the body is in the soul, the soul is in the intellect and the intellect is in the one. while the one is the absolute good, plotinus conceives matter, that is the senseworld, as the principle of evil (in the moral sense). plotinus, employs a rational formative principle which he calls, logos, that flows from the intellect, to explain the becoming and order of all things by providence (on providence (1), book 3(2),15-25). on the hierarchical order of levels of being in plotinus, armstrong (1966: xvii), elucidates that the one though ontological remote and distinct from onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 101 other beings in his cosmology, the one is metaphysically present in all the other beings in the hierarchy. hence, armstrong (armstrong,1966: xii) contends that there is an outgoing movement from unity (the one) to ever-increasing multiplicity (matter), which is a downward movement; the other movement is an upward movement from multiplicity to unification (the one). he considers these two movements as the profound tension in the thought of plotinus on the understanding of the first principle. this means, that while there is generative movement of multiplicity downwards from the one via the intellect and the soul, there is a transcendental ascending movement of unification and perfection, from the soul via the intellect to the one. this ontological relationship between the one, the intellect and the soul and their downward and upward movements respectively, are very essential in understanding plotinus’ notion of beauty. below, then, shall be an analysis of his critique of the general conception of the beautiful. 3. plotinus’ analysis and critique of the general concept of beauty plotinus’ concept of beauty is brilliantly exposed in his treatise entitled, on beauty. plotinus begins this treatise by reflecting on how beauty has been hitherto generally understood. hence, plotinus (on beauty book(bk) 1, 6(1), 1-5) submits: beauty is mostly in sight, but it is to be found too in things we hear, in combinations of words and also in music, and in all music [not only in songs]; for tunes and rhythms are certainly beautiful: and for those who are advancing upwards from sense-perception ways of life and actions and characters and intellectual activities are beautiful, and there is the beauty of virtue. in the above reference, plotinus briefly summarizes how beauty has been generally conceived before and during his era. thus, it should not be understood as the definition of beauty proper to him. his assertion is, according to the general view of many, beauty is conceived as activities within the realm of sense-perception. he strongly disagrees with this position. to this general view, the organs for sight and hearing, are the most prevalent human organs in the activities of conceiving beauty. when this is the case, then objects of beauty, could be found in physical and visible objects of nature and in fine and literary art works, like painting, sculpture, drawings, music, poetry, and songs of different forms. the second level of the general view of beauty in his submission stated above, is the conception of beauty in “action and characters.” though plotinus did not provide examples of the beauties conceived in “action and characters”. it would not be incorrect to include here the beauties of drama, play and other theatric activities and the beauty of sports and military actions. the third level of the general view of beauty, is the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 102 beauty of or in intellectual activities: this would include all contemplative activities that engage the human mind or intellect. definitely the engagement in the natural sciences, mathematics and above all philosophy (metaphysics) would belong to this category of beauty. the fourth level of the general view of beauty is the beauty of virtue: the beauty of virtue as the name implies is the beauty of the soul as a result of the virtuous activities of the soul. thus, this, is the beauty we perceive in the actions of a courageous, humble, patient, charitable person and the like. among the four general views of beauty highlighted above as summarized by plotinus, the first and the second are not considered to be essential in what plotinus constitutes as the beautiful. he only considers the third and the fourth views as the activities where what constitutes beauty could be possible. it shall be argued below, that plotinus considers the beauty of virtue as the greatest of all conceptions of beauty. the beauties of intellectual activities and the beauty of virtue are both that of non-sense-perception. they are spiritual in nature, for they involve and engage the interior life of a person. therefore, plotinus considers the realm of sense-perception as not being principal for the conception of beauty. in the second paragraph on the treatise on beauty (bk 1, 6(1), 10-20), plotinus raises six questions which could be considered as fundamental aesthetic questions: a. what makes us imagine or think a thing (body) is beautiful and attracts us? b. how are all the things which depend on the soul beautiful? c. are things all beautiful by a single beauty or are there different beauties in different things? d. what is this single or multiple beauties? e. what is the principle of beauty which is present in bodies (things)? f. what is it that attracts the gaze of people to a thing and makes them to enjoy the thing? (a) raises the question on the why and where of the beautiful. is the beautiful objectively in things or subjectively in the person who perceives the object? in other words, is the beautiful in the object per se, or in the person per se or in both? (b) presupposes that things depends on the soul to be judged to be beautiful. which means that the beautiful is not in the object per se. but the critical question of (b), is how does the beautiful in a thing/object depend on the soul? this he claims has to do with the forms of things. things can be beautiful because they possess forms. as would be argued below, for plotinus to be formless is to be ugly; formlessness is disorder. the question (c) raises the problematic that is inherent when the beautiful is conceived in respect to being “well-proportioned” or mathematically symmetrical. when a beautiful house is adjudged to be such, is it as a result of the combination of the beauty of the constituted parts that are well-proportioned or is it as a result of the collective whole, which is the house? if it is either a single beauty or multiple beauties, (d) seeks to know what this beauty or these beauties are. (e) onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 103 raises the questions on the quiddity of beauty, what makes beautiful things beautiful? that is to say what is the form of beauty per se? he considers, the last question (f) of a paramount importance. for the understanding of it, he thinks is a stepping-stone to the understanding of the rest of the questions. (f) presupposes that the beautiful attracts and excites. but why do we get attracted to the beautiful and are excited in the beautiful is the crux of the question. thus, he asks: “what is it that attracts the gaze of those who look at something, and turns and draws them to it and makes them enjoy the sight?” first, he gives the general responses of people. the first and common response is “good proportion of the parts to each other and to the whole, with the addition of good colour” (bk 1, 6(1), 20-25). simply put, being beautiful is being “well-proportioned and measured.” this is the question: whether or not beauty is symmetry? there has been a scholarly controversy among scholars on plotinus, whether plato and plotinus have the same view on beauty as symmetry. yount (2014:49-51), claims, anton and rist, posit that plato did not hold beauty as symmetry but plotinus does; but contrary to their views, he argues that both plato and plotinus are in agreement on the idea of symmetry and beauty. yount argues, that plotinus holds that beauty is form, but only argues for beauty as symmetry with regards to objects of senseperception. and he believes that, that is also plato’s position. gerson (1994), seems to hold that plotinus was reluctant to identify beauty with symmetry. he contends: “on reflection, however, the refusal to identify beauty, even bodily beauty, with symmetry is somewhat puzzling. as we have seen, matter is unmeasuredness or absence of symmetry and form is a kind of symmetry” (p. 213). this paper argues, neither plato nor plotinus opposes this theory, they both hold that well-proportioned and measure of parts and the whole, make up what is said to be beautiful. nevertheless, they did not consider well-proportioned and measure, that is, symmetry, as what defines the beautiful. it is the contemporaneous hellenistic school of thought, the stoics, who exclusively define the beautiful as well-proportioned and measured with the addition of good colour (see cicero, tusculan disputations, iv). plotinus’ contention on this theory, is that if wellproportioned and measured is what essentially defines the beautiful, it implies that “nothing single and simple but only a composite thing will have any beauty” (bk 1, 6(1), 25-30). for if beauty is in the whole as well-proportioned, it implies, the parts cannot be beautiful, since the parts are not well-proportioned. but how can there be the whole without the part? one can not even conceive the whole without necessarily conceiving the parts. hence, plotinus contends, if it is the case that beauty is exclusively well-proportioned, then, only the whole will be beautiful not the parts that make the whole. for the parts of a whole, do not have the property of beauty by themselves. when the beauty of a thing is grasped, the thing is grasped as a whole not in parts. plotinus’ question for those who claim that beauty is well-proportioned per se, then will be, how can the whole be beautiful when the parts that makes the whole aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 104 are not beautiful? plotinus’ counterargument is that, “if the whole is beautiful the parts must be beautiful too; a beautiful whole can certainly not be composed of ugly parts; all the parts must have beauty” (bk 1, 6(1), 30-35). therefore, he deductively contends that it is not possible for the whole to be beautify without the parts. more so, even for a body that is whole, sometimes either because of lack of colours, or excess of colour from natural sunlight or from human made lights, things are judged to be beautiful or not beautiful. therefore, plotinus rejects this theory of beauty as well-proportioned as unsubstantial. he adjudges, “being beautiful is something else over and above good proportion, and good proportion is beautiful because of something else” (bk 1, 6(1), 40-45). this “something else” that constitutes “being beautiful” is what this paper intends to disclose and will be explored below. plotinus, further rejects this theory (beauty as well-proportioned or symmetry) by arguing from beauty as actions: intellectual actions and virtuous actions. he holds that it will be practically impossible to state what constitutes the “well-proportioned” in these non-body-like activities, if one considers them as having beauty. after establishing that the theory on well-proportioned and measured in addition with good colour, is not sustainable for defining the beautiful, he proffers what he thinks the primary beauty in bodies is. he maintains that the primary beauty in bodies: is something which we become aware of even at the first glance; the soul speaks of it as if it understood it, recognizes and welcomes it and as it were adapts itself to it. but when it encounters the ugly it shrinks back and rejects it and turns away from it and is out of tune and alienated from it (bk 1, 6(2),1-10). with this reference, plotinus maintains a different position on the conception of the beautiful. he points to the soul as the fundamental factor in the conception of the beautiful. he makes the soul of the human person the ground where the activities of beauty take place. for him what makes a thing beautiful is the form of the thing, and this form of the thing can only be grasped by the soul of the human person. hence, without the soul it is not possible to grasp the beauty of things. but how does plotinus conceive the soul, which is for him the fundamental principle where the conception of the beautiful happens? plotinus’ conception of the soul is akin to the fundamentals of plato’s conception of the soul, however, it has its own specificity. plotinus agrees with plato, in the understanding of the soul as the true spiritual and incorporeal being of the human being that inhabits in a physical and corporal body. thus, both agree that the soul is the “great intermediary between the worlds of intellect and sense and the representative of the former in the latter” (armstrong, 1966: xxii). plotinus, unlike onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 105 plato, distinguishes the concept of the third hypostasis/principle (that is to say, the hypostasis after the one and the intellect, in the hierarchical structure of plotinus’ cosmology as exposed above), into two: the individual souls and the universal soul. this means for plotinus, the third hypostasis (the soul) in his hierarchy of beings, though one reality is understood in two ways, the universal soul and the individual souls. the universal soul is the same soul that individuates itself as the individual souls in every human person. thus the individual soul as the form of the body for plotinus is more in the sense of the plato’s form than in the sense of the aristotle’s form. the soul of which plotinus speaks of in reference to beauty, is the individual souls. it is the part of a person where the contemplation of forms, and actions of virtues are produced and enacted. it is that part of a person that can bring the individual into union with the absolute one. hence, plotinus maintains that, the soul by its very nature, “is related to the higher kind of reality in the realm of being, when it sees something akin to it or a trace of its kindred reality, is delighted and thrilled and returns to itself and remembers itself and its own possessions” (bk 1, 6(2), 5-10). what this implies, is that plotinus thinks that the soul which is spiritual has the similitude and capacity not only to recognize the beauty as a form of everything beautiful, but to also delight in beauty per se. in other words, there is something in the nature of the soul that enables it to grasp the beautiful. it is only by the means of the soul that beauty as one of the forms produced by the one, by the creative principle of logos in the intellect can be grasped and experienced by the human person. hence, it implies that for plotinus, the beauty is not in sense-perceptions but in the soul or the intellect. he maintains, that things are beautiful in the material world because they participate in the form of the beauty in the intellect. he puts it thus: “we maintain that the things in this world are beautiful by participating in form” (bk 1, 6(2),15). while he explains absolute ugliness, thus: “for every shapeless thing which is naturally capable of receiving shape and form is ugly and outside the divine formative power and form” (bk 1, 6(2),15-20). one should be careful not to understand the sense of form here, merely as the structure of a thing as in aristotle’s notion of form. for as in plato’s notion of form, plotinus holds that everything has, or better put is capable of a form. if beauty is well-formness, ugliness is the distortion of form. it is thus the privation of the form of a thing that is naturally capable of receiving form, which is thus, outside the divine formative power, that is said to be absolute ugliness. below, shall be an exposition of how the soul grasps the form of the beautiful and what happens to the soul in its experience of the beautiful. 4. beauty as ecstatic experience of the soul for plotinus, beauty like truth is grasped by the contemplation of the soul on the form of beauty in things, as the soul ascends upwards through the intellect towards union with the one. the beauty grasped by the contemplation of the soul, is aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 106 referred by plotinus as “the beauty beyond.” he maintains that, “about the beauties beyond, which it is no more the part of sense to see, but the soul sees them and speaks of them without instruments—we must go up to them and contemplate them and leave sense to stay down below” (bk, 6(4), 1-5). it follows, that, the grasping of the beauty beyond involves a personal encounter or an intuitive experience of the soul with the form of the beautiful. to this effect, plotinus posits this experience of the beauty, thus: “these experiences must occur whenever there is contact with any sort of beautiful thing, wonder and a shock of delight and longing and passion and a happy excitement” (bk, 6(4),15-20). thus, one can say for plotinus the quiddity of an aesthetic experience is: a feeling of wonder, a shock of delight, passionate longing, and a happy excitement. these feelings are experienced irrespective of the beautiful thing encountered. based on the fact that these experiences take effect in the soul of a person, plotinus thus, argues for the reality of invisible beauties. hence, holding that one can have these aesthetic experiences, he adjudges that the souls can have invisible beauties, especially in the soul of those who are passionately in love with the invisible activities, which are basically activities of the mind and virtue (see bk, 6(4),20ff). using the metaphor of loving affection stung sharply between lovers, plotinus, engages in a discourse of beauty as an ecstatic experience of the soul. the experience of love between lovers, carnal or spiritual, has the characteristic experiences used by plotinus to describe the experience of beauty. they are: wonder, a shock of delight, passionate longing, and a happy excitement. plotinus’ project here is to demonstrate that the kind of ecstatic experience that happens in the soul of the lover in the encounter with the beloved, is a similar kind of ecstatic experience that happens in the soul of the person who in union with the one, encounters the form of beauty in beautiful things. plotinus, asks the question: what makes lovers to have the above feeling? he completely rules out all activities on the order of sense-perception, such as shape, colour, size, as the cause of the ecstatic experience in the lover. but he claims that what makes lovers have these feelings is because of the presence of the souls which possess a moral order of virtues. he claims that, “you feel like this when you see, in yourself or in someone else, greatness of soul, a righteous life, a pure morality, courage with its noble look, and dignity and modesty advancing in a fearless, calm and unperturbed disposition, and the godlike light of intellect shining upon all this” (bk, 6(5),10-15). by this response, plotinus once again dismisses mere “well-proportioned and colour” as the essential properties of beauty. he thus exults beauty to a more sublime realm, that is effected by righteousness, virtues and an illuminated intellectual life. these properties of beauty, righteousness, virtues and illuminated intellectual life, as adduced by plotinus, are of the invisible and spiritual sublime realm that the soul must attain in order to truly grasp the beauty. they are what throw us into wonder and excitement when we are in love. courageous acts or the virtues of patient endurance and charity are always attractive and applauded by all, irrespective of onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 107 time, nationality, race, colour or culture. this explains why ethics and aesthetics always go together and are rarely inseparable. this sustains the point made above that for plotinus, beauty is essentially a spiritual experience in the soul, not in the activities of sense-perception. having established beauty as the ecstatic experience in the soul due to the contemplative relationship of the soul on the form of beauty, plotinus further argues that beauty, “really exists”, by the real existence of the properties that reveal the beautiful above. that is to say, beauty as form in the intellect, has subsistence existence. beauty is not merely the idea or the notion of the beautiful, it has a real existence. thus, the human soul becomes a beautiful soul when it falls in love with beauty in its path to union with the one. according to gerson (1994:212), this happens “because beauty is a property of forms as contemplated, images of forms possess images of that property. images of beauty are found in bodies, and generally in objects of sight; objects of other senses; ways of life; actions; characters; and virtue (1.6.1).” in other words, individual things and actions or virtue are beautiful because in them is possessed the image of the form of beauty. therefore, what happens in the experience of the beautiful is the encounter of the soul with the form of beauty per se. this thus, requires a transcending upward movement of the human soul beyond the natural realm of sense-perception of individual things. this transcendence movement of the soul is enabled and perfected by activities of: virtue, righteousness and intellection. hence, these activities are what makes the soul lovable and beautiful. therefore, for the soul to maintain its beauty, it must not be corrupted by matter and the desires and passions of the body. for, “so we shall be right in saying that the soul becomes ugly by mixture and dilution and inclination towards the body and matter” (bk, 6(5),45-50). thus, the soul must constantly purge itself of the lust of the body, by leading a virtuous and righteous life with a love for a contemplative intellectual life. socrates in plato’s phaedo, has argued strongly for philosophy as the major means for the purification of the soul, asserting: “release and separation of the soul from the body is the preoccupation of the philosophers” (67d). thus, the courageous and self-controlled soul is not consumed by the fire of lusts of the body and has no fear of death, since death brings forth the final liberation of the soul from the body. plotinus, then submits: “so the soul when it is purified becomes form and formative power, altogether bodiless and intellectual and entirely belonging to the divine, whence beauty springs and all that is akin to it. soul, then, when it is raised to the level of intellect increases in beauty” (bk, 6(5),15-20). as the soul ascends upwards toward the intellect in the plotinus’ cosmology, it increases in beauty. this is because, “intellect and the things of intellect are its beauty, its own beauty and not another’s, since only then [when it is perfectly conformed to intellect] is it truly soul” (bk, 6(5),15-20). since the soul becomes truly the soul when it conforms to the intellect, the soul, thus, becomes truly beautiful when it units with the universal soul, in the intellect. to this effect, gerson (1994:212), maintains: aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 108 “just as the desire for good is the desire to be associated with intellect in contemplating forms, so beauty is that aspect of intelligible reality that produces delight in the contemplator when contemplation is occurring.” beyond the conformity with the intellect, the soul becomes not only beautiful but also good, when it units with the one, god. by god here, plotinus’s god should be understood. which is the ultimate first principle of reality, which because it is the absolute, is the absolute good and the absolute beauty. on the contrary, a soul that is not tending in union with the one, becomes ugly and evil. note, by evil, plotinus means a privation of the good, and by ugly he means a privation of the beautiful. now god, the one, is the absolute beauty from which comes the intellect, which is beauty. the soul is given beauty by intellect. hence it is the shaping of the soul that makes everything beautiful. the soul, which is a form can and is what grasps and masters the form of the beautiful in all things said to be beautiful. in fact, the things that are beautiful exist because they have forms and they are spoken of as beautiful by the form of the human person which is the soul (see bk, 6(7),35ff). having established, what beauty, and how the soul can be beautiful and how the soul makes everything it grasps beautiful, plotinus makes a passionate appeal to seek the truly beautiful, the one, god. since, the one, is the remote source of all forms which is the cause of the beautiful, the most sublime experience of the beautiful is union with the one. he exhorts that the seeking of this beauty is worth more than any other attainment in life. hence for him, failure in life lays not in the inability to attain physical or perceptive beauties, nor socio-political beauties. it lays rather in the failure to grasp and unite with the absolute beauty, which is the one. for a true lover of the one gives away every attainment in order to be united with the one, god (see bk, 6(7),35ff). this kind of person, no doubt must be spiritual minded not carnal; must seek the things above not the things below; must search for the good interiorly not exteriorly. hence, gerson (1994:216), expounding this point, maintains that plotinus by this position: … describes and promotes qualifiedly a world-renouncing conversion…. let us remember that this call to holiness…. is located in the middle of a discussion of beauty. this remarkable association of the religious with the aesthetic is not of course uniquely plotinian. but it is to say naturally plotinian. the soul of such a person must be ready to undergo a necessary training, “first of all to look at beautiful ways of life: then at beautiful works, not those which the arts produce, but the works of men who have a name for goodness: then look at the souls of the people who produce the beautiful works” (bk, 6(9),1-10). with onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 109 personal cultivation and training of this sort, the flight of the soul to its lover, intellect, becomes possible and easy. for the intellect, is the beauty par excellence, and from the intellect, the soul aims at union with the source of beauty, the one. only the souls which are akin and are like the one, can grasp and be beautiful as the one. for as he posits, “no eye ever saw the sun without becoming sun-like, nor can a soul see beauty without becoming beautiful” (bk, 6(9),25-35). what it implies is that one must necessarily become godlike in order to be united with the one, god and become beautiful. and the path to godlikeness is the ascent of the soul to the intellect, where lies the form of beauty, by the ascent to the intellect to union with the one. 5. conclusion this paper focused on plotinus’ notion of beauty as the ecstatic experience of the soul, by arguing that sense-perception is not considered essential for the grasp of beauty in plotinus. it engaged in a reflection of plotinus’ notion or conception of beauty as it concerns the spiritual transformation of the human person. that is to say, what beauty does to the human person, how beauty affects and transforms the human person, and by extension how the beautiful soul could transform the world. it emphasizes that for plotinus beauty is not just aesthetical, it is more so a spiritual experience in the soul. it is the transcending upward movement of the soul in union with the one, through the contemplation of the form, beauty, in the intellect. now, one may ask: of what relevance is plotinus’ philosophy of beauty to the world today? this paper contends that plotinus’ notion of beauty as ecstatic experience of the soul is relevant now, not only for the transformation of the individual human person, but also for the transformation of the world today. of course, when individuals are transformed, the world by logical necessity will be transformed since it is individual human persons that make up the world as a social reality. the world today epistemologically speaking, is a scientifically led world. people today seek empirically based fact; thus, truth is becoming equal to fact and knowledge equal to science. our world, led by this epistemologically attitude has brought enormously unparalleled economic and technological advancements when compared to any other period in human history. the metaphysics that seem to support this epistemological disposition is fundamentally materialistic and/or physicalistic. the natural consequence of such metaphysical dispositions, coupled with capitalistic economic pursuit, is atheism or at best agnosticism or secularism. in this kind of world, religion is either killed, suppressed or manipulated. in africa, and most other parts of developing areas of the world, religion is getting more and more manipulated. while in the developed parts, religion is getting more and more directly or indirectly suppressed. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 110 as the world becomes more scientifically advanced and economically richer, the souls of men and women are becoming more and more impoverished and thirsty for truth, beauty and tranquility. the interior part, the soul, of the human person can only be cultivated and guided by the teachings of religious masters and/or the teachings of wise persons, generally called philosophers. religion and philosophy take upon themselves the responsibility to guide the spiritual, intellectual and moral lives of people. they also cultivate the soul to transcend the world of senseperception and encounter the transcendent beyond. but in the event when more and more people are becoming areligious, secularized or atheistic, the souls of many are panting for a means to satisfy their longing for the sublime and for the order of their interior being. it is little wonder that there is revival of philosophical discourses in most developing parts of the world. it is interesting to see a wave of revival in the ancient and hellenistic philosophies in the west and the increase intensity in the study and research of classical chinese philosophy and buddhist philosophy in the east. many non-religious people are going to stoicism, neoplatonism, epicureanism, confucianism and buddhism, as guides to cultivate their interior life and spirituality. more and more, it is becoming clearer to many that the problem of the world today is not merely socio-political or scientific, it is rather, greatly aesthetical, or more precisely meta-aesthetical. there is a role that religion plays in human consciousness, which is a constant reminder to the human person on the transient nature of this world and of the value and aspiration towards the transcendental. but with secularization and atheism overwhelming many parts of the west and with the manipulation and commercialization of religion in africa, aesthetical awakening has become a central option for the salvation of human interiority. this paper posits plotinus’ conception of beauty as not only one of the answers to the question on how to fill the lacuna created by the demise of religious sublimity and awareness in many. but is the most persuasive and transforming way for individual spiritual transformation and by extension the transformation of the world. the person who follows the path of plotinus’ activities of the soul in the grasp of beauty, becomes a beautiful soul in itself. the “beautiful soul” of plotinus, is always longing for and desires to remain in the ecstatic experience of beauty and union with the one. it does not attach itself to goods and honours of this world of sense-perception. because it has a beautiful soul, it is well-ordered and endeavours to make everything it encounters ordered. the beautiful soul puts forms in everything that is formless, by so doing making the ugly beautiful. when the souls of men and women of this world are converted, and transformed into the beautiful soul of plotinus, this world will be definitely be more peaceful, just and livable. therefore, this paper is a reminder of the place of philosophical reflection in our world today and a call to visit or revisit the richness in the philosophy of plotinus, a man who spent his life desiring to have a beautiful soul. onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … 111 references aristotle (1984). the complete works of aristotle (vol i&ii), jonathan barnes (ed.), new jersey: princeton university press. cicero (1884). cicero’s tusculan disputations, andrew p. peabody (trans.), boston: little, brown, and company. david j. yount (2014). plotinus the platonist: a comparative account of plato and plotinus’ metaphysics, london: bloomsbury publishing plc. lloyd p. gerson (ed) (2010). the cambridge history of philosophy in late antiquity (vol. 1), cambridge: cambridge university press. lloyd p. gerson (1994). plotinus, london: routledge. plato (1997). plato complete works, john m. cooper and d.s. hutchinson (eds), indiana: hackett publishing company, inc. porphyry (1966). plotinus ennead, a. h. armstrong (translator), cambridge, harvard university press. journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract this paper critically examines reincarnation in benin tradition being the practice of the people from the days of their creation till date. the work re-mythological concept of reincarnation in benin tradition is very important that the researcher discuss the concept of reincarnation, history of benin, concept of death and reincarnation, life before and after death, symbol in benin traditional reincarnation and the implication of reincarnation. the researcher therefore argues that reincarnation is real whether you are a christian or non-christian; because the recent religions that have being constituted over the years has devolve rebirth and as such people now live and behave abnormally due to the wrong concept of know rebirth. introduction generally, reincarnation is considered in the african contest as a reality. there are known parts of africa where reincarnation is not practiced, whether the person is a malignant spirit or evil. still, the person will reincarnate. in traditional african religion, when a person dies, be it, man or woman, proper burial rites and ritual ceremonies must be performed appropriately because the dead person may reincarnate through any family member, most especially the immediate children. the benin tradition and culture hold this view of reincarnation so seriously that families are not to play or joke with it to know if the dead person has reincarnated before the burial ceremony. a mark is given as a way of identification when such is reborn. elizabeth onyedinma (2012) states that the word reincarnation is derived from the latin root rein-carne, meaning again in "flesh" or another flesh (body). it is a noun from the verb to reincarnate". the researcher agreed with the view above that reincarnation is about rebirth or coming again to life through another person in the family. this is also the benin view of reincarnation. in other words, reincarnation is simply the view of the soul separate from the body at death, which revolved into another body for another span of life. however, it has different variations, such as transmigration, rebirth, polygenesis, and second creation. history of benin kingdom according to egharvba (2016:6) who asserted that the benin kingdom/ empire is regarded as the oldest and most highly developed state in the coastal hinterlands of west due to the essential nature of this research work, this research made use of historical analytical methods as well as personal communication (interview), books, journals. this work therefore, recommends among others the people should live a good to avoid trouble in the next life. keywords: myth, reincarnation, traditon and religion. re-mythological concept of reincarnation in benin tradition. charles ehisienmen 82 africa, dating perhaps to the eleventh century until the british empire annexed it in 1897. by the 15th century, edo, as a system of protected settlements, expanded into a thriving city-state, and the12th oba ewuare the great (1440-1473) developed the city-state into an empire. also, its administrative center ubinu began to be known as benin city by the portuguese. efforts at trying to get the early history and foundation of the ancient benin kingdom had their first fruit in the work of egharevba, a short history of benin was published in 1968. according to felix (2014), who quoted egharvba stated, while acknowledging this pioneering effort at recording the history of the people, it must be quickly added that the findings of egharevba, which said that: "years ago, the binis came from egypt to found a more secure shelter in this part of the world after a short stay in sudan and at ile-ife which the benin people call uhe" has been punctuated by scholars and thus doubts exist concerning the authenticity of the account. felix (2014) further stated by referencing afigbo that the controversy elicited by this position appeared to have been laid to rest by afigbo when he said: the significance of these claims to egyptian, or at any rate middle east origin belongs to the broader framework of west african history and sociology as they are found among most west african peoples who inhabit the savanna or forest zone, are islamized or not. it is pretty straightforward, however, that in the present state of our knowledge about west africa, they cannot be taken seriously by the serious-minded students of …history". moses (2011,1) disagreed with the view quoted by felix of egharevba (a short history of benin) that benin did not migrate from egypt or sudan. to moses, benin's or edo have lived here since god's creation. a popular account of benin origin which has passed on from one generation to another through the oral record, states that the youngest child of god almighty (osanobua) founded benin. the researcher agreed with the view of moses that benin's or edo people could not migrate from egypt to settle in the southwestern party of nigeria; instead, they would have paid close to egypt or sudan. moses further explained that, according to benin mythology, when god almighty, the creator of heaven and earth, sent his seven children to planet earth, they were allowed to choose different things according to seniority. some took wealth, power, wisdom, skills, etc. in the end, the youngest one was left with nothing but a bird advised him to take a snail shell (ughughon-edile) filled with sand. moses concluded that when they got to the planet earth, the whole place was filled with water. the bird advised him to empty the sand of the snail shell on the water where benin is today. ekhauosa (1995, 1) asserted that the edo people of southwestern nigeria are divided into several sub-units. each of these units speaks a patois of the edo stem language. one of these ethnic sub-units is the binis. concept of death before reincarnation in benin tradition according to aloysius (2009), "death is the time when the soul leaves the body to become a spirit. africa mythology allows a great deal of space to the subject of death. usually, the same myths of creation that trace the origin of human beings include the origin of death" in benin traditional religion, it is believed that person who does not die must especially be deceased with children. the view is accurate of benin's because whenever a person dies, they think they will be reborn through the biological children, and if the dead has not to be married, any member of the family will give birth to them. this is strongly believed to be true in the benin kingdom, and so the people are being careful when any of 83 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 their people, whether married or unmarried. according to lewis (2010), "death the cessation of life. philosophical questions and death include whether death is final and irreversible. can persons survive biological death? different beliefs about the surmounting of death include belief in a resurrection of the body; survival of the soul as an immaterial reality, reincarnation, or the complete re-creation of a person after o period of nonexistence". ezenweke (2012) agreed with the view above that "death and the issues of death take a glaring place in the socio-religious life of most african. it is an issue that has a unique and contrasting icon with the western view. this is because of the all-important role of death in transition to the everlasting great beyond". concept of death before reincarnation in benin tradition. according to aloysius (2009), "death is the time when the soul leaves the body to become a spirit. africa mythology allows a great deal of space to the subject of death. usually, the same myths of creation that trace the origin of human beings include the origin of death" in benin traditional religion, it is believed that person who does not die must especially be deceased with children. the view is accurate of benin's because whenever a person dies, they think they will be reborn through the biological children, and if the dead has not to be married, any member of the family will give birth to them. this is strongly believed to be true in the benin kingdom, and so the people are being careful when any of their people, whether married or unmarried. according to lewis (2010), "death the cessation of life. philosophical questions and death include whether death is final and irreversible. can persons survive biological death? different beliefs about the surmounting of death include belief in a resurrection of the body; survival of the soul as an immaterial reality, reincarnation, or the complete re-creation of a person after o period of nonexistence". ezenweke (2012) agreed with the view above that "death and the issues of death take a glaring place in the socio-religious life of most african. it is an issue that has a unique and contrasting icon with the western view. this is because of the all-important role of death in transition to the everlasting great beyond". concept of reincarnation in benin tradition samson audu (2019) opens, "reincarnation in a simple term connotes to come back again in the flesh. it claims that the soul or spirit passes through a (certain long) chain of life and death before it attains salvation" lewis (2010) agreed with the view above that "reincarnation refers to the belief in the rebirth or return to human souls or persons to life again in some form after death. it is one of the oldest and most widespread beliefs in human cultures". lewis further states that sikhs believe in reincarnation and seek to overcome the painful cycle of death and rebirth (chaurasia) by following the teachings of the sikh gurus. ultimately, it is only god's grace that may allow one to attain mukti (liberation), but one should try to become more guru-oriented (gursikh) and selforiented (manmukh).” reincarnation in the benin tradition is similar to some other african practices. there is a known where in africa reincarnation is not known. benin believes in return or rebirth after death, despite the state of the dead person. according to osaretin (personal interview 2022), reincarnation is actual in benin, and he believes it wholeheartedly due to 84 ehisienmen re-mythological concept of reincarnation in benin tradition some philosophical saying in benin that a person reincarnates in fourteen (14) generations. the implication is that when someone dies, they will return to earth fourteen times before they will finally disappear. osaretin further states that "in some cases, those who are not reborn is due to curse either by the family or ancestral curse, and such a person will not be reborn. before: death to reincarnation in benin tradition. again, there is a saying that whatever a man's soul shall reap before death or after death. the benin tradition believed so much in the type/way of life a man or woman lived before death, and this will inform the nest life he/she will live when reborn. according to osaro (personal interview 2022), when a man or woman dies as a criminal, the act of criminality will continue even after the next life. he further states that when such a person dies, the family, before the burial ceremony, will have to mark the dead body if they are reborn; they know what to do. when such a person is reborn, the family they came through will now involve the entire family members to break the yoke of criminals. the researcher agreed with the view of osaro because, in christianity, the life lived on earth before death determines your final destination, whether heaven or hell, either to live or die. the life you lived before death traditionally defined how or what will happen to you in your nest word or rebirth. to this, it is expedient traditionally that everyone, both male and female, should live a good life for the sake of gaining freedom in the next life. aftermath of reincarnation in benin tradition. it is the before reincarnation that determined the aftermath of reincarnation. according to itohonsa (personal interview 2022), she states that whatever happens to a man or woman during and after birth is the aftermath of the life he/she lived before being reborn. itohonsa further opens that anyone living now, whether good or bad, is what happened before. one should not blame anyone or witches for the present life they are living now. itohonsa further concludes that the ancestors who grant every passage of life are also involved in reincarnation. if a person lived a bad life when nest they reincarnate to live, people would repay with evil deeds mated on others before reincarnation. to this, the life you lived before death determines the nest life you will live in your nest rebirth. the researcher regarded the view above as correct even though the mythological concept of this view may be fair and unfair to some people that the life you live before death determines what life you live after rebirth. symbols in benin traditional reincarnation according to adrian (1989), the term "symbol is incorrectly used today, for instance, to describe newly invented signs that are different from the normal alphabet and numerals. admittedly, it may well be difficult to alter this practice in the future". in benin, traditional symbols are also a mark of identification to know their believed ones who are dead and return or rebirth. in some cases, a pattern is given to them on their lap, leg, hand, or any part of their body before they are buried. this mark as a symbol is given to ascertain if a person comes back to life. the symbol helped to know an individual and recall the types of life they lived before death occurred. some of them who lived a terrible life, or who were cursed by the gods or died through any miss could be 'identified 85 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 by the mark on their body. this will help the living to know what to do due to the life they lived before death which will determine if the present life will be good or bad. in africa, traditional religious symbols occupy a vital position and are of great importance. for africans, symbols are primarily used in line with their spiritual meaning and event that took place before the westerner education, even during western education, and the character is still very much important. since that is the only way between the physical and metaphysical. elizabeth ezenweke (2012) defines a sign in accordance to hornby (1999); the character is a thing regarded by general view as naturally typifying or replace or recalling something by possession of analogous qualities or by the association in fact or through". according to osaretin (personal interview 2022), the symbol is imperative in the benin tradition. he further narrates his experience of a lady who had skied on her right leg before she died, and the child born after her burial by one of the children gave birth to a young lady who also has skied on her right leg. the implication of reincarnation in benin tradition whatever a man believes informed his or her lifestyle, and there is an implication to that effect. there is a strong believe in re-mythological concept of reincarnation in benin tradition as an africa. in this session the writer will discuss the implication of reincarnation in benin tradition religion. the implication of reincarnation on the family the position of reincarnation is very high in benin traditionwith it prospect of good and bad. every family is very mindful on how and what they do to the decease before burring the person and the history of what led to the death of the decease is often kept in mind by the family members who were alive during that period of burial ceremony, this is done in other to ascertain how to treat the person when he or she comes back to life again. the remythology in this aspect is that reincarnation is real, with the happens in benin tradition today, it has shown that reincarnation is 80-90 percent real in benin tradition and culture even christians believe in curse, ancestors and with the concept of tradition and this also informed the prayer of must christian that has to do with broken of curses, spell and ancestors problems before they could embarrass success in their life andover. this is done because the christians believe the spirit of the dead person can interfere with the living thereby coursing havocs in the lives of the individual. the implications on the individual the prospect about reincarnation on the individuals is that the person who dies has an opportunity to choose whether he or she will reincarnate to whatever state of life desirable by the lifestyle he or she lived before death. this has to do with the character and behavour of individuals. for instance, it believed when a woman who lived all her life as a sex worker, when she dies and reincarnate she will not be faithful to her husband because she has destroy her life and some al-trances may have being release alone the line by some known and unknown person which is capable affecting her negatively in the next life to come. this is the same to both men and women, and the implication of these is that those who lived bad life will experience misfortune in life as far as progress is concerned and it 86 ehisienmen re-mythological concept of reincarnation in benin tradition is also believe that the ancestor will have punished the person for all the misbehave or misdeed towards self and others. but for those who lived good life, in their reincarnation the family they will come through will not experience any misfortune. the implication of reincarnation in the religion of the people religion is the belief in a spiritual reality which often including at least one deity, there is no way one can separate reincarnation from religion. religion is for the people and the people are for religion because every religion addresses one issue or the other in the life and practices of the society. if the society most stands, then religions most be observed and practice. in benin tradition religion has a great affirmation that the deity is in charge of both fortune and unfortunate act this made reincarnation to be real because it has to do with both living and the dead. it is the deity that rewards or punish anyone whether now or thereafter for their evil deeds. as so reincarnation is also another miss of valuing and dragging people to our traditional believe and practices from the religion angle. recommendations and conclusion the issue of reincarnation in africa generally is very important. there is known in every part of africa that reincarnation is practiced either in half or fully whether christian or non-christian. the benin tradition till date believe in reincarnation of every souls who exist and is believed to have come from benin land, this has kept the benin people to lived good life and properly give befitting burial by showing concern to the life lived before and after death before any burial ceremony. the view of reincarnation in africa should be respected and given a deep consideration in every aspect of the people's tradition. this will help us to maintain good balanced living because of the hope of coming back to life. 87 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 references adrian frutiger: (1989) signs and symbols; their design and meaning van nostrand reinltold new york. aloysius m. lugira (2009), world religion african traditional religion third edition by chelesa house publisher. egharevbe u. jacob (2016) sources wikipedia benin kingdom; national standard special edition path to nation building october,. ezenweka, elizabeth onyedinma (2012) issues in african traditional religion and philosophy: published by augustinian publication nigeria. felix ejukonemu oghi: (2014) conflist resolution in pre-human social science: d history, archaeology & anthropology volume 14 issue 6 version 1.0 publisher: moses n. ozigbo esere (2011),history of benin ancient and modern ; noren company publisher lewis, clive staples (2010) dictionary of philosophy of religion: life after death by library of congress cataloging new york london. samson audu lliya (2019) african christain eschatology; anthology on issues and perspectives eschatology. an assessment of reincarnation and reappearances in african context. baptist theological seminary kaduuna. samson agboifo (personal interview, 2022) the implication of reincarnation in benin traditionaj religion: baptist college of theology benin city. osaretin ekhator (personal interview, 2022) concept of reincarnation in benin religion; baptist baptist college of theology benin city. osaro omorogbe (personal interview 2022) benin life before reincarnation. no1 idumedo obagie ununamen community. itohonsa ehisienmen (personal interview 2022) benin life after reincarnation no 1, oredo line urhonigbe quater 88 ehisienmen re-mythological concept of reincarnation in benin tradition page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 abstract the united states of america is a race-conscious society that those who are colored (as opposed to white) have generally been put in inferior positions and treated accordingly. apparently, whites has been inherently put as the dominant group whereas the african american is consciously placed as one of the subordinate ones. this phenomenon is thoughtfully depicted by toni morrison in the bluest eye. therefore, this writing aims at describing the phenomena when beauty turns out to be the hegemonic practice of white beauty standard in african american society as it is depicted in this novel. the study is anchored on the theory of hegemony proposed by antonio francesco gramsci which describes how the state and ruling capitalist class use cultural institutions to maintain power in capitalist societies. meanwhile, the concept of beauty is an example of cultural institution; hence, the standard of beauty is based on the dominant group e.g. white people, so there is the white beauty standard as a means of hegemonic practice in the american society. it is the fact that white beauty standard hegemony has led to the emergence of intra-racial discrimination happening within the african american society as it is reflected in the literary work due to the characters' efforts to seek for white's approval that transcends in the emergence of the self-loathing upon the characters in the novel, and its attendant self identity degrading. the study after revisiting the historical and socio-political moments in which the novel was written, finally makes the analysis of the book, its formal structures and its characters. in the conclusion, the researcher affirms that instead of supporting the black arts movement's slogan “black is beautiful”, toni morrison suggests that the very concept of beauty is harmful and exclusionary. instead of promoting just the idea that blackness be considered beautiful, the writer proposes that the valorization of african americans should originate from placing importance on their culture, traditions and connection to the community. keywords: hegemony, culture, blue eyes, contempt and self-loathing introduction in order to achieve a better understanding of the story brought by the novel, it seems essential to learn about african american culture and life. racism is a central subject of this book, so the themes of black identity, resistance, deflection and contempt caused by the dominant white culture need to be addressed. in playing in the dark, morrison laments the lack of literary criticism around the subjects of blackness and whiteness in american literature. according to her, resistance and deflection to the contempt of others: toni morrison's the bluest eyes chinyere t. orjiakor, ph.d 181 this lack of literary criticism is further complicated by the fact that the habit of ignoring race is understood to be a graceful, even generous, liberal gesture. to notice is to recognize an already discredited difference. to enforce its invisibility through silence is to allow the black body a shadowless participation in the dominant cultural body. (9–10) as the author points out in the afterword of the novel, the political climate of the united states was one of agitation, turmoil and great upheaval in the lives of african americans when she wrote the bluest eye. since she is dialoguing with concepts of identity and pride that were prominent in the american scene in the 1960s, both in the political and the artistic fields, it is crucial this period is touched for clarity. in subtle ways, the author establishes very relevant links to events and concepts like the civil rights movement, black power, black nationalism and the black arts movement. what became known as the civil rights movement actually refers to a series of events and mobilizations that happened in the united states throughout most of the 20th century and are rooted not only on the american civil war of 1861–1865, but on the entire slavery process that blacks underwent while in north american ground and its aftermath. during the reconstruction period after the end of the civil war, african americans vehemently claimed for their rights to vote and protested segregation in spheres such as public transportation and education. nonetheless, a large number of white citizens, especially in the south, engaged in racial violent acts against black people, and feelings of war-weariness prevented many national political leaders from advocating african americans' rights, in fear that they might lose votes and support, and cause even more rallies. that led to the consolidation of legalized segregation by the supreme court in plessy v. ferguson (1896), which stated in the words of colin palmer, that blacks would have “separate-but-equal facilities” (471). in the early 20th century, some organizations were created in order to demand civil rights for black people. one of the most important was the national association for the advancement of coloured people (naacp), which claimed for racial equality and hoped to educate elite public opinion into a more respectable and accepting attitude towards african americans, regarding them as fellow citizens. while it was true that the naacp had a few victories in court, institutional segregation still remained strong and prevented african americans from having the same rights, opportunities and rewards as whites in the first three or four decades of the 20th century. nevertheless, a few key-events made it hard to ignore and deny the black presence in political and economical affairs. some of those events were the great migrations of blacks from south to north, the great depression of 1929, the rising number of african americans in industrial unions and on the federal payroll, and world war ii. as palmer points out, during the early 1940's, black activists and liberal intellectuals called for a “double victory” against fascism abroad and racism at home, sharply illuminating the contradiction between fighting a war against the vicious racial policies of 182 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 nazi germany while sustaining a legalized racist order at home ( 473). series of matters were ongoing, hate groups like ku klux klan were revived, and nevertheless, many black activists did feel inspired by brown v. board of education of topeka, kansas. in december 1955, naacp secretary rosa parks refused to give her seat to a white man on a segregated bus and was sent to jail. the montgomery improvement association was then formed, and led a boycott of the bus system. reverend dr. martin luther king, who had arrived in montgomery just a year before, was chosen as the boycott's leader (naacp), becoming one of the most prominent public figures for the civil rights movement. in fact, this incident with rosa parks and the protest led by king are the events which ignited what we often refer to as the civil rights movement. under king's leadership, the civil rights movement assumed a philosophy of nonviolent resistance to discrimination and injustice. what the reverend and his followers sought was the end of segregation, interracial brotherhood and equality for all. the protests were so numerous and had such a large support that president lyndon johnson signed into law the civil rights act of 1964 and, one year later, the national voting rights act of 1965 (palmer 475). these two acts combined outlawed discrimination against blacks, making all segregation unconstitutional and deeming discriminatory voting practices illegal. around that time, new black movements for social justice emerged. one of them was the black power movement, and its activists argued according to walter rucker, “that black political empowerment and self-defense were necessary to improve african american's lives and satisfy their needs” (662–663). the nonviolent attitude of the previous movements were criticised, they started using “black power” as an alternative slogan to the previous in the words of rucker, “we shall overcome” unofficially adopted by the civil rights movement until that point. according to rucker, black power was defined by ture and charles v. hamilton's 1967 black power: the politics of liberation as, mobilizing african americans to use their newfound political voice–as a result of the passage of the 1965 voting rights act–to create semiautonomous communities in which black police officers patrolled black people, black businesses provided jobs, black elected officials and black-controlled political parties articulated the aspirations of african americans, and african americans used armed self-defense to protect their lives (663). therefore, it can be said that black power is part of the black nationalism political and social movement. in fact, together with “black is beautiful”, the phrase “black power” became one of the black nationalism's slogans. most of its activists called for a separate black identity instead of assimilation by whites, and defended the creation of separate black communities, the development of economical self-sufficiency for those communities, and the use of self-defense. it also instigated the claim for racial pride. it was amid those ideological conflicts that toni morrison wrote the bluest eye. 183 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others deflection and contempt of others: what black literature says about it in the foreword section of the bluest eyes, toni morrison comments on the challenge of centering the novel's main inquiry on the vulnerable character of pecola breedlove–a poor, black, lonely little girl. she mentions that she desired to avoid giving the readers the comfort of simply pitying the young child instead of reflecting and questioning themselves on their participation in her smashing. after presenting her strategy for overcoming such obstacle, morrison confesses that the result did not satisfy her, and did not work either, for “many readers remain touched but not moved” (viii). therefore, in order to avoid the trap of feeling touched, but not moved–which morrison has warned us about–, it seems not only advisable, but also necessary to address matters of race. reading and watching morrison's interviews, reading african american women texts on black feminism and reading what literary critics have to say about the bluest eye can definitely help expand our understanding of racism, so those are some of the sources brought into this work. quite frequently when talking about the bluest eye, toni morrison mentions the story that served as a source of inspiration for the book. as the author explains in the toni morrison remembers: bbc imagine documentary 2015 and in the afterword of the novel, she was starting elementary school when she was first made consciously aware of the self-loathing feelings that beauty standards could cause. morrison and a friend had been arguing over the existence of god, and the other little girl told her that she was sure that he wasn't real: she had been praying for blue eyes for two years. had god existed, he would have certainly granted her wish by then. morrison says that, at the time, she had an epiphany, because she looked at her friend and thought it would have been awful if god had given her blue eyes. right then, morrison realized her friend was absolutely beautiful. as she tells alan yentob, her interviewer in the bbc documentary, and at ten, you don't think in those terms. somebody is cute, or, you know, whatever, but not beauty. and that was the first time i saw it. she was very dark, she had these wonderful almond eyes, high cheekbones, (…) i mean, you could go on. and she wanted something other (morrison remembers). the author then proceeds to explain how they got little white dolls as toys in their childhood and those were the images black little girls were supposed to admire. in the afterword to the bluest eye, morrison dwells a little more on how shocking the experience of that conversation with her friend was. according to the writer, “she was flabbergasted by how no one else recognized beauty (which was what her friend possessed in her eyes), even, and especially, the girl who held it” (206). when linking the book to that childhood memory, morrison says, the bluest eye was my effort to say something about that; to say something about why she had not, or possibly ever would have, the experience of what she possessed and also why she prayed for so radical an alteration. implicit in her desire was racial self-loathing. and twenty years later i was still wondering about how one learns that. who told her? who made her feel that it was better to be a freak than what she was? who had looked at her and found her so wanting, so small a weight on the 184 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 beauty scale? the novel pecks away at the gaze that condemned her (206). in the same section, the author proceeds to explain how the reclamation of racial beauty in the 1960s had ignited that reflection. even though she now does not believe that it was an intelligent question, morrison mentions how she was back then wondering “why that wide public articulation needed to exist” (206). it seems that part of the answer to that has to do with what african americans of the period were establishing in terms of identity, and that identity is also very related to the reasons why morrison's friend wanted to look a little more like a white blue-eyed girl. a further dimension of her weariness seems to be related not only to race, but also to woman issues. when the author comments on how loud the claim “black is beautiful” was and how most of the fiction and nonfiction of the period was being written by black men”, it seems that she might be referring to how malecentered the black arts movement was. feminist theorist bell hooks, for instance, suggests that, “the black arts movement men were supporters of patriarchy and delegated women to subordinate positions both at home and in politics” (131–132). by analyzing some of bam artist amiri baraka's essays, hooks shows how the movement held ideals of women playing secondary roles in the background, supporting the black “bread warriors for the revolution” (132–138). however engaged in promoting black self-assertiveness, the black arts movement was most definitely dedicated to male selfassertiveness. if the black arts movement then failed black women by not taking their gender into their agenda, the feminist movements of the period failed them by not taking race into theirs. as hooks points out, a black woman looking for a theory that would encompass both gender and race would be pretty isolated: no other group in america has so had their identity socialized out of existence as have black women. we are rarely recognized as a group separate and distinct from black men, or as a present part of the larger group “women” in this culture. when black people are talked about, sexism militates against the acknowledgement of the interests of black women; when women are talked about racism militates against recognition of black female interests. when black people are talked about the focus tends to be on black men; and when women are talked about the focus tends to be on white women (21). one can argue that groups such as native american or latina women do get as ignored as african american women, and as barbara smith points out in her “toward a black feminist criticism”, lesbian black women are even more oppressed than heterosexual black women. however, hooks' words are true in stating how black movements tend to ignore the female gender and how feminism tends to ignore blackness. as the theorist affirms throughout her book ain't i a woman: black women and feminism, black women identity can only be seriously thought of when race, gender and class are all considered together. black women cannot–and would not–benefit from taking a moment to think only of being black, then another to think only of being women. they are all of it at once, and the oppression they have faced is singular to them–neither black men nor white women have experienced exactly the same (28–29). the notion is reinforced by deborah 185 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others king in “multiple jeopardy, multiple consciousness: the context of a black feminist ideology”. king talks about how the concepts of the double or triple jeopardy (race, gender and social-economic class) have been used too simply. she says that some theorists have analyzed the effects of each kind of discrimination on its own, and that such an analysis does not reflect the truth of the oppression of black women (47). instead, the critic suggests that the term multiple jeopardy be used, referring not only to the sum or individual consideration of each oppression, but to the multiplicative relationships between them as well (47). she explains that all factors must always be taken into account, since they are always part of black women's identity. what actually happens is that their relative importance may vary, depending on what particular aspect of a black woman's life is being explored, and that the most influential facet will change according to the situation being analyzed. as she puts it,“the relative significance of race, sex, or class in determining the conditions of black women's lives is neither fixed nor absolute but, rather, is dependent on the socio-historical context and the social phenomenon under consideration” (49).these considerations of multiple intersectional factors composing the identity of a black woman seem like a good perspective under which to analyze the bluest eye. as morrison says in the afterword of the novel, “she chose a poor black little girl as the focus of her story because she was looking for the most vulnerable member of society” (207). pecola's tragic fate does not come only because she is black, but also because she is a girl, extremely poor and a member of a broken family, and all of this needs to be considered in an analysis of her character and of her story. racial passing, self-loathing and the white standards of beauty toni morrison, the first black women nobel prize winner, in her first novel, the bluest eye depicts the tragic condition of the blacks in racist america. it examines how the ideologies perpetuated by the dominant groups and adopted by the marginal groups influence the identity of the blacks, especially women. through the depictions of white beauty icons, morrison's black characters lose themselves to self-hatred. the novel, the bluest eye indicates a black girl's quest to attain white standards. being the most sensitive black woman writer, toni morrison has tried to highlight this kind of a dilemma of black woman in the bluest eye. she tells the story of a young black girl, pecola breedlove who wants to have blue eyes, a symbol of white beauty. pecola believes that such eyes would make her beautiful, acceptable and admirable. however, her eyes cannot be changed into blue eyes in reality. she wants them desperately; as a result, her quest for blue eyes culminates in madness. the novel opens with an anecdote of dick and jane to show how racism destroys the mental stability of black people. it equates whites with success and happiness while blacks with poverty and unhappiness. this traumatises the minds of blacks and they begin to dislike their own heritage and skin colour in the white world of dick and jane. eleven-year pecola lives with her family in lorain, ohio. when her father, cholly, burns down their house, she spends some days with the macteer family. claudia, the youngest macteer, is one of the narrators who tells us pecola's story. in the years covered by the narrative, 1940 and 1941, the breedlove girl is constantly bullied and mistreated by teachers, classmates, neighbours and family. because she thinks of herself as ugly, she attributes their mistreatment of her to her physical appearance, as she believes that no one would behave badly in front of her if she were beautiful. one of the most 186 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 traumatizing events in pecola's life is the moment when she is raped by her father, gets pregnant and loses her sanity. by telling her story, claudia is trying to make sense of everything that happened to the youngest breedlove and to their community. through the stories of pecola and the people who surround her, the novel brings to discussion matters such as resistance, contempt, gender and raises questions on racial self-loathing, the menace of white beauty standards, and the loss of one's self. one of the important references morrison makes in the novel is to the movie imitation of life by john m. stahl: “i just moved here. my name is maureen peal. what's yours?” “pecola.” “pecola? wasn't that the name of the girl in imitation of life?” “i don't know. what is that?” “the picture show, you know. where this mulatto girl hates her mother cause she is black and ugly but then cries at the funeral. it was real sad. everybody cries in it. claudette colbert too.” “oh.” pecola's voice was no more than a sigh. “anyway, her name was pecola too. she was so pretty. when it comes back, i'm going to see it again. my mother has seen it four times” (65). in the film, a black woman named delilah works for a white woman named bea, and helps her get rich by cooking delicious pancakes that the latter commercializes. delilah is quite submissive in her ways, and she has a daughter named peola, who has a much lighter complexion than her mother. in fact, from a very young age, peola starts passing–assuming a white identity for herself and presenting herself to others in that way. as debra werrlein suggests, “morrison is doing more than establishing a broken link between peola and pecola by giving the girl a name that is inspired by, but not quite the same as the movie's main character's. she is also signifying” (203). in his essay, cat moses presents signifying as, “a black tradition in which the listener makes fun or insults the speaker” (135–136). in a way, then, this is one abuse more that the girl takes–her own name can be read as an attack and a cruel irony. it shows how pecola can never be peola, even though both girls share a great desire for possessing white standards of beauty. however, that is where the similarities between them end. while the film's character can be seen as white by others, the novel's girl has very dark skin–a fact the world around her notices and makes her remember. therefore, her wish can never be fulfilled. the fact that her name implies she will never be able to get the blue eyes she desperately wants may also be another indication of morrison's criticism of the oppression pecola is a victim of. her name is something external to her; it was given to her by someone else. in the same way, the conception that she is not worthy also comes from the values of a society that prioritizes those who are white–that is, it also has its origin in something external. the fact that pauline breedlove chose to name her daughter after a character in a hollywood movie is not surprising. after all, at some point in her life, “she only ever felt happy when she was in the picture show” (121). however, it is also telling of the feelings pauline held in relation to blackness and whiteness. imitation of life's peola is described as a beautiful girl–she can even pass for white. what the film tells us in a clear message is 187 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others that the closer to being white, the more beautiful one will be. pauline, who had learned to “equate physical beauty with virtue” (120), seems to have as her main desire that her daughter is beautiful. peola may seem a little ungrateful and vain to a white audience. she denies and deserts her mother, so it might seem strange that one would want their daughter to be just like her. however, pauline understood where peola was coming from, and understood the position she was in: in order to be accepted by the dominant society, one needed to be beautiful. therefore, it was what she desired for her child. during her second pregnancy, pauline felt excited about the baby she was going to have: she talked to it and formed an emotional bond with it (122–124). nonetheless, she could not help creating a mental image of what her kid would look like–and when she was born, pecola looked different from what pauline had imagined (123). the woman recognized her baby was smart, but declared that “lord she was ugly” (124). as beauty was assimilated by pauline as virtue–and the most important one to possess–, it did not matter that pecola seemed to be smart. she was ugly, and so she was not good enough. if pecola can be associated to peola in her desire to meet white standards of beauty in the bluest eye, she is not the only one. maureen peal, geraldine and pauline are also women who nurture wishes of escaping blackness and associating with the white dominant culture. as sharon gravett affirms, “the dominant culture achieves and maintains its prominence because of its wealth; hence, the values it promotes tend to be monetary ones” (92). the author also writes that “those unable to afford the material lifestyle society values are ruthlessly pushed aside”, and that this is what happened to the breedloves. this difference in wealth is one more aspect that separates maureen and pecola. the two of them are little girls, but the first can come much closer to the dominant society's beauty standards–both because of her skin color and because of her socioeconomic conditions. king's concept of multiple jeopardy, as explained in the introduction, seems to help us understand a bit better this difference between them: there are more factors contributing to pecola's oppression than to maureen's, and all of them seem to be affecting the former girl at once. she is female, she is black and she is poor. added to that are the facts that the youngest breedlove does not receive affection from her family, and she is just a little child. all of those factors intersected by the others seem to contribute to allow maureen peal to say that she is “cute”, while pecola is “black and ugly” (71). coming closer to the dominant standards of beauty because she can pass for white and has money is what makes people so fond of maureen peal: she enchanted the entire school. when teachers called on her, they smiled encouragingly. black boys didn't trip her in the halls; white boys didn't stone her, white girls didn't suck their teeth when she was assigned to be their work partners; black girls stepped aside when she wanted to use the sink in the girls' toilet, and their eyes genuflected under sliding lids. she never had to search for anybody to eat with in the cafeteria–they flocked to the table of her choice (60–61). seeing how much nicer someone who comes closer to the white dominant beauty standard is treated makes it possible to understand why maureen is not the only character in the novel who is interested in following behaviours such as those taught in the dick and 188 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 jane primes and in the movies. geraldine also does it. as the third-person narrator tells us, geraldine is “one of those girls who are interested in getting rid of the funkiness” (79–84). this funkiness is said to involve “passion, nature and a wide range of emotions. it can be seen when women laugh loudly, enunciate roundly, gesture generously, sway while walking, have thick lips and curly hair” (81). as can be inferred, funkiness is closely related to traditional african american images or characteristics. this type of women–such as geraldine–who reject their black identity and desire to fit into white standards try hard to erase all the funkiness in their appearances and behaviours. the narrator that tells us about these girls seems to disapprove of their attitude. as christopher douglas notices, “geraldine can't change her race, but she can try to change her culture, and this process is described as loss rather than a gain or transformation” (212). pauline's relationship with the white standard of beauty is different from the ones experienced by maureen and geraldine. while the latter two have sought it throughout their entire lives, pauline only truly faced them after moving to ohio (114). her childhood had been spent in alabama, and her teenage years in kentucky. even though her life had not been perfect in any of those places, she had had her family, listened to african american songs, and happily dated cholly (108–114). however, as she tells us, everything changed when she and cholly moved to ohio. there, it was hard to get to know people, and she missed her community and felt terribly lonely. pauline also says that there were many more whites around than in the south, and less coloured people (115). in her words, “northern folks was different too .… no better than white for their meanness. they could make you feel just as no-count, except i didn't expect it from them” (115). the other black women made fun of how she did not straighten her hair and of the way she talked. in order to impress them, pauline started working to buy new clothes, and she and cholly started fighting more and more–about money and because they were losing their connection to each other (116). eventually, she started going to the movies, where white concepts further disconnected her from her african american roots: along with the idea of romantic love, she was introduced to another–physical beauty. probably the most destructive ideas in the history of human thought. both originated in envy, thrived in insecurity, and ended in disillusion. in equating physical beauty with virtue, she stripped her mind, bound it, and collected self-contempt by the heap (120). at the movies, pauline also started aspiring for the models of life she saw portrayed on the screen. one of the images she saw in the films was, white men taking such good care of they women, and they all dressed up in big clean houses with the bathtubs right in the same room with the toilet. them pictures gave me a lot of pleasure, but it made coming home hard, and looking at cholly hard (121). at that point, pauline and cholly's marriage was not a happy one anymore. they were fighting a lot, since the man had started spending his money on alcohol and asking his 189 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others wife for hers (118). when she compared her life to those of the women who got presents from their husbands, and cholly to those movie white men who were able to solely provide for their families, pauline felt disappointed with her own life and with cholly. according to bell hooks, some black women of the time “have equated manhood with the ability of men to be sole economic providers in the family, and … feel cheated and betrayed by black men who refuse to assume this role and this is a sign of acceptance and support of patriarchy” (129). pauline, by observing white families in the motion pictures, learns to see patriarchy as desirable, and feels disappointed that her life does not fit it. in opposing the reasonably nice existence pauline used to have while being in touch with her community in alabama and kentucky to the self-loathing she shows when despising her own family and trying to pursue white values, morrison is showing how dangerous assimilation is. beauty is “one of the most destructive ideas in the history of human thought” (120), and it is one of the reasons pauline disconnects herself from her roots. removed from her community and longing for white concepts of living, pauline harms herself and others–especially her family–in her self-loathing. claudia and an alternative for the “black is beautiful” slogan claudia is the character who fights the imposition of white beauty standards the most in the novel. while pecola and frieda adored shirley temple, claudia hated her. her reason for it is definitely very interesting: the girl did not hate shirley temple because she was cute, but because she danced with bojangles, an african american tap dancer and actor. according to claudia, “he was her friend, her uncle, her daddy, and he should have been dancing and laughing with her” (17). claudia did not hate shirley temple because she could not imitate the girl's appearance like pecola wanted to do, but because she felt temple was taking something–or someone in this case–she felt belonged to her, to her culture. it is interesting because while pecola and most of the characters in the novel seem intent on holding on to the shirley temples, mary janes and other white models, claudia focuses her admiration on an african american figure. the youngest macteer's resistance to white beauty standards is also shown in her repulse for blond blue-eyed dolls. she muses about how every other kid seemed to want them, and how adults thought they would be the perfect gift. nevertheless, claudia's only interest towards the toys was in dismembering them to see if she could find the reason why everyone seemed to love them so much (17–19). mentioning the dolls is a way for morrison to say that black had not always been considered beautiful, and to alert how assimilation without criticism might be harmful. by dismembering the dolls, morrison makes claudia also deconstruct the notion that white is superior, but not only that. by reducing the dolls to pieces in order to find the source of the beauty without discovering it, claudia is deconstructing the very notion of beauty too. as carl malmgren writes, “the text composed by the adult claudia, the bluest eye, carries on the same discovery procedure on a grander scale; it undertakes the deconstruction and demystification of the ideology that makes those dolls beautiful” (154). once again, african american tradition is presented as a possibly healthier alternative to the pursuit of beauty standards. claudia declares that she did not want white dolls for 190 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 christmas, and if any adult had asked what she truly desired, she would have said that, i wanted rather to feel something on christmas day. the real question would have been, “dear claudia, what experience would you like on christmas?” i could have spoken up, “i want to sit on the low stool in big mama's kitchen with my lap full of lilacs and listen to big papa play his violin for me alone.” the lowness of the stool made for my body, the security and warmth of big mama's kitchen, the smell of the lilacs, the sound of the music, and, since it would be good to have all of my senses engaged, the taste of a peach, perhaps, afterward (19–20). rather than admiring or imitating white aspirations, claudia desired to feel connected to her community and their traditions. she longed for the warmth and familiarity of big mama's kitchen and wanted to listen to african american music. as moses argues, “this connection to ancestral knowledge transmitted through songs, habits and storytelling is essential to the survival of the macteer sisters, and its absence is one of the reasons for the downfall of the breedloves”(131–132). claudia's resistance is quite clear in her fondness of pecola. while at least five characters explicitly refer to the girl as ugly, claudia says that “she was smiling, and since it was a rare thing to see on her, i was surprised at the pleasure it gave me” (104). another indication of claudia's resistance is seen by the time pecola is already pregnant with cholly's baby. she remembers how she and her sister were very concerned for pecola and her child, but seemed to be the only ones. in her words, i thought about the baby that everybody wanted dead, and saw it very clearly. it was in a dark, wet place, its head covered with great o's of wool, the black face holding, like nickels, two clean black eyes, the flared nose, kissing-thick lips, and the living, breathing silk of black skin. no synthetic yellow bangs suspended over marble-blue eyes, no pinched nose and bowline mouth. more strongly than my fondness for pecola, i felt a need for someone to want the black baby to live–just to counteract the universal love of white baby dolls, shirley temples, and maureen peals (188). in opposing the harm and pain the very concept of beauty does to pecola to the strength and knowledge african americans values transmit to claudia herself, the author is suggesting that healing can be achieved through a connection to the community. conclusion in an interview to the paris review, morrison has declared that it is very important to her that her work is african american, and that she finds it more relevant that her production fits into the black culture tradition than in the literary canon tradition. being no exception to morrison's fictional tendency, the bluest eye has it as absolutely relevant information that pecola is black. however, as the writer highlights in the foreword section of the book, it is also extremely important to the narrative that she is a young child: “i focused, therefore, on how something as grotesque as the demonization of an entire race could take root inside the most delicate member of society: a child; the most vulnerable member: a 191 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others female” (ix–x). pecola's struggles with her black appearance can be seen in the passage in which she wishes she could make it disappear, please, god,” she whispered into the palm of her hand. “please make me disappear.” she squeezed her eyes shut. little parts of her body faded away. now slowly, now with a rush. slowly again. her fingers went, one by one; then her arms disappeared all the way to the elbow. her feet now. yes, that was good. the legs all at once. it was hardest above the thighs. she had to be real still and pull. her stomach would not go. but finally it, too, went away. then her chest, her neck. the face was hard, too. almost done, almost. only her tight, tight eyes were left. they were always left (43). the only part of her body that pecola cannot make disappear are her eyes. the “c” that is omitted in peola can never go away, so the girl can never be peola. she can never be recognized as beautiful the way the imitation of life's character is, or be considered as a subject. she is not white and she is not considered beautiful; therefore, others believe they can mock her. when pecola was born, pauline declares that she “knowed she was ugly” (124). the woman was not proud of her daughter, and when the macteer sisters visited the fischer's house to talk to pecola, claudia was angered by the fact that the little white fischer girl called pauline “polly”, when pecola was only allowed to call her mother “mrs. breedlove” (104–106). when an accident takes place and pecola knocks over a pan full of deep-dish berry cobbler, pauline gets extremely furious. she does not care that her daughter has burned herself; she launches and slaps the girl, yelling at her (106–107). since one of the first thoughts pauline had when pecola was born was that the girl was ugly, it seems that that might be one of the reasons for her not displaying or even feeling affection towards her daughter. instead, she prefers to dote on the little white fischer girl, who matches the dominant society's ideal of beauty. pauline also beats pecola when she is raped by cholly, so we can assume that the woman blames the girl for what happened–as women are quiet frequently blamed when they are victims of sexual aggression. near the end of the novel, when pecola goes to beg soaphead church to give her blue eyes, the man's thoughts are that “here was an ugly little girl asking for beauty” (172). he laments the fact that he could never help her, which shows how he does not believe blackness could ever be beautiful. despite his apparent desire to aid her, the old man only uses pecola to kill a dog that was bothering him. innocently, the girl feeds the dog the poison soaphead church had given her, and believes its convulsion is a sign that the magic has taken place and that she now possesses her so desired blue eyes. after visiting soaphead church, pecola believes she has acquired blue eyes. the girl is broken, and that is shown by the way she now has two selves: one she perceives as her true self–with blue eyes–, and one who is her imaginary friend. even though she does believe to possess blue eyes now, that still does not seem to be enough, please. if there is somebody with bluer eyes than mine, then maybe there is somebody with the bluest eyes. the bluest eyes in the whole world. that's just too bad, isn't it? 192 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 please help me look. no. but suppose my eyes aren't blue enough? blue enough for what? blue enough for…i don't know. blue enough for something. blue enough…for you! i'm not going to play with you anymore. oh. don't leave me. yes. i am. why? are you mad at me? yes. because my eyes aren't blue enough? because i don't have the bluest eyes? no. because you're acting silly. don't go. don't leave me. will you come back if i get them? get what? the bluest eyes. will you come back then? of course i will. i'm just going away for a little while. you promise? sure. i'll be back. right before your very eyes. (201–202) as can be seen, what pecola is truly looking for is affection and someone who will stay with her. the girl fears she will be left alone again if she does not have the bluest eyes. this passage shows how trying to achieve white beauty standards will never truly work for pecola: she will be forever chasing them. if blue eyes–that is, the white concept of beauty,–cannot work for her and make her loved, it seems not to be the correct answer for the healing of an african american identity. while the novel seems to end in a negative note, the very fact that pecola's story is being told suggests otherwise. in the last paragraph, claudia states rather darkly that, this soil is bad for certain kinds of flowers. certain seeds it will not nurture, certain fruit it will not bear, and when the land kills of its own volition, we acquiesce and say the victim had no right to live. we are wrong, of course, but it doesn't matter. it's too late. at least on the edge of my town, among the garbage and the sunflowers of my town, it's much, much, much too late (204). the novel ends in summer, so autumn is soon to come. it is the seeding season, so new ideas and values can be planted. the end of the world can be read as pecola's tragic fate. the waste is all the evil those around her have done to the little girl. the beginning of the world may come in autumn, if the seeds of connection to their roots and african american values are planted. in that way, the community can heal. by testifying pecola's story, claudia is playing the cathartic role of a storyteller, attesting the knowledge she has acquired through the years, promoting healing and suggesting that the community's loss can be overcome if african american values are the seeds planted when the next autumn comes. 193 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others works cited baraka, amiri. “amiri baraka reads black art”. youtube. youtube, 2009.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dh2p-tleh_w accessed on may 28th, 2016. douglas, christopher. “what the bluest eye knows about them: culture, race, identity”, in bloom's modern critical interpretations – toni morrison's the bluest eye – updated edition, ny: infobase publishing, p. 209–232. 2007. gravett, sharon l.“toni morrison's the bluest eye: an inverted walden?” in bloom's modern critical interpretations – toni morrison's the bluest eye – updated edition ny: infobase publishing, p. 87–96. 2007. hooks, bell. ain't i a woman: black women and feminism. ny: routledge, 2015. stahl, john m. (dir.) imitation of life. screenplay by william hurlbut. universal studios 1934. film. king, deborah k. “multiple jeopardy, multiple consciousnesses: the context of a black feminist ideology”, in signs, vol. 14, no. 1the university of chicago press. p. 42–72. 1988. king jr., martin luther. i have a dream. http://www.americanrhetoric.com /speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm accessed on may 26th, 2016. malmgren, carl d. “texts, primers, and voices in toni morrison's the bluest eye”, in bloom's modern critical interpretations – toni morrison's the bluest eye – updated edition. infobase publishing. p. 145–158. 2007. morrison, toni. “toni morrison, the art of fiction no. 134”. interview with elis schappell. the paris review no. 128, 1993. web . accessed on may 22nd, 2016. ______. the bluest eye. vintage books, 1999. ______. playing in the dark. vintage books, 1993. ______. toni morrison interview: books, beloved, the bluest eye, essays, influences, on writing (2001). online video clip. youtube. youtube. 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulqlcc5m-_i. accessed on may 22nd, 2016. ______. “an interview with toni morrison”. interview with nellie mckay, in contemporary literature, vol. 24, no. 04 university of wisconsin press. , p. 413–429. 1983. ______. toni morrison remembers – bbc imagine documentary (2015). online video http://www.theparisreview.org/ interviews/1888/the-art-of-fiction-no-134-toni-morrison 194 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/1888/the-art-of-fiction-no-134-toni-morrison clip. youtube. youtube, 2015. web. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjmuzu1ec3o. accessed on may 22nd, 2016. moses, cat. “the blues aesthetic in toni morrison's the bluest eye”, in bloom's modern critical interpretations – toni morrison's the bluest eye – updated edition. infobase publishing. p. 125–144. 2007. national archives. “teaching with documents: documents related to brown v. board of education”. web. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/brown-v-board/ accessed on may 26th, 2016. palmer, colin a. “civil rights movement, u.s.”, in encyclopedia of african-american culture and history. thomson gale. p. 471-478. 2006. rucker, walter c. “black power”, in encyclopedia of african american history. ca: abcclio. p. 662–664. 2010. smith, barbara. “toward a black feminist criticism”, in all the women are white, all the blacks are men, but some of us are brave”. the feminist press, p 157–1751982. werrlein, debra t. “not so fast, dick and jane”, in bloom's modern critical interpretations – toni morrison's the bluest eye – updated edition. infobase publishing. p. 193-208. 2007. 195 orjiakor resistance and deflection to the contempt of others page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 103 abstract this paper seeks to give a critical analysis of kwasi wiredu's thought on the african development project, with a view of accessing to what extent his philosophical prescriptions can aid africa in realizing holistic development. this task finds significance because the crisis of postcolonial african states is anchor on the choice of pathway that africans can follow in achieving holistic development, modernization and progress. the challenges that confront the african development project are perennial and hydraheaded, such that placed the current developmental state of africa in a quagmire. using the expository and analytic method, the paper identify wiredu's thought as titling towards cultural hybridity and heterosis which entails that the blending of positive elements in african, western and non-western cultures into a 'whole' that can be used for selfdefinition of africans, in order to forge a pathway for more holistic development, modernization and progress. the practical application of this principle is that africans must imbibe the scientific and technological mode of thought that is predominate in western culture; adopt inclusive education and redefine african moral values in the light of contemporary african experience. this paper agree with wiredu submissions but add that self-definition can only be possible after self-retrieval. it is only a self that is aware of its identity that can define it in relation to the other. self-retrieval is an exercise in selfcriticism that is necessary to disentangle the african self from the cultural, epistemological and spiritual hegemony of the west. african intelligentsia and the political class must lead in this exercise of self-retrieval. keywords: africa, development, kwesi wiredu, philosophy, hybridity introduction kwasi wireduis a ghana-born distinguished african philosopher who has contributed immensely to the development of philosophy asa discipline across africa. his contributions to the development of african philosophy is very significant. as a philosopher, he has been involved for decades with a project he terms “conceptual decolonization” in contemporary african systems of thought (osha, 2021).this paper seeks to give a critical analysis of wiredu's thought on the african development project, with a view of accessing to what extent his philosophical prescriptions can aid africa in realizing holistic development. this task finds significance because the crisis of postcolonial african states is anchor on the choice of pathway that africans can follow in achieving holistic development, modernization and progress. the challenges that confront the african development project are perennial and hydrakwasi wiredu and the africa's development quagmire: a critical analysis gabriel asuquo and augustine ibrahim musa 104 headed, such that placed the current developmental state of africa in a quagmire. this condition has aroused the inquisitiveness of philosophers of development like kwasi wiredu who believes that the thrust of the various crises which have compounded the seemingly perennial issue of underdevelopment in africa is due to the fact that the end of colonialism in africa and other third world countries did not mean the end of imperialism and dominance, rather, it has assumed a more subtle yet complex form. the thrust of this problem is that africans have, on the one hand, lay off their cultural, moral and traditional heritage and values in pursuit of western thoughts and innovations/inventions. this has led to a new form of psychological dependence often called “neocolonialism” in which africans see nothing african as good or at most commensurate to those of the west. on the other hand is cultural nationalism, a kind of orientation which postulates a unique african world outlook or personality devoid of any western enculturation. all these wiredu observes as counter-productive, and has left african economic systems floundered alongside african political institutions. therefore, to achieve the african project development, there is an urgent need to blend the positive aspect of our culture with those of other cultures that are constructive, such science-oriented mode of thoughts that are existentially beneficial so as to meet the demand of contemporary african society (wiredu, 1980). this paper appraise this wiredu's position as titling towards cultural hybridity but argues that a synthesis of both african culture and the cultures of the other, can only be productive, if africans engage critically with the project of self-retrieval, in order to disentangle the african self from the precarious web of cultural hegemony. this self-retrieval will give the african the opportunity to be aware with what is positive in its culture and what is positive in the cultures of the other, in order, to know what to choose and what to exclude for progress. the drive for progress should be the guiding axiom for africa's development. the drive to attain progress is not limited to philosophical discourse alone, but a holistic drive wherethe entire communities and cultures usually aim to improve upon their institutions and practices in order to remain relevant. in fact, wiredumaintainsthat even if a societies loses the momentum of growth and “various habits of its thought and practice, and becomes anachronistic (within the context of development of the society) the solution is notdiscarding society; what you do is to “modernize” it” (wiredu, 1980, p.1).for africa to achieve development of its own, wiredu posit that development must be seen as a continuing historical process in which all peoples, western and non-western alike are engaged (wiredu, 1980, p.43). conceptual clarification african in trying to deal with this concept there are two perspectives that have been identified. according to blocker, the word “african” means “in the style of” but they can also mean "within the geographical area of” (blocker, 1991, p.198).there also appears to be a third sense which is “a person of”. the term african in the sense of it, means anything from or pertaining to the continent of africa: people who are native to africa, descendants of aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 105 natives of africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of africa; it could be ethnic groups of africa, or even african diasporas. thus, for the sake of this work, when we speak of africa, we speak of a relation to, or characteristic of africa, of its people, language, culture, geography, etc. development the definition of the development is a phenomenon undergoing improvement processes. etymologically, the word development is from the latin word “dis” which means “apart” and from the french word “voloper” which means “unwrap”. the oxford english dictionary gives as its third meaning, “to unfold more fully, bring out all that is potentially contained in”. thus, from the above meaning the term “development” can be defined as “unfolding the potential”. max weber(cited in wolfgang, 1985, pp.20-23), combining his idealistic and materialistic views, understands development as a process of rationalization, immanent potentially to all societies and cultural circles. development according to agbanusi (2012) is therefore a change from one stage to another. with regards to society, it is a change from one social level to another. the common wish of man is to pilot society to a higher or more advanced level with regard to economy, education, culture, politics, science and technology. these are among the areas of life which progress willculminate into national development (p.84). but development is not only restricted to the concept of modernizationwhere supposedly, there are chains of industries, good road networks beautiful urban development and so forth. if all these are achieved andyet, the greater mass of the populace still remains malnourished,illiterate, unemployed, unhealthy and generally poor, it means that such acountry is not yet developed. or if there is the presence of infrastructuraldevelopment and yet there is no discipline and respect for the rule of lawin the polity, such a country is still not developed (albert, 2012, p.33).it is in this context of development that we shall be unveiling wiredu's thoughts on african development project. quagmire according to the macmillan dictionary, quagmire is a situation that is so difficult or complicated that you cannot make much progress. thus it can be seen as an awkward, complicated, or dangerous situation from which it is difficult to escape. such situations are usually unpleasant or even embarrassing as is the case with the african project of development. african understanding of development the understanding of development in africa is summed up in the views expounded by ethnophilosophy and professional philosophy. while ethnophilosophy thinks that the rehabilitation of african traditions conditions the drive to successful modernization, especially after the disparaging discourse of colonialism, professional philosophy is of the opinion that success depends on the exchange of the traditional culture for modern ideas and institutions (kebede, 1999, p.32). for kwasi wiredu, the process of modernization entails changes not only in the physical environment but also in the mental outlook of the african peoples, manifested both in their explicit beliefs and in their asuquo & musa kwasi wiredu and the africa development quagmire customs and their ordinary daily habits and pursuits. since the fundamental rationale behind any changes in a world outlook is principally a philosophical matter, it is plain that the philosophical evaluation of our traditional thought is of very considerable relevance to the process of modernization in africa (wiredu, 1980). other sees the synergy of the two schools of thought plausible. however for kebede (1999), development would require a competitive spirit urging africa not so much to copy the west as to objectify itself through mundane conquests (p.54).in other words, retrospective will, rather than exclusively forward-looking attitude, is the way to change. wiredu on the developmental challenges in african one of the major challenges that have confronted the project of development in africa is the challenge of self-definition. these challenges arose as a result of the transition from the traditional to the modern which has created a situation of uneasy co-existence between elements of two disparate social orientations. for the sake of this essay we shall concentrate on the two that wiredu have discussed thus far: linguistic nationalism and cultural nationalism. linguistic nationalism language is a veritable tool in the development of any form of literature and philosophy in the world.besides, it is a fact that when the language, religion and culture of a people are destroyed or taken away from them, such people are left without any value of selfworth/esteem or self-identity. it is the impacts of these three historical problems or issues that kwasi wiredu attempt to tackle or address through his project of conceptual decolonization.obvious of the impact of this power relationship that weakens the development of literature and philosophy in african languages, wiredu (1996) was encouraged to imagine other ways to open up african languages even if this implies to use english (p.20).while he seeks to promote the establishment of african language to explicate the western philosophical concepts and thought, he however acknowledged some shades of limitation in carrying out this exercise.as such, hecautions of what is called “linguistic nationalism” when he writes that africanphilosophers, trained in european languages, are “constantly threatened with mental de-africanisation,unless consciously and voluntaries to their own languages” (wiredu, 1996, p.137). what wiredu (1996) is saying here is that the promotion of self identity ( by means of language), is not a matter of challenging western hegemony in favor of a purely afrocentric perspective, but rather of being done with a unilateral approach to express the world. his aim is to promote other ways of perceiving it than those given by english language and its concepts. this is made possible first of all, by identifying our differences and thereafter, engaging in a dialogical cross-cultural evaluation. as we start, we must be aware of the differences: we must investigate thedifferences. but when we have brought the differences to attention, we can thenwork on cross-cultural evaluation… in the program of decolonization, ienvisage two stages: first, to elicit the differences, but second, to use what i call theindependent considerations, i.e. considerations that are independent of thepeculiarities of a particular language or culture, to make cross-cultural evaluations (wiredu, 2000) 106 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 such an ambition nevertheless requires finding a common communication instrumentotherwise intercultural dialogue would be jeopardized. it was this insistence on the dialogical aspect of decolonization that needs to be undertaken that strangely led ngugi wa thiong'o (2000) to reconnect with english. although he always uses kikuyu for his novels, he nevertheless favored english to begin his memoirs. thus, he employs the metaphor of the bridge to express this point of view: the really important thing is to see connections. it is only when we see real connections that we can meaningfully talk about differences, similarities, and identities. so the border, seen as a bridge, is founded on the recognition that no culture is an island unto itself. it has been influenced by other cultures and other histories with which it has come into contract. this recognition is the basis of all the other bridges that we want to build across our various cultural borders. the bridges are already there, in fact. the challenge facing, say, teachers of english literature, of african or of asian literature, is to recognize and find those bridges and build on them (p.124). from the above discourse we know that promoting african languages does not mean, according to wiredu (1996) and wa thiong'o (2000), limiting oneself to a national or even ethnic scale. on the contrary, it is a means to reform international relations so that all cultures can meet and enter into dialogue. english can be a strategic tool to make this conversational ideal attainable. due to its hegemonic status today, it is a vector capable of building bridges between the various cultures of the continent and re-establishing pan african ideals. cultural nationalism the challenge of self-definitioncannot be met through a program of cultural nationalism which postulates a unique african world outlook or personality. neither can it be met through a desire to show the europeans what we were before the advent of colonialism. wiredu (1996, p.46) observes that such a call for a cultural renewal and revival by the african nationalist, as popularized by ethno-philosophers and nationalists like leopold sedar senghor who proposed an african mindset and an african philosophy fundamentally different from western philosophy, does not allow for a proper appreciation of the limitations of traditional culture, particularly in the areas of technology, welfare, architecture and medicine. the consequence of this is the continued reliance on modes of thought and conceptions of nature which are of doubtful value in the struggle toliberate ourselves from poverty, want and the hazards of nature (oladipo, 1996, p.80). for wiredu (1996, p.41), a program of culture nationalism can be counterproductive. a program that would be a suitable answer to the challenge of self –definition must involve a kind of analysis that would identify and separate the backward aspects of our culture from those aspects that are worth keeping. this involves blending the positive aspects of our culture with aspects of other cultures that are constructive, for example, the science-oriented mode of thought that are existentially beneficial. in the words of wiredu (1996, p.60), to borrow from another culture does not necessarily imply 107 asuquo & musa kwasi wiredu and the africa development quagmire a belief in the overall superiority of that culture. no culture is perfect; every culture is striving towards perfection, absorbing ideas from other cultures in order to become better. although wiredu (cited in oladipo, 1996, p.81) believes that there are aspects of african culture that should be jettisoned, he recognizes that there are aspects that are worth keeping, for example, the sense of solidarity and community which informs traditional methods of social relations and the humanistic orientation of traditionalethical thinking. wiredu's emphasis is that traditional cultures are insufficient for the african project of development today. there is an urgent need to appreciate the positive aspects of our own culture with others so as to meet the demand of contemporary african societies. what readily comes to mind is the question, how can this blend take place without western dominating and assimilating african culture? this danger is already evident in globalization, which some refer to as neo-colonialism.wiredu is calling for hybridity and cultural heterosis through multiculturalism and cross-cultural engagements. according to wiredu (cited in oladipo, 1996, p.43), the african project of development is one of modernization. this involves in a broad sense, the cultivation of rational enquiry regarding life, and more narrowly, the application of the results of modern science for the improvement of the conditions of life. as he sees it, the challenge is how the human and natural resource of african are to be harnessed to achieve this goal of emancipating african from poverty, want and the hazards of nature. the cultivation of a rational outlook on life is one in which ideas, claims, and theories are not imposed, but truly tested against observable evidences and facts. according to hountondji (2005), to be better applied, “traditional” knowledge should be tested again and again by the people themselves, reappropriated in a way that makes it possible to make the indispensable linkage with ongoing scientific and technological research in order to help knowledge (p.535). this will help to curb the dogmatic and authoritarian mentality to which wiredu (1980, p.44) is completely opposed. hence, he observes: to develop in any serious sense, we in africa must break with our old uncritical habits of thought; that is to say, we must advance past the stage of traditional thinking. wiredu's presentation of development project the quest for development, according to wiredu (1980), should be views as a continuing historical process in which all peoples, western and non-western alike, are engaged. this is because development cannot be seen in any absolute sense.the western world is developed in a relative sense, namely in the area of scientific and technological sophistication. these are only some aspects and not core development. what is required is to balance technological achievements with promotion of human values. thus, for wiredu (cited in oladipo, 1996, p.88), well-rounded development is one in which technical advancement and the promotion of human values are mutually reinforcing. in short, this conception of development shows that the challenge of development in african is not one that can be defined simply in terms of the results of scientific and technical application, but also in doing all of this, while simultaneously promoting human wellbeing (wiredu, 1998). therefore, wiredu (1993, p.8) calls for social institution and conditions which can protect 108 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 the society against the “the moral inclemency of aggravated individualism,” which is a way of life in the west. for him, africans will have to play a role in modern society similar to that which was played by communalist societies in the enlargement of human sympathies (wiredu, 1993, pp.10-11). it is rightly said that there is a need for a blend of technical development with the virtues of traditional communalism. but how can this be realized without one being sacrificed for the other?how the technical can develop along with the humane without the latter being overshadowed? (ogbenika, 2020, p.65). the problem of how this can be achieved yearns for an answer in the midst of contemporary exigencies. however, wiredu (1993) is distinguished for his idea of development as necessarily entailing 'the infusion of humanistic values into the complex actions and reaction involved in our utilization of knowledge for practical purposes. wiredu's assertion: factors crucial to africa's development project kwasi wiredu has identifiedthe following factors as crucial to the african project of development: science andtechnology,education, culture and morality science and technology in development wiredu (1993) recognized science and technology as agents of human development, basically from their ability to empower nations; and the realization that africa's scientific and technological underdevelopment was an important factor in the success of colonialism. as such science and technology is the type of knowledge, wiredu (1993, p.17) submits, that is necessary for action and survival. unfortunately, it is monopolized in the hands and heads of non-africans. besides, one of the major obstacles to the development of science and technology in africa is the non-literate nature of traditional african culture, and the foundation of many aspects of that culture in superstition. there is also additional problem of the mechanics, as well as the politics and economics, of technological transfer, which colonialism delayed. how does wiredu think african can improve their ability to develop these factors in ways that can be beneficial to them? education in development the answer to question above shows where education becomes crucial. the desired change from “an unanalytical, unscientific attitude of mind… the most basic and pervasive anachronism afflicting our society (wiredu, 1980, p.15)”, will be a long process; and the principal agency will be education. it is not just any kind of education, but one that is efficacious in propagating a rational, analytical and scientific orientation. wiredu (1980) suggests: starting from fairly early stages, our education needs to be given a considerable methodological component. our children should be initiated early in life into the discipline of formal and informal logic and not into the methodology of rational thinking (p.15) this kind of training will adjust beliefs to rational evidence, and enable minds to be capable of logical analysis and be fully aware of the nature and value of exact 109 asuquo & musa kwasi wiredu and the africa development quagmire measurement. for wiredu (1993), 'the kind of knowledge that is need is not {only} the hard sciences with their technical rationality, but rather the softer parts of the social sciences and philosophy with their humane rationality (p.22). in other words, discipline and due consideration for the dignity of the human person would help in the humane application of the resources of science and technology. the relevance of philosophy is noted because fundamental ideas about our society are required for an adequate understanding of our problems in the first place. this is before any talk of solving it. the social sciences like history, economics, and anthropology, are also important because the empirical assumptions of these disciplines are directly relevant and infact essential for any fruitful treatment of the problem (wiredu, 1993, p.22).the interdisciplinary dimension of knowledge is needed for a more emancipatory pedagogy. in dealing with the necessary type of education or training needed, it is not only particular forms of knowledge that are necessary but also wisdom. here, wiredu (1993) thinks that there is agood reason for respectfully seeking the co-operation of our traditional sages, philosophic or otherwise. he asserts that this kind of wisdom can be imbibed through the process of socialization. human wisdom is important, but is it sufficient to comprehend the abundant wealth of knowledge that reality has offer? what about metaphysical wisdom? hence, education for development should be the guiding philosophy of education and it should be inclusive of both the hard and the soft sciences. culture in development the general belief about culture is thatit is the totality of a people's way of life. it has wide ranging characteristics and it is a complex phenomenon. wiredu (1980) on his part conceives culture to mean more than art, song and dance…. culture of a people is their total way of life, and this is seen as well in their work and recreation as in their worship and courtship; it is seen also in their ways of investigating nature and utilizing its possibilities and in the ways of viewing themselves and interpreting their place in nature (p.10). there are a lot of things involved in talking about the culture of a people: the manner in which they house and clothe themselves; their method of conducting war and arranging peace; their systems of statecraft, of education, of rewards and punishment and the way they regulate personal relations generally. what are the ideas underlying their cultural values and practices?the constitutive elements of a culture are of two broad types: contingent and constitutive elements. the contingent elements have no essential bearing on questions of either human well-being or truth or falsehood (wiredu, 1992, p.65). these include procedures, customs and usage such as language, fashion, dance, music, recreation and style of courtship, to mention but a few. according to wiredu (1992), these are contingent in the sense that adopting one of their forms rather that another often makes no objective difference to human well-being or to one's beliefs about the world…. there cannot be any compelling reason to change such elements of a culture in favor of foreign ones. to do this is to engender a diminution of cultural self-identity. a culture need not be exclusive or nationalistic for it have its own identity and uniqueness. in other words, the healthy development of a cultural identity should respect other 110 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 people's traditional values and not ignore developments in other cultures. while maintaining its most valued heritage, a culture should be open to the incorporation of the best elements of other cultures. in this connection, wiredu (1992) holds that, a culture can shed many of its traits and gather foreign accretions without losing its identity. it is within the context of identity that the society can grow. a society where there is a cultural crisis cannot thrive and experience progress. as such cultural crisis result due to the loss of selfidentity and authenticity. there is an intrinsic connection between culture and development because development is nothing but the 'de-enveloping' of something internal driving to find expressions in the external. this “something internal” is the self which can be objective in society, nation or the state or subjective to the individual. though the 'self' is not a fixative and static entity but it is always in the process of becoming. hence, development is the drive of the self towards immanent self-becoming. therefore, africa's development can only become authentic, if it starts from those things that are constitutive of authentic african selfhood or culture before integrating those things that are foreign to it. the importance of culture in this sense then is how the positive aspects of foreign cultures can be integrated and incorporated into our own to achieve progress and development in african. as wiredu (1980) affirms, there are 'elements of both particularity anduniversality in culture' (p.200). but for him, 'culture peculiarities are accidentals. what defines the human species are the universals of culture…. and the basis of these cultural universals can be found in the fundamental biological similarity of all human beings (wiredu, 1980, p.201).thus, wiredu is a universalist by virtue of his demonstration that culture nationalism cannot lead africans anywhere in the search for anidentity and their struggle to meet the challenge of development. onah (2002) seems to agree with wiredu that there are many difficulties inherent in the nationalist approach to philosophy, for instance, their unwritten and pre-scientific nature (p.69). in this regard, he opines that 'any philosophy that as a matter of principle avoids all forms of self-criticism will invariably become stagnant and even dogmatic. culture is dynamic and the culture in which contemporary african philosophy is nurtured must be contemporary african culture. else, it will not be able to rise to the demand of the contemporary african society. bthe way forward, according to wiredu (1980 ), lies in the readiness and willingness of africans to create the conditions for a wider exchange of cultural values. he recommends that trans-cultural acculturation will introduce more and more diversity and, by the same token, more and more unity and richness into the lives of all people, as the different cultures of the world get to know one another more and more. in other words, one can expect more and more cultural unity among human kind.' the process he believes must be mutual and have a give and take character. for example, if african enjoy western classical music, some westerners too, enjoy african music, such cross-cultural acculturation does not harm with side. this is in sharp contrast with, say, those forms of commercial globalization that bring great profits to some western companies but little to the third world. morality in development morality as wiredu (1995) sees it, is on its objective side, and essential to human kind. 111 asuquo & musa kwasi wiredu and the africa development quagmire herein lies the universal obligation of moral rules. it is so because 'a certain minimum of harmonization of interests is indispensable to any tolerable form of human social existence (p.35).no society without morality can survive. morality in the minimal sense is simply the observances of rules for the harmonious adjustment of the interest of the b interest of the individuals to those of others in the society (wiredu, 1992 ).in a more profound sense it 'involves not just the de facto conformity to those requirements of the harmony of interests, but also the conformity to those requirements which is inspired by an imaginative and sympathetic identification with the interests of others, even at the cost of possible abridgment of one's own interest (wiredu, 1992b, p.193). in this, altruism is essential. it is in this way that morality is universal to all human societies. since the individual must take responsibility of his own personal actions, to be moral is personal. it is not just personal, but also social morality is social in the akan society, because of their communal experience of human existence. it is the socialization in the broad context of b the lineage that is the true source of morality in its akan conception (wiredu, 1992 , p.204). the pattern of moral life in the wider community context is a reflection of the pattern of conduct inculcated at the lineage level. this implies that a communalistic orientation in morality will naturally bring about harmony in the society. this is typical of the akan and african way of pursuing an ideal through consensus rather than majority vote. on this, bwiredu (1992 ) pointed out that 'a thoroughgoing, consensual approach to social issues can be expected to lead to corresponding procedures in other areas of social life too (p.204). wiredu (1998) observes with distress that the complexity in our urban areas in africa has made the traditional ethos come under most severe strains from science and industrialization, as the remote and immediate causes respectively (p.21).this complexity of societal life and industrialization has made inroads not only in the communalist ethics but also basic morality itself. to allow these complexities of contemporary societal life to affect the very foundation of ethics would amount to insupportable defeatism to the force of humanly created circumstances.since morality is important in the life of any society, it should be put at the service of the gains of development without weakening the foundations of ethics. as wiredu (1998) puts it; since the ethics of a culture is a more important aspect of it, we may reformulate our problem as being concerned with how to exploit all the resources of the modern world for the benefit of our society without jeopardizing the strong points of our culture. moral education will, of course, have a major role to play in fighting against the social and political ills in africa, but moralism alone will not solve the problem. as kudaje (1992) has said if contemporary african is to experience real development, then african must aim at the moral development of her people. not only is moral development justifiable in its own right, but it is a necessary condition for all aspects of development (p.30). apart from moral development, what are the other things needed to nip these multifarious 112 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 social and political problems from their foundation? evaluation/conclusion this work has undoubtedly given an exposition and analysis of wiredu's views on development in africa. for him, the african project of development has two main challenges: self –definition anddevelopment. the challenge of self-definition is identified in blending the positive aspects of african culture with other cultures, while that of development is found in the cultivation of a rational outlook of life, scientific and technical advancement.these can be properly achieved through an effective formal education in science and technology, along with other disciplines like philosophy and the social sciences. furthermore, wiredu holds that thorough understanding of the foundations of a culture and its morals, the trans-cultural acculturation, and empathetic harmonization of human interests will bring further advantages to the process of development. however, the point of concern here is to what extend this trans-cultural acculturation can stretch without avoiding enculturation or westernization of african culture? this a very germane question that is beyond wiredu's prescriptions. the plausible answer can be found in self-retrieval of the constitutive elements of african cultural strong points. following blending of two culture whose ontology are at pairs of opposite can only lead to an outcome of the dominate one overwhelming the residual one. consequently, we can only have the reinforcement of imperialism in another guise. this is the implication of wiredu prescription. no wonder, wiredu sees contemporary african culture as the elements to form that synthesis. there cannot be contemporary without traditional, hence, the traditional must be given expression in the contemporary. more so, the next question should be: what possible infrastructure can be put in place in order achieve this development project, since, one of african's problems hinges on implementationand not just good policies? bearing in mind the need for harmonization of both our indigenous values, resources, customs and philosophy with the developing world, how does africa sought to promote her unique identity in terms of development in the face of a competitive western world? these and other questions are still unanswered in wiredu's prescriptions. nevertheless,wiredu holds that a consideration of the concept of development from this point of view must take into account the social and political dimensions of life towards which philosophers must address themselves. and that the african development project will require a holistic approach, for the drive to attain progress is not limited to philosophical discourse alone, but a holistic drive where the entire communities and cultures usually aim to improve upon their institutions and practices in order to remain relevant. there are no doubt that wiredu's suppositions, if critically evaluated and employed, have the momentum to propel the africandevelopment project to a significantly enhanced level, if africans through the intellectual and political class engage in self-criticism that will form a self-definition that will be the basis for a unique african identity that will makes africans to be aware of what is positive in the culture of the other in relation to them. 113 asuquo & musa kwasi wiredu and the africa development quagmire references kwasi wiredu (2020). language matters! decolonization, multilingualism, and african languages in the making of african philosophy, kwasi wiredu in dialogue with kai kresse, polylog: forum for intercultural philosophy 2, (2000). available th in . accessed on 30 september, 2021. albert et al. 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research in values and philosophy 1992. wiredu, k (1993). science, technology and human values, presented at the international philosophy conference on 'path to human flourishing: philosophical perspective; organized by the korean philosophical association in seoul, august 1992. seoul: published in the proceedings entitled: paths to human flourishing, korean philosophical association b wiredu, k (1992 ). “the moral foundation of an african culture,” in kwasi wiredu and kwame gyekye (eds), person and community: ghana philosophical studies 1. washington, d.c: council for research in values and philosophy 1992. wiredu, k (1996). cultural universals and particulars: an african perspective. bloomington, indiana university press, 1996. wiredu, k (1980). philosophy and an african culture. cambridge: cambridge university press, bwiredu, kwasi (1998 ). “toward decolonizing african philosophy and religion" african studies quarterly (1)4,pp.17-46. wolfgang. s (1985). the rise of western rationalism: max weber's developmental history, berkeley: california university press, 1985. 115 asuquo & musa kwasi wiredu and the africa development quagmire page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 62 abstract this paper gives attention to the argument for divine command theory (dct) of ethics, the notion that morality depends upon god's command. philosophers have discussed this theory in relations to the abrahamic religions (judaism, christianity and islam). among them are those who argue against this theory and those who prolifically defend it. some jewish scholars, like immanuel jakobovits, argue that jewish tradition supports dct, while others, like aharon lichtenstein, object the argument on the ground that tradition denies this view. according to the common law, the opposite of all evil fall under a divine command. thus, it is not possible that anyone rightly engage in evil acts, because they are not performed meritoriously. and if they should be done by any meritoriously, then they would not be called evil. therefore, some philosophers understand that any evil act is not commanded by the divine. then, do we conceptualise ethics from theological perspective? the paper attempts answering this by analytic method, considering the idea of dct on virtue, an ethical conducts to which the sokoto caliphate scholars give a divine command theory explanation. the paper questions how virtue is theorised by philosophers, especially in the utilitarian view, and how it relate to the ideas of the sokoto caliphate scholars. the outcome shows that morality, according to those scholars, has its riots in religious instruction, and that a society can chose to apply the divine command ethical theory for the moral setting of its people to achieve political, social and economic development. keywords: islam, ethics, divine, virtue, utilitarian. introduction we have attempted a critique of the divine command theory (dtc) of ethics (ibrahim, 2021). the dtc is a theory of ethics that grounds the nature of ethical demands in the fact that they represent the command of god (blackburn, 2008:103). also called theological voluntarism, divine command is a position which claims that god's command is the ultimate source of moral obligation or that god's will is the basis of moral laws. grabber claims to be convinced that a dct of ethics has more going for it than has been generally acknowledged (1975:62). however, one factor responsible for obscuring the merits of a dct is the heavy-handedness with which philosophers have been led to deal with it as a result of trying to handle too much at once. for philosophical analysis, we must distinguish between divine to engage in acts of worship, ritual, prayer, and other “specifically religious” and those divine commands that give rise to moral obligation. the virtue in the divine command theory of ethics from the sokoto caliphate scholars abubakar zaria ibrahim, ph.d 63 criterion for distinguishing moral commands from such non-moral directives as religious commands can be provided by philosophical analysis of the concept of morality. this topic has been the subject of a good deal of discussion in philosophical circles, but no general consensus has been reached (frankena, 1965). it would take us away from the focus of this paper if we attempt to deal with this issue here, so we shall keep it for another discussion. numerous philosophers have argued that the idea, for example, that god's command is a necessary and sufficient condition of the moral rightness of an act fails to effectively convey the dependence of the act's moral rightness on god's command (sagi and statman 1995:20). however, most versions of the dct involve both conveying this dependence and explaining its nature (sagi and statman 1995). for leibowitz, judaism, at the level of the individual religious life who takes his or her faith seriously, is essentially co-extensive with the observance of torah and the commandments. he acknowledges that, on a more abstract plane, torah study and observance of the practical commandments do not exhaust the entire content of judaism. but so far as the individual's jewish life is concerned, he remains immovable that observance of torah and the commandments is the fundamental relevant characteristic (ibrahim, 2021). on the part of christianity, the perspective of the dct is reflected in certain passages in the reformation writings of luther and calvin (idziak, 1979:95). in islam, there are ethical presuppositions of the qur'an and hadith. the qur'an is the book revealed by god to the prophet of islam, muhammad (peace be upon him). it has within it laws that guide the entire conduct of human life. another source of ethics in islam is the hadith. this is the compilation of the words and deeds of the prophet which broadly explain the teachings of the qur'an. the ontological problem of the nature of ethical value concepts and the epistemological problem of the source of knowledge of ethical values in islam have been elaborately treated by george hourani (1985). he explains why, we can infer, the sokoto caliphate scholars have relied principally on religion, basing their actions on the dct, to guide the moral character of the society. their arguments for using and defending the theory to shape moral character are replete in their treatises. however, we shall take a look at the root from which they tapped this method, which is the early islamic ethics. early islamic ethics to support the argument that god's command is a necessary condition for moral rightness, let us present a logical formulation before looking at ethics in the islamic point of view. in a renowned passage in plato's euthyphro, socrates poses the following question: 'is what is holy holy because the gods approve it, or do they approve it because it is holy?' (plato, euthyphro 10a). the contemporary philosophical literature inclines to reorganize socrates's query, which it terms 'the euthyphro dilemma', in monotheistic and more modern vocabulary. the horns of the dilemma are then modified in the following style: is it the case that (1) an act is right because god commanded (or wanted or willed or approved) it, or alternatively, is it the case that (2) god commanded (or wanted or willed or approved) this act because the act it is right? (meynell, 1972:223; burch, 1980:279; helm, 1981:2; sagi and statman, 1995:11) according to horn according to (1), god, or more precisely his command or will, etc., aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 determines morality; morality depends upon god. on (2), by contrast, morality is independent of god; he commands or wills certain things because of moral considerations that are not contingent upon him. dct, therefore, can be understood as the idea that if there had been no divine commands, there would have been no morality. on this view, there is simply no such thing as morality without god's commands. thus, the very existence of moral values and moral obligations depends upon those commands. we can express this stronger interpretation of dct in the following formulation: if action a is right, then god has commanded us to do a. (= if god had not commanded us to do a, then a would not be right). another way of expressing this formulation is to say that god's command is a necessary condition of morality, or of the moral rightness of an act. a formal expression of this idea is as follows: (x) (rx ? cx) where x = an action, r = 'morally right' and c = 'commanded by god'. therefore, our terminology for ease of reference later on is: god's command is a necessary condition of the moral rightness of an act. ethics, understood in a broad sense as the study of practical justification, has no particular equivalent in islam. instead we find a variety of literary and intellectual genres within which muslims consider questions of the shape and nature of the good life. among these genres, fiqh, or as many have been accustomed to say, islamic jurisprudence, stands out as a particularly important discipline, the special interest of which is the discernment of guidance for life through the interpretation of divinely approved sources. to treat islamic legal thought in the classifications of ethics, as done by the sokoto caliphate scholars, is not a new notion. in an earlier focus on islam, kevin reinhart suggested that students of ethics might find in the texts and arguments associated with islamic law a rich source for their interests (reinhart 1983). he argued that careful study of legal materials would contribute more to an understanding of islamic ethics than would the study of islamic philosophy or theology. in maintenance of the ontological objective position of ethical values in the islamic point of view, there are three points worthy of note. first, the qur'an used an established language in illuminating the divine message, the arabic language. it used the specific concepts with their unambiguous meanings and implications, and addressed many ethical terms to pagans, such concepts, for instance, are ?adl (justice), zulm (transgression), khayr (goodness), sharr (evil). it used ethical terms, therefore, in a way that people could understand. good and evil deeds mentioned in such verses as q.16:90, “surely allah enjoins the doing of justice and the doing of good (to others) and the giving to the kindred, and he forbids indecency and evil and rebellion; he admonishes you that you may be mindful.” the second point is that many ethical attributes are predicated of god. as such these are difficult to interpret in terms of obedience to his own commands, which were made for man. certainly, ethical attributes are distinct from ethical command. like the statement in q.10:4: “he may with justice recompense those who believe and do good” and the continuous assertion in the qur'an that he is never unjust to his servants; as in q.8:51: “allah is not in the least unjust to the servants” and that “allah is benignant to his 64 ibrahim virtue in the divine command theory of ethics from the sokoto caliphate scholars servants” as in q.42:19. the third point is that if god is not good and just in a human common sense, but in another supernatural sense, then those divine attributes will be made meaningless and unpleasant to human moral feeling and religious piety. all that will be left for humanity is fear of an unknown mystic power, and a blind submission to subjective commands. this is definitely not the message of the qur'an regarding human being's relation to god. the purpose of believing in and doing good deeds and avoiding bad is not only chastisement and remuneration in the hereafter but also god's pleasure and love. this is clearly stated, for instance, in the qur'an. it says in q.5:13, “surely allah loves those who do good (to others).” and in q.3:159, “place your trust in allah; surely allah loves those who trust.” as such, the sokoto caliphate scholars ontologically explore the qur'an and hadith in moral issues of the society. the sokoto caliphate scholars in the attempt to achieve moral development of the state, one of the ethical behaviours that the sokoto caliphate scholars give a divine command theory explanation is virtue. these scholars, popularly known as the triumvirate, are sheikh uthman bin fodiye, abdullahi bin fodiye and muhammad bello. they sought for a virtuous society and political order whose guiding principle is the realization of human excellence. in philosophy, virtue was not only human quality or moral virtue, but also the quality of anything in the performance of its needed function. human virtues are generally thought to include courage, temperance, piety, justice, and wisdom, but there were conflicting beliefs about them. socrates devoted all of his life to clarifying the meaning of these virtues, claiming crucially that virtue is knowledge (bunnin and yu, 2004:727). one foremost aspect of plato's theory of ideas was to launch the metaphysical foundation for moral virtues and to determine how a man should live. as such, in the ancient world ethical theory was more or less co-extensive with the doctrine of virtue, that is to say of qualities of individual character. it is not particularly of place to consider the influence of the platonic habit of thought upon the conception of the virtuous life, particularly of a developing young person. the general characteristic of a developing person is that of acquiring the virtues, so that the virtuous life appears to him at first as something outside himself, something that has to be grasped and brought into his own possession. the virtuous is the one who lives by senses rather than by the interior grace within. such a person is first moved by authority or admonished by a teacher; to accept the good where it is found, and it always found in what others say and do. so the person begins by being obedient and by imitating the ways of others. by degrees, in subduing self-inclinations to dissipate self through senses and sense life, begins to acquire virtues, a fact which is revealed by the delight eventually discovered in exercising self in the ways of others (pepler, 1952:1). in this way god's word is dictated from outside; which the muslim must hear and accept it. so the sokoto caliphate scholars moved the society in this manner to promote virtuous acts. the ethical principles of the caliphate were founded on the shari'a laws which is the divine legislation, moral guide and source of philosophic ideas and principles in islam. while bentham argues that in most nations “thefoundations of a useful morality” were 64 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 obscured by religious doctrines and false morality (1823:179). these foundations consisted of sensations of pleasure and pain, and self-love was closely related to them: men … are neither good nor bad, but ready to be either, according as a common interest unites or divides them; that self-love, a sensation necessary to the preservation of the species, is engraved by nature in a manner not to be erased; that a physical sensibility has produced in us a love of pleasure and a hatred of pain; that pleasure and pain have at length produced and opened in all hearts the buds of self-love, which by unfolding themselves give birth to the passions, whence spring all our virtues and vices. (bentham, 1823:1856). to abdullahi, however, the various societies can be define as societies in which human beings come together to cooperate with the aim of becoming virtuous, performing dignified actions and attaining happiness. such society is distinguished by the presence of knowledge of man's ultimate perfection. this knowledge has to be revelation from god through the prophets who are morally sound through god's guidance (abdullahi, vol. ii, 2013:115). mill admitted that the same passion that led to the love and practice of virtue in one age or society might produce vice in another. the link between the passions and public utility was not straight-forward. murderers as well as geniuses might have strong passions (mill, 1863:286). mill fully accepted this problem, though he insisted that the route to public utility did not rest with the sacrifice of pleasure and strong passions. he argued instead that the passions, and especially the strong ones, must be made to conform to the public interest without losing their strength, and this was the task of the legislator. his means were the laws and his immediate tools, reward and punishment. “the virtues and vices of a nation”, he confirmed, “are always necessary effects of its legislation” (mill, 1863:317). despite giving what appears to be great power to the legislator, it did not follow that mill intended the legislator to be a despot, either enlightened or not. and between republics and despotisms, he clearly favoured republics, where no one was above the law (mill, 1861:208). he also praised the right of the people to possess freedom of expression and criticism, including freedom of the press (mill, 1861:301-2). he praised the separation of powers in england, and in his discussion of government, he seemed indebted to montesquieu. but he rejected montesquieu's emphasis on the importance of climate to explain differences between states (placing greater emphasis on the laws and legislator), and, unlike montesquieu, he seemed to praise republics as the repositories of virtue and greatness (mill, 1965:358). similarly, the attempt by the sokoto scholars was no doubt an attempt to address the menace of oppression and exploitation of the masses, which the first objective of the reform movement set out to achieve. they desired a virtuous society by pinning down the principles of leadership. these principles included the foundations and qualities of leadership, good governance, management of public affairs and struggle against corruption (bobboyi, 2011:1-13). on the diseases of a society, mill did not believe that the legislator could simply enact a new set of laws and initiate the reign of virtue, much as lycurgus supposedly did at sparta. he criticized sovereigns who acted too hastily: sovereigns are apt to think, that by a word, or by a law, they can suddenly change the spirit of a nation, and, for instance, render a cowardly and indolent people, courageous and active. they are ignorant that diseases in the state, which are long contracting, require much time in curing; and that in the body politic, as well as in the human, the impatience 66 ibrahim virtue in the divine command theory of ethics from the sokoto caliphate scholars of the prince and the sick persons often oppose the cure (mill, 1965: 356). in masa'il muhimma yahtaju ila ma'rifatiha ah1 al-sudan [important questions that need to be known by the people of the sudan] in 1802-3 and wathiqat ahl al-sudan [letter to the people of sudan area] in 1804, sheikh uthman ibn fodiye spell out the revolutionary ideas which informed the change and shows that it was not an affair that can be achieved in a short period of time. he points to the diseases of a society in 'the letter...' and cautions his followers not to be eager in rebelling from the hausa kings (othman vol. iii, 2013:34-35). the sheikh, therefore, believes that changing the attitude of a state from vicious to a virtuous society can only be possible in a gradual process. the question of how we become virtuous or good by acting according human nature finds no explicit answer in the texts of the sokoto scholars. to further explore this topic, we make reference to abdullahi's view on the foundation of morality alongside the view of utilitarianism. this offers some evidence that the views of sokoto scholars and the utilitarians are not as dissimilar as they may usually thought to be. while the social and ethical ideal for abdullahi is the peaceful unification of the state under a just and benevolent ruler (abdullahi vol. i, 2013:136), the utilitarians assert that the rightness or wrongness of a unit of behaviour is a quite different function of circumstances (bentham, 1781:125). that is to say the social and ethical ideal for the utilitarians entails having individuals performing the right action to produce optimistic results. however, this does not exclude the possibility that the two philosophic schools of thought share some very similar views on moral psychology, for they are only disagreeing on the content of what is actually good for human beings in a particular society. abdullahi's paradoxical remarks on virtue suggest that acting virtuously is not primarily a contrived attempt to fulfil certain goals. this idea finds expression in a famous passage from the diya'al hukkam, which forms the core of his views on morality and virtue: it is said in the prophetic tradition: “there should be neither hurt nor hurting.” al-matity said: “hurt is when one of the two neighbours hurt his neighbour (that is, hurt the other), and hurting is when they injure each other.” ... there are many ways to hurt... those ways include the smoke of public bathrooms and ovens (chimneys), as well as the dust of crop stacks and the smell of tanners... it is not allowed for a person to initiate a stable of animals near his neighbours house because of their urine and waste as well as their movement at night and during the day because they disturb (the neighbour's) sleep.(abdullahi vol. iii, 2013:227) abdullahi invites us to imagine a simple, ordinary situation, uncomplicated by unusual customs or conventions. he appeals to our intuition and attempts to show that the basis of refraining from doing harm or offering help to others in need is basically one's feeling and emotional response to one's surroundings, a kind of primitive reaction. one may ask, “what is the reason for not hurting one's neighbour?' in reply, abdullahi would point out that one should have compassion for the neighbour who is about to get hurt. however, there seems to be little room for asking the question “what is the reason for having such compassion?” for, to grasp the meaning and significance of the notion of compassion 67 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 implies taking seriously the harm that may affect beings sufficiently similar to us. to put the point here differently, we may say that taking for granted the need to attend to the suffering of the neighbour in this instance itself constitutes the perspective or the attitude of the moral person here: it is not the case that one is left with the question of whether one should care about the well-being of other people after one has already acquired the virtue of compassion. from this perspective, the very act of asking the question above signals a kind of disagreement that implies deep divergence in ethical attitudes and values: an adequate level of agreement in attitude is lacking in order for the discussion to proceed. we might compare this picture of morality in abdullahi's writing with certain trends in contemporary thought. ludwig wittgenstein states: giving grounds, however, justifying the evidence comes to an end but the end is not certain propositions striking us immediately as true, i.e. it is not a kind of seeing on our part; it is our acting, which lies at the bottom of the language-game (wittgenstein, 1969:204). abdullahi here seems to hold the view that the justification of morality, as a form of human practice, in the end lies in certain forms of reactions and related attitudes. human beings, their needs, and reactions in the context of human relationships, give sense to morality. true propositions and beliefs by themselves, isolated from human beings and their activities, have no bearing on moral practices and human conduct. to highlight the importance of attitude and action in comparison with belief, wittgenstein states that: i believe that he is not an automaton just like that, so far makes no sense. my attitude towards him is an attitude towards a soul. i am not of the opinion that he has a soul (wittgenstein, 1953:178.). from the perspective of human activities and the interactions between human beings, holding the belief that a person is not an automaton is compatible with a variety of attitudes that may have very different practical and ethical consequence. for example, viewing a human being as having a soul can lead to many different kinds of moral attitudes: one may think that the salvation of the soul of a human being depends on the grace of god; or that a human being, having a soul, deserves un-conditional respect. since such beliefs remain lifeless if disconnected from people's actual ways of living, this suggests that it is attitude or action that gives meaning and significance to human practices. in this sense, attitude and action are important conditions that belong to our complex practices. for abdullahi, what distinguishes human beings from brutes is morality understood in terms of different kinds, namely certain basic ethical attitudes and reactions. now if morality is taken to be an expression of some complex combination of attitudes or primitive reactions, the absence of such attitudes or primitive reactions has ethical significance. for abdullahi, in an ordinary case where a person is about to get hurt, not being able to respond in any appropriate way casts doubt on the possibility of an ethical discourse. what this implies is that some kind of agreement in attitude is necessary for ethical discussion to go on. the message from abdullahi's writing can be seen as the claim that virtue is not simply isolated piece of true propositions unrelated to human life. it remains true that how ethical differences can be reconciled will depend on a variety of philosophical and cultural factors. with the absence of some basic agreement and 68 ibrahim virtue in the divine command theory of ethics from the sokoto caliphate scholars consensus, a consequence is that virtue can deform into certain self-interested or prudential concerns as in the case when behaviour can only be checked by means of remuneration or chastisement. the perspective been sketched here may provide a means for us to clarify our notion of moral disagreement. imagine a person who characteristically acts without regard to the suffering or welfare of others an amoralist, or a thrasymachus if preferred. it can be misleading to say that the amoralist and a moral person disagree over whether a particular act is right or wrong for the reason that the difference in their moral background and outlook can be so great that it precludes a common morality or a moral language. to say that they disagree over a moral issue ignores the significant possibility that what could constitute a right action for an amoralist can be radically different from that for the moral person. the worry about a reductive theory of morality and virtue should disappear if we extend our focus to the whole argument that abdullahi is putting forward. although primitive reaction plays a fundamental role in moral development, to abdullahi other factors such as reasoning and cultural understanding are also crucial. primitive reaction in this sense is at most necessary rather than sufficient for our full moral development. abdullahi's model of morality and virtue is not a purely intuitionist one that totally excludes the role of thinking and reasoning. he does emphasize that rationality can be used to improve one's moral character, for example in a kind of “extension” where one's concern toward one's family and relatives is extended to other human beings on the ground that they are not significantly different (abdullahi vol. iii, 2013:250-251). the emphasis on cultural understanding in abdullahi's work deserves more careful and complete attention. to a non-philosophical reader of abdullahi, a large part of the work consists of seemingly unimportant discussion about the question a person operating a mortar or grinding mills at night. for example: in islamic jurisdiction, “it is prescribed by the laws that, in giving and receiving, man and woman should not touch each other?” …“when one's sister-in-law is drowning, does one stretch out a hand to help her?” “not to help a sister-in-law who is drowning is to be a brute. … but in stretching out a helping hand to the drowning sister-in-law one uses one's discretion” (abdullahi vol. iii, 2013:250-251) bearing in mind such example, which emphasizes the importance of the context and the surrounding circumstances of an action, it should become clear that being moral or virtuous for abdullahi is a complex phenomenon that involves the ability to make fine, sensitive judgments: virtue consists in acting and reacting to particular circumstances in a perceptive way. in this sense, it is possible to say that virtue and the virtuous person are one the person acts virtuously from virtue by responding to the needs and suffering of other human beings in an appropriate way relative to the surrounding circumstances. in doing so, a virtuous person can be seen as acting spontaneously in an important sense. morality, as understood by abdullahi and the utilitarian philosophers, is seen as firmly rooted in human and social relationships, and both recognize that actions and attitudes are 69 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 important aspects of moral practice. in practical ethics, once actions and attitudes are understood as taking an essential role, it would seem clear that the relationship between actions or attitudes and morality is different from the relationship between belief and morality. since it is the case that attitudes or actions play an important role in giving sense to our ethical practices, beliefs about virtue and morality by themselves are only part of the complete picture of virtuous or moral behaviour. one might even say that the notion of moral or virtuous behaviour is like a by-product of moral or virtuous behaviour itself: a person can act virtuously and morally by responding appropriately toward the surrounding circumstances, but the conscious belief that one is acting virtuously or morally is neither necessary nor sufficient for the virtuous behaviour itself. between three british classic utilitarian scholars; bentham, mill and sidgwick, only the latter is inclined towards practical ethics like the sokoto caliphate scholars. though sidgwick has not established a state or empire, he has shown that academic debates by philosophers may not produce proper understanding even within the philosophers, not to talk of the society. to him, changing the morals of any group of people has to go hand in hand with education and practice. this is what sheikh uthman ibn fodiye was able to achieve with the able assistance of his brother abdullahi and his son muhammad bello. considering the above perspective on virtue from the scholars of the sokoto caliphate, it is clear that their combination of divine and insightful principles demonstrate that moral theory can effectively guide actions. the ethical ideas emphasize the political importance of sound belief about the divine and about the principles of the world. it was by this conviction that they changed the political and socio-economic setting of hausaland to establish the sokoto caliphate. an administrative entity which flourished for over a century. conclusion divine command theory of ethics has more supporters among philosophers than has been generally acknowledged. we are made to understand, however, one factor responsible for obscuring its merits is the heavy-handedness with which philosophers have been led to deal with it as a result of trying to handle too much at once. as a theory of ethics, it can stand for a guiding principle in the law of a given society. according to the common law, the opposite of all evil fall under a divine command. and, with a divine command in effect it is not possible that anyone meritoriously or rightly engage in evil acts, because they are not performed meritoriously. and if they should be done by an earthly pilgrim meritoriously, then they would not be called or named evil. in regard to this, some philosophers understand that any act linked with evil is not commanded by the divine. the paper, therefore, concludes that a society can chose to apply the 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(1953/1958). philosophical investigations [philosophische untersuchungen]. 2nd ed. translated by g.e.m. anscombe and edited by g.e.m. anscombe and r. rhees. oxford: blackwell https://nigerianjournalsonline.com/index.php/ajop/issue/view/115 72 ibrahim virtue in the divine command theory of ethics from the sokoto caliphate scholars https://nigerianjournalsonline.com/index.php/ajop/issue/view/115 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 57 exclusive rationalism and empiricism: a disservice to the theory of knowledge stephen timothy akpan & michael benedict abstract philosophy is specifically understood as speculative science. that is to say that it is a science that seeks the truth for the sake of the truth or knowledge for the sake of knowledge. there are two major and parallel poles in the theory of this knowledge the rationalism and empiricism. this study intends to show that the two traditional sources of knowledge can be used in strengthening each other rather than engage in mutual exclusivism. it is a fact that everything has a beginning but it is unfortunate to take the beginning as an end to itself. it is more unfortunate to take the continuation as the beginning and end. empirical knowledge ought to be seen as the beginning of knowledge and rationalism as the continuation of knowledge. both should constitute true and universal knowledge. in reality, it is often difficult to have a oneway satisfying or universal truth without assistance from other areas. there are various methods of interpretation of the bible but none is self-sufficient, it is always required that other methods be diligently applied as well for authentic interpretation. the paper using the analytic method posit that the position that one method is sufficient in giving us the absolute explanations to all the problems and acquisition of knowledge as the exponents of rationalism and empiricism want us to believe. the use of the two major themes to give us relatively sure source of knowledge is a conditio sine qua non. this title suggests other nomenclatures such as, absolute rationalism/empiricism and radical rationalism/empiricism. they designate the position that excludes the other, and tenaciously hold on to one without respect or reference to the other. this paper concludes that we need the senses and we need reason. the combination of these with proper interpretation and understanding, gives adequate and better knowledge, after all, two good heads are better than one! keywords: philosophy, exclusivism, rationalism, empiricism 1. introduction the concept philosophy cannot be given one precise definition that captures its subject matter. this is because various definitions capture different context as well as different purposes. philosophy etymologically is commonly known as the love of wisdom or the study of wisdom. this concept is rooted down to the greek words of philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). and as such philosophy does not only seek knowledge for personal gains, it endeavours to seek wisdom which consists in the ability to draw meaning from experience, to judge experience wisely. for immanuel kant, philosophy is a critical activity, as critical activity it involves the examination of ideas we live by, this definition arises from socrates, it is a reflective self-examination of principles just and happy life. by these aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 58 definitions philosophy is the study of general and fundamental concerning matters of human existence. udoidem describes philosophy as “a one million naira question that is often asked by both the most learned and the unlearned of our society. yet, ever since the question was raised thousands of years ago, it is still being asked today, and the answers received have been as unsatisfactory as they were at the first moment when it was first asked” (udoidem, 1992, p. 1). for wittgenstein, philosophy is, i know not what. for socrates, it is a reflective selfexamination of principles of the just and happy life, and for kant, it is the articulation of the spirit of the age (udoidem, 1992). this is a show of the difficulty of a universal definition; however, according to omoregbe (2017), the following are possible definitions: (1) philosophy is a rational search for the answers to the questions that arise in the mind when we reflect on human experience (2) philosophy is a rational search for answers to the basic questions about the ultimate meaning of reality as a whole and of human life in particular (p. 3). epistemology is one of the major branches in philosophy. the term epistemology is derived from two greek words, “episteme” which means “knowledge” and “logos” which means logic or rationale. however, according to everit and fisher (1995), in contemporary usage, it has come to mean theory of knowledge. what then is knowledge? there are three ways of looking at the question what knowledge is. first we have capacity knowledge which is referred to as knowledge know how. this type of knowledge refers to the ability of the individual knowing how to do something. for instance, knowing how to put on the television, radio, how to drive a car. the second type of knowledge is knowledge by acquaintance. this type of knowledge deals with the kind of knowledge of what exist in space and time, for example you can know a country, a building, a river or a painting. the third type of knowledge is propositional knowledge. in propositional knowledge, knowledge is defined as justified truth belief. that is for any piece of information to be called knowledge it must satisfied these three conditions which are individually necessary and jointly sufficient for any knowledge claims. for example, to make statement that a knows p, it means that for the truth of a knows that p. they are: 1. p is true 2. a believes that p 3. if a can justify that it is p. akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … 59 the first condition, is called the truth condition, it states that you cannot know that something is true if in fact it is false. to know that p means that p must be true for example i know that lokoja is the capital of kogi state, it will be false to say that lokoja is not the capital. the second condition, the condition that a believes that p. the fact that a belives p requires explanation. it is possible for a to know that makurdi is the capital of benue state. but that the knowledge a has comes from uncertain source. the concept believe only signifies that the source of knowledge could be faulty, which means that our knowledge could be inclusive. however, epistemically believe stands for the fact that the strength of conviction still remains undetermined by the second condition. the third condition a justifies that p. the third and final condition is stipulating , that is, the requirement of knowledge is that it must justified here our believe about our statement of fact that makurdi is the capital of benue state is justified because it left the level of believe to justification of the fact the statement is true. there are two schools of thought in epistemology, these schools disagree on the source our knowledge while, while the empiricist contend that it is derived from sense perception, the rationalist argue that it is generated from reason. the outstanding disagreement existing among rationalists and empiricists is within the revered area of epistemology. a branch of philosophy dedicated to the study of the nature, sources and limits of human knowledge. the distinguishing questions in epistemology include: 1. what is the nature of human knowledge? 2. how can we gain knowledge? 3. what are the limits to our knowledge? (markie, 2004, august 19). the dispute between these two epistemic schools emanates from the second question, namely, how can we gain knowledge? this disagreement leads them to give opposing opinions and even to regard the position of the other as nihilistic. epistemology is derived from the greek episteme, and logos, word or explanation. “it is a branch of philosophy and chiefly concerned with the justification of knowledge-possibility” (agede, 2019, p. 34). it is an enquiring into what can be known and how it can be known (kenny, 2004, p. 145). in line with this, akpen (2018, p. 24) summarizes it as “the branch of philosophy concerned with enquiry into the nature, sources and validity of knowledge”. there has always been in the study of epistemology a conflicting relationship between the rationalist and the empiricist, with each claiming to have the surest and only true way to knowledge. this position is confirmed in the works of the various exponents of both rationalism and empiricism. while the rationalists would say that knowledge is innate, that is inborn, the empiricists would say that aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 60 there is nothing in the mind that was not first experienced, that is, everything comes from experience. there is no doubt that there are similarities between rationalism and empiricism despite the controversy. both make attempts to answer the fundamental questions of the theory of knowledge, namely, what is knowledge? what can we know? how do we have it? when do we know it? there are certain knowledge that humans possess that are a priori, that is, without experience and there are certain knowledge that humans possess that are a posteriori, that is experienced based. in my opinion, the acceptance of the opposing views by each will be beneficial to epistemology in particular and philosophy in general. in view of this, this paper studies this topic under the following subtopics: the basic arguments of rationalism and empiricism, positive values of rationalism and empiricism in philosophy, areas of disservice and a conclusion. 2. basic arguments of rationalism and empiricism the argument of the origin of knowledge has given birth to two outstanding and important schools of thought, namely, (a) that which concerns itself with the question of whether knowledge is innate, that is, present in the mind at birth therefore when the time is due, the ideas spring up naturally and (b) that which concerns itself with the question whether knowledge is empirical, that is, acquired through experience or sense perception, which means nothing is in the mind, one needs experience before anything is known. these have been of major concern for a long time not only in philosophy but in linguistics and psychology (martinich and stroll, 2020, october, 12). the two outstanding schools of thought are outlined thus: rational source of knowledge or rationalism and empirical source of knowledge or empiricism. 3. rationalism this is a philosophical position whose basic teaching on its source of knowledge holds that true knowledge can only be gotten through reasoning. this can also be called intellectualism. they hold that every human is born with certain basic ideas in his mind and that these basic ideas are known immediately and spontaneously as soon as a man reaches the age of reason without having to learn them. both plato and descartes maintain that true knowledge is already within us in the nature of innate ideas, which we do not acquire but are born within (popkin and stroll, 1993, p. 203), and the process of learning begins with these basic ideas known as innate. they believe and teach that a fundamentally important kind of knowledge can be achieved a priori, that is, independently of sensory experience (bruce, 2008, p. 23). the exponents of this school of thought such as rene descartes, spinoza and leibniz ignore experience as a source of true knowledge and emphasize the role of reason in order to attend clear and certain knowledge. for them, reason alone, using the mathematical method, can attend clear and certain knowledge without reference to experience (omoregbe, knowing philosophy, 2018, p. 140). this position has the backing of popkin and akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … 61 stroll who had previously called this theory ‘rationalistic’ due to the fact that their fidelity to a particular procedure of reason alone, one can attain knowledge in its strongest sense, a type of knowledge that cannot under any circumstances possibly be false. all rationalistic theories maintain that we cannot find any absolute certain knowledge in sense experience but have to seek for it only in the realm of the mind. it is again sustained that the only real and certain world is what is known through rationalistic procedures and all others known outside this realm are illusory or unreal or still, unimportant world (p. 203). the rationalists develop their arguments in two ways. (a) they argue passionately that there are instances where our knowledge is not or cannot be explained by the senses of touch, sight, feeling, smell and hearing (b) they argue that at such lapses or deficiency, reason supplies what is lacking (markie, 2004, august 19). to be identified as a rationalist, markie asserts that one must accept one or all the following positions: a) intuition or deductive argument: this is a form of rational insight which the rationalists defend and the possibility of reducing from what is known to be there already. b) innate knowledge argument: knowledge coming as part of our nature. c) the innate concept argument: meaning that some of the concepts we use are derived from our rational nature and never from experience. these concepts are essential to the rationalists (markie, 2004, august 19). 3.1 arguments against rationalism it is clear that empiricism emerged as a reaction against the position of the rationalists who still hold that innate knowledge is real and the only sure or certain source of knowledge. the skeptical opponents of the rationalists holds that, what the rationalists are offering the theory of knowledge as a source of knowledge is merely personal fantasies and mere beliefs taken much more seriously by those who held it. what they are talking about is neither visible nor tangible and the existence of such world and knowledge does not make sense for many except those who hold them, therefore, such world and knowledge are not real (popkin and stroll, 1993, p. 203). the debate of the contemporary time made initial appearance and manifestation in the work of john locke, namely, essay: concerning human understanding. the interest of locke with this polemics was to discredit innatism and give credence to sense perception as the only true source of knowledge. locke’s arguments in debunking rationalism are in two folds (a) that their evidence or arguments were not arguments at all and (b) that even if they were granted for the aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 62 sake of argument, their own account (empiricist) was to be preferred since it was simple and in accord with experience. locke’s criticism is found in the chapter ii of his essay. he criticizes the possibility of innate theoretical principles. this argument is captured in three sentences: (a) if in fact there are any innate principles, then everyone would assent to them (b) there are no innate principles that everyone assent to (c) therefore, there are no innate principles (lock, 2020, november, 5). his objection is based on the fact that there are no principles that enjoy universal acceptance. he supported his point with two philosophical principles (a) principle of identity which says that: what is, (b) the principle of noncontradiction which says, nothing can be and not be at the same time. for the idea of god he says it is unlikely to be innate, since many cultures in the world recognize no god (lamprecht, 1956, p. 100-101). in all these locks argument is simple, it is impossible for a thing to be in the mind without its being conscience of its existence. other criticisms have been advanced in recent times against rationalism. according to the empiricists, advancing on the argument simplicity introduced by lock, william of ockham has a principle in philosophy expressed in latin thus: entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem. meaning, “entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity” (mautner, 2015, p. 440). using ockham’s razor, yount (2020, december 9) argues that when deciding between competing theories that explain the same phenomena, the simpler theory is better. empiricism is simpler, therefore, it is the better theory. again, advancement in science has added to the argument. much of science is founded on empiricist principles, and would not have advanced without it. if we base our conclusions about the world on empiricism, we can change our theories and improve upon them and see our mistakes. the rationalists do not have this to offer. 4. empiricism the english term empirical is derived from the ancient greek word ἐμπειρία, which is a translation of the latin experientia, from which the words experience and experiment are derived. in philosophy, the term is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience (mautner, 2015, p. 186). it is one of the outstanding themes in epistemology, and emphasizes the role of observable evidence in the formation of ideas. empiricism has been identified with the “blank slate” concepttabula rasa, which designates the fact that the human mind is “blank” at birth and develops ideas through experience alone. in the opinion of the empiricists, learning is observation based while perception and knowledge are not possible without experience. empiricism is a philosophical postulation which teaches that only or at least the most reliable source of human knowledge is experience, especially perception by https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ancient_greek https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/philosophy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/theory https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/empirical_evidence https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/epistemology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/empirical_evidence akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … 63 means of the physical senses. for them, knowledge is gotten through sense perception. this is a direct opposite of the rationalist school. they object to anything like innate ideas in the mind of man at birth and maintain that all knowledge and all ideas come from experience. man is not born with any idea the human mind at birth is blank. they hold that all knowledge begin from experience and emphasize the indispensable role of sense experience as the foundation of knowledge (omoregbe, 2018). there are three types of empiricism, namely, classical, radical and moderate empiricism. classical empiricism states that there is no such thing as innate or in-born knowledge. radical empiricism holds that our knowledge is solely on our senses. what is not experienced via our senses, exist not. they reject religious beliefs since they are not verifiable through the evidence of the senses. moderate empiricism maintains just as others that our experiences are founded on our senses; however, there are instances where our knowledge is not based on our senses. to this clause of moderation, they offer no explanation as to the alternative knowledge. 4.1 weakness of empiricism the defenders of rationalism have also advanced very useful arguments against the empiricist and in support of rationalism. mathematics and logic are for instance inevitably innate. they are true not because of our five senses, but because of reason’s ability to connect ideas. morality again is innate: how do we get to know what is right or wrong, our five senses? no. we cannot experience things like justice, human rights, moral duties, moral good and evil with our five senses. what can the empiricists say about this? (yount, 2020, december 9). there are other arguments that the empiricists have actually not been able to sustain with their doctrine of sense perception. for them it is only what has been experienced that can constitute knowledge. by implication, it means that knowledge will be relative. relative in the sense that what one has not experienced does not exist or is not knowledge at all. this will introduce minimalism into the revered area of knowledge and minimize the scope of knowledge. perception is not universal, that is to say that what a person perceives as true can be false for another person. again, perception is also affected by external factors: the same experiment under different conditions (temperature for example) can give different results, unbeknownst to the careless researcher. age and health conditions can affect the way one perceives things (tasos vossos, 2020, november 1). in the classification of empiricism, moderate empiricism holds that our experience is founded on our senses; however, there are instances where our knowledge is not based on our senses. what is their true explanation to this? are they now in support of rationalism? this seems to introduce division into their camp. the position that the mind is a tabula raza has not been favorable to the empiricists and their doctrine. it raises question of how one can have knowledge of what he has not seen or experienced before. for some who have not seen a lion before, they should not think of a lion existing. god has not been seen or experienced by the senses by anyone. how do they explain the existence of god? aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 64 for george berkley, an anglican bishop and an empiricist, god exist; how did he genuinely come to the knowledge that god exist while he has not experienced him with his senses? they have to explain too, especially george berkley, how abstract ideas exist, such as, (a) the idea of good (b) heaven (c) hell (d) world after this world, etc. how are general concepts possible too since we don’t experience or see them? the word humankind exist yet we have not seen it, what we see are men and women (martinich and stroll, 2020, october, 12). another interesting answer still awaiting the empiricists to give is the explanation to natural law. it is a fact that there is a permanent underlining basis of all things. the ancient greece philosophers believe that there is a perfect justice given to humanity by nature which all positive laws should conform to as close as possible (martin and law, 2006, p. 351). this they call natural law, and refers to “the sum of those universally binding moral principles that can be discerned through reason” (nwabude, 2008, p. 130). to deny this means that the empiricist do not believe in the law of nature and to believe in the law of nature and still deny the importance of reason is another disservice to knowledge. 5. positive values of rationalism and empiricism in philosophy positive value in philosophy means constructive rather than destructive. it is applied to things or qualities which are good, desirable and worthwhile. in its nature, it gears towards what is good or laudable, progress, success, etc. empiricism has always been recognized as an indispensable part of the scientific method. this is so because theories and hypotheses ought to be observed and tested in order to be considered correct. empiricists argue that nothing can be known for certain and, therefore, they do not believe in dogmas or absolute truths. both views, that is, empiricism and rationalism contribute immensely to the growth of philosophy in general and epistemology in particular. rationalism and empiricism are two distinct philosophical approaches to understanding the world around us. they are often contrasted with each other, as their approach to knowledge is completely different. empiricists believe that we learn about our world through our previous experience, while for rationalists, reason is the basis of understanding anything. both views can help someone attain knowledge ((tasos vossos, 2020, november 1). rationalism believes in the use of reason. it provides philosophy with the search for reason why objects exist or whey certain things happen. for the rationalists, the fact that an object comes back to the ground when thrown upwards is not because a million people have observed so but because there is a reason for it to happen, that is, the law of gravity. rationalism provides epistemology with deep knowledge and search for reasons in reality(tasos vossos, 2020, november 1). akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … 65 questioning the nature of things for authentication is one of the values of empiricism because it makes sure that philosophy does not accept anything such as dogmas. one of the benefits of empiricism to both philosophy and the theory of knowledge is that it is simple, real and practical. these are the characteristics of empiricism. this is so because it is not difficult to observe that cars use more fuel and energy to climb hills, infants grow to become adults and eventually die, objects thrown up will come down on its own, morning is followed by afternoon and then evening, etc. these are some of the things that we do not need extra grace and intelligence to interpret; they are observable, practical and easy. 6. areas of disservice in philosophy as a whole, service has been identified as helpful actions, actions performed to assist, lead toward a greater height or to contribute positively. disservice on the other hand is understood and interpreted in many fronts as actions that cause harm or difficulty. o’colins gerald & farugia edward (2000) describes it in brief as “harmful action”. common areas that emphasize the division between rationalists and empiricists disservice includes: 6.1 relativism sophists have generally been identified as the founders of relativism in western philosophy. indications of this emerged in the 5th century bc and protagoras is said to have coined the phrase, "man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not." plato popularized this term in a paraphrase from his dialogue protagoras: "what is true for you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me" (william and lewis, p. 28). roughly put, is the view that truth and falsity, right and wrong, standards of reasoning, and procedures of justification are products of differing conventions and frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the context giving rise to them (baghramian and carter, 2020, 15th november). relativism belongs to the family of philosophical views that negates objectivity and holds that facts are not absolute but relative to the persons or groups that are holding them. the summary of it is that there are no absolute truths and values; they are determined by periods, cultures, societies and persons (o’colins & farugia, 2000. p. 224). to believe in relativism means that various people can have diverged opinions about issues and it is correct for them. simply put, relativism can be understood in this philosophical saying “different strokes for different folks. this is the idea that what is good or bad, right or wrong, true or false, is so for different people”. relativism in all its strands is the denial of absolute truth. things are true to individuals or cultures based on their perspectives. this is already a weak spot on the theory of knowledge in particular and philosophy in general. if what is true for mr. a is not true for mr. b, or what is true in one culture is not in another, can we truly say that we know? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sophists https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/western_philosophy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/western_philosophy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/before_christ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/protagoras https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plato https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/protagoras_(dialogue) aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 66 6.2 disparity among epistemologists acquisition of knowledge has been the focus of philosophers and the contention among epistemologists. from the time of the ionian fathers, philosophers were out to discover the constitutive element of things. the emergence of the sophists gave birth to epistemology, where the focus was changed from cosmology to man and the society (omoregbe, 2017, p. 60). the primary mission of epistemologists has been to unravel the secrets of knowledge, to make knowledge available and accessible to all. in doing this, they follow different paths and these paths ultimately ought to lead to the same destination, namely, knowledge/wisdom. the treatment of each adherent of the opposing side and position as meaningless and unimportant creates a bigger problem, that is, a division among people who are out to solve the same problem. the challenge is, if we cannot get people who are trying to lead us to true knowledge to unite, what will be the value of what they are teaching? if they discredit others, how can they sustain their veracity? 6.3 it demeans creativity to demean is to undermine the status, dignity or value of something. creativity has been encouraged in all areas of life as the capacity to invent or create something. it is often a brain work and a result of deep reflection. it is true that there could be instances where senses come to help but a greater percentage of assistance will always come from the use of reason otherwise it will not be called creativity. the separation of the two sources of knowledge will definitely undermine the power of creativity. exclusive empiricism is a disservice to epistemology as it denies the effort to invent. again, it presents humans as incapable of reasoning. this makes it appear as if they can only receive what they experience, therefore, are fully controllable and manipulatable. this is made possible by the claim that it is only what we see that works therefore we rely only on what we see and not what we can reason out. this limits our knowledge in the first place, clampdown on us in our effort to reason out of our problems. that is to say, therefore a solution that has not been experienced or known through the senses does not exist. 7. conclusion the controversy has been between the rationalist claiming that knowledge is innate and the empiricists claiming that knowledge is derived from experience or sense perception of touch, smell, sight, feeling and hearing. however, the innate idea and the sense perception experience are valid ways of gaining knowledge. if any is taken as sacrosanct and the other discarded, true knowledge may not be achieved. in our view, both schools are complementary. there are no exhaustive arguments to show that there are no innate ideas and there are no exhaustive arguments to show that we cannot gain knowledge through experience. akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … 67 therefore, we have to be cautious with the way we stretch either side so as not to fall into skepticism as both the empiricists and the rationalists have tried to by denying the existence of others. certain ideas are innate and knowledge can also be gained through the senses, however, we must be careful since the senses are not static, they change. our sense of perception can also be deceptive depending on our state of mind. finally, we need the senses and we need our reason to be relatively sure of what we know. the combination of these with proper interpretation and understanding, gives adequate and true knowledge, after all, two good heads are better than one. rationalism is a good head, empiricism is a good head, let us use them well for the sake of knowledge. references agede, a. k. 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(2020, december 9) “empiricism v. rationalism.” retrieved from https://www.mesacc.edu/~davpy35701/text/empm-v-ratm.html. https://classroom.synonym.com/advantages-disadvantages-positivism-12088541.html https://classroom.synonym.com/advantages-disadvantages-positivism-12088541.html https://books.google.com/books?id=vi7cqmw8swyc&q=protagoras+plato+%22what+is+true+for+you%22&pg=pa28 1 nigeria on the wheel of decay: the book of amos and quest for social justice yusuf dogara abstract nigeria is grossly on the wheel of decay, looking at tribalism, nepotism, corruption, discrimination and as signalling the level of unhappiness amongst the people. and the original message of prophet amos stresses the divine demand for social justice and concern for the oppressed in 8th century israel. a lot of israel's wealthy people of the society at the time of amos chose to be unfair and to treat the poor as they wished. amos connects the injustice he sees around him to a society bent on wealth and prosperity while being forgetful of the true worship of god. as justice was denied in amos' time, so also it is being denied in contemporary nigerian society. the paper set to examine some of the social injustices that are pulling the country (nigeria) down such as socioeconomic injustice, socio-political injustice, socio-religious injustice and socio-judicial injustice. it is the conclusion of this paper that for a meaningful way forward in nigerian society to regain her stature, nigerians should learn to apply social justice as exactly in the book of amos. key words: justice, injustice, social injustice, and social justice introduction the level of social injustice currently prevalent in nigeria is reaching alarming proportion, the overwhelming upsurge of resistant groups in nigeria these days such as the tribalism, nepotism, corruption, discrimination and other similar movements are commonly interpreted as demonstrations against the state resulting from the strains of injustice in the system and showing the level of discontent amongst the people. a distinctive feature of israelite religion was the interconnection between the relationships to one's neighbour and to god as established by the covenant. the quality of one's relationship to god depended to some extent on how one related to fellow members of the covenant community. at the time of prophet amos, many among israel's powerful people had chosen to ignore this aspect of israelite religion and to treat the disadvantaged as they wished. wealthy landowners oppressed the less fortunate, taking over the land holdings of many impoverished israelites. ivory places were built, and businessmen became impatient with sabbath restrictions. the rich were oppressive and corrupt; the courts were unjust; the righteous services were either a sham or consisted of idolatry. superstition and immorality were the order of the day. amos saw that such dogara nigeria on the wheel of decay 2 dreadful conditions could not bring god's blessings rather than judgement and punishment. the prophet expresses gods distress at the maltreatment of the less privileged people (amos 2:7; 4:1; 5:7, 11, 24; 8:4-6). just like the society of northern israel to which amos delivered his message, in the contemporary nigerian society, social injustice has been the order of the day. social justice which was the subject matter of amos' message is one major thing which nigerians are lacking. this could be practical from various forms of social injustice taking place in contemporary nigerian society. this ugly trend brought so many challenges in all sectors of nigerian society. in view of the high level of religiosity in the country, instead of development, nigeria as a religious society is fast decaying of injustices. many nigerians pretend to be religious while virtually a lot of injustice and immorality are being committed by the same people. some of the nigerian religious activities and prayers are like those of the israelites of amos' time. they are yet to make impact on our society. in the light of this one wonders the essence of religion in nigeria. this research surfaces from amos' theology of social justice to point of looking at various forms of social injustices in nigerian society today. the justices in the present day nigeria are viewed in the context of the injustices that existed in the northern israel to which amos delivered his message. clarification of terms justice: the word justice is a good quality that has been defined as rights and duties of people to each other. tugwa (2020:32) says justice implies giving a person what he deserves, the equitable and fair judgment and punishment to the offenders, in the light of existing laws morals and customs. according to iwe cited by ikenna define “justice as an ethical concept with immense social significance that implies the notion of fairness, fair deal, moral integrity and righteousness in the dealings of men with one another and in the affairs and transaction of social life” ( ikena2018:235). injustice: is the opposite of justice which comprises man's inhumanity to man, unfair distribution of natural gifts and breach of fundamental human rights. these prompted the radical teaching of prophet amos in israel (ikenna 2018: 62). social injustice: "social injustice" and "social justice" are unstructured terms that have no codified meaning in the law. social injustice is any point at which society at large is letting any kind of oppression go by unlocked, they are things that desperately need to be dealt with for human rights purpose. as offered by babalola, james adeyemi oluwatoyin, social injustice is a concept relating to the denied unfairness or injustice of a society in its divisions of rewards and burdens and other incidental inequalities. the concept is distinct from those of justice in law, which may or may not be regarded aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 moral in practice, or from the concept of justice within a coherent ideological system, which focuses on just process rather than on incidental inequalities. social injustice arises when the distribution of advantages and disadvantages in society are not equal. "social injustice is moral unfairness or inequality in the division of a society's reward or burdens. differing perceptions of the presence and inevitability of social injustice lie at the root of many of the world's political conflicts (babalola and adeyemi, 2015: 87).it is not wrong for the researcher to affirmed that, social injustice is the unfair distribution of resources, opportunities, and responsibilities, oppression of any form and anything that prevents people from exercising self-determination and realizing their full potential, social justice: refers to more equitable distribution of the social resources and more equitable access to the various social institutions by all members of the society” (obiajulu1996:18). to iwe “social justice has its direct object as the common good of the members of the society. social justice recognizes and assumes the fact that we are all members of the same human family (iwe 1985:24). ikenna l. umeanolue cited in ojiakor and unachukwu added that: social justice means above all working to build a society that is intrinsically balanced, a society in which the structures are fair to everybody without exception. for instance, constructing a society in which the minorities, the homeless, women and the poor are not discriminated against either in law or in practice (umeanolue 2018:174). furthermore, the vienna declaration and programme of action treat social justice as a purpose of the human rights education.' the term and modem concept of "social justice" was coined by the jesuit luigi taparelli in 1840 based on the teachings of st. thomas aquinas and given further exposure in 1848 by antonio rosmini -serbati. the word has taken on a very controversial and variable meaning, depending on who is using it. the idea was elaborated by the moral theologian john a. ryan, who initiated the concept of a living wage. father coughlin also used the term in his publications in the 1930s and the 1940s. it is a part of catholic social teaching, the protestants' social gospel, and is one of the four pillars of the green party upheld by green parties worldwide. social justice as a secular concept, distinct from religious teachings, emerged mainly in the late twentieth century influenced primarily by philosopher john rawls. some tenets of social justice have been adopted by those on the left of the political spectrum. 'concurring with these clarities, social justice can then be said to be a process, not an outcome, which seeks fair redistribution of resources, opportunities, and responsibilities; challenges the roots of oppression and injustice; empowers all people to exercise self-determination and realize their full potential; and builds social solidarity and community capacity for working together. on the basis of the above clarities, social justice demands that each member and each sector of the society should contribute its own part for the attainment of the common good of the whole. social justice in this context is based on human rights and equality which social injustice does not guarantee. dogara nigeria on the wheel of decay 4 background to the book of amos the book of amos is one of the twelve shorter prophetic works of the old testament gathered into a collection known as the book of the twelve or the minor prophets. the book contains nine chapters and is divided as follows: oracle against the nations (1-2); oracles against israel (3-6); collection of visions about the end of israel (7:1-9:10); promise of restoration (9:11-15). all that is known about amos (the author) is found in the book which bears his name. amos had lived at tekoa, a small town in judah near bethlehem (amos 1:1, 7:12). he introduces himself as neither a prophet nor a prophet's son, but a herdsman and a dresser of sycamore trees called by god to prophesy to the people of israel. amos came from his farming work to be a prophet to the people of israel (macdonald 1990:113). according to macdonald “amos ministered during the reigns of uzziah in judah (790739 b.c.) and jeroboam ii in israel (739753 b.c), an age of affluence, luxury, and moral laxity, especially in the northern kingdom” (1113). because amos came from the countryside, where everyone had to work had for a living, he was shocked to see the wealth, the laziness and the unjust behaviour of some of the town dwellers in the northern kingdom of israel. the subject matter of his message was social justice. he was a stern prophet of righteousness and uncompromising justice(1990:134). much of the prophecy of amos is directed at the heartlessness of wealthy merchants who ignore the predicament of the poor, the lack of justice for the righteous, and the emptiness of religious ritual apart from true faith. in the words of boad, “the basic message of amos stresses god's moral rule over the entire world and the divine demands for justice and concern for the outcast or oppressed” (1990:316). he is a classical prophet concerned with the well-being of the people and the purity of the faith. the message of amos according to harper, 2003:313 notes that the message of amos was against social injustice such as, corruption, greed and false worship, which prevailed in surrounding nations especially in israel. this is expressed in amos 5:24 where amos cautions the people to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever flowing stream. this particular verse in the book of amos captures the core message of this great writing prophet who truly believes that life-giving worship of god and social justice are inseparable. the significance of the book of amos lies in the fact that amos has been universally commended as the prophet of social justice. for him covenant loyalty to god can be shown only by being fair to the members of the covenant, who are considered as brothers and sisters. no wonder has become the source of inspiration for liberation theology and for anyone who is working to defend the rights of the poor and the marginalized against any sort of oppressors (ceresko, 1992:22, menezes, 2003:44). amos exposes the utter aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 meaninglessness of a cult that is formalistic. god is not a tribal or a national god who can be placated by sacrifice and incense. he condemns social injustices and demands moral uprightness of an individual, and concern for the rights of the neighbour. he brings to book anyone who tramples upon the rights of another whether it is a powerful nation or an individual. god had promised to care for the israelites and save them from their enemies if they would follow the way of life which he laid down for them. thorogood says “this special relationship with god had given the people of israel special opportunities for understanding what god is like and how people ought to serve him” (1992:12). but when amos looked at his fellow israelites, he saw the israelites breaking their promise to god, and behaving as though the law which he had laid down for them did not exist (amos 2.4). prophet amos urge them in his message that if they continued to behave in this way, then they would not expect to receive the great blessings which god had promised in his covenant with them (exodus 34). amos saw that the kingdom of israel was in no condition to resist attack by assyria, and would be destroyed; yet he pleaded for a change of heart. he ends his message with a proclamation and restoration of hope for the people of israel if they mend their ways (amos 9:13-15 niv). the situation in amos' time and nigerian society the situation of amos' time in israel is very much like that of nigeria today. comparing nigeria with israel in the time of amos, one would observe that nigeria has become a place where the land, money and wealth are shared among the nobles at the detriment of the poor. the poor suffer in the hands of the rich. oppression has become the food of the populace. ikenna l. umeanolue also noted that, since nigeria gained independence in 1960, tribalism, nepotism, corruption, discrimination, rigging of elections and gross injustice has dominated the economic, political, judicial, cultural, religious and ethnic lives and minds of many nigerians. so, that speaks the volume of various forms of social injustice like (i) socio-economic injustice, (ii) socio-political injustices, (iii) socio-religious injustice, and (iv) socio-judicial injustice. as justice was denied at the time of amos, so it is also being denied in the contemporary nigerian today. this is clear as talk about below. a. socio-economic injustice: the socio-economic situation of amos time in israel is very much like that of nigeria today. just like in amos' time, the signs of economic prosperity in nigeria could be seen in so many things. nigeria is naturally blessed with a lot of mineral resources. in amos' time, the people had winter and summer houses, houses of ivory and hewn stone houses. in nigeria, some people have houses in almost every part of the country. while some of these houses are built with ordinary block cement, some are built with baked clay while others are made also of hewn stone. the fleet of cars being paraded dogara nigeria on the wheel of decay 6 in nigeria is also a sign of this economic prosperity. the interior decoration of these houses and cars simply denote extravagance (umeanolue 2018: 32). the economic prosperity could also be seen in the extravagant way some nigerians eat and dress, just like in amos' time. amos called only the women of samaria cows of bashan (amos 3:4) because of their extra size, gained through excessive eating and drinking, but here in nigeria both men and women have this extra size, gained through corruption or ill-gotten wealth. many nigerians display a lot of wealth in the way they dress. they usually put on expensive clothes. the expensive jewelleries and perfumes they wear speak of affluence. the pair of shoes and wristwatches cannot be left out for they are very costly too. this sign of affluence could also be seen in the way wealthy nigerians display money during social functions such as wedding, traditional marriage, funeral ceremonies, birthday parties and so on. in the full glare of the public these wealthy ones spray money like water on the celebrants. sometimes bundles of money are sprayed one after the other to the excitement of the masses. most unluckily, the prosperity or wealth of the nigerian nation, which is confined to few groups of people, has brought with it all kinds of economic hardship, social disintegration and moral decay in nigeria. in nigeria, money is the measure for all things because of the inestimable value attached to it; everyone itches to get it through hook or crook. at amos? time, amos relates how the businessmen of his time get impatient for the termination of the holy and work free periods of new moon and sabbath so that they can engage in their corrupt business practices. the same situation is applicable to nigeria. according to ugwueye nigerians who are engaged in what may be called the real business of buying, selling and supplying of goods and services for money are the real deceits. they, of course, make the shekel and the ephaph small as amos said. the cups, tins and bags used in measuring grains are below their sizes and still the grains measured with them are sold at the same price as the ones measured with full sized measures (2001:54). the above situations show that traders in nigeria do not have the interest of the buyers at heart and therefore, they cheat the buyers in order to enrich their own purse. amos pointed out that the business of his time also sold the refuse of wheat to the people. this is equivalent to the rampant adulteration of goods in nigeria just to make money. in fact, the rate at which adulterated drugs, fake and poor quality products are produced in nigerian is very serious worry to the good citizens because these have sent many to their grave. despite these difficult situations, nigerian government has not been serious in alleviating the problem of injustice in the economic sector of the country. b. socio-political injustice: just like in amos' time, the situations of the time of amos and that of the contemporary nigerian society are similar politically; in the sense that the oppression of the poor and the righteous, corruption, and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 idolatry are the order of the day. leadership at all levels are characterized by lack of integrity and dishonesty (oladotun 2019:5). in view of this, the researcher now sees the nation nigeria as a direct recipient of the prophets' message. the prosperity or wealth of the nigerian nation, which is confined to some few group of people, has brought with it all kinds of political decay in nigeria. the quickest way of amassing wealth in nigeria today is to occupy a political office or position. during elections people who win are not the real winners, but the cleverest riggers. unemployed youths are paid and used as thugs to manipulate elections. human life is valued less than political goals just as the poor were equated with a pair of shoes in amos? time. embezzlement of public funds by those in authority has been given the appearance of legality in nigeria. schools, roads, hospitals and other social facilities are poorly maintained. the poor masses bear the direct brunt for they are the ones to be hospitalized in the public hospitals where there are no adequate drugs. their children are the ones to attend the public schools where the teachers are not devoted to their work because of the epileptic payment of salaries. the wealthy ones can afford to pay for the bills in private hospitals and schools. most times their children attend schools in overseas countries. the poor parents who spend their fortunes to train their children in school cannot reap the benefit of their effort because government cannot provide jobs. it is no longer graduate unemployment, but post-graduate unemployment. many masters and phd degree holders are jobless. nigeria as a nation is rich but those in authority embezzle and mismanage the wealth to the detriment of the poor masses (ikenna 2018: 66). clearly, the prevalence of injustice in nigeria is largely traceable to the type of leadership we have been experiencing since independence. many nigerian leaders have not been able to rise above the situation they met on the ground, because they came into office without just vision or with corrupt vision. many past nigerian leaders since independence often thought there was no corruptions in nigerian politics while some others who acknowledged it, for one reason or the other failed to muster adequate forces against it. this is the reason why achebe (1983) earlier said: the trouble with nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. there is nothing basically wrong with the nigerian climate or water or air or anything else. the nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility, to challenge personal example which are the hall marks of true leadership (4). it does appear that injustice in nigeria is part of what are handed over from one government to the other. this is why corruption seems to be institutionalized in nigeria. c. socio-religious injustice: the overwhelming socio-religious injustice situation captured that prophets amos were corruption, immorality, rejection of divine messages, pretentious religiosity in the 8th century israel. the situation where the righteous will be declared wanted and the guilty discharged and acquainted. the poor are becoming poorer and the rich richer, in that the race is dogara nigeria on the wheel of decay 8 not for the swift but for those who know who to pay their way in (oladotun 2019:6). amos made us know that the people meticulously observed their religion. the same is true of nigerians. despite all the corruption and immorality in nigerian society, people are pretending to be religious, observing their religious duties as a matter of life and death. this is observable from the life of many christians and moslems. obiora (1998:23) rightly observes that religion in nigeria today is being used for selfish ends. he sees religion as a fast business that people are embarking on. looking at christianity in nigeria, the numerous churches in nigeria today are not born out for pure motive of serving god but for self-aggrandizement. with a close study and interaction, most christians do not know what they believe in, whether money or god. because they have more concern for their business than god, they always strive after the way to accumulate more wealth for themselves, forgetting the demands of their relationship with god who is the foundation of all beings. they do not even have time for studying god's word. today, we can hardly distinguish between a christian and a non-christian, because of the craved for wealth and pleasure. this culminates the above fact to mean that, nigeria christians make regular visits to worship centres. the regularity with which these centres are visited by christians is alarming. apart from this, the christians organize religious crusades everywhere and every time in this country. there was constant performance of rituals at the sanctuaries during amos' time. nigerians as well show diligently these external forms of religion without any spiritual commitment. various sacrifices and tithes, of stolen money, are offered daily in the church. bribes are offered before one goes on a pilgrimage to jerusalem. this is committing sin under the cloak of religion. religious feasts, which are very many in christianity, are observed meticulously by nigerian christians. offerings, especially thanksgiving offerings, by those who succeed in their improper business are regularly given in the churches. amos was talking of the noise of songs and the melody of harps during his own time, today in nigeria, it is the noise of the musical equipment that is heard in religious centres. both the offering and the music are all religious formalism and external rites unrelated to interior morality. d. socio-judicial injustice: the central socio-judicial injustice that calls for amos in the 8th century israel is the continues inequity which is so apt and direct. justice and righteousness are perverted (amos 5:7). the truthful men are despised and scorned but those who are full of lies are praised. kolawole oladotun paul 2019:6 affirmed that traditionally, the city gate was a seat of justice not only the judicial place for process but was also the legal hall of the society. the poor were exploited by the rich who take away the meager food that they love. this is done in form of task, rents and interests on loans. this appears to be the case in the nigerian experience. justice appears in most cases to have been perverted. corruption has stigmatized the national judicial disciplined nine judges for aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 indiscriminate granting of ex-parte motion. this action taken by the national judicial council is sequel to the campaign by the judiciary to sanitize the judicial system which is already bedevilled within all for a sharp practice both at the bench and the bar. no wander the rape on justice in nigeria even by the judiciary which is the last hope for the common man is an open secret. the judiciary is the branch of government invested with judicial powers to interpret, construct and apply the law so as to produce justice by discovering the truth. the whole process of adjudication is thus a human attempt at the discovering of truth. it is the end which ought to be reached in a case by the administration of the principles of the law involved as applied to the facts. the court should therefore be a temple of justice. “it is a common knowledge that the courts are infested by the virus of bribery and corruption”(oputa1996:6). this has made justice in our courts a marketable commodity with the hammer falling for the highest bidder. ugwueye adrian rightly says: venal judges and all other people that settle disputes at all levels of the society deny poor people justice, because of bribe from the rich. the rich are constantly claiming poor people's acres of land, yet the court always rules in favour of the rich, because of bribery (ugwueye2002:56). it is very unfortunate that nigerian courts have turned into war zones by greed, avarice, selfishness, and various unspeakable deeds of judges who prepare two contradictory verdicts (judgements), one for the plaintiff and the other for defendant; these judges wait anxiously to sell the verdict to the highest bidder (muojekwu 2002:55). in the light of the above quotations by ugwueye and muojekwu, what happens in judicial sector in nigeria should not surprise any right thinking and honest nigerian. this is to say that in nigeria, judiciary as an organ of government is no longer the hope of the common man, rather the grave of common man. the equality before the law seems to be a statement in mass deceit. our police cells and prisons are filled with inmates whose only crime was that they could not pay their way through the modern criminal justice system. human rights are abused daily under obnoxious decrees. political opponents are sometimes clamped into detention centers in the name of state security. the nigerian judiciary is indeed lousy with corrupt institution as some alleged miscreants rot in cells and prisons in the name of awaiting trial. justice delayed is justice denied. the biblical assertion that the love of money is the source of all evils cannot be over-emphasized. in our world today one is constantly told that there is nothing money cannot buy from life. this follows that money can buy justice. importance of amos' message to the growth in nigeria amos' message of social justice to the israelites of his time teaches nigerians a lot of lessons, which can positively affect the life of the nation today. amos emphasizes the importance of social justice in human society. therefore, development cannot be achieved without a determined effort at good moral and spiritual human living within dogara nigeria on the wheel of decay 10 the society. it means using the things that god has created to improve the lives of all people according to the will of god. nigerians are known for being religious andbeing religious signifies being in a covenant relationship with god which means that we must be righteous and our behaviour must reflect the fact that we are god's people. since god is just, righteous and loving, nigerians should learn to demonstrate these virtues in relationship and dealing with our fellow human beings for the sustenance of development in the nigeria. we may ask ourselves if we expect god to share our allegiance to him as religious people with some equivalent of „religiosity without religion? as the israelites did. we may worship god in theory, but in practice place our selfish priority in money, business, fame, politics, charms, secret cults, etc. if any of these things or anything else, replaces god or even is placed more important, then we are not better than israelites of amos' time. our understanding of amos' review of social injustice is bound to affect our relationships with our fellow human beings. amos sees justice and ethical conduct as the foundation of society. he maintains that worship by a people whose lives are characterized by selfishness, greed, immorality and oppression is an abomination to god. many nigerians practise religion as a matter of life and death without spiritual attachment. prophet amos was god's messenger who insisted that if the israelites would like to maintain a relationship of love with him they had to make sure that they treated their fellow israelites like covenanted sisters and brothers. for him, injustice and oppression in the society is not a mere evil but sin. accordingly, it is not worship or religious matters that occupy an important place and more space but rather social justice, love and concern for the poor, the underprivileged, the marginalized, and sincerity in one's dealings with the neighbour (cf. exodus 20:22-23:33). in the same manner, nigerians should be just in relating with one another bearing in mind that they are members of the same nation. this clarion call to social justice by amos is a challenge to christianity, islam and african traditional religion, three major religions professed by the nigerian population. the problems and prospects of our socio-religious realities touch on the tenets of these religions. the underprivileged and the downtrodden in our villages and city slums are nigerians and adherents of these faiths. at the same time the oppressors who collude with trans-national corporation to exploit nigerians, the pen-robbers in the banks and financial institutions and the fraudulent men and women in our establishments are people who claim allegiance to either religion. to combat social injustice and wrongdoing in our contemporary society is a task to be religiously pursued by christianity, islam and african traditional religion. adherents of these religions must come to recognize the need for dialogue and collaboration. this move must be practically evident in our behaviour for national development (ikenna 2018:54). conclusion aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 as discussed in this paper, amos' perspective of social injustice in israel is equivalent to nigerian society owing to the fact that social injustices that occurred in israel at amos' period are also observed in nigeria today and there will be no meaningful development in nigeria when there are injustices in all the sectors of the country. unless nigerian nation undergoes serious administrative and behavioural changes, the country shall remain permanently decayed. every human person is entitled to justice irrespective of any position and social status. nigerians should internalize the message of amos on social justice by discouraging injustice for where there is justice there is peace. only in this way we can save the nation in this steering wheel of decay. works cited adrian-vallanceet al. 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(1988) the social experience e: an introduction to sociology. new york: randon house. aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 1 the vienna circle and the consolidation of scientific superiority over metaphysics nyuykongi john paul (ph.d) department of philosophy, university of bamenda, cameroon. abstract this paper unravels the vienna circle's attempt to adjudicate the question of veritable knowledge in favour of a western-backed approach as a demonstration of a form of epistemic continence. it looks towards a meta-epistemic consolidation that will ensure unity between metaphysics and epistemology (science) without valorizing any. the suggestions and arguments in this work hinge on three posits: first, the advent of modern empiricism on the one hand, and the development objectivist epistemology on the other hand, played significant roles in shaping the ideas of the vienna circle. it further argues that the circle took for granted that knowledge founded only on empirical evidence may sound attractive, yet remains partial. last, the paper asserts that the consolidation of scientific superiority rather acts as a fetter against the production and dissemination of holistic knowledge constructs. consequently, considering the complex nature of the scientific practice, the work suggests the need to reintegrate other approaches to knowledge in research, as well as reconstruct knowledge systems to accommodate diversity. in this regard, contrary to some claims, when knowledge pursuit proceeds by the elimination of meta-theories as well as other forms of knowledge, it runs the risk of falling into a reductionist conception of knowledge. keywords: epistemology, logical positivism, metaphysics, scientific knowledge, vienna circle introduction the quest to establish the affinity between science and metaphysics constitutes one of the major philosophical enquiries in the history of thought. the relationship between the two is viewed differently by different pundits across the history of ideas. this paper sets out to restate the question regarding the preeminence of science over metaphysics. it unravels the vienna circle's attempt to adjudicate the question of veritable knowledge in favour of a western-backed approach as a demonstration of a form of epistemic continence. it looks towards a meta-epistemic consolidation that will ensure unity between metaphysics and epistemology (science). thinkers such as roger bacon, francis bacon, john locke and david hume are emphatic on scientific superiority over metaphysics, whereas, rene descartes, leibniz and carol rovane think that metaphysics forms the basis of scientific knowledge. members of the vienna circle thus sought to construct a philosophy of science that will abrogate this age-old problem. to them, the elimination of metaphysics from science was indispensable. it is important to state that this approach to epistemic research negates hitherto medieval and cartesian claims according to which knowledge hinges on divine sources and as a tree whose base is metaphysics, the trunk physics and aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 the branches being other sciences respectively (descartes, 1644: 6). the vienna circle thcomprised of a group of 20 -century philosophers whose preoccupation was the reconceptualization and investigation of scientific, logical, linguistic and mathematical problems. founded in vienna by moritz schlick, who, himself was inspired by bertrand russell's defence of empiricism based on the new logic (wittgenstein, 2003: xviii). other members include rodulf carnap, hahn hans, frank phillip, a.j. ayer and ludwig wittgenstein. with the ambition to make philosophy scientific and establishing a scientific conception of the world, these scholars sought to eliminate knowledge constructs whose scientific basis could not be proven. in this light, “all metaphysics should be replaced by the new discipline of epistemology or theory of knowledge so that philosophy itself would now become scientific” (creath, 2012: 1). richard creath concurs when he argues that, “the fundamental problem, which that time placed at the beginning of all science, was that of the theory of knowledge: what is truth in our intuition and thought? in what sense do our representations correspond to actuality? philosophy and natural science encounter this problem from two opposing sides; it is a common task of both (p.2). the term science has its origin in the greek word episteme and from the latin scientia which means knowledge. science is a method of discovering reliable knowledge of nature (schafersman, 1997). from the conceptual and reflective perspective, science could be seen as a body of knowledge that is acquired through rigorous and demonstrated approaches given attaining a universal value. metaphysics, on the other hand, is a derivative of meta and phusika, translated as "beyond" and "nature" respectively. it is that branch of philosophy which focuses on the essence of being. that is a reality beyond the scope of nature. to aristotle, it is the study of the foundation of essences, of the new foundation of knowledge (rene descartes), of the foundation of criticism (immanuel kant) and the foundation of meanings (phenomenologists). according to carol rovane, “metaphysics” is any inquiry into the most general aspects of what there is, or how things are, or the nature of the things that are” (rovane, 2013: 4). metaphysics consists in the systematic study of the most fundamental logical and modal properties of things (1987: 77). with this understanding, this paper argues that, the vienna circle's attempt to adjudicate the question of veritable knowledge in favour of western-backed approach suggests a form of epistemic continence. the suggestions and arguments in this work hinge on three hypotheses: first, the advent of modern empiricism and the development objectivist epistemology played significant roles in shaping the ideas of the circle. second, the circle took for granted that knowledge founded only on empirical evidence may sound attractive, yet remains partial. finally, that the consolidation of scientific superiority rather acts as a fetter against the production and dissemination of holistic knowledge constructs. in consonance with the aforementioned hypotheses, one is driven to reiterate a meta-epistemic approach to pluralistic knowledge. modern empiricism and the rise of scientific knowledge the historical context of the emergence of the vienna circle could be traced right back to modern empiricism. modern empiricists like francis bacon, roger bacon, locke and hume played an antecedent role in the emergence of the vienna circle in the 2 nyuykongi the vienna circle and the consolidation of scientific ... twentieth century. the common objective is to develop a science void of dogmatism, by proposing more authentic and logically sound approaches to scientific knowledge. recurrent amongst the approaches are experimentation, verification and observation. bacon, a major proponent of modern empiricism is noted for his defence of observable approaches to knowledge. to him, it is impossible to access reality behind the sensations with which one is impressed (h. irving. 2008: 6). roger bacon on his part hints that: “observation and experience constitute the door to knowledge and the criterion of truth” (stella, 2008: 61). here, a paradigmatic shift from the traditional approach to knowledge of the ancient and medieval thinkers is highlighted. this traditional approach gave credence to metaphysics as the foundation of knowledge. to bacon, genuine knowledge is based on the collection of facts or sense data. here, two distinct steps are involved: the collection of facts and involving the classification of facts collected, thereby deducing from the new data. these two steps depend on observations and experimentations which are the model of the new and successful mode for the advancement of learning (h. irving. 2008: 7). with this approach, bacon singles out himself as an advocate of the aristotelian legacy of empiricism. experience to him, is the source of human knowledge, with induction as the only acceptable method of acquiring reliable and practical knowledge. he posits: now my method, though hard to practice, is easy to explain; and it is this. i propose to establish progressive stages of certainty. the evidence of the sense helped and guarded by a certain process of correction, i retain. but the mental operation which follows the act of sense i, for the most part, reject; and instead of it i open and lay out a new and certain path for the mind to proceed in, starting directly from the simple sensuous perception (p. 10). this baconian position developed an empirical scientific system characterized by observation, experimentation, and explanation. inspired by this approach, carnap contends regarding the scientific procedure: the activities of a scientist are in part practical given that he arranges experiments and makes observations. another aspect is theoretical because he formulates the results of his observations in sentences, compares the results with those of other observers, tries to explain them by a theory, and endeavors to confirm a theory proposed by himself or somebody else (carnap, 1939: 1). apart from bacon, locke is another pertinent modern empiricist whose thought the vienna circle is predicated. his epistemology as an antithesis to the rationalists' doctrine of innatism asserts that innate ideas rather act as fetters to knowledge acquisition. he thus emphasized the indispensable role of observation and experience in the process of knowledge acquisition (locke, 1828: 51). all ideas to him, therefore, come from experience which could either be the experience of sensation or reflection (p. 51). in this phrase, locke expresses his conception of the mind as a tabula rasa. the original state of the mind at birth, to locke, is void of preexisting ideas. this is a claim that a.j. ayer ratifies when he asserts that, “the view of philosophy which we have adopted may, i think, fairly be described as a form of empiricism it is characteristic of an empiricist to eschew metaphysics, on the ground that every factual proposition must refer to sense-experience” (ayer, 1935: 37). locke's stance concerning experience, ties to bertrand russell 3 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 according to whom “in the search for certainty, it is natural, to begin with, our present experiences, and in some sense; no doubt, knowledge is to be derived from them” (russell, 1912: 4). concurring with russell, berkeley states that: it is evident to anyone who takes a survey of the objects of human knowledge, that they are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses. by sight i have the ideas of light and colors with their several degrees and variations. by touch i perceive, for example, hard and soft, heat and cold, motion and resistance, and of all these more and less either as to quantity or degree. smelling furnishes me with odors; the palate with tastes and hearing conveys sounds to the mind in all their variety of tone and composition (berkeley, 2002:12). this conception of experience as the only reliable foundation of scientific knowledge developed by modern empiricist thinkers like roger bacon, francis bacon, locke, hume and berkeley, became a prelude to the foundation of the vienna circle. the influence of objectivist epistemology and german idealism on the vienna circle the controversy between german idealism from immanuel kant to hegel and the objectivist epistemology of bernard bolzano is noted to have revolved around the question of reliable human knowledge (stadler, 2001: xv). earlier objectivist epistemologists, on the one hand, claimed that knowledge or reality is attained independent of the human mind. idealists on the other hand opine that thoughts are the fundamental reality. kant, faithful to the idealist culture, is emphatic that: though all our knowledge begins with experience, it by no means follows that all arises out of experience. it is, therefore, a question which requires close investigation, and not to be answered at first sight, whether there exists knowledge altogether independent of experience, and even of all sensuous impressions (kant, 2003: 30). he emphasizes on the existence of apriori and a posteriori forms of knowledge regarded as a form of epistemological metaphysics. in the critique of pure reason (1781), kant inquires into the apriori forms of sensation, judgment, and reasoning. even though considered by locke as knowledge, kant sets out to distinguish between the material, or content, and the form, of sensation. the material of sense-knowledge comes from experience. the form, however, is not derived through the senses, rather, it is imposed on the material, or content by the mind, to render the material or content universal and necessary. of far more importance than all that has been above said, is the consideration that certain of our cognitions rise completely above the sphere of all possible experience. these cognitions employ conceptions whose corresponding objects cannot be captured by our experience. (p. 30). he grounded his theory of knowledge in the following lines: thoughts without content are empty, and intuitions without concepts are blind (stern, 2015: 55), suggesting that knowledge is the combination of thought and intuitions. by emphasizing the distinction between the necessary knowledge that is a priori and experiential knowledge that is contingent and a posteriori, kant's critical philosophy attempts to demonstrate the nature and limits of human knowledge. further, he considers the reconciliation of the two opposing tendencies on the origin of knowledge which involves reason and experience. this 4 nyuykongi the vienna circle and the consolidation of scientific ... distinction, he maintains, is further understood as the one which exists between analytical and synthetic judgments. bernard bolzano for his part thinks that knowledge can be attained through experience and speculation (bolzano, 1950). it is in this vein that christoph limbeck lilienau will affirm: “many philosophical traditions have been mentioned as predecessors of logical empiricism that led to the emergence of the vienna circle, from ernst mach's empiricism and bertrand russell's new logic to neo-kantianism and austrian philosophy in the tradition of bolzano and brentano” (lilieneau, 2019). bolzano emphasizes the view that knowledge is acquired through recollection and experiences. for these reasons, the author denounces the distinction between knowledge and cognition. members of the vienna circle taken aback by this approach to knowledge construction will work towards the elimination of metaphysics from the field of objective knowledge. the vienna circle and the preeminence of science as opposed to metaphysics discussions and deliberations of the vienna circle centered around the questions of scientific knowledge and metaphysics. they sought to establish the superiority of scientific knowledge over metaphysics. as russell puts it, to better understand a philosophical theory, it is necessary to attempt an appreciation of its force of argument (russell, 1912: vii). it thus becomes incumbent on one to analyze and reexamine the hitherto claims of scientific supremacy over meta-theories. we thus, opt to do this taking in to account their defense of experience and/ or perception as the foundation of human knowledge void of any metaphysical consideration. the mission of the vienna circle was to develop an epistemology of exact sciences based on facts and empirical evidence. moritz schlick noted that the circle ascribed a particular value to science and a special and distinct epistemological status to scientific knowledge since science is the search for knowledge par excellence. as such, to them, scientific knowledge is the only real knowledge. what validates this claim, to him is that the progress science makes. this attempt to demonstrate the superiority of th scientific knowledge is not akin only to the 20 century. it dates as far as the modern period. this is evoked by nyuykongi 2020: it is not uncommon to have philosophers of science drum the virtues of modern science, sing its glories and claim that there is no other source of knowledge that is capable of satisfying man's quest for certitude other than science. these claims, they say, are corroborated by the fact that modern science is capable of attaining objective truth while others are not. here, the rational nature of science is emphasized as a virtue over the irrational nature of nonscientific sources of knowledge (nyuykongi, 2020: 470). prior to this, schlick had announced that there is no other way of understanding the world but a scientific one (schlick, 1979: 132). reasoning from the position of the vienna participants such as carnap, the scientific conception of the world is familiar only with empirical statements about things of all kinds and analytic statements of logic and mathematics (carnap, 1973: 298). the viennese saw metaphysics as the worst enemy of science and the only way to understand the world is by science. to them, metaphysics is not a valid form of knowledge since it deals with the supernatural, barren of any solid 5 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 terrestrial foundation. the verification principle became the yardstick used to determine whether or not, a knowledge construct is scientific as opposed to metaphysics. to know, following ayer, is to have experience with something that could empirically be verified (ayer, 1956: 2-3). this was antithetical to the cartesians for whom; “i think” is the precursor to knowledge acquisition. otto neurath, for instance, is known for his antifoundational approach to epistemic and metaphysical questions, specifically, his rejection of aprioristic reasoning. he denounces mysticisms, metaphysics as well as theological beliefs which to him, are epistemic traps. to buttress this, jan sebestik emphasized neurath's epistemology in his physicalism. to him: physicalism is the positive side of a doctrine whose negative side is expressed by the slogan elimination of metaphysics. two major reasons guided the viennese in their opposition to metaphysics: its historical and social role and the absence of cognitive content. in the first place, neurath fights metaphysics under the banner of enlightenment. heir of theology, and metaphysics was on the side of obscurantist and oppressive forces. cognitive reasons are equally compelling. the parallel and complementary doctrines of wittgenstein, schlick, carnap, neurath, and hahn, but also of the poet paul valéry coincide in this point: metaphysical statements are meaningless; they are but pseudo-statements, sequences of words that do not designate anything and do not mean anything. it is impossible to connect them with an object, an observation, a phenomenon or an act. they can have an emotional and perhaps a poetical effect, but no cognitive value (sebestik, 2011: 41). the author substituted an apriori form of reasoning for an aposteriori one. this substitution had one main objective; the elimination of metaphysical claims of knowledge and its introspective methods. the knowledge that conforms to scientific methods of observation, experimentation and verification, thus, was bound to undergo purification from metaphysical and religious dogmas in conjunction with their meaningless statements. some of such statements, they claim, are the doctrine of innate ideas defended by plato in ancient times and descartes in the modern era (jumbam and kernyuy, 2022: 495-507). according to a.j. ayer, for example, the quest for objective knowledge must not accommodate the rationalists' and idealists' approaches. this suggests the barren nature of meta-scientific approaches to knowledge. real scientific knowledge, to him, should not go beyond the limits of sense experience. therefore, any knowledge construct which attempts to go beyond the limits of possible sense experience, became fruitless and sterile. every knowledge or statement of knowledge must be gotten in conformity with the criterion of verifiability. vienna circle philosophers generally argued on the falsity of the doctrine of metaphysics because it opposes empirical knowledge and is thus unverifiable. considering empirical evidence and logically sound arguments as the only basis towards the acquisition of genuine knowledge, members of the vienna circle developed an anti-metaphysical attitude which could be summarised in four essential points as follows: (1) a distinct epistemological status; (2) conceptual and linguistic clarity; (3) accorded value to scientific knowledge attained through empirical evidence and logical sound statements; and (4) the notion of inter-subjectivity and the quest for genuine knowledge. their distinct epistemological status is emphasized by their zeal to 6 nyuykongi the vienna circle and the consolidation of scientific ... demonstrate the supremacy of science thereby paving the way for a deeper appreciation of scientific knowledge as opposed to other forms of knowledge. one major characteristic of science employed as a challenge to other sources of knowledge is that science, with its unique approach, produces a result and its alternatives do not. these results, the scientists claim, are tagged to its method and its universality. second, the circle focused on the notion of conceptual and linguistic clarity. ludwig wittgenstein for instance, credits the sound nature of logical statements on the logically perfect language. he hereby separates the epistemological problem of language from the psychological problem of knowledge. he further signals a challenge to know, what the nature of the relation subsisting between thoughts, words or sentences, and that which they refer to or mean is: this problem, to him, belongs to epistemology (wittgenstein, 2015: 4-5). he thinks that a reliable theory of scientific knowledge solely depends on the logical structure of propositions and their language meanings. this symbolic language helps us to separate the theory of knowledge from mystical, theological and metaphysical biases. it is the logically perfect language that prevents us from falling into the nonsensical statements of metaphysics. finally, it is important to note that the circle thus, accorded utmost value to scientific knowledge attained through empirical evidence and logically sound statements against the notion of inter-subjectivity and the quest for genuine knowledge. this notion of inter-subjectivity, it must be mentioned, goes beyond the pure subjectivist epistemology of descartes. the way forward: towards a meta-epistemic approach to pluralistic knowledge in this sub part, one argues that the circle's consolidation of the superiority of epistemology over metaphysics leads inevitably to a reductionist conception of knowledge. one concurs with kant who suggests that knowledge results from the fusion of thought and intuitions. kant emphasized the distinction between a priori and a posteriori forms of knowledge. he further attempted to reconcile the two opposing tendencies on the origin of knowledge vis, reason and experience. this distinction is understood as the one which exists between analytical and synthetic judgments. bernard bolzano on his part thinks that knowledge can be attained through experience and speculation (bolzano, 1950). on the other hand, the circle's bias towards the superiority of the sciences and the elimination of metaphysical voices is a barrier to growth and research in science and epistemology. in fact: when epistemology is defined as an inquiry, it suggests that epistemology is an inquiry into the possibility, scope and limits of knowledge. this presupposes that knowledge claims are shrouded with possibilities and impossibilities, a characteristic feature which calls for complementarity of approaches, not competition … current epistemologies are fundamentally biased and this trend is detrimental to global epistemic … from thence, one argues further that there is the possibility of a bias-free epistemology, which is achievable when strides are made towards complementing epistemic approaches rather than raising competing voices (nyuykongi, 2020: 14). the suggestion here is that, epistemology should not claim complete autonomy from nor claim superiority over neighboring notions like metaphysics, beliefs and opinions. this position equally agrees with feyerabend, especially on the need to take into account 7 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 existing alternative approaches to knowledge acquisition. to feyerabend, for instance, scientific autocracy should be substituted by methodological pluralism. this, to him, will ensure progress in knowledge acquisition. he criticised the implementation of fixed rules in scientific practice by noting as follows: you can be a good empiricist only if you are prepared to work with many alternative theories rather than with a single point of view and experience. this plurality of theories must not be regarded as a preliminary stage of knowledge which will in the future be replaced by the one true theory. theoretical pluralism is assumed to be an essential feature of all knowledge that claims to be objective. such a plurality allows for a much sharper criticism of accepted ideas than does the comparison with a domain of facts which are supposed to sit there independently of theoretical considerations (p. 8). methodological anarchism, to feyerabend, is a precondition of progress in science, that “there is only one principle that can be defended under all circumstances and in all stages of human development. it is the principle anything goes.” (bruce, 1994: 83). to buttress his point, feyerabend argues elsewhere that: a scientist who wishes to maximize the empirical content of the view he holds and who wants to understand them as clearly as he possibly can therefore introduces other views; that is, he must adopt a pluralistic methodology. he must compare ideas with other ideas rather than with 'experience' and he must try to improve rather than discard the views that have failed in the competition (feyerabend, 1993: 21). this defence of plurality of approaches in the quest for epistemic certitude only goes a long way to strengthen the argument that the rejection of metaphysics rather acts as a fetter to epistemic growth. growth in knowledge is predicated on the complementarity of approaches with the positivist approach. epistemic bias in favour of science backed theories and against non-scientific theories obstructs growth in knowledge. this is because, on a closer look, one notices some sort of mutuality between the alternative approaches to knowledge. for this reason, feyerabend's defence of methodological anarchism as a precondition to scientific progress set out to liberate science research from falling in to the pit of dogmatism, especially the dogmatism of the rationalists and the empiricists. to attain objective knowledge, there is the need to ensure that one principle is defended under all circumstances and in all stages of human development. feyerabend adumbrated this claim in science in a free society, 1978. elsewhere, feyerabend, in defense of pluralistic approach to science research, speaks of the limitations inherent in all methodologies, scientific methodologies inclusive. he maintains: all methodologies have their limits; the development of science combines reason and practice (he ultimately labels this interactionist view, in which methodology serves as a guide who is part of the activity guided and is changed by it); rationalism is only one tradition among many, so should not be used to judge other traditions; a plurality of traditions is not only reasonable, it is useful, and it is correct (bruce, 1994: 84-85). the prestige attributed to science is once more punctured in this paper when the author interrogates; what is great about science. a careful examination of scientific activities reveals a squalid picture of irrationality and trial and error and not rationality, objectivity and operational status. robert mackie concurs when he reiterates that: central to feyerabend's concern has been the divorce between theories of scientific activity and the 8 nyuykongi the vienna circle and the consolidation of scientific ... actual practices of science. attempts by philosophers of science to account for the growth of knowledge have been seriously flawed by what he sees as the limits of rationality and the desire to make great science conform to great standards. indeed, feyerabend has a derisively scornful attitude towards the efforts of philosophers of science, apart from himself of course. bastard subjects such as the philosophy of science, which have not a single discovery to their credit, profit from the boom of the sciences and should be allowed to die a natural death (mackie, 1983: 48). the much-cherished principle of anything goes was at the centre of his liberalism. he gave credence to what rationalist will term untenable theories. this, through what he called anarchism. however, he insisted that epistemology should become anarchic, or that philosophy of science should become anarchic.to him, both disciplines should receive anarchism as medicine. this is because, epistemology is sick, and it must be cured. the best medication being anarchy (feyerabend, 1978: 127). without playing the advocate for epistemological anarchism a la feyerabend, i suggest the urgent need for research in science to go beyond the scientific optimism of the vienna circle, the need tailor our research toward a more inclusive metaphysical perspective. it is worth stating here that, the traditional role of metaphysics was to provide a synthesis for the different specialisms within knowledge, it is not then outdated. this role still suffices. as if to concur, aleksandr kulieshov's argument is pertinent. to him, any knowledge or understanding of reality is found within the horizon of a certain world picture (kulieshov, 2017). that is why a metaphysical perspective is inevitable for any cognitive activity of human beings. such a perspective can have rational, irrational or supra-rational representations. rational representation is known under the name of metaphysics as a branch of theoretical knowledge. the two main sources of this knowledge are experience and speculative thinking (or apriori reasoning). the latter is also derived from experience but undergoes a crucial break up with it using abstraction. empirical knowledge and to a great extent speculative knowledge are represented within the sphere of theoretical cognition by natural and social sciences. epistemology or the theory of knowledge is essentially connected with metaphysics. the implication of this conclusion thus puts to question the position held by the vienna thinkers. conclusion the major concern in this paper was to examine the pertinence of the vienna circle's quest for the consolidation of scientific superiority over other forms of knowledge such as metaphysics and theology. in an attempt to resolve this preoccupation, we began by tracing the general context of the emergence of their thoughts. the historical context of the emergence of the vienna circle could be traced right back to modern empiricism, comtean positivism, logical positivism or empiricism, german idealism and objectivist epistemology. these schools of thought greatly influenced the founding of the vienna circle. a global and strict analysis of the thoughts of the vienna circle conceptions of the scientific supremacy over meta-theories through their defence of experience and/ or perception as the foundation of human knowledge independent of the metaphysical foundation has also been considered. the vienna circle philosophers who were mostly scientists, physicists, mathematicians and logicians, established a distinct epistemological status based on the model of exact sciences. to achieve this, they laid 9 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 emphasis on the supremacy of science. such an approach to knowledge pushed many thinkers to carry out a deeper appreciation of scientific knowledge as opposed to other forms of knowledge whose approach parallels that of the exact science. this work equally problematized the pertinence of their thoughts, highlighting, as a matter of necessity, the pertinence of a pluralist approach to knowledge pursuits. in fact, sustaining scientific superiority over meta-theories, the vienna circle introduced a fetter against the production and dissemination of holistic knowledge constructs. in this vein, this paper thus reiterates the need for a meta-epistemic approach to pluralistic knowledge. here, it suggests the integration of diverse approaches to knowledge which spans beyond the scientific optimism of the vienna circle and her reductionist drive to knowledge. this is 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(2015). tractatus logico-philosophicus, london, side-by-side-edition. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 11 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 1 ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant arinze onwuzulike abstract can kant's strong claim against non-formal ethics of values be validly sustained: namely that, all non-formal ethics are necessarily grounded only on success? in ascertaining the moral weight of an action, is there a way of theorizing non-formal ethics, which acknowledges success but neither gives success a final say nor denounces it? in this paper, i shall argue that max scheler with the central stance of his theory, clearly affirms the import of the second question above and strongly denies the claim in the first. i shall adopt a phenomenological approach in fleshing out scheler's middle ground contentions, in defense of non-formal ethics of values against the two extremes of kant's deontology and bentham's utilitarianism. the key entailment of the methodology i adopt is that it largely allows for a combination of interpretive description and expository analysis. keywords: ethics, success, scheler, kant, moral tenor, values introduction the paper investigates scheler's central stance that his version of non-formal ethics of values is not necessarily only an ethics of success. this stance of scheler runs counter to kant's (1785) claim that all theories of non-formal ethics of values are necessarily grounded only on success. by the phrase 'not necessarily only' attached to scheler, i wish to strongly indicate that while scheler is ready to admit that there is no surgical operation that can rule out success from the moral worth of a person's action, it does not also follow that the determining basis of such moral evaluation solely rests on success. as would be used here, success means making the consequences of an action determine its moral value; which is of course invariably, as jeremy bentham's utilitarian theory will argue, making success the criterion for willing. success in this sense becomes a placeholder term covering such situations which also get designated as, result, outcome, consequence, utility, repercussion, etc. to be sure, a person's moral action in scheler's view may include but may not end in success. so, even when a person willfully intends success, no such willful intention goes without the value-components that necessarily come as preceding processes leading up to the success. as a matter of fact, it is what scheler (1987) calls the basic moral tenor [gesinnung] that stands as the determining ground for positing the values of good and evil and as such remains decisive in granting moral credibility to an action. the basic moral tenor “governs a personal, basic direction of loving and hating” onwuzulike ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant 2 (p. 136). the implication is that in willing an action, a person's intention leans on the footing of the basic moral tenor for the realization of the values within a specific state of affairs. success therefore may or may not result from such intentional willing of values. the status of a person in non-formal ethics of values non-formal ethics covers a scope which success cannot and does not exhaust. to make good his claim, scheler undertakes a phenomenological description of what constitutes an ethical characterization of a person in his/her acting, in order to lay bare the structural unity of will and deed. the person scheler (1973) argues, is given as one who executes intentional acts that are bound by a unity of sense. in contrast to a person, every psychological objectification is identical with depersonalization. psychic being therefore has nothing to do with person-being [personsein]. what scheler is getting at here is that human individuals like children who are yet to come of age, individuals yet to attain a certain level of maturity, the mentally unstable, and those who certain societies refer to as slaves would morally not count as “persons”. this is because the ability to rightly express clarity between one's own and someone else's acts stands out in holding a person morally accountable and responsible. otherwise, we may be dealing with a human individual whose action has no bearing on his/her personality and who therefore would not be under any moral obligation to own up to his/her deeds. conation, willing, and purpose for this reason, scheler identifies the personalizing move that initiates the fundamental act of the will as conation [streben]. conation is according to scheler (1973) the primary stirring or feeling which every morally acting person experiences in his/her basic moral tenor. as willing, conation tends to be realized because of its being given as an (ideal) ought-to-be. its directional character makes conation while remaining distinct, the foundation of the state of affairs of an ought-to-be of every application of the concept of purpose. and as we shall later come to demonstrate, just as purpose does not stand as the foundational basis for willing, success too which is our main concern comes in only insofar as certain other value-components are already rightly in place. these value-components are primarily present only because there is already a conation that is goal-directed. this as yet does not include though it serves as the prerequisite for the appearance of purpose. and purpose being representational in texture, of necessity requires a picture-component. conation is where one finds the valuecomponents while the picture-component rests with purpose. hence, the ontic relation between value-components and picture-component is that the former founds the latter. what we are getting at here is that it is only and exclusively at a definite level of our conation that purpose makes its appearance. a direct implication to this is that it is not the case that in all conation, a purpose and the content of a purpose (which is where success comes in) are given. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 situating success in values by insisting on the indispensability of the value-components in assessing the moral worth of a person's action, non-formal ethics as scheler presents it provides itself with the much needed immunity that safeguards it from the danger of ending up as merely an ethics of success. in effect, scheler's conviction is that there is more to the version of non-formal ethics he endorses than success, even if success counts as one of the elements which receive consideration within its purview. while success is clearly unimaginable in the absence of the basic moral tenor from where the willing of what one intends acquires the corresponding moral value, no moral action is imaginable without the possession of the basic moral tenor. in this sense at least, the moral value of the person and the person's acting are to some degree indifferent to the success of moral deeds. success here as scheler (1973) notes is taken in the sense of the repercussion of what is realized in acting. and an ethics of success would mean any moral tradition that makes the value of persons and of acts of willing dependent upon the experience of the practical consequences of their efficacy in the real world. it therefore connotes outcome, result, gain, usefulness, benefit, loss, profit, failure, and the likes. technically then, success in this sense alludes to the ethical theory that is traditionally referred to as utilitarianism as espoused notably by john stuart mill (1863) for instance. its twin-cousin is consequentialism. and for scheler, it cannot count, come about or even be at all, without first of all recognizing and dealing with the functionalizing character of the basic moral tenor operative in every acting person. grounding moral actions in the basic moral tenor in a way, scheler with his theory of non-formal ethics appears to be steering a middle cause between kant's (1785) formal ethics with its emphasis on the autonomous rational will on the one hand and bentham's (1823) utilitarianism with its demand for outcome on the other hand. hence, in a graphic description, scheler (1973) outlines the features of the basic moral tenor as follows, the basic moral tenor: shows the directedness of willing towards a higher (or lower) value and its content. • contains a non-formal value-quality [wertmaterie] that is independent of success. • does not unilaterally determine intentions. • indicates that the content of intentions depends on the valuecontent. • stresses that the peculiar content of the basic moral tenor determines intention, and hence purpose. • delineates a non-formal a priori field for the formation of possible intentions. onwuzulike ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant 4 • permeates with its own value-content all levels of a deed up to its success (p. 115). what the above outline clearly highlights is that there is a special process of reciprocal interconnection chiefly between the basic moral tenor and intention leading up to the success of a moral action. nonetheless, such special reciprocity is only effectively possible because the basic moral tenor retains the gravitational weight that sustains and drives the values in the moral indicia of an action. precisely because of the foremost a priori presence of the basic moral tenor and rather than in spite of it, there is unequivocal clarity in moral feeling as well as the moral judgments founded on the contents of this feeling. it is the basic moral tenor that ultimately furnishes willing with the raw materials which our intention subsequently realizes in goods, purposes, deeds, or actions. an important point to note from the outline too is that the basic moral tenor is never without value-orientation toward which the goal of willing is always directed. the value-orientation, scheler argues, has a hierarchical ranking according to which a person acting orders his/her preferences. the ordering while factoring in the milieu of the person, follows the values according to how they rank higher or lower in the valueheight. the more a person's preference moves towards the higher values the more positive is the realization of the state of affairs to which the person's action is directed. the opposite becomes the case if the person's preference moves him/her in the direction of realizing the negative or lower counterparts in the value-ranks. the success or failure of his/her action is therefore value dependent. as the outline further indicates, the basic moral tenor contains a non-formal value quality that is clearly independent of success. it is scheler's manner of maintaining that he does not want to end up allowing outcome be the determinant of moral values. that of course is different from observing that values possess some form of functionalizing effect. different from viewing them as aiming directly at success, values are always according to scheler functionalizing, given the fact that what directs them towards the realization of any state of affairs is the conative welling up that takes its initial cue from the basic moral tenor. it is the functionalizing character of values that makes it possible for us to notice and give attention to certain things in our milieu of experience and ignore or perhaps not even notice others at all. with a graphic description scheler (1973) writes: [t]he slightest sounds that have a significatory function toward her child condition the awakening of a mother from a deep sleep by the interest in her child and his state; but these same sounds without this significatory function “toward the child,” though with the same value of liveliness or same abilities (or even greater ones) to draw the mother's passive attention, cannot condition the mother's awakening (p. 146). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 the functionalizing dimension to values determines the things in our milieu to which our basic moral tenor calls our attention. the value of the child's state of wellbeing would of course have a significatory function and takes top priority for the mother over the preciousness of her own sleep that can wait until the child experiences some comfort. hence, among the units of experience and milieu-objects around her, the direction of her interest gravitates toward her child's state because of the significatory function the baby's cry elicits. that would have a completely different functional effect if the child is in the habit of crying mostly whenever the mother finds little time to sleep and more so if such cry fails to command attention in the mother's scale of values. the mother can simply ignore the child as being naughty or playing games on her since she judges that the state of the well-being of the child is not under any threat or danger. we may add that the functionalizing effect of values admits of the expression of preference which we find in the order of value-ranking. such preference we exhibit allows us to fluidly move through the value-ranks in the attempt to respond adequately to the higher and lower indicators we find in the value-heights. hence, values can be functionalizing at many different levels insofar as they gear towards the realization of some state of affairs. another point we need to emphasize from the outline above is that for scheler (1973), the non-formal a priori value field need not be outside of nature. this for him is what kant thinks when he (kant) proposes that there need to be a transcendental presupposition that makes action in the phenomenal world possible. kant's (1785) notion of freedom establishes such ground that is outside the system of nature and hence outside experience on the basis of which the granting of moral worth to an agent becomes possible. there is here a sense of getting back into the world from a completely different basis. kant's appeal to such grounds of possibility outside the immediacy of an acting person's intuitive experience ends up – in scheler's view – demanding that an acting person needs first to extricate himself/herself from the world of everydayness and subsequently finds a way of getting himself/herself back to it autonomously and nonheteronomously. it is only by getting back to the phenomenal world in this manner that one constitutes himself/herself as a person. this kantian manner of going about it would however be depersonalizing for scheler. hence, he would argue on the contrary that one needs not depersonalize oneself or run away from the world of experience first, in order to gain a sense of moral worth or dignity as a person. if there is any transcendental ground available on which to anchor a person's actions, it is for scheler pace kant the basic moral tenor since it delineates a non-formal a priori value field for the formation of possible intentions. in his view, a person acting feels immediately the directional impulse of the basic moral tenor. this does not need to locate the person in the unconditional horizon which the autonomous rational will establishes. the acting person already possesses in himself/herself a certain quality of value-totality which includes but is not exclusively tied to the person's rationality. in that case, a person neither needs to get outside the world nor involve himself/herself in some kind of abstractions in order to act morally. to do that would be both limiting and onwuzulike ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant 6 distorting the basic moral tenor that lays out the non-formal values of a priori field constantly at a moral person's acting disposal. as scheler (1973) sees it, there is no denying the fact that the basic moral tenor and intention are clearly two distinct features of the ethical packaging of a person. he gives kant the credit for rightly stressing the distinction. the basic moral tenor with its conative stirring, possesses the values of good and evil and as such maintains the status of the bedrock from which our incessant willing wells up. intention, because it always posits a situation within a person's lived-experiences, mostly involves elements that subsequently lead to success of deed. its ability to make such positing rests for scheler on the a priori recognition of the basic moral tenor. but that the basic moral tenor precedes intention both in temporality and quality of relevance does not suffice to treat the latter as though its presence destabilizes the purity that would typically characterize the edifice of a credible moral theory. quite on the contrary, there must be a manner of accounting for the essential connections that bring together the basic moral tenor and intention such that we have a complete moral package in place (kelly, 2011, p. 43). doing so would invariably guarantee a justification of success in ethics without necessarily conceding to the view that it holds a foundational status. thus, our consideration of the moral functioning of a person without bringing together in a place the person's basic moral tenor and the contents of the person's intention is no more like a car running without a complete set of engine, electrical features and fuel components all linking up to each other. such a car would be no car at all. in similar fashion, a person's basic moral tenor serving as the engine set of her moral functioning links up with the intention for which actions come in place before leading up to the success the actions may finally entail. if one wills to move his/her car, it comes with the presupposition that the car engine, the electrical features and the fuel components are intact. though one begins by turning the ignition with the car key, it does not lead to the conclusion that the ignition point does not have the backing of the engine set and fuel facilities for its almost automatic response. it is a similar thing that happens when one realizes a state of affairs via the essential interconnections between the basic moral tenor, its value-orientation and intention. that it is a realization which comes either as success or as failure does not preclude the functionalizing value of the basic moral tenor. just as the car ignition may appear to do the magic of setting the car in motion, the consequence of willing often appears to be the determining basis of moral evaluation without necessarily being the case. if we dispense with the value-orientation which the basic moral tenor supplies, the actions would even be such that we cannot attribute ethical significance to them. it is the ethical significance of actions that make us hold a person morally responsible for his/her action. it explains why not all that we do comes under the category of moral evaluation. for instance, turning one's head to the left or to the right is an action. but there is nothing moral about it. cleaning one's nose is another action. but it carries no moral value. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 but if one turns his/her head to the left or to the right in order to inflict wound on another's eye, or cleans his/her nose in order to fling the dirt to the person sitting beside him/her, then the person who does this stands morally accountable for it since here, there is the willful intention that expresses a value-content that is detrimental to another. in scheler's (1973) words: i do not “will” to perform a “movement” when i take my hat off the shelf and put it on, for i will “to have my hat on my head.” of course, a “movement” can be a willed state of affairs, e.g., in gymnastics, etc. but even if it were a question of the same movement, the two cases would remain different. he who slays someone wills “to slay him, not to “move his arms and the axe in a certain way (p. 126). it is because we have to recognize that an acting person acts from the valueorientation coming from his/her basic moral tenor that we hold him/her responsible for his/her action. if we fail to connect the basic moral tenor with the intention from which the value-orientation finds expression, we would hardly evaluate any action on the basis of morality. without the value-orientation securely fastened on the basic moral tenor, our willing will be directionless with regard to moral values. for scheler (1973), the nonformal value quality our willing contains places the basic moral tenor in the position to be experienceable in an intuitive sense of self-givenness and as such it is not a mere form or mode for the positing of intentions. as the outline of the features of the basic moral tenor above further indicates, the non-formal value-quality is the material of the basic moral tenor. it ensures that the basic moral tenor is neither empty nor a basis for a will that maintains a status entirely different from the action that owes its determination to it. and because of being the principal determinant or bearer of values, it is peculiar to the basic moral tenor to remain constant throughout the changes in the qualities of conation (mohr, 2014, p. 228). that the basic moral tenor does not unilaterally determine intention is the extent scheler is ready to go in acknowledging that in being foundational to all that we can ever will, the basic moral tenor nonetheless employs other elements other than itself in accomplishing its moral task in a person. it is also his manner of recognizing that a person's moral action always takes place in a milieu. thus, if the proper texture of the situation within which a person's action takes place must elicit moral concern, then such consideration must be such that does not need to appeal to a set of criteria outside of experience in order to make sense of the moral value of the person's action. and if the criteria on which actions are considered moral remain à la kant, eclipsed in the inexperienceable set of a priori oughts, how do we even begin to account for their status as the determining basis for the morality of our actions? to resolve the above difficulty which owes its inception to the aforementioned distinction kant (1785) makes between autonomy and heteronomy – with its attendant dichotomy of the will and the authenticity of the intentions possible in an action – scheler (1993) begins on the insistence that the location of the moral value of willing in onwuzulike ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant 8 the basic moral tenor is not and does not remain the exclusive reserve of formal ethics, as perhaps, kant purports to claim. non-formal ethics of value on its own right equally locates its delineation of the moral value of willing in the basic moral tenor. in the end, there is for scheler nothing special about formal ethics if what it claims sole prerogative to, namely the basic moral tenor, finds a fertile ground also at least in his own version of non-formal ethics. and since formal ethics does not have monopoly of establishing the presence of the basic moral tenor as the basis for the moral value of willing, formal ethics already exposes its lack of insight when dealing with the proper articulation of our moral situation. again, the flight of formal ethics from empirical experience in order to account for the basic moral tenor compounds its problem. in contrast, non-formal ethics sees no need for such a flight venture. while being able to ground its a priori principles, especially the basic moral tenor in the experiential sphere with which an acting person easily relates, the non-formal ethics in scheler's terms, equally guards itself against any attempt that reduces its determining basis to success alone. the deeper sense of willing in fact for scheler, without absconding from experience even if momentarily, nonformal ethics goes about its articulation of the moral situation in a manner that paints a richer picture of what happens when dealing with the ingredients that qualify certain actions as morally justifiable. there are important contours and levels of our willing and the values we realize in willing certain actions which neither get to the surface nor receive adequate expression when the kantian autonomous rational form of willing alone, confers moral validity to an action, to the total exclusion of the various empirical values that find their way in our willing and acting (kelly, 2011, p. 42). in pointing out how kant misses these important contours and levels of our willing and acting, scheler (1973) writes: since the material of willing and conation rests of necessity on the relationship between what is willed and our sensible states of pleasure [lust], and since pleasure is first represented necessarily as a (not yet intended) success of some kind of acting in the world, or some excitability resulting through the world, any consideration of the “material” of willing necessarily implies, …, that “success” is a standard for this material (p. 112). the above citation contains in scheler's view kant's reasons for completely distancing the will from and emptying it of our sensible states of pleasure, intentions, and excitability. with the distancing and emptying, kant's optimism is that the will is rid of all impurities which when present in the will necessarily imply that success – in the sense of using the consequences of an action to determine its moral value – is the criterion for willing. any attempt then at considering the material of willing for aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 whatever reason, unjustifiably for kant (1785) ends up amounting to constituting success as the sole determining criterion for all non-formal ethics. in other words, no genuine willing for kant can maintain [the impure] materials of willing and still claim that its determining ground is the basic moral tenor. for scheler, it is with such shutting off of these [impure] dimensions to our willing and acting because of their material content that kant arrives at the conclusion that every nonformal ethics hardly would escape being an ethics of success. however, we can illustrate the difficulty scheler is working hard to point out in kant's theory with a scene within the 6th and 7th episodes named, “riot, drill and the devil” in the movie: prison break season 1 (mandel, 2005, episodes 6-7). it is a riot situation in the fox river state penitentiary, illinois. the entire prison inmates are out of control. the prison authority and wardens seem too to be out of ideas on how to restore back law and order. in the prison sick bay, the female medical doctor who happens to be the daughter of the state governor is in danger of being taken advantage of by the sick inmates receiving medical treatment from her. but as events would have it, through the cctv monitoring screen in the penitentiary's control room, an inmate learns of the predicament of the female doctor and sets out on a mission for her rescue. he too stands in danger of being misunderstood by the female doctor herself, the wardens if they happen to see him, and of course, the sick inmates who would necessarily think that his goal is not any different from theirs except that he does not want them to be part of it. employing the will alone as the only criterion for understanding why the female doctor in the end opts to follow the inmate-turned-rescuer – even when it was obvious to her that his seeming-good-mission is not clear at all – would definitely not suffice to ground her action morally. there are unavoidable value-components in the milieu that supportively supplied orientation to the eventual direction of her will. the inmate who voluntarily – even without being asked to do so – commits himself to rescue her could not have arrived at such a risky venture without being aware that there is no guarantee that he will come out either alive or safe from the operation. if success in the sense of consequences really saturates the determining basis for all ethics that recognize value-intentions and our sensible states of pleasure, neither the inmateturned-rescuer nor the female doctor could have reached a point in their respective moral dilemmas where their respective critical decisions gave birth to confidence and committed trust. from our own common individual experiences, such confidence and committed trust are not what willing alone achieves. if at all there is a way we can see into their respective pure will devoid of value loaded intentional orientations, that of the female doctor would definitely at first show no conviction while that of the inmateturned-rescuer will show total hesitancy. however, because our will does not work in isolation but operates in the midst of valuecomponents, there is need to recognize the crucial place of these valuecomponents in our action. as scheler would argue, if merely willing justifies a person morally, then other inmates who may have possibly entertained similar good will like the inmate-turnedrescuer but failed to act would in this situation be kantianly moral. but onwuzulike ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant 10 then, that would mean that there is no difference between them and the inmate-turnedrescuer who actually stepped in and carried out the highly risky rescue operation. now, what matters in addition to some preceding value-components is the value-object that presents itself immediately as higher in the order of ranks. in this instance, the valueobject is the female doctor and her professional cum spiritual value of caring and healing, propelling the prisoner-turned-rescuer towards the critical direction of getting involved, irrespective of whether or not success in realizing his willed saving act materializes in the end. if anything at all, he is likely to be more aware that the scenario is destitute of chances of success than deceiving himself into thinking that it will magically be hassle free. the question: “why get involved?” thus looms large. following the scenario here, it is the eventual safety of the female doctor that stands as part of the picture-component for the prisoner-turned-rescuer. and it is this aspect of the picture-component that gives a certain quality of content following from the valuecomponents already in place. as quite evident to the prisoner-turned-rescuer, saving the value-object, namely the female doctor, who is the key driving factor in the picturecomponent may or may not materialize in the end. but it is enough that an attempt is made at all following the weight of its lead. this ties back to the third element in the earlier outline above which scheler refers to as the willing of the content to be realized and its many levels, leading from the basic moral tenor, through intentions, deliberations, and resolution [vorsatz], to decision. what in the end comes through with the above analysis is that scheler's defense of nonformal ethics of values, while steering clear of the accusations kant levels against it, also neither denounces nor gives success a final say in the assessment of a person's moral action. it also escapes the consequentialist footholds of bentham's utilitarianism. conclusion as our task so far demonstrates, non-formal ethics of values is scheler's attempt to bring together as a self-given intuitive unity, the basic moral tenor, which is the determining ground from which our willing takes off, and the object of willing, in which the value realization takes place. for him, in any moral consideration, sufficient weights must be given to these vehicles of our action in order to avoid reducing one to the other. it is such risky reduction that in scheler's view finds expression in kant's rejection of anything other than the self-governing autonomous rational will as inclination and as such leaning towards an ethics of success. this however as scheler argues does not seem to present the total picture of every non-formal ethics. scheler's intricate analysis of those dimensions of actions that receive a heteronymous classification from kant, as we saw above, no doubt allows us insight into the moral credibility those layers and elements possess. we value our feelings towards what we observe in our environment. our feelings and the values that immediately connect us with things direct our actions in a manner that allows us some breathing space in the already rigorous task of being a moral person. with scheler we feel our personhood in a mode more familiar to our common experience than the seeming tight aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 11 options the categorical imperative, good as it is, limits us to. success no doubt has a place in our moral milieu, but this is insofar as it does not trump other more fundamental determining basis for action. thus, our investigation of non-formal ethics of values shows that scheler's painstaking account of the moral tenor with its components of willing, and valuecontents on 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(2005). prison break. los angeles: 20th century fox television. scarre, geoffrey. (1996). utilitarianism. london: routledge. scheler, max. (1973). formalism in ethics and non-formal ethics of values. manfred s. frings and rogers l. funk. evanston: northwestern university press. https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/939 onwuzulike ethics with (out) success: between scheler and kant 12 person and self-value: three essays. (1987). manfred s. frings (ed. and partial tr.), dordrecht, netherlands: martinus nijhoff publishers. spader, peter. (2002). scheler's ethical personalism: its logic, development and promise. new york: fordham university press. 1 aristotelian ethics on human happiness and pleasure barnabas turman & philip isanbor abstract the issues of morality or the analyses of the ethics of living are dependent on the contents or intentions of one's actions. when actions are carried out or been exhibited, they are judged either right or wrongs, ethical or unethical dependent on societal classification of such actions, especially in accordance to the dictates of the natural law. this is socially occasioned by human sense of actions and their corresponding responsibilities for the attainment of happiness or pleasure. according to aristotelian ethics, pleasures are very short-lived and fading, while happiness are enduring, lasting and in all, eternal, welling in the individual who long to please the other selves and the divine through his or her actions and taking proper responsibilities of his or her choices, for the sake of social order. societies have been currently bedeviling by hedonistic and nihilistic consciousness and cultures of development, where we now have a very high demand for bodily modifications and enhancements. hence, this paper adopts expository cum descriptive method of enquiry in assessing the implications of aristotelian ethics on human moral responsibility towards the attainment of social order. the paper concludes that, following the principles of aristotelian ethics, our actions should be enlivened by the consciousness of common good through moral values that lead to happiness rather than pleasure. keywords: human person, ethics, happiness, pleasure, actions, responsibility, social order introduction the human person is a conscious being. as such, he or she is not only conscious of himself or herself but also the things around him or her as well as exhibiting certain actions which classified him or her too as a social being (see, isanbor and irabor 2020: 25; isanbor 2020: 142). these actions of the human person in the society cannot be free from moral implications, thus, he or she is evaluated from what he or she does. worthy to note is that; the simple minded notion of rightness and wrongness of one's actions has raised serious controversies in recent past among ethicists. all the times, the society presents before the human person what he or she will consider moral or immoral values, situations or events according to the norms and customs which he or she has already turman & isanbor aristotelian ethics on human happiness and pleasure 2 internalised in the understanding of natural order in effecting the courses of social order in human society. naturally, the human person as an agent of social order is free to do that which is good or to do that which is evil, depending on his or her values at a particular time or situation. thus, “virtue as well as evil, lies in our power” (frost 1989: 131). but, for the attainment of social order in a society which cannot be monopolised by a single person, he or she is encouraged to be drawn towards the good and avoiding evil, in order to be happy. this is achievable by the positivity of our actions exercised and valued choices made through the management of our freedom and adoption of moral responsibility. understandably, morality is a matter of freewill, and freedom is the basis for holding anybody responsible for his or her actions (see, ebosele 2010: 13). with morality or the employment of ethical principles, the society defines or categorises human actions (good or bad, virtuous or vicious), and then determines the ways the human person has to live, corresponding to his or her moral decisions and responsibilities. it is on this note that this paper shall assess the implications of aristotelian ethics on human moral responsibility and consciousness of common good towards the attainment of social order. hence, the aim of this paper, using aristotelian ethics on the valuation of human happiness and pleasure, is re-emphasise the importance of pursuing the courses of happiness over pleasure. this is in order to restore social order lacking due to some imposing hedonistic and nihilistic actions associated with contemporary development and civilization. the objective of the paper is to state the need that human actions should be dully and ethically directed or driven towards the attainment of happiness seated on the principles of common good and the transcendental valuation of the human person as an agent of development rather than the quests for pleasure that are non-enduring in keeping humanity in the threshold of social order. the ethics of aristotle aristotle was born around 384 bc in stagira, chalcidice northern greece and died around 322 bc in euboea, greece (aged 62). his main interest was on biology, zoology, physics, metaphysics, logic, ethics, rhetoric, music, poetry, theatre and politics. his notables are: golden mean, aristotelian logic, syllogism, hexis, hylomorphism, and the theory of the soul. he was influenced by parmenides, socrates, plato, heraclitus and democritus. it lies at the heart of contemporary moral theory and is essential to understanding the history of ethics. thereafter, with this, he influenced virtually all traditions of philosophy: christian philosophy, islamic philosophy, jewish philosophy, and the likes, all on the development of human person, humanity knowing and understanding itself, especially in the midst of conflict of ideologies that pertain to the attainment of truth which sustain human happy living, and that must be ethical in assessing whether human actions are right or wrong, good or bad. according to gerald hughes (2001: 7): aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 3 aristotle would have thought it astonishing if thinking animals like ourselves had no way of expressing to themselves what was good for them. so, at many points in the ethics, he starts by considering what people usually or frequently think about various questions connected with morality, on the assumption that their views must either be right or at least contain some considerable kernel of truth which would explain why people hold them for ethics of aristotelian ethics is about virtue ethics, a check on human actions towards the attainments of happiness or pleasure. with virtue ethics, aristotle directs the human consciousness to the valuation of happiness rather than pleasure. although, many ethical thinkers, with contemporary mindsets for the operational valuation of relativistic development accompanies by the epistemology of immoral-driven civilization, “have regularly criticized virtue ethics, saying that it is not very good at what is called 'action guidance', at telling us what we ought to do, and great efforts have then been made to provide an answer” (coope 2006: 22). such consciousness for development outside some moral or ethical restraints, “this criticism is quite indeterminate until we are told what kind of 'ought' is in play, the mesmeric kind or some other. in fact, it was the notion of force itself which was critical to the new outlook” (coope 2006: 22). the consciousness of the oughtness of an action is supposedly to guide the individual with the sense of happy living through the principle of common good for the development of human community. this is really the understanding of virtue ethics, as miller (2006: 67) puts it: virtue ethics, as a theory of moral obligation, holds that an action is morally correct in so far as it is an expression of moral virtue, for example, in so far as it is courageous, generous, or just. virtue has an irreducible role in moral theory in that the correctness of a virtuous action cannot be explained on a more basic level, that is, in terms of duties derived independently of virtue (for example, from the categorical imperative or the principle of utility). a serious issue for modern virtue ethics is whether it can justify the respect for individual rights. if it cannot, this would seem to be a crucial lacuna for a theory of moral obligation. hence, human activities according to aristotle are directed towards the attainment of a particular end. all human actions are means directed towards a certain end but some ends seem only as means to further ends and not as ends themselves. he further went on to admitting that, there is one end which is not a means to another end and which is sought for its own sake. all other ends are just guides or links that lead to the ultimate end which absolutely does not sought for the sake of another. for aristotle, the ultimate value to be attained through and in actions is happiness (ne, ch. 2, 117b, 1-3). for him, happiness is the only end which sought for nothing rather than its sake, for whatever a person seek as an end; he seeks it as a means to pursuing happiness (see, echekwube1999:123). for him, happiness is the only goal for which all human activities turman & isanbor aristotelian ethics on human happiness and pleasure 4 are directed towards. all men seek happiness but the only means to attain to such an end is through morality. the purpose and standard of morality is directed towards happiness. for if one wants to be happy, he must live a moral life, for those actions that lead to happiness are moral actions and those actions that lead to sadness are to be considered as a morally bad actions. this view that makes happiness a standard for morality is known as “eudemonism.” for many social thinkers, aristotle's nichomachaean ethics is one of the most important and central texts in the history of western philosophy (see, hughes 2001: 1). central in aristotle's ethics is the belief in human freedom, and he upholds the view that the human person as an agent of social order is free and as such he or she is responsible for his or her actions (cf, frost 1989: 131; ebosele 2010: 12). hence, to aristotle, morality of human pleasure and happiness is a content of reason of one's choice or action as a determinant of one's rationality and intelligibility. for him; all things both rational and irrational aiming at it and because in all things that which is the object of choice is what is excellent, and that which is most the object of choice the greatest good, thus the fact that all things move towards the same object indicate that this was for things the chief good… and that which all things aim was the good (ne, ch. 2, 117b, 10-15) critically examining the idea of aristotle and his moral goal, we may ask: what exactly is happiness? happiness is the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. happiness is the activity of the soul that is inseparable from virtue. aristotle divided virtue into two namely: intellectual virtue and moral virtue (stumpf 1994, 92). what aristotle considered as intellectual virtue is today known as scientific knowledge, arts, practical wisdom, intuitive reasoning, theoretical wisdom, sound deliberation, critical understanding and judgment. while moral virtue includes justice, temperance, generosity, courage, brevity, etc. aristotle also taught the doctrine of the golden mean, that is, “virtue lies in the middle of two extremes” (see, the analysis of the ethical conceptualization of the human person in hughes, pp. 45-60). virtue is the mean between excess and deficit. for example, generosity (in the middle) continues miserliness (deficiency) and extravagance (an excess). temperance is the mean between total abstinence (deficiency) and selfindulgence (an excess). although, aristotle himself knows that may not be applied to all virtues and vices. not all vices are extreme. for example, betrayal, adultery and murder are bad in themselves, not that they are extremes. the aristotelian interpretation of moral virtue, for instance, as a mean between two ends, re-enacts the golden rule principle of doing unto others as we want them to do to us. this very principle also re-echoes in plato's theory of justice, immanuel kant's deontological ethics and his principle of categorical imperative. for socrates, virtue can only come about through self-mastery (see, okoro 2017: 63). virtue, for aristotle, is as a result of a habit; it is an internal disposition, a permanent of a person's mind inclined aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 5 towards good action which springs spontaneously from it (see, stumpf, 1994, 95). virtue is a state of mind which spontaneously gives rise to a good action as a matter of habit. aristotle did not believe in the possibility of a sudden radical conversion in which a long established habit is suddenly laid aside and a new beginning made, hence, he stressed the importance of acquiring good habits from the beginning. practical wisdom is an important concept in aristotelian ethics. it is the rule or standard by which any given action in any given situation can be judged as either right or wrong. practical wisdom is the morality, inside of virtues of the human individual by which the right cause of an action in a given situation can be known. it is acquired through experience. from the understanding of human lived-experience, aristotle famously says (ne 1144a9) that practical wisdom is not concerned with the nature of the good or the aim of life, but with “what is towards the aim” (ta pros ton skopon), with which the human individual identifies means to the good, and/or instances of the good (cf, miller 2006: 80). therefore, in any situation, we are faced with moral decision making and the evaluation of choices to be employment within the exercises of our freedom (see, stumpf, p. 94, anele 2017: 29). understandably, aristotle was more empirical than plato and socrates in his theoretical assessment of human socialization. he pointed out that the society is the highest place of internalization and integration of the individual, a place where true human virtues are acquired and expressed towards the attainment of happiness, with the degree of good life for all citizens of a particular society to be achieved or realized. assessing pleasure, understanding happiness in aristotelian ethics the human person is always longing to maximize his or her happiness, increase the avenues for his or her pleasurable moments, in order to balance the contents of his or her consciousness as human. such as being his or her mentality that is associated with his or her nature as a rational and intelligent animal. that is why, in our contemporary society, there is a high rate in the demands for the avenues of increasing happiness and pleasurable moments associated with every model and patterning of development and socialization that such contemporary individual, has adopted or will be adopting. for instance, in the case of medical engineering or cosmetology, we hear of breast modulations and penis enlargements, all in a bid to increase the sexual satisfaction associated with contemporary sexual demands and orientations. with these bodily enhancements or enlargements, some dilemmatic moral or ethical question is asked: whether the human individual is working to improving nature or seeking to maximize his or her ego and hedonistic desires? considerably recognized, the societal quests for different but higher developmental orientation, especially those that concerned human sexual /moral development, are always orchestrated with every sense of increase in human happiness and pleasurable moments in human living (see, isanbor and irabor 2020: 35; isanbor 2020: 153). whether such demands are morals, amoral or immoral is a question that may not have the desirable logical answers, especially those answers that are epistemologically turman & isanbor aristotelian ethics on human happiness and pleasure 6 founded with all needed ethical functionalities. that the human individual is demanding and increasingly orchestrated with desires to increase his or her happiness or pleasurable moments is a given, irrespective of the nature of such demands. but, the human individuals are expected to be moral and ethical in all demands, in considering the welfares of the others persons, towards establishing social order in the society. our understanding of pleasure is common situated within the some conditions where we accomplish our activities associated with our desires or interests to attain or sustain some power, fames and wealth. pleasure is derived from an activity dependence on individual's values of life and living. commonly, we can talk of pleasure from two different points of view: the physical and mental pleasure. more so, since pleasure is as a result of an activity, and thus it depends on contents or reasons of such activity that is exercised to determine whether the pleasure is good or bad. the implication here is that any pleasure derived from a bad activity is bad pleasure, and any one derived from a good activity is good pleasure. for aristotle; some no doubt being persuaded that the facts are so, and others thinking, it has a better on our life to exhibit pleasure as bad thing even if it is not; for most people (they think) incline towards it and are the slaves of their pleasure. for which; reason they ought to lead them in the opposite direction, sine thus they will reach the middle state (ne, bk. x, ch, 1, 117a, 28-33). happiness, in ordinary discourse usually refers to a positive state or a kind of feeling that is good, it is equally a matter of common experience that we are happy when we possess what we want, unhappy when we cannot get what we want. thus, in whatever most people seek, they seek the cessation of unhappiness and the satisfaction of happiness. more so, one thing that all human beings want out of life is obviously happiness which is the reason why many people qualify as the ultimate aim of all things. but there exist a fundamental problem which is the fact that human beings disagree on what count or constitute as happiness. while one might think that an ideal life is one devoted to military adventure, for an instance, others may think of a life devoted to contemplation and still other will subscribe to teaching as a profession that will give them some of fulfillment – a source of happiness. hence, to be happy, according to immanuel kant, “is necessarily the wish of every finite rational being” (see, morris, 1927, 100). we can say then that all our actions, activities, labours and desires are implicitly geared towards attaining happiness, since man's hope is directed towards happiness in all activities. here, it should be posited that both pleasure and happiness are as a result of an activity and they are equally referred to as a kind of feeling that is satisfactory in nature. the question then is, where lies the difference? since in our everyday life we hear and see people making use of them as if they mean the same thing. it is true that a lot of people confuse pleasure with happiness and make use of either depending on the situations, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 7 seemingly expressed within social and societal doctrinal relevance of hedonism, epicurianism, fascism, utilitarianism, nihilism and emotivism, especially (see, isanbor and irabor 2020: 30; isanbor 2020: 150). with a particular reference to hedonism which equates happiness with pleasure, as furrow asserted that “pleasure is the only thing in life that is good, the only thing worth pursuing. a life of happiness then would be a life that contains a favourable balance of pleasure and pain” (furrow 2008: 110). hence, hedonists simply subscribe to the fact that happiness consist in embracing pleasure and avoiding pain. the utilitarian ethicists also speak of pleasure and happiness interchangeably as though they were the same thing with two different connotations. whatever direction such thoughts have gone, the fact still holds that pleasure and happiness are not the same; they differ as discussed thus: the relativity in human feeling is the point that is lacking in aristotle's understanding of happiness and pleasure. such relativity is based on the moral and ontological propensity that encourages human individual to “do good and avoid evil.” this moral conviction is something that everyone knows, that directs human and societal values and interests in the pursuits for social order and justice. it cuts across all cultures, and thus becomes a universal principle of morality (see, isanbor and irabor 2020: 30; isanbor 2020: 150). nevertheless, the philosophical problem is; what is good and what is bad? so, when one describes pleasure in terms of good and bad, under what criteria is he or she doing it? this, aristotle refused to take cognizance of when he rejected the view that pleasure is the good. he did it under the guidance that, all things move towards the good, and as, they tend to see it as the good. everyone necessarily and ontological detects the effects of evil, even when they may love doing the same evil. but, a morallyguided individual will do all things necessary to avoid doing evil. furthermore, aristotle came to the some epistemological conviction that pleasure is mostly connected to human nature from the wrong premise that human beings tend to love things they ought and hate. the premise is wrong because it has been proven beyond some reasonable doubt that human beings at times love things they ought to hate and hate the things they ought to love. in fact, if aristotle was correct then human beings would be relegated to the level of animals who act out of instinct. for aristotle: it is wrong to say that there is a process or coming to be of pleasure. for this is not said of everything, but only of what is divisible and not a whole, for seeing, or a pint, or a unit, has not coming to be, and of these is either a process or a becoming. but pleasure is a whole, hence it has no coming to be (ne, ch. 5, 117a, 12). in attempting to refute the claim that pleasure is the greatest, aristotle said that pleasure checked by wisdom becomes more pleasurable than a pleasure without wisdom, by implication, intellectual pleasures are greater than bodily pleasures. this philosophy is hinged on the notion of living that: “the greatness of a thing is known by its effects.” thus bodily pleasures have greater effect than spiritual and intellectual pleasures. but to increase a pleasure more intensely and in order for it to occur in the nearest possible time, one needs to enjoy whatever he or she is doing. as such, bodily pleasures like turman & isanbor aristotelian ethics on human happiness and pleasure 8 drinking alcoholic beverages can be increases while the individual still finds pleasure in other activities. but in respect of intellectual pleasure, majority will agree that to increase any intellectual pleasure one, in most cases, needs to go through the rigour of reading and studying, which for majority are not pleasant or pleasurable. therefore, the bodily pleasure has the capacity of increasing with the speed of light and as such, possessing a greater advantage than the intellectual pleasure. thus, it becomes the greatest pleasure as opposed to aristotle's intellectual pleasure. for aristotle; now since activities differ in respect of goodness and badness, and some are worthy to be chosen, other to be avoided, and other neutral, so too are the pleasures; for to each activity there is a proper pleasure (ne, bk. x, ch. 5, 117b, 25-28) more so, the human person naturally desires to know something whole and perfect, and when therefore a thing cannot be apprehended at once or at a given moment, the human person becomes unpleasant, therefore, intellectual pleasure possesses a greater limitation which comes as a result of human's limited nature. again, even when it is known, the human person by nature will always want to know more, as such, he or she is insatiable. however, in respect of bodily pleasure, the repetition of it, provides and increases the pleasure of the human person. although old age and disposition can make an individual act contrary and give a wrong judgment to both the activity and the pleasure. a significant aspect of aristotle's conception of pleasure lies in his description of the best kind of pleasure. aristotle came from the perspective that since pleasure is proper to an activity, as much a worthy activity produces a worthy pleasure and visavis. so, the best activity produces the best pleasure. this is true because what is morally praiseworthy is not seeking pleasure for oneself but seeking pleasure for others. as such, the activity of producing joy for others, act in the case of the actor as pleasure, for instance, because he or she becomes satisfied in living for others while he or she tries to live a moral life. implications of aristotle's ethics on happiness to human consciousness of moral actions and responsibility there is, at least, one thing which every human person, without an exception, wants and will relentlessly seeks for, which is “happiness.” there is nobody who does not want happiness. for it is part of human nature to seek it. our actions, activities, and gestures are geared towards this ultimate end of the human person (see, afolami 2015: 1; isanbor and uzomah 2017: 76; isanbor, ajibewa and ekuigbo 2015: 78). therefore, one cannot attain happiness without necessarily putting up some pleasurable acts. it is based on this that aristotle's conception of pleasure becomes very necessary in understanding the human individual as a person. since pleasure cannot be derived outside an activity, it therefore means that there is a fundamental relationship between pleasure and activity. by this, it is believed that pleasure adds something different and special to our activities, and such activities must be ethically evaluated in order to consider that which grant true happiness to the human individual. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(3), 2021 issn: 2786-9792 9 in all, virtues lead to happiness while wickedness or immortality leads to unhappiness. this is the kind of answer given by men like plato and aristotle. in their view, a wicked person is unhappy; a virtuous person is a happy person. this is the view of many people who believe that wicked or immoral people cannot be happy in spite of their wealth and apparent 'success' in life. hence aristotle observed that both human beings and animals desire certain ends as observable in their actions. it is equally obvious that the proper actions for animals to achieve their desired ends are obtainable through instincts and imitation of their species of animal. but human beings are required to develop their rational faculty through which they gradually attain the capacity to have the knowledge of the good and deliberate well to achieve their desired ends (see, afolami 2015: 1; isanbor and uzomah 2017: 76; isanbor, ajibewa and ekuigbo 2015: 78). as moral responsibility is based on the requirement of deliberation, then blame or praise would be apportioned on the ability and act of adequate deliberation or lack of meaningful deliberation before a moral act. this implies that human beings are morally accountable for both their choices and states of character. nevertheless, aristotle does not deny the fact that animals and humans that lack rational capacity for deliberative decision for choice are responsible for their actions. for him, all creatures in this category do not deserve praise or blame for their action no matter how grievous and disastrous the action might be, because they lack adequate intelligence to know the details of their actions and correspondent consequences. aristotle strongly underlined the fact that only a moral agent characterized by rational ability and deliberative free will to choose the course of an action after adequate knowledge of the consequence of the action is morally responsible and deserves either praise or blame. any other creature that lacks rational and deliberative quality and still carries out voluntary actions is primarily responsible for the consequence of such actions but deserves no praise or blame because it is not morally responsible. they are exonerated from moral responsibility because their voluntary actions are largely based on natural instincts. conclusion in all, we conclude that a proper understanding of aristotelian concepts of human actions, valued choice and deliberation clearly show that the societal primacy for moral responsibility of an action is located in the act that is based on direct volitional control of a moral agent of development and social order. in anyway, aristotle refuses to make the claim that pleasure is the end of the human person. rather he calls for happiness, as such pleasures put together will result to happiness and this happiness becomes true and meaningful if it is derived from good activity as a pleasure and false if it is derived from bad activity as a pleasure. for valuation of happiness in the development of the human person lies in the recognition of the god in his or her actions and in making valued choices. therefore, it is only when true pleasures are put together that the human person can realize his or her ultimate end of being happy. that is, pleasure as a satisfactory feeling which can neither be said to be good or bad, it depends on the activity to give its consequence just as aristotle has opined. turman & isanbor aristotelian ethics on human happiness and pleasure 10 references abam, m. e. 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(2011). aristotle on moral responsibility, 2nd ed. new york: oxford university press. aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract the altruistic debate was initiated by auguste comte and was defined as “living for others”. here, morally right actions are those that the consequences are more favourable than unfavourbale to everyone except the actor. actions are considered altruistic when they are motivated by the desire to benefit others other than oneself for that person's sake. comte's altruism is what one might call absolute altruism which is completely against individual personality, self-worth and self-esteem. though there are moderate arguments for altruism which can be called degenerate forms of altruism which permit certain altruistic actions to be motivated by self-interest, this paper argued using alfred schutz's definition of human action as motivated behaviour to show the impossibility of altruism as envisaged by auguste comte. the resercher proposed a redefinition of human values as reasoned behaviour if one is to accept absolute altruism of comte. the paper concluded that human actions may be altruistic but motivated by egoistic concerns. keywords: altruism, egoism, action, collectivism, objectivism. introduction self love and preservation characterized human attitude towards life. daily human actions affirm this assertion as true enjoying a strong support from ethical egoists. this ethical egoism which some philosophers call objectivism considers man as an end in himself and not as a means to the ends of others. within the frame of this line of thought, the human person lives for his/her own sake and does not make it a duty to sacrifice himself for others and in the similar vein could not consider it an obligation for others to sacrifice themselves for him. he works for his rational self-interest targeting the achievement of self-realization and personal happiness as the highest good. this questions the possibility of altruism. suhaib (2019) holds that “altruism was a coinage from auguste comte, and he summarized it as “living for others”. more generally, ethical altruism entails selfless concern for the welfare of others. the way the term is commonly used does not imply living for others, rather helping others in the pursuit of their ends” (p. 3). it then means that what accounts for the altruist is the innate motivation to promote the welfare of others. the motivation that underlies altruistic action seems to be at variance with alfred schutz's understanding of human action. of course, schutz's actions are also characterized by motives that seem contra-altruistic. actions in schutz's are determined by project which precedes the action in time. the project constitutes the primary and fundamental meaning of the action. these actions are conceived in a completed mode as the altruistic question and alfred schultz's definition of human action peter iorhom akunoko phd department of philosophy, benue state university, makurdi. pakunoko@bsum.edu.ng 55 if they are over and done with. they are conceived in the future perfect tense. the meaning of action can only be made evident when the motive is uncovered. the role of motives in the determination of the meaning of action was made clear by schutz (1962) when he defined actions as “motivated behaviour”. (p.69) the question that arises from his conception of action is whether there are purely altruistic motives, judging from the fact that self-love and self-actualization are intrinsic to man and primordial to human existence. one can then ask whether schutz's definition of human actions as motivated behaviour is not a condition of altruistic impossibility. it is the task of this paper to ascertain whether pure altruistic actions exist or whether ethical egoism underlies every human action. ethical altruism altruism simply means the placing of others above self, and also of their interests above personal interest. the term altruism was coined by auguste comte and summarized as “living for others” (suhaib, 2019: p.3). in line with this, campbell (2006) maintained that it is rand's view that “altruism means placing what is good for others above what is good for oneself”. (p.1) this paints an altruist as one who regards the good of others as essentially not hindered by concerns for the rights or dignity of individuals, who have as their major moral obligation to submerge themselves within the group or collective and abandon themselves for the collective interest. campbell (2006) noted that comte, who sought to establish a new religion of “the great being, humanity,” defined altruism as “living for others” (p.3). in living for others an individual must subordinate himself to the alter ego as the source of his stability. this condition is only realizable due to the impulse of propensities prompting man to live for others. when man fails in living for things outside him and lives only for himself alone, he is prone to be controlled by excitement. it follows that, happiness and worth, as well in individuals as in societies, depend on adequate ascendancy of the sympathetic instincts. thus the expression, live for others, is the simplest summary of the whole moral code of positivism. (comte 1973a, 565-566). the claim of altruism as a moral theory is that the moral obligation of man is to help others not minding whether it is at the expense of selfinterest. moral altruism considers actions as morally right when the act favours the other even if to the disadvantage of the self. such actions may be favourable to everyone except the actor or agent. altruism is seen as the most potent way of expressing personality as it emphasizes sympathy which regulates individual existence as an intersubjective being. comte (1973b) corroborates this with the view that “the ultimate systematization of human life must consist above all in the development of altruism (p.253). comte seems to have over emphasized altruism over personality and individual good, and could not realize that there cannot be any collectivism (which he favours) without individual personalities. his arguments point to the fact that self-regard or positive selfevaluation must be deemphasized and feelings for others promoted. comte rejected any claim of individual rights which is at variance to social duties and detested any kind of liberalism which for him is a kind of modern anarchy. his vision was for a religion of humanity which will be establish by the state with the function of training every citizen in altruism and discourage outbreaks of personality. (campbell 2006: p.4). 56 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december the objectivist rand was one of the greatest critics of comte's brand of altruism. in his book virtue and selfishness (1984: ch1) rand expounds on his three cardinal values of her ethical system, namely “reason, purpose and self-esteem, with the corresponding virtues of rationality, productiveness, pride”. it is important to note that for rand, production is the central purpose of one's life, reason its source and pride the reward. these three values with corresponding virtues when applied make man an objectivist with self-interest as his ultimate goal of life. it was even difficult for rand to accept the use of the term altruism as used by comte. she labeled it variously as selflessness or collectivism. for rand what it means to live for others is simply a form of “ethical collectivism or the old christian-communist denial of self”. (rand 1997; 85) rand equated altruism with living a second hand life and considers altruism to be an absolute evil (rand, 1997, 244). unfortunately, rand later agreed with the comtean definition of altruism which is a doctrine which holds that man must live for others and place others above self. from rand the comtean idea of altruism began to degenerate to take moderate forms. the degeneration of altruistic morality to a more liberal understanding became possible. according to bass (2006) altruism is the view that the interest of others matters in their own right, apart from the way they might impact upon one's own interests, and therefore that in varying degrees, it could be appropriate, desirable or morally required, on some occasions to act on behalf of others, even at some cost to one's interests (331). this is a moderate way of defining altruistic morality. it is not completely anti personality and self-worth or esteem but promotes the good in helping others as a moral duty. though the goal of my paper is to discuss altruism and establish its impossibility using alfred schutz's definition of action, it is important to look briefly on egoism. ethical egoism has ontological foundations. ayn rand popularized the idea of ethical egoism or objectivism. suhaib (2019) summarized rand's understanding of egoism thus, “man–every man–is an end in himself, not a means to the ends of others; he must live for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself; he must work for his rational self-interest, with the achievement of his own happiness as the highest moral purpose of his life.” (p.2). egoism is motivated by human personality and crave for self-actualization. omelchuk (2013) notes that “self-actualization means absolutely different types of activity, which, however, are all directed by the belief in being. it means that taking one's self as a body or mind at specific stages of personality formation, always enables one to go to some new levels of self-identification through self-transcendence. self-transcendence in our opinion should be understood not as “going out of one's limits” but as going out of the limits of those who have lost their existential value of self-realization and self-identification”. (p.119) it is good note that man is in his essence a being that is in a continuous movement oriented towards the whole of reality around him but when this constant yearning for auto-transcendence halts it is probably a sign of full selfrealization. ethical egoism 57 the altruistic question and alfred schultz's definition of human action peter iorhom akunoko it is then intrinsic to the nature of man to always value his own happiness as the only foremost moral purpose of his life and to consider self-achievement-oriented endeavours noble and consider objective reality and his reason as the only absolute parameters in his life. this means that it is through reason that we can understand reality and this reason also provides a guide to human action. this reason grants man the status of an end in himself and not just a means for the ends of others. his rational self-interest and personal happiness underlie his actions including the seeming altruistic ones. this is not a complete denial of the existence of certain altruistic actions. it is rather an affirmation of the fact that moderate forms of altruism are possible but only within the realm of reason without denying personality, self-worth, self-esteem and self-realiztion. this moderate understanding of altruistic action can be accommodated in alfred schutz's definition of human action. alfred schutz's understanding of human action human actions are determined by a preconceived motive i schutz. it is the ongoing process of a human conduct or behaivour which the actor devised targeted at a projected end or goal. an act is a completed process of action, that is, the result or outcome. schutz made a distinction between overt and covert action. covert action may be projected but not purposive. on the other hand, an overt action is geared towards the outer world and changes it. so, overt action is both projected and purposive (schutz, 1962: p.67). altruistic action is a form of an overt action in that it is both projected and purposive with the motive to serving the interest of others even when the action does not favour the actor. actions are therefore, projected within the framework of time. it then means that ontology of time is the fundament of any action at all. according to schutz (1962) all projecting consists in an anticipation of future conduct by way of phantasyin. we have only to find out whether it is the future ongoing process of the action as it rolls on phase by phase or the outcome of this future action, the act imagined as having been accomplished, which is anticipated in the phantasying of projecting (p.68). for schutz it is the completed action (act) which is the starting point of all our projecting. one has to visualize the state of affairs or outcome of one's future action before the action proper. what is anticipated here is not the future action but the future act. according to schutz (1962) this act is anticipated in the future perfect tense, modo futuri exati (p.69). the time perspective that characterizes the project explains the relationship between the project and the different kinds of motives that necessitate actions. schutz (1962) defines actions as motivated behaviour (p.69). what actually differentiates action from mere behaviour is the project that characterized action. this project is anticipated in the future perfect tense, that is, as accomplished. every action necessarily involves the anticipation of the future in the sense that it is future directed. schutz (1976) notes that “the distinguishing characteristic of action is precisely that it is determined by a project which precedes it in time. action then is behaviour in accordance with a plan of projected behaviour; and the project is neither more nor less than the action itself conceived and decided upon in future perfect tense” (p.11). actions are different from mere behaviour in that, actions are conscious while behaviour is unconscious. actions take place through the process of retention and reproduction. in line with this schutz 58 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december (1967) notes that “an action is conscious in the sense that before we carry it out, we have a picture in our mind of what we are going to do. this is the “projected act”. then as we do proceed to action, we are either consciously holding the picture before our inner eye (retention), or we are from time to time recalling it to mind (reproduction) (p.63). the process of action involves retention of the projected act and also a reproduction of the projected act to keep track of the course of action. actions are grouped according to two kinds of motives. schutz (1976) identified these motives as: in-order-to motive and the because motive”. (p.11). this motives underlie any kind of action and constitute the reason for the action. schutz (1976) further notes that “the in-order-to motive refers to the future and is identical with the object or purpose for the realization of which the action itself is a means; it is “terminus ad quem.” the because motive refers to the past and may be called its reason or cause; it is a “terminus a quo” (p.11). motives may have both a subjective and an objective meaning. the subjective meaning refers to the experience of the actor who lives in his ongoing process of activity. this is what the actor actually has in view as bestowing meaning upon his ongoing action. this according to schutz (1952) is always the in-order-to motive, the intention of bringing about a projected state of affairs, of attaining a preconceived goal. (p.71) all actions including seeming altruistic ones have in-order-to motives which propel the actor to undertake the action. these motives are subjective and constitute the meaning for such actions. the subjective nature of in-order-to motive cast doubt on the possibility of genuinely altruistic acts. the genuine because motive is an objective category that is only accessible to the observer who has to reconstruct from the accomplished act that is, the outcome of the actor's action, including the attitude of the actor to his action. the actor himself can become an observer when he turns back and looks at his past and the state of affairs brought about by his actions. only by this that he can succeed in grasping his genuine because motives of his own acts. it is important to note the impossibility of understanding the other people's acts without first of all understanding the in-order-to motive and the because motive of such acts. again, let us note that there are manifold degrees of understanding. these degrees of understanding limit my scope such that i cannot grasp the full ramifications of other people's motives. schutz (1976) notes that “i cannot grasp the full ramifications of other people's motives, with their horizons of individual life plans, their background of individual experiences, their references to the unique situation by which they are determined. (p.12). schutz (1976) further notes that “such an ideal understanding would presuppose the full identity of my stream of thought with that of the alter ego, and that would mean an identify of both ourselves (p.12). the problem of other minds is such that, for one to understand the exact content of the other's consciousness, one must become the other in all ramifications and such merger of consciousness is not possible. it then means that the in-order-to motives of the actor cannot be vividly grasped by the observer. as elusive as these motives may be to the external observer, they characterized all kinds of real human actions. it then means that altruistic acts are motivated. this cast doubt on the possibility of purely altruistic motives as conceived by comte. 59 the altruistic question and alfred schultz's definition of human action peter iorhom akunoko conclusion the question that comes to my mind as i begin to write this conclusion is that, is ethical altruism possible? if yes, what kind and degree of altruism is realistic. comte had initiated the altruistic debate and provided the foundation for other understandings of the concept of altruism. he construed altruism as living for others. we have stated earlier that comte is the founder of positivism and championed a rational, scientific and social system that favours a total subjugation of the individual to the collective. his altruism was that which subjugates the self placing others above self and other's interest above one's own. his altruism comes against self-worth, self-esteem and personality in general. campbell (2006) criticizes comte on his over exaggeration of altruism and held that 'in pressing for altruism comte exalted the emotions over the intellect (p.4). suhaib (2019) argued against comte that “altruism does not have to involve loss for the individual self” (p.3). suhaib proposes a categorization of altruism into strong altruism and weak altruism. strong altruism encompasses acts that are undertaken despite them causing loss of the individual self's well-being. weak altruism encompasses acts whose underlying motives (at least partly) involve benefiting others or preventing harm to them. (p.3) mercy (2019) in arguing against comtean kind of altruism noted that “psychological altruism holds that humans have feelings of altruism in them. the psychological egoist would believe that those feelings spring forth from feelings of egoism” (p.173). it then means that the seeming altruistic acts are prompted by selfish motives. mill (1865) criticizes comte's extreme altruism. he notes because the good of the human race is the ultimate standard of right and wrong, and because moral discipline consists in cultivating the utmost possible repugnance to all conduct injurious to the general good, comte infers that the good of others is the only inducement on which we should allow ourselves to act, and that we should endeavour to starve the whole of the desires which point to our personal satisfaction, by denying them all gratification not strictly required by physical necessities. the golden rule of morality in comte's religion, is to live for others. to do as we would be done by, and to love our neighbour as ourselves, are not sufficient for him; they partake, he thinks, of the nature of personal calculations. we should endeavour not to love ourselves at all… all education and all moral discipline should have but one object, to make altruism predominate over egoism (p.138-139). this does not mean that mill rejected altruism outrightly. however, altruism conflicted with mill's utilitarianism. talcott parsons' idea of human action contrasts completely with comte's absolute altruism. parsons (1991) argues that action does not consist only of ad hoc “responses” to particular situational “stimuli” but that the actor develops a system of “expectations” relative to his own need-dispositions and the probabilities of gratification or deprivation contingent on the various alternatives of action which he may undertake. (p.2). he notes that the acting ego expects a reaction of the alter ego. this reaction is anticipated in advance and it affects the choices of the actor. this is clearly in contrast to comtean altruism but may not negate completely other degenerate forms of altruism. 60 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december alfred schutz's definition of human action as motivated behaviour presents a situation that argues for altruistic impossibility. though schutz's goal was not to argue against the comtean type of altruism, his definition of human action became a potent weapon against extreme altruism. however, there are moderate arguments for altruism which target the benefit of others without compromising completely the interest of the actor. this kind of altruism fits perfectly into schutz's classification of motives. for altruism as expressed by comte to have any chance at all, schutz's understanding of human action needs to be redefined. in line with this, i defined human action as reasoned behaviour. this means that human action is a product of deliberation and choice. since man is a rational animal his actions are not devoid of reasons. in line with this, fitzpatrick (2017) argues “you might explain your altruistic act toward a stranger in dire need by citing considerations you judge to be good reasons for so acting, i.e. considerations you take to show that so acting is in fact practically justified or good to do. you might similarly offer reasons for your feeling angry over someone else's action that, let us suppose, caused this person to be in such need in the first place. such cases involve explaining ourselves by offering purportedly justifying reasons—considerations we took to justify our belief, action or feeling—within a space of reasoned discourse that invites demands for such justifying reasons and allows for critical challenges to those that are offered (i.e. asking whether the reasons offered are really good reasons for so believing, acting or feeling)” (p.3). all reasoned actions are motivated by certain reasons and may be motivated by feeling happiness when we see others happy or a reaction against the action or inaction of others that put people in certain dehumanizing conditions. these reasons could either be that of sympathy or empathy. this action when targeted at benefiting the other without necessarily compromising or neglecting the good of the actor are said to be altruistic. the underlining reasons for action may both be altruistic and egoistic in character and the state of affairs that the action may bring about (act). references bass robert. 2006. egoism versus rights. the journal of ayn rand studies 7, no.2. comte auguste. 1973. system of positive polity, vol.1: containing the general view of positivism; introductory principles. translated by john henry bridges. new york: burt franklin. ----. 1973b. system of positive polity, vol.4: containing the theory of the future of man. translated by richard congreve and henry dix hulton. new york: burt franklin. fitzpatrick wj. 2017 human altruism, evolution and moral philosophy. r. soc. open sci. 4: 170441. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170441 (p.3) mercy b. josephine, 2019. the egoism-altruism debate: a study with reference to ayn rand's philosophical ideology. research journal of english language and literature (rjelal). a peer reviewed (refereed) international journal impact factor 6,8992 (ici) htt://www.rjelal.com. vol.7. issue 1. jan-mar 2019. mill john stuart. 1865. auguste comte and positivism. london: n. trubner & co. omelchuk k. roman. egoism and ontological approach to belief. journal of siberian federal university; humanities & social science, 2013, 6. 61 the altruistic question and alfred schultz's definition of human action peter iorhom akunoko parsons talcott. 1991. the social system. bryan s. turner (ed). routledge ltd. rand ayn. 1964. the virtue of selfishness: a new concept of egoism. new york: new american library. rand ayn. 1997. journals of ayn rand. edited by david harriman. new york: dutton. robert l. campbell. 2006. altruism in auguste comte and ayn rand. a dialogue on ayn rand's ethics; reply to robert h. bass. the journal of ayn rand studies 7, no.2; 357-360. schutz alfred. 1967. the phenomenology of the social world translated with introduction by george walsh and frederick lehnert. new york; north-western university press. ----. 1962. collected papers 1: the problem of social reality edited by maurice natanson. the hague: martinus nijhoff. ----. 1976. collected papers 11: studies in social theory edited by arvin broderson. the hague: martinus nijhoff. suhaib aslam. 2019. ethical egoism vs. ethical altruism – position paper https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335173230. 62 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 63 page 64 page 65 page 66 page 67 page 68 page 69 page 70 135 fostering interreligious dialogue between christians and muslims in nigeria chukwunonso vitalis ogbo abstract upon being confronted by the mystery of his being and those of other creatures around him, man realizes that there must be a supreme being behind these mysteries who deserves praise and worship since all things owe their existence to him. man, therefore becomes essentially religious. over the years, however, good number of religion has developed with millions of adherents. each religion makes claim concerning man’s ultimate end and the way to attain it. sometimes, these claims can be conflicting with each individual believing his or her faith to be the ultimate, and therefore, looks at other opposing views with suspicion and rejection. in nigeria, this tendency is found more conspicuously between muslims and christians. often time, christians see their muslim brothers as enemies and verse versa. this study employs critical method to evaluate how the situation can be rescued through interreligious dialogue. the research discovers that both christianity and islam ultimately propose to foster interreligious dialogue, and quite certain, little progress has been made so far in nigeria. yet a deeper sense of interreligious dialogue needs to be fostered between the two religions if peace and the long needed social development are to be achieved. keywords: religion, dialogue, islam, muslim, catholicism, nigeria 1. introduction v.c. ogbo (2018, p.42) noted that one of the earliest surviving criticisms of islamic moral values is to be found in the writings of john damascus (676-749) who was familiar with islam and arabic. he noted that the second chapter of his book, the fount of wisdom, titled “concerning heresies,” presents a series of discussions between christians and muslims. john claimed an arabian monk (whom he did not know was bahira) influenced muhammad and viewed the islamic doctrines as nothing more than a hodgepodge culled from the bible (ogbo, 2018, p.42). in tenth and eleventh –century syria, there lived a poet called alma’arri. he became well known for a poetry that was affected by a pervasive pessimism. he labeled religions in general as ‘noxious weeds’ and said that islam does not have a monopoly of truth. he had particular contempt for the ulema, writing that, “they recite their sacred books, although the fact informs me that these are fiction from first to last. o reason, thou (alone) speaks the truth. then perish the fools who forged the religious traditions or interpreted them (ogbo, 2018, p.42). in his examination of the three faiths, the jewish philosopher, ibn kammuna, offered a critique of islamic values. he reasoned that the sharia was incompatible with the principles of justice, and that this undercut the notion of mohammad aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 136 being the perfect man. there is no proof, according to him, that mohammad attained perfection and the ability to perfect others as claimed (kamuna, 1971, pp.148-149). ibn kammuna thus claimed that people converted to islam from ulterior motives: that is why, to this day we never see anyone converting to islam unless in terror, or in quest of power, or to avoid heavy taxation, or to escape humiliation, or if taken prisoner, or because of infatuation with a muslim woman, or for some similar reason. nor do we see a respected, wealthy and pious non-muslim well versed in both his faith and that of islam, going over to the islamic faith without some of the aforementioned or similar motives (kamuna, 1971, pp.148-149). similarly, maimonides, one of the 12th century thinkers, criticized what he perceived as the lack of virtue in the way muslims rule their societies and relate to one another. in his epistle to yemenite jewry, he refers to mohammad as ‘hameshuga’ – literary, ‘that mad man’ (hartman & halkin, 1993, p.5). in of the standard of taste, an essay by david hume, the quran is described as an ‘absurd performance’ of a pretended prophet who lacked a just sentiment of morals. attending to the narration, hume says, “we shall soon find that muhammad bestows praise on such instances of treachery, inhumanity, cruelty, revenge, bigotry, as are utterly incompatible with civilized society. no steady rule of right seems there to be attended to; and every action is blamed or praised, so far as it is beneficial or hurtful to the true believers” (ogbo, 2008, p.43). the hindu philosopher vivekananda commented on islam as follows: now, some mohammedans are the crudest in this respect, and the most sectarian. their watchword is: “there is one god, and mohammed is his prophet.” everything beyond that not only is bad, but must be destroyed forthwith, at a moment’s notice, every man or woman who does not exactly believe in that must be killed; everything that does not belong to this worship must be immediately broken; every book that teaches anything else must be burnt. from the pacific to the atlantic, for five hundred years blood ran all over the world. that is mohammedanism. nevertheless, among ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 137 these mohammedans, wherever there is a philosophic man, he was sure to protest against these cruelties. in that he showed the touch of the divine and realized a fragment of the truth; he was not playing with his religion; for it was not his father’s religion he was talking, but spoke the truth direct like a man ((ogbo, 2008, p.43). referring to the founder of islam vivekananda further comments that the more selfish a man, the more immoral he is. this, according to him, also applies to race. he observes that that race which is bound down to itself has been the most cruel and the most wicked in the whole world. he then noted that there has not been a religion that has clung to this dualism more than that founded by the prophet of arabia, and that there has not been a religion, which has shed so much blood and has been cruel to other men. he observes that: in the koran there is the doctrine that a man who does not believe these teachings should be killed, it is mercy to kill him! and the surest way to get to heaven, where there are beautiful houris and all sorts of sense enjoyments, is by killing these unbelievers. thinks of the bloodshed there has been in consequence of such beliefs (ogbo, 2008, p.44). dayanand saraswati in fact doubted that there is any connection of islam with god. according to him, had the god of the quran been the lord of all creatures, and been merciful and kind to all, he would ever have commanded the mohammedans to slaughter men of other faith: “if he is merciful, will he show mercy even to the sinner? if the answer be given in the affirmative, it cannot be true, because further on it is said in the quran, ‘put infidels to sword’” (ogbo, 2008, p.44). in other words, he that does not believe in quran and the prophet mohammad is an infidel; he should therefore be put to death. saraswati then concludes that since the quran sanctions such cruelty to non-mohammedans, it can never be the word of god. winston churchill condemning some islamic moral values says that the effects of such values are apparent in many countries: “improvident habits, slovently systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of (life and) property exist wherever the followers of the prophet rule or live” (ogbo, 2008, p.44). the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. he added that the fact that in mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property – either as a child, a wife, or a concubine – aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 138 must delay the final extinction of slavery until the faith of islam has ceased to be a great power among men. in his words, “no stronger retrograde force exists in the world. far from being moribund, mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith…and were it not that christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilization of modern europe might fall, as fell the civilization of ancient rome” (ogbo, 2008, p.44-45). according to sadegh hedayat, “every aspect of life and thought, including women’s condition, changed after islam. enslaved by men, women were confined to the home. polygamy, injection of fatalistic attitude, mourning, sorrow and grief led people to seek solace in magic, witchcraft, prayer, and supernatural beings” (ogbo, 2008, p.45). agreeing, with hedayat that islamic values produces a variety of social ills in the regions it conquered, philip schaff asserts that: “mohammedanism conquered the fairest portions of the earth by sword and cursed them by polygamy, slavery, despotism and desolation. the moving power of christian mission was; the moving power of islam was fanaticism and brute force (ogbo, 2008, p.45).” in the same light, james barton regrets that in islam: man is reduced to a cipher. human agency and human freedom are nullified. right is no longer right because it is right, but because allah wills it to be right…it has become a deadening doctrine of faith. man must believe and pray, but these do not ensure salvation or any benefits except allah wills it…even in the most extreme forms of the augustinian and calvinistic systems there were always present in christianity other elements which prevented the conception of the divine sovereignty from paralyzing the healthy activities of life as the mohammedans doctrine has done (barton, 1918, p.139). during a lecture given at the university of regensburg in 2006, pope benedict xvi quoted an unfavorable remark about islam made at the end of the 14th century by manuel ii palaiologos, the byzantine emperor: “show me just what muhammad brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached” (ogbo, 2008, p.45). benedict xvi was of course an advocate of interreligious dialogue and he believes that through dialogue, we may gain a deeper understanding of each religion and be able to relate better with one another in the society. ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 139 much of misunderstanding in nigeria today which has been responsible to various crises is a result of lack of understanding and mutual coexistence between the two major religious traditions in the country, namely islam and christianity. the bone of contention in most cases is the exclusive claim to the truth of divine revelation by adherents of each of these religious groups. rather than bring peace and development, such a development contributes in keeping nigeria backward. this attitude of rejecting the tenets of other religions and placing one’s own religion first had been a problem confronting humanity from early times. during a quarrel between muhammad and some meccans, the meccans inquired from some jews who visited and said to them: “jewish people, you are the first scripture people and know our quarrel with muhammad. is our religion better or his?” (kenny, 1997, p.75). they jews said to them, “your religion is between than his, and you are more in the right” (kenny, 1997, p.75). the issue here is the claim that one’s religion is better than other religions. the people of mecca believed that their religion was superior to that preached by muhammad. the jews who were equally suspicious of the islamic religion did not hesitate to subordinate islam to the meccan religion. you find out that people regarded some religious tradition as inferior to others. muhammad too was not an exception. about the jews came the qur’an verse (4:51-2, 54-5): have you not seen those who were given part of the scripture? they believe in jibt and taghut and say to the unbelievers that these are better guided than those who believe. god has caused them…and they jealous of what god has given some people in his favour? (that is prophecy) we gave the family of abraham the scripture and wisdom and a great kingdom. some of them believe in it, while other turn from it and hell will suffice for their burning (kenny, 1997, p.75). in the above passage, we find that the qu’ran in regards adherents of other religions as unbelievers. for the holy book, only the muslims are true believers. this passage also accuses the jews of jealousy of the gift of prophecy which god has given to mohammad and condemns nonbelievers to hell fire. such is the outcome of the situation whereby dialogue is excluded in the relation between various religions in the society. thus, a fundamental concern in the dialogue between christians and muslims in nigeria is the competing claim to the truth of the beliefs of the different religions. are the claims of each tradition being the only source of theological truth justified? with this basic theological question in view, this word is divided into six sections. the first is the introduction. the section looks at the meaning and definition of aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 140 interreligious dialogue. the third and the fourth present the fundamental teachings of the catholic church and islam respectively on interreligious dialogue. in this section attention is paid to the vatican documents and post vatican documents on the one hand, as well as the koran and writings of islamic scholars on the other hand. the fifth section considers the experience of interreligious dialogue in nigeria by both christians and muslims, while the last section is the conclusion. interreligious dialogue is all about human interaction and relationships (fults, 2020). thus, as sandi fults (2020) noted, it can take place between individuals and communities and it can feature on different levels. it can take place in both formal and informal settings, for instance, in schools, in our working places, between neighbors, etc. dialogue is therefore expedient inasmuch as we come into daily contact with each other in the course of life (fults, 2020). now, that muslims and christians in nigeria share many things in common including the environment, school, market, workplace, political party is incontestable. in the words of fults (2020), “muslims and christians live on the same streets; use the same shops, buses and schools.” interreligious dialogue, therefore, becomes “part of daily life during which different cultural and religious groups interact with each other directly, and where tensions between them are the most tangible.” this tension may be a result of the conscious or unconscious belief that one’s religion is better off than the others’. the question, however, is: can such a claim be justified? with this in mind this study is divided into six sections. the first is the introduction. the section looks at the meaning and definition of interreligious dialogue. the third and the fourth present the fundamental teachings of the catholic church and islam respectively on interreligious dialogue. in this section attention is paid to the vatican documents and post vatican documents on the one hand, as well as the koran and writings of islamic scholars on the other hand. the fifth section considers the experience of interreligious dialogue in nigeria by both christians and muslims, while the last section is the conclusion. 2. meaning of interreligious dialogue the term “dialogue” can be understood as that which involves the recognition of difference not as a way of foreclosing engagement, but as a way of seeing and engaging with each other (awoke, et al. 2020, p.113). interreligious dialogue “is about people of different faiths coming to a mutual understanding and respect that allows them to live and cooperate with each other in spite of their differences (fult, 2020).according to sandi fults, interreligious dialogue is a challenging process by which adherents of different religious traditions encounter each other in order to break down the walls of division that stand at the center of most wars (fults, 2020). interreligious dialogue, thus, is an interactive process by which people of varied religious traditions try to understand themselves so that religion may not be an instrument of division but of peace in the society. for, as fults (2020) rightly observes, “the objective of interreligious dialogue is peace.” it follows, then, that interreligious dialogue can take different forms. hence, fults writes: ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 141 interreligious dialogue has many faces. two people can come together and share the aspects of their respective faiths and struggle to understand that which s foreign. theologians can write papers, publish in journals, and convene to discuss the finer theological issues related to interreligious dialogue (and there are a multitude of theological issues). perhaps members of one faith tradition can join with members of another religion to improve a neighborhood…each of the above example is a form of interreligious dialogue (fults, 2020). from here it is clear that the invitation to dialogue is extended to everyone and not an exclusive preserve of the religious leaders. hence, the clarification which fults provides with regard to this point cannot be ignored. he further remarks that interreligious dialogue “refers to cooperative and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions…at both the individual and institutional level” (fults, 2020). the methodology for dialogue which fults provides is of particular importance. he remarks that in the process of dialogue, it is importance that each of the participants makes no attempt to evangelize the others, as this tendency for evangelism is often accompanied by an attitude of exclusive superiority, namely “the spoken or unspoken belief that one’s religion…the only way in the ultimate sense of the term (fults, 2020). it is in line with the above assumption that fults provides some general guidelines for effective interreligious dialogue. some of these are worthy of our mention here (fults, 2020): i. participants in interreligious dialogue cannot use the encounter as opportunities to defend their own traditions. ii. interreligious dialogue should not be seen as a means to defend religion in general. iii. although conversion is not the goal of interreligious dialogue, yet it is possible that it may take place as participants may find themselves transformed by the interfaith encounter. iv. dialogue participants must reveal the beliefs that they hold closest and that define their tradition. v. since interreligious dialogue is an expression of the participant’s lived faith, it should form communities of awareness, keeping in mind that it is not a philosophical, theological or intellectual exercise. vi. since peace is the goal of interreligious dialogue, the process must be peaceful aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 142 this is why fults emphases that in interreligious dialogue, “each party remains true to their own beliefs while respecting the right of the other to practice their faith freely” (fults, 2020) see also otu, 2006, p.137). similarly, the pontifical council for interreligious dialogue (pcid) describes four forms of dialogue so that all can find a method that suits their experience: the dialogue of life, the dialogue of action, the dialogue of theological exchange, and the dialogue of religious experience (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). 3. interreligious dialogue in catholicism one cannot underestimate the impact of the church’s interreligious undertaking in today’s increasingly globalized world, especially as the vast human society finds itself everyday more intimately connected across the geographical, cultural and religious boundaries (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). the necessity of catholic church involvement in bringing about healing cause by division and misunderstanding in a world filled with conflict and tension is highlighted by pope francis in his september 1, 2013, angelus message (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). according to him, “it is neither a culture of confrontation nor a culture of conflict which builds harmony within and between peoples, but rather a culture of encounter and a culture of dialogue; this is the only way to peace” (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). the church’s relationship with the communities of other religious traditions was impacted by the second vatican council’s 1965 declaration on the relation of the church to non-christian religions, nostra aetate (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). as idara out (2006, p.135) remarks, “in nostra aetate, the council recognized that the church shares certain basic truths and values with other religions, and that humans share a common desire to probe the ultimate mystery of life.”here, the catholic church encourages her members in dialogue and collaboration with members of other religions. she believes that there are certain elements about other religious traditions which are good and true. the goal of the church, then, is to foster bonds of friendship, mutual understanding, and constructive collaboration among the world’s religions in the genuine service of humanity (otu, 2006, p.135). moreover, “all men form but one community. this is because all stem from the one stock which god created to people the entire earth (cf. acts 17:26), and also because all share in a common destiny, namely god (flannery, 2001, no.1). furthermore, in nostra aetate we read: “the catholic church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions. she has a high regard for the manner of life and conduct, the precepts and doctrine which, although differing in many ways from her own teaching, nevertheless, often reflect a ray of that truth which enlightens all men” (flannery, 2001, no.1). the relationship with islamic religion is particularly emphasized: the church also has a high regard for the muslims. they worship god, who is one, living and subsistent, merciful and almighty, ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 143 the creator of heaven and earth, who has also spoken to men. they try to submit themselves without reserve to the hidden decrees of god, just as abraham submitted himself to god’s plan, to whose faith muslims eagerly link their own (flannery, 2001, no.3). what the council fathers are saying is that the catholic church does not which to discriminate against the muslims. for, as a matter of fact they have a lot in common with us; and even with regard to the differences, the church still recognize the truth in some of these and has high regard for them. recognizing the many quarrels which have arisen between christians and muslims, the catholic church now wishes to enter into dialogue with the muslims in order to achieve a mutual understanding for the benefit of all. the council concludes “…let them together preserve and promote peace, liberty, social justice and moral values” (flannery, 2001, no.3). idara otu (2006, p.134) remarked that this welcome development was not the case prior to the vatican ii council. he says: vatican ii teachings on the relations of the church with other world religions are a watershed in the history of the roman catholic church. prior to the council, the church had adopted a cautionary and condemnary stand in its attitudes towards other religions…with the convocation of vatican ii, the church signaled a shift from the theological presupposition of extra ecclesia nulla salus (outside the church there is no salvation) towards the recognition of the possibility of salvation both outside the church and from non-christian religions (otu, 2006, p.134). reiterating the same point, thomas reese says, “for us, religious freedom is a matter of church teaching. we have to observe it, we have to respect it; whereas before vatican ii, we were not very respectful of religious freedom” (poggiloi, 2009). with nostra aetate, therefore, “the church sets its foot on the path of dialogue with other world religions” (otu, 2006, p.134). turning our attention to the post vatican ii documents, we find the same attitude of invitation to dialogue and collaboration. in its 1984 document, the attitude of the church towards the followers of other religions, the pontifical council for interreligious dialogue defined four kinds of dialogue: dialogue of life, dialogue of action, dialogue of aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 144 theological experience, and dialogue of religious experience (secretariat for nonchristians, 1895). pope benedict xvi added emphasis on being a pilgrim church journeying toward “the fullness of truth” in friendship with “fellow pilgrims” of other religions; appealing to the church in africa to live in respect and peace with muslims (otu, 2006, p.144). now, pope francis expands the dialogue further by emphasizing the fact that we all are pilgrims journeying together, seeking the radiant peace of god’s face (otu, 2006, p.147). hence, he expounded the need to develop a sense of “friendship” as a foundation for the dialogue that addresses the social ills of our world (otu, 2006, p.147). 4. interreligious dialogue in islam like catholicism, the emergence of dialogue in islam took a gradual process. it was altogether absent ab initio. for instance, during a quarrel between muhammad and some meccans, the meccans inquired from some jews who visited and said to them: “jewish people, you are the first scripture people and know our quarrel with muhammad. is our religion better or his?” (kenny, 1997, p.75). the jews said to them, “your religion is better than his, and you are more in the right” (kenny, 1997, p.75). the issue here is the claim that one’s religion is better than other religions. the people of mecca believed that their religion was superior to that preached by muhammad. the jews who were equally suspicious of the islamic religion did not hesitate to subordinate islam to the meccan religion. you find out that people regarded some religious tradition as inferior to others. muhammad too was not an exception. about the jews came the qur’an verse (4:51-2, 54-5): have you not seen those who were given part of the scripture? they believe in jibt and taghut and say to the unbelievers that these are better guided than those who believe. god has caused them…and they jealous of what god has given some people in his favour? (that is prophecy) we gave the family of abraham the scripture and wisdom and a great kingdom. some of them believe in it, while other turn from it and hell will suffice for their burning (kenny, 1997, p.75). in the above passage, we find that the qu’ran in regards adherents of other religions as unbelievers. for the holy book, only the muslims are true believers. this passage also accuses the jews of jealousy of the gift of prophecy which god has given to mohammad and condemns nonbelievers to hell fire. such is the outcome of the situation whereby dialogue is excluded in the relation between various religions in the society. thus, a fundamental concern in the dialogue between christians and muslims in nigeria is the competing claim to the truth of ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 145 the beliefs of the different religions. nowadays, however, islam like catholicism has embraced dialogue as a necessary tool for peaceful coexistence with other religions. the qur’an actually places emphasis on brotherhood and unity and makes invitation for peaceful coexistence among believers. thus, in sura:49, ayat 10, we read that “the believers are but a single brotherhood: so make peace and reconciliation between your two (contending) brothers; and fear god, that you may receive mercy” (mohammad, ? p.45). this passage is an invitation to dialogue among believers. in line with pope francis’ call for fraternal brotherhood, the qur’an calls us for reconciliation and peace, and these can only come about through dialogue. in the political realm, however, islam has been used as a tool for confrontation with, and conquest of others (kenny, 1997, p.45).but although the qur’an speaks of differences as real, it condemns the use of the notion of “difference” as a pretext to demonize or subjugate others (monti, 2019). turning our attention to the writings of islamic scholars, we also find the same attitude of invitation to dialogue and collaboration. according to monti, islam as a religion arose within the milieu where, among the arabs, there were christian and jewish communities who professed monotheism not practiced by other tribes (monti, 2019). people who eventually became muslims were always aware of many of the figures that were part of jewish and christian such as abraham and hagar; after the rise of islam these figures became integral to the belief system of the new religion even though they were now seen through a slightly different interpretative lens (monti, 2019). historically speaking, islam, while recognizing these religions, sought to engage with their adherents and even referred to them as part of the family of religions (ahl-i-kitab) (monti, 2019). this is the context in which this study locates islam’s position on interreligious dialogue. in this sense, islam has been dialogical from its very inception. 5. experience of interreligious dialogue in nigeria with regard to interreligious dialogue in nigeria, we can speak of both successes and failures. every religious tradition has grown through the ages in (dialogue and) historical interaction with others. christians, muslims and members of other religious communities, have shared not only villages and cities, but ideas of god and divine revelation. hence, hans kung’s opinion that: “there will be no peace among the nations without peace among the religions; there will be no peace among the religions without dialogue among the religions” (monti, 2019), becomes very relevant. with this in mind, we shall have a look at the experiences of both islam and catholicism in nigeria on interreligious dialogue looking primarily at their successes and challenges. one of the fundamental problems standing between christian-muslim relationships in nigeria is the claim of each religion to be the only source of theological truth. idara otu made a similar observation when he remarked, with reference to the church in africa, that “the main potential barrier to dialogue is the tendency of one of either religions to lay claim to exclusivity of revelation” (otu, aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 146 2006, p.141). this claim can hardly be justified. rather, the existence of both religions should be understood as an effect of interaction between different points of view and common effort of looking for the answers to the question about god and his relation to the world. in this way, the role of dialogue cannot be reduced to only a politically correct element but may be something more essential – the basis of reasonable existence and development of religions. a number of successes have therefore been recorded in this regard. here in nigeria there is the bishops commission for ecumenism and interreligious relations (igwe, 2018). many nigerian dioceses have similar commissions to implement the church’s teaching in response to the particular multi-religious mix in their respective territories. their mandate is to foster relations with the leaders and congregations of other religions, organize joint services to celebrate national events and to show a united religious response to local, national and international tragedies, publish messages on interfaith/interreligious relations and to promote the church’s teaching on interreligious dialogue. the following successes have been achieved:  the study of islam is undertaken in major institutions such as seminary schools  many christians now come to the understanding that there can be salvation outside the confines of christianity  christians and muslims coexist in one political party in nigeria in search of common good  during elections into political offices in nigeria, as was observed in the 2019 general elections, many christians happily voted muslims into political offices  catholic clergy take up further studies in islam in other to deepen our understanding of the islamic faith the above successes notwithstanding, and irrespective of the fact that there is a commission for ecumenism and interreligious relations in nigeria, from all indication little or no dialogue has been going on in recent times among christians and muslims in the country. hence, clashes, killings and political exclusion base on religion have characterized interreligious relationships. therefore, bearing in mind that it is not religion per say that causes conflict, but individuals who exploit religion for personal, commercial and political gains, efforts should be made in the spirit of love to meet the following challenges:  the study of religions other than one’s religion should be extended to other institutions in nigeria beginning from secondary schools  children in primary school levels should be thought to respect and value religions other than the one they profess  catholics should get more involved in politics in order to contribute their quota in seeing that nigerian constitution permits interreligious studies in ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 147 early school age of our children and to ensure that the religious tenets of a particular group is not imposed on others by the constitution  church leaders should learn to preach the message of love towards other religious adherents and highlight the need to forgive past mistakes.  the church should stand against violence and terrorism perpetrated in the name of religion. religion cannot justify intolerance or war; “we cannot kill in god’s name” (benedict xvi, 2010, p.120) see also (onayekan, 2011, p.46). 6. conclusion one of the fundamental problems standing between christian-muslim relationships in nigeria is the claim of each religion to be the only source of theological truth. idara otu made a similar observation when he remarked, with reference to the church in africa, that “the main potential barrier to dialogue is the tendency of one of either religions to lay claim to exclusivity of revelation” (otu, 2006, p.141). the study observes that since nigerians live in a community consisting of christians and muslims, there is need for mutual respect for each religion and this can only be achieved through dialogue. rather than sounding the alarm about the strength of christians as is often the case, it would be better to exert oneself for development of the country (buhimann, 1997, p.135), and this can hardly come about except we live in mutual understanding – except we engage in interreligious dialogue. similarly, it should be noted that reformism becomes islamism from the moment it adopt a specific program of introducing an islamic society to the exclusion of all others, from the moment it directs its energies towards the full application of sharia and the establishment of an islamic state (stamer, 1996, p.66). this development is contrary to the true spirit of interreligious dialogue which demands freedom of belief and religion. being the most religious nation in the world (onaiyekan, 2011, p.37), nigeria should as well be an exemplary nation, a true light of the world.the study started by defining the term interreligious dialogue. it then goes further to examine how it is welcomed or rejected in both catholicism and islam. it has been established in this regard that fundamentally, the catholic as well as islam is a promoter of interreligious dialogue. how this reality is lived in nigerian experience was then examined with regard to which the study identifies not only strengths but also some weaknesses. the purpose of the vatican ii document, nostra aetate, is given in its first paragraph as an examination of the relation which the church has to non-christian religions (flannery, no.1). this is motivated by the church’s desire to foster unity and charity among individuals since all shares in a common destiny, namely god (flannery, no.1). it is a profound awareness of this divine being, god that gave rise aquino journal of philosophy, vol.1(1), 2021 148 to religions in the first place including hinduism, buddhism, and other religions found throughout the world. the document remarks that: “the catholic church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions…yet she proclaims and is duty bound to proclaim without fail, christ who is the way, the truth and the life (flannery, no.2). based on this, the church urges her sons and daughters to enter into dialogue and collaboration with members of other religions, with prudence and charity. concerning the muslims, the document identifies great similarity between their faith and the faith of the church and urges that “a sincere effort be made to achieve mutual understanding” ((flannery, no.3) with them. it also acknowledges the common spiritual heritage which the church shares with jews and calls also for mutual understanding and appreciation through dialogue (flannery, no.4). god, in whose image we are all created, is the father of all (flannery, no.5). hence, there is no bases whatsoever for any discrimination. this study thus condemns all forms of discrimination on the basis of religion. this is because we all are god’s children as we are all created in his image and likeness. god becomes our common father. therefore, there is no ground for discriminations because we are brothers and sisters. moreover, there are certain things which are good and holy from other religions such as islam and judaism. however, this does not mean we can compromise the gospel of christ. although there may be some misunderstandings in the past, the surest means to true friendship is mutual dialogue. references awoke, e.e., okodo, m.o. okeke, j.p. (2020). “african traditional religion in dialogue with christianity: divergences and convergences,” journal of african theology, vol.29, pp.112-126. barton, j.l. (1918). the christian approach to islam. chicago: the pilgrim press. buhimann, w. (1997).the search for god: an encounter with the peoples and religious of asian. new york: orbis books. fults, sandi. (2020).“what is interreligious dialogue?” http://www.coistine.ie/what-is-interreligious-dialogue. accessed october 5, 2020. hartman, d. & halkin, a. (1993).epistles of maimonides: crisis and leadership. jerusalem: jewish publication society, idara otu, (2006). “magisterial teaching on the interreligious dialogue: from the african synod to pope francis’ visit,” in african ecclesial review, vol.58, nos.3&4, pp.132-155. kammuna, i. (1971).examination of the three faith. los angeles: macmillan press. kenny, j. (1997).early islam: background, the life of muhammad, the umayyad and abbasid caliphates echoes today. ibadan: dominican publications, monti, nicolas. “islam and inter-religious dialogue: a muslim perspective” in st francis and the sultan, 1219-2019: a commemorative booklet (2019), http://www.coistine.ie/what-is-interreligious-dialogue ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … 149 https://ofm.org/blog/islam-and-inter-religious-dialogue-a-muslim perspeective. accessed july 15, 2020. nazar, mohammad c.h. (ed.), commandments by god in quran (publication details not provided). ogbo, v.c. (2018).“on religion and morality,” in i.a. kanu and j.o.e. ndubisi, religion, morality and peace-building in africa: ambiguities and the imperfect human condition. mauritius: lap lambert academic publishing, pp.31-56. onaiyekan, j.o.(2011). “harnessing the power of religions in africa,” abuja journal of philosophy and theology, vol.1, pp.35-57. stamer, p.j. (1996). islam in sub-saharan africa. spain: konigstein. secretariat for non-christians, (1985) the attitude of the church towards the followers of other religions: reflections and orientations on dialogue and mission, (vatican city), https://journals.sagepub.com (july 11, 2020), p.xix. united states conference of catholic bishops,(2020) ecumenical & interreligious affairs, “interreligious,”https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical interreligiousaffairs/interrreligious. accessed november 29, 2020. vatican ii, declaration on the relation of the church to non-christian religions, (2001). nostra aetate, no.1, in flannery a. vatican council ii: the conciliar and post conciliar documents bandra, mumbai: st pauls. sylvia poggioli, “nostra aetate” (2019), https://text.npr.org/s.php?sld=453448972 .accessed july 6, 2020. https://ofm.org/blog/islam-and-inter-religious-dialogue-a-muslim-%09perspeective https://ofm.org/blog/islam-and-inter-religious-dialogue-a-muslim-%09perspeective https://journals.sagepub.com/ https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-%09interreligiousaffairs/interrreligious https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-%09interreligiousaffairs/interrreligious https://text.npr.org/s.php?sld=453448972 112 philosophy, the church and quest for socio-economic liberation in nigeria barnabas obiora idoko abstract nigeria as a nation is plagued by a lot of socioeconomic challenges, including poverty, unemployment, ethnicity, youth restiveness, terrorism, secessionist agitations, electoral fraud, political injustice, sectionalism, insecurity and militancy. many scholars have invested great amount of energy attempting to work out how these problems can be resolved. this study is one of these attempts; it used philosophy as a midwife for the church to realize her potentials as an institution. particularly, the study adopts the historical method of documentary analysis to investigate the possible roles the church/christianity in nigeria can play to achieve socioeconomic liberation for the country. this was based on the philosophical assumption that the church has a radical potency and capacity for confronting and transforming unjust social order. to this end, the paper discovered that at the center of nigeria’s socioeconomic problem is the failure of leadership and as such any effort to liberate the country from its present condition must be political in nature. however, maintaining the ecclesiastical paradigm that the church as a body should not get herself involved in partisan political activism, the paper outlined some possible functions by which the church in nigeria can contribute immensely towards the desired liberation. these included prophetic denunciation of the oppressive mechanism; promoting programs of raising social consciousness among the masses; practical alleviation of the conditions of the oppressed masses; peace building through positive reconciliation of the oppressed and oppressive members; and personal conversion of the ordinary man. the paper concluded that a combination of the task of spiritual and social liberation enhances the church, more than any other institution, to influence the socioeconomic life of the nigerians. keywords: philosophy, church, socio-economic liberation. 1. introduction social and political scholars often debate on whether or not the church should involve herself or play any role in the socioeconomic affairs of the society. in this evolving controversy, there are some philosophical and religious thinkers who argue that such involvement would jeopardize the church’s spiritual status as the universal sacrament of salvation. those in this category also believe that such involvement will endanger the well being of the society considering that modern societies are generally multi religious. an intervention by the church, the argument goes, might elicit a reciprocal reaction from other religious groups, islam for example and lead to conflagration of society. a. gill on this ground claims that the church in particular and religion in general are increasingly irrelevant in idoko philosophy, the church and quest for … 113 modern social life (a. gill, 2001, 117-138). also, the subsisting 1999 nigerian constitution (section, 10) and indeed all the previous nigerian constitutions have consistently provided that, the government of the federation of nigeria shall not adopt any religion as state religion. hence, the generally held notion of secularism of the nigerian state essentially derives from this constitutional provision. in any case, it has to be noted that the secularization worldview is not a nigerian peculiarity. it is a phenomenon that started in western europe and north america but has currently spread to most countries across the world. nevertheless, there are other scholars who have shown that the refusal to confront societal socioeconomic injustice calls into question the church’s selfunderstanding as the light and salt of the earth (callaway 2011, 1). these argue that the church has something positive and substantial to contribute to the quest for socioeconomic societal liberation. to this end, dillon, m. (2003) argues that the “church illuminates the everyday experiences and practices of many individuals; is a significant component of diverse institutional processes, including politics…and plays a vital role in public culture and social change.” in the same token, levy, g., & razin, r. (2012) maintains that the significance of the church and religion to social liberation cannot be dispensed with. it will seem more appropriate to take a re-conciliatory or midway position that while she is not expected to become a political organization, the church has a substantial role to play in socioeconomic liberation by acting as a principled guide, moral watch dog, spiritual counselor and conscience to the society. the aim of this paper, therefore, is to establish philosophically that implicit in the sacred and sacramental mission of the church is her social ministry as an instrument of justice in an unjust socioeconomic system, an instrument of reconciliation and peace in a conflict and crisisridden society, as well as an instrument of freedom in an oppressive structure. this position is practically at variance with karl max perception of the church. the paper argues that participation in the process of socioeconomic liberation for the realization of justice is a task, even a sine qua non’ for the church as both a religious and viable social institution. the decision to pursue socioeconomic liberation of nigeria in this research is informed by the level of socioeconomic injustice currently prevalent in nigeria. as pointed out at the abstract, the overwhelming upsurge of secessionists’ groups in nigeria these days such as ipob (indigenous people of biafra), people of oduduwa, the boko haram and banditry insurgency in the north, end sars protesters and other similar movements are commonly interpreted as demonstrations against the state resulting from the strains of injustice in the system and as signaling the level of discontent among the citizenry especially the young people. the historical method of documentary analysis adopted in the paper involves the consultation of existing documents to validate the claims made in the work. the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 114 discussion is divided into three broad sections. the first section attempts a clarification of the key concept, ‘philosophy ‘and ‘church’ as the paper uses it. the second section discusses nigeria’s unjust socioeconomic system and the reality of the need for liberation. the third and final section deals with the liberating role of the church in achieving the desired justice in the socioeconomic life of nigeria. it is maintained in the paper that the church’s socioeconomic engagement in the pursuit of justice should not be construed to mean that as a body it should be expected to leave the ministry of the word of god to serve tables by getting herself involved in a violent revolutionary overthrowing of governments or even in partisan political activism. the liberating role of the church should be such that will enhance her influence on the socio-political and economic order without jeopardizing her spiritual and evangelistic vision and mission. some possible functions are outlined by which the church in nigeria can contribute immensely towards the requisite liberation that would create the desired atmosphere of justice. 2. conceptual elucidation of philosophy and the church historically, philosophy is understood as the fundamental of all disciplines: the basic human inquiry which has yielded the multiplicity of all disciplines that take care of virtually all aspects of human life. it is an inquiry which is the mother of all inquiries and from which all other modes of inquiries originated. philosophy is also an attitude to life. this is closely linked with the etymological meaning which portrays philosophy as a conscious quest for knowledge. philosophy in this regard is that critical attitude to life which is characterized by curiosity to know, openness of the mind to all issues, lack of dogmatic assertions or stand, tolerance and preparedness to examine everything without prejudice. it is from this perspective that philosophy is used in this research to serve the purpose of socioeconomic liberation of nigeria through the church. scholars usually conceptualize the church in two senses: the institutional and organismic senses. in one sense, the church is used as an institution while in another sense it is used as an organism. the church as an institution is defined by van reken as the “formal organization that sets out to accomplish a specific purpose” (1999, 198). according to him: it is an agent which can do things; and can say things because it has its own voice. the church as an institution has its own purposes and plans, its own structure and officers, and its own mission. it has its own proper sphere. in many ways it parallels other institutions, like governments or schools. idoko philosophy, the church and quest for … 115 it is from this perspective that c. n. ogugua (2019, 31) understands the term, church to mean an organized people of god, a spiritual and moral force to be reckoned with. on the other hand, the church as an organism refers to “the church as the body of believers, the communion of believers” (van reken 1999, 198). the distinction between the two concepts of the church is that while the institutional church refers to a unified organization, the church as an organism refers to an aggregate of individual believers in which each christian acts as a personal agent with a purpose and a call in god’s plan. based on this distinction, van reken goes further to distinguish between “church work” and “kingdom work”. church work, according to him, is the work that a christian does as an agent of the institutional church, while kingdom work is the work that a christian does in service of his lord not as an agent of the institutional church but in his/her secular vocation or calling, whether as a plumber, a teacher, or a politician (van reken 1999, 198). this twofold meaning of church reverberates in jim harris’ view when he says: “by ‘church’ i mean both the individual believer and the institutional entity” (harris http://thebigpicture.homestead.com/ churchinpolitics.html). it therefore means that in discussing the role of the church in the pursuit of justice in the socioeconomic system of a given country, we are invariably dealing with the part that both individuals and the corporate body have to play in the society. 3. socioeconomic/political injustice in nigeria: an evolutionary approach nigeria became independent from great britain in october 1960. however, by january 1966, the civilian government was brutally ousted by the nation’s military. central to the arguments of the soldiers, for toppling the government in power was the question of corruption, in which the adherents of each of the two major religious persuasions in the country were self-evident participants. in addition to leadership sleaze, there was inter-tribal hatred in the national polity. hence, the first military coup of january 1966 in the country and the counter coup in july of the same year, featured on massive scales, alleged and proven cases of tribal induced murder of the nation’s leaders. profoundly found in the country at this time were deep-seated ethnic antagonisms, not religious bigotry. a civil war ensued (the nigeria-biafra war) fought between july 1967 and january 1970. at the end of the warfare, the military remained in power, with intermittent pretenses of handing over the affairs of the state to civilians, whom they would subsequently bring down. s. i. ebohon, and n. o. obakhedo, (2012) argue that despite the heterogeneous nature of the nigerian state and its concomitant defects, the nation at independence, was seen as a beacon of hope to many other nation-states in the continent. that is to say that no matter the circumstances, nigeria held the prospects of a strong developmental state that would be a rallying point to other states. the reason for this huge confidence was that nigeria was perceived as a regional economic hub and political force and an african regional super-power. the military mishap in the politics of the country however unfortunately accelerated the pace of bringing the emergent state to its developmental nadir. the military in the country continued to stage counter coups aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 116 against subsisting military governments in the nigerian state. hence, leadership instability (as driven by the soldiers) remained a permanent feature of governance in nigeria, from october 1960 to may 1999, when the men of the armed forces seemed to have finally surrendered power to civilian politicians. however, in all of the foregoing, another enduring feature of national affairs in the country is what seems to border on elite determination to guarantee that the nigerian nation fails to survive as a nationally prosperous entity, for the good of all her citizens. consequently, either in military fatigues or civilian garbs, the power elite in nigeria possesses a seemingly irrepressible tendency to gravitate towards the thieving of national resources. citing ihonvbere c. c. ojukwu & j. o. shopeju (2010) contend that the country’s picture and identity is replete with confused, factionalized and extremely corrupt elites, with a limited sense of nationhood. these elites, ojukwu & shopeju argue, lacking strong and viable base in production, turns the state as its primary instrument of primitive accumulation and in the end, the state is mangled and rendered impotent, in the quest for nationhood, growth and development, much less democracy. hence, according to t. soniyi (2012), it was estimated that $400 billion of nigeria’s oil revenue had been stolen or misspent since the country’s independence in 1960. the estimation was attributed to a nigerian-born former world bank vice-president for africa, dr. oby ezekwesili. in that same year (2012), almost 100 million nigerians were living on less than $1 (£0.63) a day (bbc news (2012). world population review (world population review, 2015), highlights that nigeria’s current population is in the region of 194.0 million people out of which almost 100 million were living on less than $1 (£0.63) a day. furthermore, according to l. nwabughiogu (2015), nigeria’s vice president, yemi osinbajo, had disclosed that about 110 million nigerians were still living below poverty line in the country, despite the policies of past governments to improve their welfare. it is however held in this study that elite grandstanding had fully tainted such policies of government, thereby making them largely ineffectual, as such policies were not truly designed with the needy citizens in mind. in the face of these apparent distresses, b. ademola-olateju (2013) then ponders: why are nigerians content at setting new unbecoming standards every day? bad roads? take it to the lord in prayer! comatose healthcare system? bad diseases will not be our portion in jesus name! collapsed educational system? what will be will be, our children are overcomers! epileptic power supply? may the good lord bind all the principalities, demonic spirits and the powers of darkness preventing nigeria from enjoying stable electricity supply! in consequence, nigerians sit on their hands, praying idoko philosophy, the church and quest for … 117 for celestial edicts to be beamed down to them from god’s majestic throne. nigeria’s contemporary narrative therefore borders on hopes betrayed by the elite and new expectations solely hoisted on the benefaction of the almighty by the citizenry. it is also a history of evident elite-arrest of a national system what ebohon & obakhedo (2012) have similarly depicted as elite constructivism. in addition, embodied in these configurations, is a critical case of apparent acquiescence to such state capture, by the subaltern class of the nigerian polity. 4. the church and the socio-economic liberation of the nigerian society as already noted at the introductory part of this work, participation in the process of socioeconomic liberation for the realization of justice is a task, even a ‘sine qua non’ for the church both as a religious and viable social institution. christians are to take positive actions to destroy all forms of oppression and injustice wherever they are found (hastings 1976, 91). nevertheless, this does not mean, that the church as a body should be expected to leave the word of god to serve tables by getting herself involved in a violent revolutionary overthrowing of governments or even in partisan political activism. the liberating role of the church should be such that will enhance her influence on the socioeconomic order without jeopardizing her spiritual and evangelistic vision and mission. this will involve her confronting and challenging every unjust, oppressive and exploitative structure with christian values and ideals. this implies a prophetic and priestly role for the church in nigeria, just like amos, isaiah, jeremiah, micah and other prophets in the bible. in this role, the church can, along with her direct spiritual vocation, be committed to the process of justice, human liberation and social transformation by fulfilling the following five functions: prophetic denunciation of the oppressive mechanism; promoting programs of raising social consciousness among the masses; practical alleviation of the conditions of the oppressed masses; peace building through positive reconciliation of the oppressed and oppressive members; and personal conversion of the ordinary man. we shall now examine these points in some details. 4.1 prophetic denunciation of the oppressive mechanism the church’s prophetic stance obligates her to confront and challenge the systems of corruption and injustice which oppress, exploit and deprive the masses by criticizing and judging them by the gospel standards. the church in nigeria, in the words of archbishop cyril garbett, is to “fight the world by bearing against it militant and prophetic witness … shown in open attacks on the sins of the world … and expose the falseness of the values accepted by the world …” (ryan 1987,159160). by means of official statements from ecumenical bodies like can, ecclesiastical councils, critical and corrective sermons, and so on, such unjust systems can be decried, denounced and called to order. such prophetic calls can function to disturb the comfort and untouched conscience of the affluent in the society whose power and wealth are accumulated at the expense and to the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 118 detriment of the impoverished peasants. as the proclaimer and interpreter of the divine purpose and will for the nation, the church can act as a moral check on the activities of the ruling class, rejecting, resisting and denouncing ungodly and unpopular policies which prevent the full realization of justice and equity in the society. she can provide an “alternative voice” through the establishment of a more reliable, intrepid and independent media for the dissemination of her prophetic messages to the nation. as a prophet the church can function as the conscience of the nation, the voice of the voiceless, a critic of unjust institution and an iconoclast in the oppressive tradition. as s. i. omoera points out, the church is “to be aggressive … in condemning sin” in demanding for justice, and in fighting “the battle of the poor, the hungry …” against a system that “too often turns deaf ear to their appeals” (hastings 1987, 93). 4.2 promoting programs of raising social consciousness among the masses in line with francis bacon’s sagacious assertion that knowledge is power, this is a social educational program aimed at creating socio-political awareness among the people for an eventual peaceful elimination of the structures of oppression. it is a gradual but effective approach to structural change through a re-orientation of the group and individual’s consciousness. the sensitization of the masses involves, among other things, the provocation, stimulation, creation and building up of “a new awareness in them” to give them “a new consciousness” which encourages them “to see the possibility” and “accept responsibility for their own development.” it also involves the mobilization of the masses “to join hands together for positive action towards change” (omoera, 1987, 125). the goal of this mental liberation is to emancipate the nigerian minds from such “fatalistic world view” which makes them to resign themselves to the culture of poverty and hopelessness. it enables them to be able to see their “capacity to create a better society for themselves” (adegbola 1987, 69 70). this is the attitudinal aspect of liberation philosophy in which the marginalized, oppressed and down-trodden masses are able to face the future with meaningful and reasonable optimism. this is done by helping them to see themselves in the light of the biblical evaluation of themselves. such function disabuses and emancipates their minds from the belief that god has destined their lot to be so. this attitudinal aspect of liberation philosophy also involves the sensitization of the upper and middle class elite members of the church to the real nature and extent of the plight of the oppressed, thereby soliciting their change of attitude, sympathy and commitment to the cause of the oppressed. it may be that some of them do not actually realize the full implications and effects of their activities on the masses. they may likely change for better and help to change their colleagues when their consciences are awakened. 4.3 practical alleviation of the conditions of the oppressed masses the church’s liberation work as the champion of the cause of the poor, weak and oppressed masses does not end with attacking the perpetrators of injustice and oppression “afflicting the comfortable”, but also includes the alleviation of the idoko philosophy, the church and quest for … 119 miserable and painful condition of the victims of the system “comforting the afflicted”. this will necessitate practical concern with economic programs for the improvement of their conditions, since the callous bureaucratic system would only frustrate the hopes of the helpless masses for such projects if left in their hands. this goes beyond mere charity works for the provision of subsistence needs. the churches can embark on practical socioeconomic projects such as we see in some latin american countries. this can include building of hospitals, establishing cooperative bodies for joint venture, scholarship funds for students from poor families, educational programs for those who are disadvantaged by the government’s educational system, organizing training programmes in business and technological skills. although some of these projects have been undertaken by some churches already, their lack of liberating tendencies is obvious when we try to answer the question, which category of people benefit from them, the poor or the rich members of these churches? in addition to this, the church must also seek for ways of influencing public policies to favor the improvement of the poor and powerless masses, since she is their last hope and place of refuge. 4.4 peace building through positive reconciliation of the oppressed and oppressing members the priestly role of reconciliation is another major social function of the church in the process of socio-political and economic liberation. unlike the marxist approach to justice, which implies the elimination of the oppressive rich for the liberation of the oppressed poor, the christian approach to justice seeks to create a community of reconciled people, the rich and the poor, the oppressor and the oppressed. it is “a peace-creating justice which binds together in a new transformed community” (hellwig 1974, 169). the church’s liberation ministry is, therefore, a ministry of positive reconciliation of both parties and not that of violent revolution. the church is to show concern both for the deplorable conditions of the victims of injustice and oppression and also for the ultimate judgment on the vices of the oppressors. thus, its prophetic indictments of the oppressive status quo should not be mere arbitrary, malicious and vindictive criticisms of the system, but rather constructive and corrective criticisms which ultimately aim at the eventual liberation of both the oppressors from their vices and the oppressed from their victimization, thereby reconciling them. this fact is aptly captured in the statement cited by uchegbue that “god does not seek the destruction of members of the ruling classes who are willing to change their ways … in order to create a new system…” (uchegbue 1985, 99). 4.5 personal conversion of the ordinary man the church’s liberating mission in nigeria goes beyond commitment to mere philanthropic activism or welfarism, protesting against social injustices and motivating and mobilizing people for active participation in social transformation. religion essentially sets a transcendental goal by helping us to realize that life is more than the satisfaction of immediate material needs of hunger and poverty aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 120 (luke 12:15; matthew 6:25). as douglas webster cited in norman autton rightly pointed out, the human tragedy is sin and not hunger while the worst privation is ignorance of god rather than social inequality. therefore, though poverty, exploitation, oppression, and so on seems to be the prevailing problems of our day which provide the church with “the context for mission”, the “contents” of her mission are not determined by them. in the final analysis, the church’s mission is ultimately and supremely concerned with god (autton 1972: 226-227). according to him, though “man does need bread”, he needs god above all (autton 1972: 227). thus while the church seeks for socio-political and economic liberation to provide a more just system in nigeria, it must relentlessly and without distraction seek for the spiritual liberation of the people – a change in the personal man himself. if social changes are to bear lasting fruits, a deep-seated conversion and fundamental spiritual transformation of the individual members of society – the oppressed, the oppressors and the liberators are of indispensable necessity. the reason is that the ordinary, normal, usual or average man is inherently corrupt. history has proved that the revolutionary of today may become the reactionary of tomorrow and the progressive of today may become the conservative of tomorrow unless they are inwardly transformed themselves. how can one under the iron shackles of evil and wickedness change an evil and wicked system? this reflects the picture of the hypocritical liberators presented by the apostle peter in his second epistle where he writes, “while they promise them liberty, they themselves are the servants of corruption: for of whom a man is overcome, of the same is he brought in bondage” (2 peter 2:19 kjv). 5. conclusion this study has used critical analysis to demonstrate that nigeria, like many countries of the world today, especially, countries in africa is in great need of socioeconomic liberation. it is also very obvious that the church as a sacred institution with indispensable social significance and relevance can and should contribute significantly towards the realization of this noble responsibility. what is needed, for the church to enhance her effectiveness in fulfilling this aspect of her mission therefore, is a balanced form of theological and philosophical orientation which is both spiritually oriented and socioeconomically relevant. this will produce a kind of church “that calls the world evil and steps into the world, looks at its evil forms full in the face, and does something to change it” (verkuyl and schulte 1974, 69). it is in this light that edmund ilogu rightly comments that “there is no hope for calling any organization a church that has not manifested the marks of christ’s fight against evil in the world” (ilogu 1964, 275). such a church that must be able to fulfill this task must be a dynamic and progressive church rather than a static and conservative church that arbitrarily supports the status quo. as iwe equally points out, “only a creative church with a high sense of ministry and commitment can effect significant contributions to the life of its people” and idoko philosophy, the church and quest for … 121 adequately, legitimately and competently work for the welfare of society …” (iwe 1979, 161). in sum therefore, a combination of the task of spiritual and social liberation enhances the church, more than any other institution, to influence the socioeconomic life of the nigerian society positively. it is no exaggeration to maintain that an inspired, honest, faithful, dedicated, converted and courageous church, through its clergy and laity, remains a powerful agent for social change and liberation of the citizens of a callous, corrupt, inept and exploitative society like nigeria. in other words, the church in nigeria has the mandate, message and method which can contribute greatly in the attempts to solve the socioeconomic problems of the country. references adegbola, adeolu e.a. (1987). “the church of the middle-class elite” in s.a. adewale. ed. christianity and socio-political order in nigeria. ibadan: the nigerian association for christian studies, 47-85. ademola-olateju, b. (2013). “nigeria and we, its 170million stupid people”. http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/147023-bamidele-upfront nigeria170million-stupid-people-bamidele-ademola-olateju.html. autton, norman. (1972), “christianity and change” the expository time. vol. lxxxiii, no.8. may. bbcnews (2012). nigerians living in poverty rise to nearly 61%.http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17015873. callaway, mary. (2011) “the role of the church in politics” online: http://www.helium. com/items/calvin/the_churches_role_in_ social_ justice.pdf. . created on: february 24,. accessed 10/31/2020. dillon, m. (2003). “blurb”, in dillon, m. (ed.) handbook of the sociology of religion. cambridge: cambridge university press. ebohon, s. i and obakhedo, n.o. (2012): ‘‘the elite and the failing nigerian state”. nigerian journal of social sciences, 8(1): 10-32. gill, a. (2001). religion and comparative politics. annual review of political science, 4(1), 117-138. hastings, adrian. (1976) african christianity. london: geoffrey chapman. hellwig, monika. (1974). “the theology of christian hope.” chicago studies. vol. 13, no. 2. summer, 169-175 levy, g., & razin, r. (2012). religious beliefs, religious participation, and cooperation. american economic journal: microeconomics, 4(3), 121-151 nwabughiogu, l. (2015). over 100m nigerians living below poverty line – osinbajo.http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/08/over-1-million-nigerians living-belowpoverty-line-osinbajo/ ogugua c. n. (2019), “diagnosing the problem of africa and the way out” journal of igbo academics http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/147023-bamidele-upfront-%09nigeria170million-stupid-people-bamidele-ademola-olateju.html http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/147023-bamidele-upfront-%09nigeria170million-stupid-people-bamidele-ademola-olateju.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17015873 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 122 ojukwu, c. c., & shopeju, j. o. (2010). elite corruption and the culture of primitive accumulation in 21st century nigeria. international journal of peace and development studies, 1(2), 15-24. omoera, s.i. (1987). “church and state relations in a new nigerian political order” in s.a. adewale. ed.christianity and socio-political order in nigeria. ibadan: the nigerian association for christ studies, 121 – 139. ryan, charles p. (1978) “a liberation theology for nigeria” in s.a. adewale. ed. christianity and sociopolitical order in nigeria. ibadan: the nigerian association for christian studies, 140 –161. soniyi, t. (2012). $400bn of oil revenue stolen, says ezekwesili. http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/-400bn-of-oil-revenue stolensaysezekwesili/123472/ uchegbue, christian o. (1985) “biblical prophecy and its relevance to the contemporary nigerian situation”. unpublished b. a. project. university of calabar. verkuyl, johannes and h.g. nordholt schulte. (1974) responsible revolution: means and ends for transforming society. grand rapids: william b. eerdmans publishing company. http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/-400bn-of-oil-revenue%20%09stolensaysezekwesili/123472/ http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/-400bn-of-oil-revenue%20%09stolensaysezekwesili/123472/ journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 167 abstract this article offers philosophical appraisal and analysis of the role of marriage and family as the nucleus, the sustenance and the future of the african society in the face of modernity. in their attempt to evolve ways of life appropriate to our modern world culture, african people and their society face a number of challenges; some stem from the values and practices of their traditions, while others rise from the legacy of european colonialism. defending the cross-cultural applicability of philosophical concepts developed in western culture, the paper attempts to show the usefulness of such concepts in addressing a wide range of african problems. to attain insight into this relationship, three major areas of literature are reviewed: the concept of family, marriage and modernity, the key features of african society in the face of modernity and its impacts on marriage and family. a review on the impacts of modernity on marriage and family provides an understanding of changes in socioeconomic conditions, and the personal values, beliefs and behaviors that are perceived as the major socio-economic development processes in the modern era. the discussion on modernity and its impacts on marriage and family in africa provide a comprehensive explanation of family and marriage change from both theoretical and empirical perspectives, from which the rationale for this article is built. the review concerning african family life is aimed at giving an interpretive summary illustrating trends and patterns in family change. keywords: african society, family, marriage, modernity. introduction one of the most pervasive global phenomena that affect human social life all over the world is the impact of modernity. modernity is the self-definition of a generation about its own technological innovation, governance, and socioeconomics. modernity influences not only the intimate and personal aspects of human lives, but also impacts social, cultural, and religious traditions and institutions around the world. the peculiar nature of the african culture is evidence in their way of life depicted in marriages and family relationships, legal systems, religious, economic and political structures. stated that these value structures or systems were used to ensure and promote order of socialization and morality in the african society (madukwe & madukwe, 2018). they (madukwe and madukwe) stated that: the traditional culture and value system may not be perfect, but they serve the purpose of which they were meant to serve and kept the society moving without the rancor and disorganization experienced in the role of marriage and family in the contemporary african society ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, ph.d 168 the modern-day african society. unfortunately, the eventual contact with western culture and civilization and subsequent upsurge of globalization are threatening to erode these well-established values and practices (2018:45). africa's traditional culture, values and practices have withered and are still withering through well programmed western spells, storms and cultures that have pervaded through almost all facets of human life and activities. this does not imply that the diffusion of western culture spells a bad omen for africa but, the argument here is that africa had a culture which shaped the traditional african society economically, socially, legally and morally, and serves to maintain social order. attempting to completely condemn the western culture and globalization is not the intent of the researchers, but simply that of encouraging africans to sift or separate the 'kernel' from the “husk”. this is because the place of the family, which marriage is the pivotal foundation for the learning of cultural values is quite necessary because marriage and family is believed to be the nucleus, the sustenance and the future of the african society. traditional african family patterns are slowly but progressively being altered as a result of the process of modernization which is exhibited through trends like urbanization. family patterns that were the norm in traditional rural african societies are gradually being altered and substituted by modern values. the african practices, relevance and functions are being socially disfigured by the intrusion of modern western values (adinlofu, 2019, september 10). the marriage and family's affective role as reveal by peterson (2009, august 10) includes: promoting and safeguarding the health of children as well as instilling moral and social values in them, with the overall goal being to ensure that the next generation is productive and socially responsible (2009:21). to execute this role parents and other adult family members generally exert considerable influence as teachers and role models for children through skill building, limit setting or discipline, and as models of healthy and competent behaviour. the nurturing and supporting role of the family as noted by mokomanne (2012:14-5) can: enhance the social and economic empowerment of both older persons and young people. essentially, developing connections with a younger generation can help older adults to feel a greater sense of fulfillment, while linking older adults with youth can provide advantages for both groups including providing an opportunity for both to learn new skills; giving the child and the older adult a sense of purpose; helping children to understand and later accept their own aging; invigorating and energizing older adults; helping reduce the likelihood of depression in the elderly; reducing the isolation of older adults; and helping keep family stories and history alive (2012:14-5). the transformation of societies in africa from rural to urban settings due to modernization has immensely contributed in triggering changes in family structure. this aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 169 has triggered the distortion of cultural/traditional norms and values that characterized rural communities in the region. african families are increasingly faced with the challenge and pressure emanating from the competition prevailing between traditional and modern family values. hence, contemporary family patterns in the region are increasingly subjected to transform and adapt to changing times. the major trends in family structures in africa and their shifts across the modern world over the past decades are well known. fertility rates have declined below the level sufficient for the replacement of the population and childbearing occurs later and more often outside marriage (fahlén & oláh, 2015). marriage, too, is being postponed and is more often foregone, and couple relationships both marital and non-marital ones have become more fragile. madukwe and madukwe (2018) revealed that half of the unmarried births are to mothers who are in cohabitating relationships, and seven in ten children of cohabitating couples will experience parental separation. the dissolution rate of cohabitating couples is four times higher than married couples who did not cohabitate before marriage. he noted that by the late 20th century, fertility rates had declined well below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman on average, while marriage and parenthood had been delayed to more mature ages, new forms of couple relationships emerged while the propensity to marry decreased and family dissolution became quite frequent even among couples with children. ladies now prefer to be single mother in order to have maximum freedom without restrictions of a husband. people are increasingly refraining from long-term commitments in respect of partnership formation and childbearing, which indicates a destandardization of the family life course. with the rise of modernity, marriage and family composition in africa seems to be undergoing sequent adaptive processes. at the same time, africa, while roughly following the developmental pattern of earlier developing countries, has made adaptations in accord with its own historical and cultural experiences. societies change as they come in contact with external influences and social organizations and relations become more complex. the nature of change may be dramatic or gradual and, in either case, change affects the norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, socialization process, and the general ethics that distinguish the group from every other, especially in this age of globalization. since change can either be positive or negative and may have practical implications for survival of the society in question, it is imperative to interrogate observable transmogrifications being experienced. meanwhile the problem is that african family patterns are increasingly faced with the challenge and pressure between traditional and modern family values and structure. there is the steady increase in the pace towards the abandonment of african traditional practices for modern (western) ones. however, the most popular trend is that of the prevalence of family patterns that are increasing merging traditional and modern marriage norms or practices which if not attended to might have a negative implication to the african society. the transformation of african society towards modernity and westernization and its attendant social changes has greatly altered most african traditional institutions one of such institutions been marriage and family system. nwobodo the role of marriage and family in the contemporary african society the main objective of this paper is to philosophically appraise the role of marriage and family as the nucleus, the sustenance and the future of the african society in the face of modernity. specifically, this article seeks to examine the relationship between modernity and changes in marriage and family structure. the key features of african society in the face of modernity and its impacts on marriage and family, with the goal of illuminating the changes that are characterizing their prevalence. conceptional analysis african concept of marriage the beginning of a legitimate family is marked by a socially and culturally acceptable legally consummated union called marriage. the marriage institution is a common phenomenon present in every society; however there are difficulties defining the concept marriage. marriage can be perceived from different facets, as an institution, a partnership, a lifecycle phase and as a role. the institution of marriage is considerably subjected to the trend of accommodation to the process of industrialization/modernization (adinlofu, 2019, september 10) socioeconomic circumstances are encountering changes which forge alteration of the fundamental values of culture. marriage constitutes a vital variable that is pivotal for procreation. the distortion of its structure tends to serve as a medium where socioeconomic changes associated with the main values of culture can be measured. traditional tenets of african marriages are increasingly subjected to stabilize amidst sporadic societal changes emanating from modernization. marriage and family are two concepts in one which are at the center of any culture across the globe, especially in africa (okaba, 2006). they are seen as the foundation of human existence, honored and considered to be sacred because it was instituted by god himself which explains the much attention given to it and the celebration that accompanies the final process of marriage. marriage is a socially approved mating relationship that people expect to be stable and enduring. the family and societal expectations in marriage are high because a breakdown of marriage is associated with a widespread negative effect on the couple, children, extended family members and the society at large. africans have a high respect for marriage and family values at all times and this creates the sacredness of this institution to the social functioning of individuals and society members. despite various socio-economic, social, religious, political and cultural changes, the marriage and family institutions remain quite auspicious for society functioning. in the past, marriages conducted are strictly the responsibility of the extended family members as it does not only concern the couples-to-be, outcomes of marriage contract are extended familial members concerns. in traditional rural african societies, the contraction of marriage was dominated by arranged marriages whereby parents usually indulged in the selection of marriage partners for their children; this was mostly common for their daughters. this was done without the consent of the children. however, in contemporary african societies this has been altered to the extent that some countries have adopted policies that strive to advocate for the consent of both parties that are to be married as was the case of the tanzania marriage act of 1971 and the ivory coast civil code of 1964 (therborn,2006). this does 170 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 not imply that the involvement of parents in the marriage of their children has been halted. the adoption of these acts has helped to promote the recognition of the consent of the parties to be married, and as well as fostered the existence of the acknowledgment that it is the right of prospective partners to select their partners. despite this development, the selection of marriage partners is still done with the consent of family members. bigombe and khadiagala defined marriage simply as the union of a man and woman but more recently in western countries, the union of same sex persons (though quite controversial in most countries because it negates cultural and moral values according to some individuals, it is rather strange in some society and seen as a taboo in african cultural value system) is being accepted as a legal marriage. it solidifies relationships that enrich communities and nations by bringing forth new lives, new hopes as well as diffuse ethnic barriers that tend to prevent unity. this perspective of the african marriage underscores the reason for involvement of families and sometimes the entire community in the marriage processes of any intending couple; marriage in africa is seen as a cherished and most celebrated norm and rite of passage for male and female members of the society and a fulfillment of parental obligations and roles as parents give out their children and also expect to receive or receive new members or persons into the family (bigombe and khadiagala). some of the basic traditional african concepts in marriage before the influx of western culture are: in contracting marriage, it is not just the business of the couple but that of the different extended families involved. therefore, the consent of family members must be sought and obtained. it was not just a two person affair but the entire family and sometimes the community was involved (madukwe & madukwe, 2018). marriage was seen as an aspect of promoting cohesion and cementing of a bond between two extended families, compounds and communities. in most african communities, very close families or friends go into marriage engagement of their children immediately they are born as a sign of bond in their friendship. this was the foundation of the concept and process of marriage contract and betrothal experienced in different african societies and cultures. polygamy was accepted and seen as a sign of wealth. burke (2010, may 17) asserts that, so used were the women to a polygamous marriage that sometimes the marriage of a second wife is provoked by the first wife who urges her husband to take a second wife to help her in the farm work. the resultant effect is a large family with so many children, and each wife performing different task or responsibilities as to sustain her position and secure a future for both herself and the children, indirectly, seeking marriage and family stability. children were highly valued in african marriages. practically speaking, the birth of a child marked the real consummation of a sustained marriage and crisis free marriage. so much were children valued that a marriage without children was seen as a curse from the gods and it was a very good reason strong enough for divorce or polygamy. sex was treated as a sacred reality. sex outside marriage was a taboo, hence to play with sex as an unmarried couple or partner, especially the female partners in marriage, merited a curse and brought shame to the family. virginity in the 171 nwobodo the role of marriage and family in the contemporary african society african tradition was held in high esteem. virginity attracted an increase bride-wealth and a reward to the mother of the bride. so sacred was the issue of sex that burke (2010) wrote that, even husband and wife within an african home are reserved in their behaviour before their children. the public expression of any type of sexual familiarity is repugnant in the african value system and practice. this is also witnessed and emphasized among the christian religious faith. these value systems had however suffered some degree of neglect as individuals no longer trust their partner's productivity and libido level, so they are encouraged to secretly or openly engage their partners in sexual activities to be sure of the partner's qualitative nature. for africans, marriage is one of the yardsticks for measurement of real men in the society. this explains the rites of passage carried out in some societies for young men and women matured enough for marriage as part of the initiation process into the institution of marriage. example of one of this most valued aspect of the cultural process is the “fattening room” practiced by the efiks in cross river state, for their female members of the family. african concept of family the most basic institution in any society is the family and it is the social context into which members of a society derive their primary identity. philosophers and sociologists have come up with different definitions of the family and this is owing to the fact that the family has various manifestations, organization and structures in various societies. according to knuttila (2005) one can talk of various types or forms of family, including primary, secondary, single parent, nuclear, and extended. in this sense hence, okodudu defines the family as a domestic group in which parents and children live together, and in its elementary form consists of a couple and their children. ingiabuna, olumati and sele (2003) define family as a universal institution whose most important functions are to socialize and nurture the younger generation. for charles (2012) the family is a group of people related by ancestry, marriage or other committed sexual relationship, or adopted and live together, form an economic unit, and rear their children (if any). similarly, ingiabuna and obaro defined family as a social group whose members are related either through common ancestry or marriage and are bound by moral and economic rights and duties. the family is perhaps the most vital personal care network in human society. from different perspectives many people have tried to define the family but failed to give a definition that could be applied to all societies (united nations, 2006). from the foregoing, the various definitions emphasized different ideas about what the family is, however what is striking and cross-cutting in all is that: i. the family is a group of people related or connected by bloodline, marriage rite or adoption ii. they share common residency. they live together. iii. they share sentiments of oneness. they view themselves as a unit. iv. they share values and responsibilities. perform caretaking services for others especially the very young. the family is the most basic trait of social organization in africa and indeed the globe in 172 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 terms of socialization, child upbringing, transfer of cultural activities and knowledge embedded in the process of socialization. it is the traditional african institutions responsibility for the transmission of traditional norms and values, beliefs, knowledge and practical skills to the members of the society for their future survival, because the first point of interaction for any member or child for whatever reason is in the family. according to ocholla-ayayo (2009), it is also the socio-biological unit that ensures orderly reproductive continuity of the human race. the family in a typical african perspective is the cradle of human values and development. broadly defined, a family includes all persons existing in an area or a group of people with common ancestors. this definition connotes an extended family system which is the pillar of african support system. however, in a more restrictive term, a family may refer to a smaller group consisting of the husband, wife or wives, the children and probably dependants that form a part of the household. as a result of society growth, development, change and continuity, there are current developments that create a unique picture and differentiation between african and other family systems in the globe today. according to madukwe and madukwe (2018), the traditional african culture does not recognize a nuclear family structure but rather cherish and practice the extended family system whose membership include not only the man, his wife or wives and children but also blood relations of a common descent such as grandchildren, grand mothers and fathers, nephews, nieces, cousins and aunts. an african becomes fulfilled in life only in relation to the fulfillment of other members of the family. madukwe and madukwe (2018) gave a vivid description of an african family as: “a system whereby everybody is linked with all the other members living or dead, through a complex network of spiritual relationship into a kind of mystical body. consequently it is not just being that the african values, being rooted in kinship are an equally important existential characteristic of the africans” he is never isolated since persons are assimilated into one parental role. a person is an individual to the extent that he is a member of a family, a clan or community. africans cherish children and by extension large families which gives individuals a sense of belonging, hence, this serve as the core factor for the sustainability of the extended family system till date, despite the socio-economic challenges in homes. therefore, an african counts his blessings with regard to the number of children he or she has. this creates an inward satisfaction irrespective of one's social or economical status. the following are the types of african family structures being practiced in different parts of the continent: (a) nuclear family, (b) extended family, (c) single parental family, (d) step family, (e) matrilineal family structure (f) patrilineal family structure (g) monogamous family and (h) polygamous family structure. researchers have variously shown that these categories of the family systems mentioned do not often exist as exclusive families; they have been influenced by social change and other factors, thus at some point in society, they exist as combined or mixed level. concept of modernity due to the impacts of colonialism, neo-colonialism and globalization, modernization is conceived, by africans, as synonymous with westernization or europeanization. this in 173 nwobodo the role of marriage and family in the contemporary african society turn, led african countries, lose their identity and indigenous cultural values. gyekye (1997) is an african philosopher who argues that the critique of modernity is the first philosopher whose works, particularly, “tradition and modernity” discusses intensely on modernity. gyekye (1997) used the term for the first time to distinguish between the “ancients”, the masters of the ancient classical culture, and the “modern”, their present heirs. when he discussed the contemporary meaning of modernity, he pointed out that modernity is culture dependent and, indeed, is linked to western culture; particularly from the seventeen century on. he asserted that: modernity can be defined as the ideas, principles, and ideals covering a whole range of human activities that have underpinned western life and thought since the seventeen century. in addition, other philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists and theorists at different times understood the concept modernity in different and divergent ways. despite the different views and propositions proposed by sociologists, it is widely accepted that a complex and modern society differ in several key respects from any previous type of social order, and their development has had significant consequences stretching far beyond their origins in europe (giddens, duneier & appelbaum). as mentioned above, a definition of the term “modernity” presents many difficulties as a social scientific concept because of the various disciplinary understandings that cover economic, political, and philosophical sphere. much recent discussion however relates to a somewhat narrower definition focusing on changes in specific areas. today there are many new trends in family form but it cannot be said that these are all due to modernity. yet modernity is definitely one of the important reasons (giddens, duneier & appelbaum). gyekye (1997) clearly explicated the notion of tradition, he noted that in order to clearly understand the concept modernity, we have to first clearly conceive “what traditional is” all about. the reason is both modernity and tradition are cultural phenomena and as we have seen earlier modernity is initially introduced to oppose the “antiquus vetus” the old cultural practices or traditions. unless we (african) critically investigate and reflect on concepts like “modernity” we will be forced to conceive only as it had been forwarded and elucidated by the colonial anthropologists, and will continue to use the concept as an anchoring point for further analysis and evaluation of our present cultural phenomena. as messay (2004:209-210) stated: "africa will not really attain its cultural (historic, political, and economic) maturity as long as it does not elevate itself resolutely to a profound thinking of its essential problems, that is to say, to philosophical reflections." tradition is a broad concept that may cover a range of cultural elements including “modernity. tsenay (2006) defines tradition as a belief or practice transmitted from one generation to another and accepted as authoritative, or deferred to, without argument. for [20], tradition is unchanging; it is unquestionable. however, gyekye (1997) conceives tradition in a totally different way: “the fundamental and persistent meaning of 'tradition' is that which comes down or is inherited from the past and becomes an enduring element in the cultural life of a people. he (gyekye) insists that every tradition does experience a change. there is no “absolutely changeless” tradition; though the degree of change may vary from one society to the other. 174 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 tradition is created by people at some point in time. thus, that particular generation is considered as the creator of some cultural values, and these values may or may not transcend across the next generations. at every stage across the generations, the people create some new cultural values in addition to what they have inherited from their ancestors. those cultural values which manage to survive and transcend at least for three generations would be assumed to reach the maturity level of cultural values or cultural productions where they can be labeled as tradition. however, this does not mean that any cultural practice or institution that has lasted a mere three decades (generations) would be regarded as a tradition. thus, gyekye (1997) in his horizontal line represented the fate of cultural values as they pass from one generation to the other. the dynamism of these modern institutions not only undermines traditional habits and customs worldwide, but also intrudes into the most personal and global aspects of human life. diffusion of innovation theory this paper adopts the diffusion of innovation theory propounded by rogers, principally to explain the how, why and what new ideas as well as modernity (technologies) spread through cultures. how are these new ideas, technologies and artifacts integrated into the society with the existing “old” ones without causing social disorder in the society? according to this theory, innovation is communicated through particular channels overtime among the members of a social system. some of these channels are seen as: knowledge: exposure to its existence and understanding of its functions. persuasion: forming of a favourable attitude to it decision: commitment to its adoption implementation: putting it into use confirmation: reinforcement based on positive outcome. the theory proposes that generally those who have early encounters and knowledge are more highly educated, have higher social status and are more open to both mass media and interpersonal channels of communication. the theory further seeks to explain the sources and causes of alteration and neglect of the african marriage and family system to include amongst other things westernization, globalization, urbanization as well as increase and changes education have been blamed as the major causes of alteration of the african marriage institution. the early practitioners and receptors of these ideas are those with increase educational status, those who have been exposed to western culture through migration to western countries or movement from the rural area to urban dwellings. thus, as they gain knowledge of these new values they are persuaded by the simplicity and ease of application of the western marriage values and practice such as ease of contracting marriage, cohabitation before bride wealth of bride price, the ease of separation without family interference etc. they implement these practices thus altering and neglecting the african traditional way of contracting marriage which is supposed to be a gradual process involving families as well as adopting nuclear family structures while abandoning the extended family structures that are associated with the burden of family commitments. features of african society in the face of modernity and its impacts on marriage and family marriage and family still remains a prominent nexus in the social life of africans. in 175 nwobodo the role of marriage and family in the contemporary african society africa, there is considerable importance attached to the respect for elders and ancestors. makinwa-adebusoye (2001) outlined the major characteristic features of african household to be that they are mostly rural, patriarchal and hierarchical, polygamous and open to kinship networks, and finally they attached substantial importance to lineage continuation. the demographics of families are changing, and with that, the philosophical underpinnings of relationships are also changing. many young adults feel marriage is oldfashioned and confining, and that open cohabitating relationships provide a healthier option that is more conducive to personal development. if a relationship does not provide personal happiness, parents often believe that their children will adapt to new family relationships so that divorce or separation will have few long-term, adverse consequences. these beliefs have led to marriage occurring later, women having fewer children and doing so later in life, single mothers giving birth to many of our children, more parents cohabitating, and fewer children living with their married, biologic parents. molitoris, barclay and kolk (2019) asserted that: the demographics of families are changing, and with that, the philosophical underpinnings of relationships are also changing. many young adults feel marriage is old-fashioned and confining, and that open cohabitating relationships provide a healthier option that is more conducive to personal development (p. 1349). if a relationship does not provide personal happiness, parents often believe that their children will adapt to new family relationships so that divorce or separation will have few long-term, adverse consequences. premarital childbearing in african countries is becoming an important phenomenon demographically and socially in part because of its implications for single mothers, their children, and society. contemporary african family patterns are subjected to changes that emanate as a result of the ameliorated economic conditions, education and health opportunities as a result of modernity (smithgreenaway & clark, 2018). these factors continuously exert tremendous impact on contemporary family patterns in africa. socioeconomic circumstances in the africa are encountering alterations that have to a considerable extent triggered changes in the fundamental cultural values most especially in the domain of the family. the occurrence of competition between traditional and modern family patterns illustrates a dichotomy. there is a rise in the pace towards the abandonment of traditional practices for modern ones (western). however, the most popular trend is that of the prevalence of family patterns that are increasing merging traditional and modern marriage norms, values or practices. the advent of modernity has inherently fostered a progressive transformation of african family organization marked by the drift from larger family size to small size households, single parenting, same sex union etc. perelli-harris (2009) identified the changes taking place in family patterns such as changes in family size to be a characteristic of the second demographic transition process. it is marked by the reorientation of family values from extended families to smaller family sizes (nuclear). according to perelli-harris (200) the shift in society is inevitable and is part of the process of modernization. one major area 176 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 that has encountered or is experiencing alteration is the size of family that is the number of children that married women give birth to. it is imperative to highlight that family size discussions in the region is renown to be dominated by the extended family settings whereby a family is not made up only of a married couple and their children but also include uncles, aunties, grandparents to name a few. extended families still have quite a strong hold in africa despite the advent of modernization (therborn, 2006). the main reason for this has been linked to the role that extended family plays as social security in the society. marriage in most african countries is universal. there is early and universal female marriage (okaba, 2006). the age at first marriage is experiencing slight delay than it was before as a result of modernity. marriage in africa is subjected to the task of adapting amidst sporadic changes emanating from the society. marriage is still quite important in african communities, the age at first marriage ranges between 17 to 22 years for women. it varies across regions depending on regional and ethnic practices. the age of first marriage has experienced a slight increase in most countries in africa (therborn, 2006). it has risen since the 1950s to 1990s in guinea from 16 to 19 years, from 15 to 18 years in niger. in nigeria it has risen from 19 to 20 years, ivory coast from 19 to 21 years and zimbabwe from 19 to 21 years during the 1980s and 1990s. countries like south africa and botswana have much later ages of marriage which has rose from 26 to 27 years. the percentage of the female population that is married by age 23 was 82 percent in mali, and 90 percent in niger. both of these countries have relatively high fertility rates (rogers). contrary to this, contemporary african countries are gradually experiencing slight changes in the age of marriage at which women get married as later age of 25 and above. meanwhile, madukwe and madukwe (2018) revealed that family structures in africa are experiencing changes due to modernity which are felt in childbirth rate that is the number of children, and age at first marriage. in order to comprehend contemporary african fertility, one needs to understand that there has not been any traditional fertility control in the light of limiting family size, and also that the practice of female abstinence has been a vital feature of societies in the region. this, they identified as been the reason for the resistance and apprehension mounted by most people in the region to modern methods of fertility control which were perceived as being unnecessary in the region. the number of children women in the region are averagely giving birth to is progressively declining even though the rate is not quite significant. the locus of most traditional african countries is centered on the perception of large families as an asset especially in rural subsistence agricultural societies (makinwa-adebusoye, 2001). from the foregoing, it is deducible that the conventional definition of marriage is that it is a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are recognized as legitimate offspring of both parents. however, okodudu asserts that the idea of marriage has changed in recent times. in much of the western european countries, marriage has been conceptualized as a union between two consenting adults irrespective of their sexes with or without approval from their parents or family; hence same sex marriages are being contracted today without the possibility of having children, except that it is a relationship between two consenting adults that has been recognized by law. however, in nigeria and most part of africa, marriage remains a union of two consenting adults (male and female) but largely 177 nwobodo the role of marriage and family in the contemporary african society with the express support and approval of the immediate families of the individuals involved in the relationship. marriage also confers upon a man various rights over a woman. these rights are in two classes: rights to a woman's sexual and domestic services, which is right in uxorem and rights to a woman as a mother i.e. rights over her offspring which is called rights in genetricem (okodudu). as of 1999, in nigeria, 32.7 percent of married women were in polygamous marriages that were made up of two or more wives (makinwa-adebusoye, 2001). this is characterized by the trend of early marriage; most of the women got married quite young, mostly to older men. polygamy constitutes a prime feature of rural africa. marriage in contemporary africa is substantially marked by the movement from polygamous marriages to monogamous marriage. this is prominent in urban areas in the region mostly amongst the younger generation. the practice of polygamy was centered on the notion of precluding the situation of husband shortage. monogamous marriages have become the norm, based on the fact that the contraction of marriage has substantially drifted from polygamy to monogamy. this however does not mean that polygamous marriages do not occur; its scale is smaller nowadays than it was before. the introduction of christianity in most of the countries, to a certain extend has a great role to play for this as well. the contraction of marriage in the region is increasingly marked by the union of one man and one woman. this in principle has not been the case in rural african societies, where marriages between one man and two or more wives dominated. modernization as well has been pinpointed to be responsible for these changes. african family patterns are increasingly faced with the challenge and pressure between traditional and modern family values and structure. there is the steady increase in the pace towards the abandonment of traditional practices for modern ones (western). however, the most popular trend is that of the prevalence of family patterns that are increasing merging traditional and modern marriage norms or practices. some of other practices taking place include non-marital childbearing and single parenthood; nonmarital unions are as well gradually gaining momentum in the region. looking at the mentality of single mothers and celebrities towards marriage, the question is; what about the family, the children and what becomes of the african society in future? this is because a good founded and structured marriage will give birth to sound family with proper ideals that forms and nurtures the individual by inculcating the attitude of right thinking and consciousness of being a responsible person, in turn forms a society with the right mentality. regrettably, this is fast eluding us. conclusion this paper philosophically appraise the role of marriage and family as the nucleus, the sustenance and the future of the african society in the face of modernity and by extension refers to other family systems across the globe. it identified some basic areas where the african marriage and family values, culture and practices have been altered or neglected as a result acculturation through modernization. the argument in this paper is not to disregard the western culture and some of the benefits inherent in them nor does the paper attempt to claim that the african concept, values or practices as regards marriage and 178 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 family (viewed as the nucleus, the sustenance and the future of the african society) are better but rather it argues that the traditional cultural african marriage remain the best on the basis of the settings in which africans found themselves because it posses all the ingredients and practices that can make marriages and families successful and hence its total alteration and neglect may spell doom for african societies. therefore, africans should not be in a hurry to give up their culture and traditions; rather, we should take only the “kernel” from the influx of ideas associated with marriage and family from the western world and gladly throw away the “husk”. it is worthy of note to explain in this paper that the concept of acculturation is a dual contextualization, so western and african family systems must interface each other to create a conducive platform for operation and interaction. the study therefore recommends the following: ·the process of mate, seeking and contracting of marriage should be taken seriously by africans, communities and societies so as to add value and credibility to the institution of marriage. ·parents should insist on a gradual and steady but inquisitive process of courtship and mate seeking or selection during which time the seriousness of the lover's intention can be affirmed. ·the sacredness of marriage and sex should be upheld right from the early child rearing stage with parents as models to curb sexual indecency. ·the practice of rites of passage should be restored to prepare the young men and women transiting to adulthood. this will reduce the unpreparedness syndrome in our society that has made marriage a temporal union rather than a life time union. ·extended family structure should be strengthened to help the unprivileged young ones from poor homes the opportunity to be supported in their education. ·the value and cultural respect for child rearing pattern and upbringing should be given quality attention and consideration as family morals inculcated in the children will determine the continuous upholding of marriage values and practices. ·for marriage and family to be right in its sense, efforts must be made to internalize in the minds of the young people, the tenets of an ideal marriage and family, that will bring intending couples into the right disposition to be more committed in preparing for marriage more than the way they prepare for their weddings. references adinlofu, e. 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(1997). tradition and modernity: philosophical reflections on the african experience. oxford: oxford university press. ingiabuna, e.t. & obaro, o. kinship, marriage and the family. yenagoa: ceecia prints and publications. ingiabuna, e.t., olumati, j.c. & sele, a.p. (2003). readings in nigerian peoples and culture. warri: about research publishers. knuttila, m. (2005). introductory sociology: a critical approach, (3rd edi.). canada: oxford university press. madukwe, c. & madukwe, h. (2018). “african value system and the impact of westernization: a critical analysis society for research and academic excellence." journal of anthropology, vol. 12, no. 3, 44-46. makinwa-adebusoye, p. (2001). socio-cultural factors affecting fertility in sub saharan africa. lagos: the nigerian institute of social and economic research (niser). messay, k. (2004). africa's quest for a philosophy of decolonization. new york: rodopi press. mokomane, z. (2012). “social protection as a mechanism for family protection in subsaharan africa”. international journal of social welfare, vol. 3, no. 1, 14-15. molitoris, j., barclay, k. & kolk, m. (2019). “when and where birth spacing matters for child survival: an international comparison using the dhs”. journal of demography, vol. 56, no. 5,1349–1370. ocholla-ayayo, a. (2009). “the african family in development crisis in the second millennium.” journal of african anthropologist, vol. 10, no. 3, 66-68. okaba, b. (2006). african indigenous institutions and societies. port harcourt: amethyst and colleagues publishers. okodudu, s.a. fundamentals of sociology, (2nd edi.). port harcourt: thompson and thompson nigeria ltd. perelli-harris, b. (2009). “the path to lowest low fertility in ukraine”. journal of population studies, vol. 66, no. 3. 54-55. peterson, r. (2009, august, 10). families first: keys to successful family functioning. available: www.ext.vt.edu. rogers, e.m. diffusion of innovations, (5th ed.). new york press: free press of glencoe. smith-greenaway, e. & clark, s. (2018). “women's marriage behavior following a premarital birth in sub-saharan africa”. journal of marriage and family, vol. 80, no. 10, 256–270. therborn, g. (2006). african families in a global context. nordica: nordica african institute. tsenay, s. (2006). philosophy and post-colonial africa. in, african philosophy: an anthology. eze, e. c. (ed.) usa: blackwell publishers. united nations (2006). family: challenges for the future. switzerland: united nations publications. 180 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 journal of philosophy-4th-edition (aquino)-2022 89 abstract the smooth-running of the government of any nation depends on how far the proper use of reason is enthroned through adequate education. when the intellectual faculty of man, which he was endowed with at creation, is positively put into use, then peace will reign and insecurity could be eliminated. assurance of security remains fundamental in any nation worthy of the name. the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria section 14 (2)b states that: “the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of government.” the realization of this article has become an uphill task. despite emphasis of security and welfare of the people, nigeria is currently bedevilled by a festering security challenges that have ceaselessly culminated in the loss of innocent lives. these reckless killings being witnessed presently in every corner of nigeria is being perpetrated by human beings gifted with reason at creation. one then begins to wonder where man's natural gift of reason has gone to. no doubt, proper use of reason insures a progress, tranquility and respect for the fundamental rights of others. when reason is improperly used, the resultant effect could be any kind of imaginable evil. this research uses expository and critically evaluative approaches. it discusses the preeminence of positive use of reason in subduing the earth and the attendant intellectual security. it exposes insecurity and its variegated forms. that leads us to making appeal to use of critical thinking as a proper way out of the current impasse with regard to security. keywords: subduing. security, insecurity, and critical thinking. introduction man is the only animal endowed with reason (animal rationalis). at creation he was enjoined to subdue the earth. to subdue the earth entails using his natural gift of reason for the betterment of his environment be it physical or intellectual environment; though the latter has both epistemological priority and priority in time. it is when the intellect is properly trained and guided that the resultant effect will touch the both the environment and the rest of us. presently insecurity has become a cankerworm that is eating deep and ravaging every corner of nigeria today. it has become a festering sore that appears apparently incurable. the nation is speedily relapsing into untold anarchy and those that are supposed to act seem to be doing virtually nothing; they appear to be unperturbed. it is either they are overwhelmed by the enormity of onslaught or they are guilty bystanders. apparently, the situation is getting out of control. there is daily news on how inhabitants of a town or village are massacred in cold blood; how innocent travelers are ambushed and slaughtered; how unarmed citizens are kidnapped and humungous ransom required in order to release them. in some cases the ransom is collected and the victim at the same theo-philosophical import of “subdue the earth” (gen.1,28): subduing insecurity in nigeria through critical thinking. evaristus ifeanacho, ph.d 90 time killed. the powers that be need to churn out strategies for addressing the current collapse of security in the country. there is need for urgent solution. such solution will be arrived at through critical thinking and extolling the primacy of reason over violence. a country whose leaders are learned should be able to apply their reason in mapping out ways of combatting insecurity and its attendant crime waves. at this juncture, a plethora of worrying questions comes to mind. since we have earlier enjoyed a relatively good security, how come it that insecurity has assumed the centre stage? more so, since these violent acts are perpetrated by human beings endowed with reason, how could the use of reason be re-prioritized in the academic curriculum of our institutions of learning? how could intellectual security be inculcated in students in their various levels of academic pursuit? evidently, the task is going to be all-involving and has to start from the grassroots. such attempt could demand the reforming of the education sector and inject a proper spirit of critical thinking starting from the lowest rung of the educational ladder. the primacy of reason in subduing the earth man is the only creature that is created in god's own image (imago dei). in fact, “humans are the pinnacle of the created world” (clifford and murphy, 1990, p.5). this is evidenced by the fact that man shares in the light of divine mind. consequent upon his endowment with intellect the document of second vatican council maintains that “he surpasses the world of mere things. by diligent use of his talents through the ages he has made progress in the empirical sciences, in technology, and in the liberal sciences” (pastoral constitution on the church in the modern world, 1998, no.15). even the world of machinery remains the “fruit of the work of the human intellect and a historical confirmation of man's dominion over nature” (john paul ii, 1981, no.5). with this intellectual supremacy, man is therefore meant to master and bring his environment under control. further still, the divine injunction of subduing and dominating the earth is predicated on the divine spark that man was endowed with at creation. that goes to distinguish him as a person and he is as such “a subjective being capable of acting in a planned and rational way, capable of deciding about himself, and with a tendency to selfrealization” (john paul ii, 1981, no.6). even in this process of stewardship over other created things, he is to treat all life within the created order with respect. adequate stewardship demands having a good intention in his dealing with other creatures; and not allow himself to be conquered by the evil inclination of his heart. consequently, every aspect of man's endeavor ought to “clearly and directly remain linked to the fact that the one who carries it out is a person, a conscious and free subject, that is to say a subject that decides about himself” (john paul ii, 1981, no.6). at this juncture, what irresistibly calls to mind is: since man is meant to subdue and take care of other created realities thanks to his gift of reason, why does man become a wolf to his fellow man? why in the case of nigeria does man throw overboard the use of reason and continues to create insecure atmosphere for others? since man is a conscious and free aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 subject that ought to consider the ethical implication of his action, how come it that there is a spree of killings and kidnappings in nigeria? we are therefore called upon to subdue the challenges of insecurity in nigeria through the proper use of our god-given intellectual capabilities. certainly, insecurity could be nipped from the bud through the inauguration of an atmosphere of intellectual security. security and intellectual security security, as a concept, is derived from the latin adjective securus, meaning untroubled, quiet, composed, serene. such disposition engenders freedom from anxiety which affords grounds to be confident. security is a natural requirement in all societies. in fact, it is one of the most important demands of human societies. security is widely considered as an all-encompassing condition in which people and communities live in freedom, peace and safety, participate fully in the governance of their countries, enjoy the protection of fundamental rights, have access to resources and basic necessities of life, and inhabit an environment which is not detrimental to their health and well-being… the security of people and the security of the state are mutually reinforcing. (the organisation for economic co-operation and development, 2001, p.38) according to robinson (2008) one can have varying degrees of security, more or less protection from both internal and external threats. such external ones could refer to protection from physical, economic, social, cyber threats etc. it could include the invasion of a country by external aggressors or forceful annexation of a part of a country. in that context, the council on foreign relations (2012) talks of national security which is closely linked with human capital, and the human capital of a nation is as strong or as weak as its public schools. more so, for national security is also seen as “a state or condition in which most cherished values of a country and the people are permanently protected and continuously enhanced” (radda, 2013, p.73). in fact, “only the state has the wherewithal to guarantee security and save society from anarchy (and since government represents the state), the state through its government should provide adequate security to justify its raison d'être” (gaskin, 1996, p.104). all in all, as stated in the document of organization of african unity (1991) the security of a nation must be “constructed in terms of the security of the individual citizen to live in peace with access to basic necessities of life while fully participating in the affairs of his/her society in freedom and enjoying all fundamental human rights.” from the foregoing, myers (1993) upholds that security has more to do with the human well-being which has to do not only with protection from harm and injury but also access to basic amenities of life, and other basic requisites that are the due of every person on earth. it is the collectivity of these citizen needs, and utmost desire to improve the quality of life and the general safety of the citizenry that should feature dominantly in the nation's view of security. on the other hand, the internal threats have to do with ones that are more of psychological, spiritual etc. such threats can give rise to a loss of free behavior and culminate in a vitiated 91 ifeanacho theo-philosophical import or “subdue the earth” (gen.1:28) motivational arousal or distorted spiritual focus. added to them are intra-state threats that stifle the orderliness of a country and create a heightened psychological tension among the people. however, a more fundamental aspect of security is that of the intellect which is acquired through education. in that realm, security includes everything related to the bank of human memory; such as the cultures, values and moral principles that the human receives. it also includes the protection of all his rights related to freedom of choice and freedom of acting provided that this freedom does not violate or conflict with the rights of others; as well as the human's right in maintaining intellectual property. (tomlinson, 2006, pp.242-251) by and large, it alludes to the “safety of human thoughts from deviation or getting away from moderation in his understanding of political, religious and social matters; thus, leading him to establish public order, and achieve stability in his life” (al-osaimi et al., 2018, p.155). in order to arrive at such desired stability, there has to be a studied protection of learner's ideas, minds and thoughts from every belief and wrong behavior that would pose a threat to the security and stability of society. to that effect, it becomes obvious that mere academic intelligence does not suffice for intellectual security, but rather it requires intelligence that is constantly but consistently guided by properly reasoned and evaluated action that goes to promote progressive development in all its diverse facets and healthy socio-political living. following from that, could a professor in any field of learning who does not strive to positively promote learning in all its ramifications but indulges in the extortion of money from students or sex-for-marks be said to be intellectually secure? could a professor of statistics who is co-opted for the rigging of election results that is meant to promote good governance be said to be intellectually secure? could parliamentarians elected or worst still 'selected' for the promotion of the rule of law who on the contrary metamorphose into agents of overwhelming self-aggrandizement be said to be intellectually secure? could a professor of law that does nothing while justice is being nose-dived and rule of law being jettisoned be rightly said to have attained intellectual security? could civil servants who are sunk deep in bribery and its attendant corrupt practices be considered to be intellectually secure? could colonialists that unstoppably siphon the mineral resources of their colonies and multinational companies that mercilessly crush other emerging economies of developing nations be actually said to be intellectually secure? and what can we say of a student of philosophy who graduates with flying colours but incapable of sustaining any reasonable argument to its logical conclusion with the instrument of critical thinking or worst still lives the everydayness of his earthly existence totally devoid of proper evaluation or the proverbial caution of think-before-act?as a corollary, cicero in his book de officiis gave three rules to be observed while carrying out an action and among them the most important is: “let your desires be governed by reason(appetitus rationi pareat)” (cicero, 2005, p.145). 92 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 all in all, burnhill (2016) holds that giving a primacy to education helps to inculcate a security consciousness that will in turn engender a durable security in every community. it has to be a holistic education that is as in-depth in content as it is transformative in its result. that goes to say that in such knowledge economy, mere memorization of facts and procedures is not enough for success. rather it demands a conceptual understanding of complex concepts, and the ability to work with them creatively to generate new ideas, new theories, new products, and new knowledge. further still, organization for economic cooperation and development (2008) holds that there is need to be able to critically evaluate what is read, and express it clearly. more fundamentally, according to afifi (2004) intellectual security for the individual means an automatic achievement of security in all other aspects; as the mind is the focus of the conscious leadership in humans. it is entrusted with all other security aspects. however, the destabilization of security leads to insecurity and the after effect is usually devastating. insecurity and its trademark insecurity undoubtedly remains the antithesis of security. when necessary attention to security is neglected, the resultant effect is a total relapse to insecurity. on that note, insecurity is the “state of fear or anxiety stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection” (beland, 2005, p.126). according to onifade et al., (2013) it refers to lack or inadequate freedom from danger. in consequence of that, achumba et al. (2013) goes ahead to argue that the concept of insecurity suggests an obvious absence of safety, which goes to culminate in various forms of hazardous condition. such lack of security does not refer only to physical insecurity, but dovetails into psychological, spiritual, intellectual insecurities to mention but a few. forms of insecurity insecurity can be classified into several dimensions. the most significant dimensions as presented by alemika (2019) are: physical, public, economic, social, political and human right violations. when these forms of insecurity are conquered, then security is reasonably assured in the society. there is no gainsaying the fact that there exists an evident interconnectedness between various forms of security. there is no gainsaying the fact that, today we know that “security” means far more than the absence of conflict. we know that lasting peace requires a broader vision encompassing areas such as education, health, democracy and human rights, protection against environmental degradation and the proliferation of deadly weapons. we know that we cannot be secure amidst starvation, that we cannot build peace without alleviating poverty, and that we cannot build freedom on the foundations of injustice. these pillars of what we now understand as the people-centered concept of human security are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. (anan, 2001) physical insecurity it is obvious that every form of security has its attendant insecurity. undoubtedly, the 93 ifeanacho theo-philosophical import or “subdue the earth” (gen.1:28) aspect of insecurity will disappear if accompanying security is fervently promoted and ardently fostered. ordinarily, physical security has to do with that part of “protective security concerned with the provision and maintenance of a safe and secure environment for the protection of agency employees and clients, and physical measures designed to prevent unauthorized access to official resources and to detect and respond to intruders” (, p.27). in the same token, apart from securing objects and environment, there is also the necessity of protecting human beings against physical attacks. when such protection is not forthcoming, man will then be susceptible to all forms of physical attacks. the stronger will be oppressing the weak; the more privileged will be subjugating the less privileged; the haves will constantly be intimidating the have-nots; the more developed nations or multinationals will be subduing the less developed nations be it ideologically or with their economic might. that goes to confirm the fact that “while poverty can be a cause of physical insecurity, physical insecurity also further perpetuates chronic poverty” (jones et al. 2010, p.69). when such situation arises, it becomes an obvious case of physical insecurity. apart from full-fledged physical violence, there are other subtle oppressive attitudes that could be symptomatic of physical insecurity. such forms of insecurity according to the united nations, office of high commissioner for human rights (1992) could also arise from the articulation of discriminatory social institutions (i.e. social attitudes, customs, codes of conduct, norms, traditions, value systems) and is rooted in unequal power structures, discriminatory social orders and exploitative relationships. public insecurity in order to understand public insecurity, it is necessary to expose the concept of public security. public security is the “function of governments which ensures the protection of citizens, organizations, and institutions against threats to their well-being – and to the prosperity of their communities.” (wikipedia) when such security is no longer guaranteed, the tendency is that the public is exposed to insecurity. this may be manifested in insurgency, terrorism and violent conflicts. on the other hand, public insecurity cruz (2009) noted is a direct function of threats and vulnerabilities exposed by the risk of becoming a victim of crime. in line with this, reminiscence of past experiences of victimization and in most cases the eventual imprints of its socially constructed vulnerabilities evident in debilitating economic status and at times cohabitation with dangerous neighbours reinforce feelings of insecurity. not to be forgotten is the fact that elchardus (2008) observed that nowadays the uncritical and unexamined use of the social media and other means of social communication have continuously but speedily been fanning the embers of public insecurity. economic insecurity economic insecurity is the “harmful volatility in people's economic circumstances. this includes their exposure to objective and perceived risks to their economic well-being, and their capacity to prepare for, respond to and recover from shocks or adverse events” (shafique, 2018, p.17). this obviously engenders poverty, unemployment and strings of 94 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 other social maladies. to that effect, economic insecurity has to do with “the risk of economic loss faced by workers and households as they encounter the unpredictable events of social life” (western, 2012, p.342). such situation is most often nourished by social inequities. nevertheless, it does not stop there because “even when a state is secure from external threats or internal instabilities, security for its people is not guaranteed. protecting individuals and communities from the consequences of environmental decline (in this case) is therefore a security issue” (elliott, 2001, pp.438-467). environmental insecurity it was who insisted that “to preserve security, the entire human environment is being taken into consideration, including the need to resolve environmental problems and ensure a sustainable future” (graeger, 1996, p.109). when this is neglected, the effect is usually catastrophic and the whole security process is jeopardized and insecurity gains upper hand. although the definitions of environmental security vary, for white (2014) there is however the centrality of the fact that the diversity has a meeting point in the inclusion of the common theme of whether or not people have enough food, water and natural resources to live. that notwithstanding, the significance of environmental security extends far beyond the environmental sector as such. environmental degradation, resource depletion and natural disasters may have direct implications for the security of individual states, group of states and of the international community as a whole” (kirchner, 2000, p.3). when nature is preserved and reasonably domesticated by man, the human environment becomes more enabling and livable. it is therefore man that gives meaning to his environment and it is equally man that eventually gains from it. on the other hand, man pays for any error or mishandling of natural environment. there is, therefore, need to be extremely cautious and respectful of natural environment. it be borne in mind that “for human beings to destroy the biological diversity of god's creation; for human beings to degrade the integrity of the earth by causing changes in its climate, by stripping the earth of its natural forests or destroying its wetlands; for human beings to contaminate the earth's waters, its land, its air, and its life – these are sins” (chryssavgis (cited by francis, 2015), no.8). its resultant effect is obvious environmental insecurity. environmental insecurity is that relative lack of public safety arising from “environmental dangers caused by natural or human processes due to ignorance, accident, mismanagement or design and originating within or across national borders” (glenn, 1998, p.9). evidences of environmental insecurity include: death of forests, thinning of the ozone layer, air pollution, fresh water contamination and depletion, land degradation (centering on desertification, salinization, soil erosion, food insecurity, epidemics, damage to the oceans, hazardous waste etc.). further still, francis (2015) decries the worst situation where at times there is even a direct exportation of materials of environmental degradation from some developed countries to developing ones, thereby polluting their natural environment. most of the multinationals are guilty of this ugly conduct. they indulge in exportation of solid waste and toxic liquids 95 ifeanacho theo-philosophical import or “subdue the earth” (gen.1:28) to developing countries. such abominable acts which they carry out in developing countries they would never do in developed countries. it is therefore criminal, unethical and totally unconscionable. it is a blatant breach of what freedom and responsibility stand for and a negation of what intellectual security ought to be. these sad evidences of environmental insecurity cannot be effectively and fruitfully combatted unless there is adequate education on the rest of us for natural environment. it is not an exclusive type of education but rather an inclusively shared form of education whose positive effect gets diffused and implemented among nations. it demands training and constant exchange and updating of information. such training kirchner remarks (2000) will also ensure capacity building in the elaboration of national and international law that will promote the much desired environmental security in different ecogeographical regions. social insecurity the universal declaration on human rights (1948) states that everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. this was corroborated by article 22 thus: everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security. the contravention of these rights leads to a relapse to insecurity. such social insecurity will lead to other imaginable and unimaginable ills ranging from illiteracy, physical and mental illnesses, poverty, lack of social care, criminality, racism and other kinds of discriminatory tendencies. political insecurity this has to do with the denial of good and social democratic governance.a political society has to be governed by the rule of law. when this basic but enriching instrument of good governance is scuttled in any form at all anarchy becomes the order of the day. when the citizens cannot freely exercise their franchise, when disenfranchisement is used as an instrument for election-rigging, when political desperadoes are mandated and protected for the perpetration of political violence and intimidation of all sorts, when election results are doctored in favour of whomever, when kangaroo court proceedings are put in place in addressing electoral malpractices so as to thwart justice with blatantly palpable impunity, when the tyranny of arbitrary power pervades the whole political ecosystem then political insecurity has been shamelessly enthroned. political insecurity can also assume an international dimension. international politics is strongly founded on permanent interests and not permanent friendship. regrettably, even moral and legal principles are only accepted to the extent that they coincide with the state's interests. it is highly regrettable that “at times, developing countries face forms of international pressure which make economic assistance contingent on certain policies of 'reproductive health'” (francis, 2015, no.50). this is further corroborated by an obvious fact that “in many poor countries, economic aid provided by some richer countries or international agencies is usually tied to the acceptance of western views of sexuality, marriage, life or social justice. this ideological colonization is especially harmful to the these anomalies will do harm to the community life and idea of solidarity which form the centrifugal point of any worthy society. 96 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 young” (francis, 2019, no.78). further still, such disposition smacks of abject lack of intellectual security and maturity, but rather mirrors sullied attitude unworthy of countries that regard themselves as developed world. what is developed about political harassment and bullying of developing countries? what is developed about the intimidation or suppression of emerging economies? what is developed about the application of intellectual growth for the undoing of developing countries? absolutely nothing, but a flagrant exhibition of intellectual insecurity! evidently, these points argues francis (2015) go to consolidate the fact that the contemporary man is totally bereft of the wise use of power. the speedy development in man's technological ability does not find an equiperable growth in human responsibility, values and conscience. it is a conspicuously lopsided development that is as detestable as it is devastating. all in all, only through proper education could these anomalies regarding security be remedied. however, it has to be a positively guided by sound education and not one that is mixed up with a subtle miseducation or outflow of indoctrination of any sort. shaping the proper use of reason through education although education is most often viewed from its positive and progressive gains, it must not be forgotten that it has also a negative dimension. however, whether it is positive or negative depends on the extent proper use of reason or lack of proper reasoning is brought into play. everything depends on how one applies the knowledge he/she has gained through education. the improper use of knowledge that could at times rear up its ugly head has in recent times generated the idea of considering the two-sides of the same coin in the application of our learning, that is, the positive and the negative. in fact, it goes without saying that “the paradox of education is that it has tremendous potential for both good and bad dependent on its use and implementation” (ghosh et al., 2016, p.17). critical thinking: the positive side of education education in its positive dimension creates an enlightenment that helps in the widening of one's mental horizon in all its ramifications. undoubtedly, the primary task of education is what it does in us. it basically has to do with its transforming effects in our inner being. such transformation shapes our conduct for the good, chisels out the rough edges of our unschooled nature, trains the mind, builds characters and instils veritable moral values. consequently, there is need for educational correctness. in fact, “correct education disposes the child to take the path that will lead him to truth when he has reached the age to understand it, and to goodness when he has acquired the faculty of recognizing and loving it” (cunningham, 1947, p.21). thus disposed, he/she becomes a vehicle for the promotion of security by giving primacy to the use of reason. hence, good education “offers an opportunity to prevent the radicalisation of young people through the development of critical thinking and values of ethical and engaged citizenship” (ghosh, 2016, p.15). critical thinking remains a veritable instrument for the consolidation and realization of intellectual security. indeed, intellectual security ought to be the terminus ad quem of every learning process that is worthy of the name. the learning process has to be guided by a durable grooming and drilling in critical thinking. it has to be noted that “critical 97 ifeanacho theo-philosophical import or “subdue the earth” (gen.1:28) thinking is equal with intelligence and shouldn't be misunderstood with it. critical thinking is a skill that can be developed” (karakoç, 2016, p.83). characteristically, those properly schooled in critical thinking are not usually “stampeded by stump orators. they are not unusually slow to believe. they can wait for evidence and weigh evidence, uninfluenced by the emphasis or confidence with which assertions are made on one side or the other. education in the critical faculty is the only education to make good citizens” (fahim, 2011, p.1635). such security arms one with properly reasoned existence. considering the negative use of education education can also be used negatively by the educated.evidences abound on how people have used their academic knowledge in the perpetration of evil or in the production of lethal pharmaceutical products and weapons of mass destruction. for instance, some virologists could at times produce viruses in the laboratory targeted at queer demographic control of a people. in the same token, fahim (2011) maintains that formal educational spaces are being used by extremist organisations to indoctrinate and recruit young people. while education has been used as a tool throughout history to promote state and religiously sanctioned ideologies, extremists today actively seek to create educational cultures that foster divisive violent religious worldviews and encourage violent extremism.there is a spontaneously composed rhetoric of injustice by these young people, mixed up with the finely churned out narrative of adopting violence as means of expressing dissatisfaction against the evil perpetrated by the imperialist powers. on another serious note, there is a machinery of untruth being used by the imperialist powers to subjugate small nations. this untruth is bombarded and forcefully peddled by the mass media as if it is an obvious truth. this is done with an aim of damaging the image of their real or purported enemy. one wonders why knowledge should be so negatively applied and consequently vilified. it therefore becomes pertinent to invite critical thinking as a way of positively fostering intellectual security. understanding the importance of critical thinking for the challenges of insecurity education remains the foundation of every developmental progress. no doubt then “the state of america's education system has consequences for economic competitiveness and innovation. no country in the twenty-first century can be truly secure by military might alone. the dominant power of the twenty-first century will depend on human capital. the failure to produce that capital will undermine american security” (klein and rice, 2012, p.xiv). that human capital is acquired through a boundless investment in education. it is through quality education and qualitative application of what is learnt in one's daily activities that intellectual security is assured. when we mentally evolve through education but our actual self and attitude remains flagrantly in opposition to the status we have attained in education, then intellectual security remains farfetched; a mere mannequin. the fruit of education is not static but dynamic. it has to be reformed in season and out of season. one of the ancient philosophers thus maintains that, “education… is the first and fairest thing that the best of men can ever have, and which though liable to take a wrong direction, is capable of reformation. and this work of reformation is the great business of every man while he lives” (plato, 2015, no.1,644). he 98 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 further strongly upholds that education illumines man's intellect, sharpens his ability of critical thinking and tries to direct or redirect it to the proper destination. the power to learn is present in everyone's soul and that the instrument with which each learns is like an eye that cannot be turned around from darkness to light without turning the whole body. this instrument cannot be turned around from that which is coming into being without turning the whole soul until it is able to study that which is and the brightest thing that is, namely, the one we call the good…. then education is the craft concerned with doing this very thing, this turning around, and with how the soul can most easily and effectively be made to do it. (plato, 2007, 7,518c-d) in the same pedestal, effective school in critical thinking is part of the infrastructure that allows for the construction of security architecture that better understands and analyses threats to security. education contributes to security by showing children and young people that conflict, violence, hatred, extremism are not the only paths to follow. the value of education should be self-evident, and any national leader will likely agree on this point in isolation. alemika (2019) was right when he stated that, a good number of conflicts often arise from ignorance and manipulation of ethnic and religious identity. in fact, education (not just passing through the four walls of the school) system produces tolerant and civil citizens who are able to understand and live with people from different ethnic, economic, religious and cultural backgrounds and other forms of identities. when a country is populated by a citizenry that has attained a reasonable level of critical thinking, intellectual security, then the challenges of insecurity will gradually die a natural death. a situation where the supremacy of reason subdues the cumulus of ignorance, the air of civility will naturally dominate the contagious air of uncertainty and fear that go with such anomaly. conclusion from the foregone exposition, it is crystal clear as al-rodhan (2007) confirmed that sustainable global security can only be achieved when education culminating in critical thinking is made a priority by states and their institutions. when properly realized, education can be a global asset to fight poverty, inequality, insecurity, and disease. the onus then lies on every country to prioritize education if insecurity is to be properly eradicated. however, it has to be the right type of education that promotes the supremacy of good reasoning over any form of indoctrination. it has to be an education that vigorously combats every extremist tendency.to that effect, “a country that bequeaths the right type of education to its citizens makes it difficult for such citizens to turn against their father land. in fact, it is meaningless to talk of security in the absence of the right type of education” (orikpe, 2013, pp.53-59). on that note, therefore, it goes without saying that, education, when well imparted and utilized, has the potency of promoting national security. this is because it is mostly uneducated jobless and educated jobless youths that are easily attracted to crimes, thereby, constituting insecurity 99 ifeanacho theo-philosophical import or “subdue the earth” (gen.1:28) in a country. while western education that is not geared towards self-reliance (education that makes youth job seeker) may be dangerous as far as developing countries are concerned, lack of western education or low education is even more dangerous. low education often translates to absence of competitive skill, adequate income, exclusion from participating in vital political and economic and social organizations and relations; lack of access to adequate food and nutrition, housing, health care and efficient public emergency and safety services-all which are element on human security. (radda, 2013) in the famous words of the motto of university of chicago we say, “let knowledge grow that life may be enriched” (crescat scientia, vita colatur) in all its ramifications. references achumba, i.c. et al., (2013). security challenges in nigeria and the implications for business activities and sustainable development. journal of economics and sustainable development. 4(2) pp.79-99. afifi, m. (2004). the role of the family in the security of the community. a worksheet submitted to the seminar on society and security held at king fahd security college, riyadh. alemika, e.e.o (2019). security challenges and university system in nigeria, retrieved 3/8/2019. al-osaimi, b.j. et al., (2018). the intellectual security concepts in the english textbooks of the intermediate stage. in saudi arabia (an analytical study). international interdisciplinary journal of education (january, volume 7, issue 1,) pp.154-162. al-rodhan,n.r.f. 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(vol. 32). pp.1-4. the council on foreign relations (2012). u.s education reform and national security, (the council on foreign relations inc.). the organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) dac (development assistance committee) (2001). guidelines, helping prevent violent conflict. (paris: oecd). tomlinson, j. (2006). values: the curriculum of moral education. children and society journal, 11(4). pp.242-251. united nations organization, (1948). universal declaration of human rights. united nations, office of high commissioner for human rights (1992). convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (cedaw) general recommendation 19 on violence against women (1992) varshney, c. k. (2005). growing threats to environmental security. retrieved december 14, 2014, from western, b. et al. (2012). economic insecurity and social stratification. the annual review of sociology. pp.341-359. white, r. (2014). environmental insecurity and fortress mentality. international affairs, (90). pp.835–851. retrieved 12/9/2019. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/public_security http://isebindia.com/icpep-3/icpep3-s5.htm 102 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 1 2022-june issn: 2786-9792 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/public_security http://isebindia.com/icpep-3/icpep3-s5.htm page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 64 abstract culture defines the peculiarities of a people. it consists of a people's total way of life as embedded and expressed in their worldview, political organizations, social interactions, religious beliefs and practices. this explains the reason for the claim that culture is complex. it is therefore dynamic in nature. the dynamics of culture reveal that it is not static; it changes as human development and interactions occur. human interactions across different cultures are the basis for cultural interaction. evidently, cultural interactions affect the totality of a people's way of life. this is also the case in yorùbá culture. descriptive method will be used to describe how ifa divination has enhance the symbolic role among the yoruba. a historical analysis revealed that various sectors such as epistemic activities, religion, political organizations and so on in the yorùbá modern society have been gravelly affected by cultural interaction. this is identified as the effect of uncritical openness and delusion of priding imported models of human cultural orientations as superior to what is indigenous. it is argued that such tendency has resulted in a structural disconnect between yorùbá traditional and modern episteme, and consequently renders any meaningful advancement difficult. it is therefore imperative that yorùbá episteme as it is been construed, be reconstructed and given a place of importance. this will necessarily include the consciousness of the fact that the epistemological basis of yorùbá tradition as embedded in ifa corpus is the guiding principle of every sector of yorùbá tradition. this will be a panacea for the plethora of issues that confront the contemporary yorùbá. keywords: culture; cultural interaction; episteme; ifa corpus; structural disconnect introduction the reality of contemporary yorùbá is that he is a product of a hybrid culture. the strive to fully acquire what is imported from the foreign cultures has left him to be disconnected from what is authentically african, carrying out daily concerns with little or no consideration of what is traditional to his cultural heritage. in certain instance, the contemporary yorùbá live in the delusion that what is african is necessarily inferior to cultural interaction and yorùbá traditional episteme fabidun francis kayode department of philosophy st. albert the great major seminary, idowu-offonran, abeokuta, ogun sate. nigeria & bade-afuye toyin beatrice department of theatre and media arts ekiti state university, ado-ekiti 65 what is western. this has led to a strife to fully acquire all that is western, characterized by continuous foreign importation of cultural practices. consequently, this practice has resulted in a disconnection from what is authentically african on the one hand, and unconscious synthetic and syncretic outlook and conception of reality. this tendency, which is an aftermath of the european imperialism and colonization, is evident in all spheres of life. in religion, for instance, there are yorùbá who abhor what is traditional on the ground that traditional religion is fetish and 'does not lead anyone to the light'. however, this does not suggest that those who harbor such opinion are not ignorant of the doctrines of the foreign religions. hence, this paper attempts to analyze the causes and consequences of such self-misconception particularly in the aspect of religion. it strongly argues that a proper appreciation of african religion and its pure elements would lead to an improved moral standard among the people and the reduction of immoral acts in every sphere of the continent. however, conscious of the true picture of the 21st century experience of africans as deeply involved in western tradition, the paper canvasses for a reconstructive complementarity of epistemics, a sincere mutual respect for the values entrenched in both western belief and african religious worldview as grounded in yorùbá traditional episteme. culture culture is popularly defined as the totality of a people's way of life. the definition indicates the centrality of culture in understanding of the peculiarities that distinguish a group of people of common descent from another. culture is the unique characteristic of a social group; the values and norms shared by its members set it apart from other social groups and is influenced by conscious beliefs. when talking of culture, the focus is basically on the collectivity of persons within a group than particular persons. hence, culture refers to a society and its way of life. the society's way of life finds expression in her members who are carriers of their cultural heritage. due to the emphasis it places on collective values, culture is defined as a set of values and beliefs, or a cluster of learned behaviours that are shared people in a particular society, giving them a sense of belongingness and identity. as a matter of interest to different fields of study, 'culture' is a multidimensional concept that has surfaced in several disciplines and studies such as sociology, psychology, political sciences, religion, anthropology, business and cross-cultural studies. each of these disciplines focuses on culture from the perspective or interest geared towards the understanding of humans and the society. this is an indication that culture is a viable tool for understanding man and the society. simply, “culture is the entirety of what is passed down by humans except its biology: language and technology, laws and customs, beliefs and moral standards (peil, 1977). edward tylor defines “culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired... as a member of society” (tylor 1871, 1). it covers activities of a people in a society. without negligence of the immaterial aspect of culture, it is evident that individuals within a group are the carriers, perpetuators and promoters of culture. they maintain and enforce aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 compliance within their domain. culture in itself is an abstract nontangible concept that finds expression in the way and manner persons live and act in the society. it is expressed in the meals, dances, dresses, festivities, religious practices and observances etc. these are activities pointing to the fact that culture is an indicator of what is unique to a group of people in their ethnicity. this means that there is hardly any ethnic group without certain cultural elements. as such, culture constitutes a unique identity for humans. in addition to being rational, humans are also cultural. it can then be said that humans are as much cultural as they are rational. culture can be grouped into two: material and non-material. the material aspects of culture refer to the tangible entities which in most cases are created by the people. such physical materials usually enjoy strong attachment from the people. they are tangible and concrete; they form concrete referent within the society. things in this category are but not limited to tools furniture, implements and dams. on the other hand, non-material culture refers to abstract ideas with a cultural group. these are in the forms of principles that underline the acceptable behaviours within the group. examples of these include; tradition, manners, attitude, worldview, political ideology, taboo, religious beliefs, law and language. both aspects of culture occur within and around humans who constitute the essential propellers of cultural activities and context that within which specific cultures are defined. accordingly, humans are at the center of cultural interaction. cultural interaction cultural interaction is defined by ghadami, mohsen et.al (2022) as “a reciprocal influence of a person from one national or organizational culture on another person or people from different national or organizational culture(s)”. it refers to the relationship between two groups of people with differing customs, traditions, ideas, and practices. as social process, people crossbreed both material and immaterial aspects of culture leading to the development of a synthesis of cultural practice. for example, during the period of colonization, as a result of interaction some aspects of foreign cultures such as language, education, religion and dress were brought to some nations in africa. cultural interaction brings about acculturation and significant improvement in the value system and the quality of human life and ideas about their environment. for instance, through linguistic contact interact with one another, there is transfer of linguistic features among each other that will enhance relationship. this is a sense in which cultural interaction limits the barriers of cultural relativity and the influence is visible in politics, economy, education, religion, family life, material products, habits, customs, rituals, beliefs, values and thought system. there is a long history of human interactions through trade and commerce. cultural ideas and artifacts certainly did flow across borders in all directions, especially through trade and diplomacy. as trade, transportation and communication developed through history, different groups formed unique relationships. people go outside their immediate cultural environment in search or knowledge, experience, civilization and innovation. they traveled from their home lands to acquire goods and service that would improve the quality of their lives. the process of interaction is essential since human 66 kayode & toyin cultural interaction and yoruba traditional episteme beings are not self-sufficient in getting their needs. there were avenues for people to meet and share their produces. in some sense, this accounts for the beginning of markets as a center for such exchange. according to victoria fryer, “in the early centuries of trade, markets functioned as a new meeting place. where people used to coexist within their already determined familial, religious, and/or social communities, trade brought people (and wares) together from far and wide. this exposure to new cultures, 'products,' and ideas all the tangible and intangible results of the act of trading compounded the benefits of trade itself, creating its own unique etching on the rock of history” (fryer, 2022). interactions between cultures bring about cultural influences in politics, economy, education, religion, family life, material products, habits, customs, rituals, beliefs, values and thoughts etc. this is evident in the records of various ancient civilizations. as an instance, the visit of makeda, the queen sheba to king solomon was to acquire wisdom on governance and administration characteristic of solomon's private and public life. she became influenced and adopted solomon's religion. her dispositions prior to visiting solomon are not quite known. the various traditions describe her as worshipping the sun and other celestial objects. however, she is said to have begun believing in the god of solomon after her visit. this is a testimony to her disposition to allow the influence of the jewish culture in her kingdom. this was not the first of cultural interaction in the christian scripture. an episode of human movements for commercial purposes that would eventually lead to a long period of cultural interaction and acquisition is recorded in genesis 37:1836. it is important to note that around the time of the story, commercial activities have recorded a significant development and trade was carried out from one location to another through the then “incense route”. trade movement was aided by the domestication of camel for the transportation of commodities that began in southeastern arabia during the third millennium bce and spread to levant, mesopotamia and egypt (römer, schmid and bühler (2012). the caravan of camels of the ishmaelite traders who were midianite merchants taking a load of gum, balm, and aromatic resin from gilead were heading to egypt. along their way, they acquired joseph for twenty shekels of silver, and arrived in egypt, sold him off to potiphar, the captain of the palace guard of pharaoh, the king of egypt. it goes on to mention that the experience and position of joseph in egypt necessarily required him to acquire the egyptian culture. immediately, his name was changed; pharaoh gave joseph the name zaphenath-paneah (genesis 41:45). moreover, joseph in due course learned and acquired the egyptian culture, customs, and language as perquisite for effect discharge of his duties and responsibilities while he served under potiphar. joseph's life and events became a iconic in the history of the jews because of the severe famine and food shortage that made egypt a safe haven for other surrounding nations. this led to the migration of joseph's father and his brothers to egypt. as time went by, there were series of cultural interactions between the jews and the egyptians 67 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 particularly in the place they settled. they buildings, ceramics and graves were typically canaan. rachel hallote points out that these pieces of material evidence—the ceramics, the temple architecture, and the burial customs—make it clear that there were people from southern canaan living and ruling in egypt in the second intermediate period. hallote (2022) avers that the hyksos were certainly canaanites, who brought their southern canaanite material culture with them. another instance of cultural interactions and of particular interest to this paper is european colonial exploits in africa. this is an event that has both positive and negative impact on african culture. according to clifford sibani, “african native culture give way to the european culture. either by design or accident, africans have imbibed the western culture and have appropriated it so much that it now becomes almost part and parcel of their lives…obviously, the culture of african people is still undergoing contacts and conflicts which results to a healthier life of the society resulting in an improved social system” (sibani (2018). however, some have argued that this should not in any way undermine the material exploitative motif of such encounters. apart from material exploitation of africa, colonialism also impoverished immaterial cultural heritage of africans. it made a caricature of africa and considered her as culturally naïve, intellectually passive and rationally incompetent and unable to contribute to world civilization. according to igwe, “the outcome of this is the internationalization of western culture, as africans and other indigenous values were trampled upon as irrelevant, unprogressive, backward primitive, conservation, traditional and unscientific; compared to the assumed modern, civilized dynamic and scientific values of the europeans and her allies” (igwe 2010). this idea created negative episteme about africa as a continent that needed to be salvaged from her “barbaric” or “savage” state. in this sense, the colonialists were acting in the best benefits of those whose lands and peoples they exploited (blakemore 2022). unfortunately, many africans welcome this wrong idea about them in favour of european identity, thought system, life style and western perception of reality. while some were able to liberate themselves from the shackles of cultural bias and prejudiced conception, there are still those who continue to romanticize the impoverishing western perspective of african culture. according to pitts (2019), when western european nations such as belgium and france began colonizing africa, they viewed indigenous religions as pagan at best, demonic at worst, and responded by spreading a triumphalist form of christianity that powerfully eroded traditional practices. religious beliefs and practices are rich avenues of cultural expression. religion reveals a people's identity, self-understanding and conception of reality. in africa, it provides answers and meaning to fundamental issues of life such as the origin and finality of man, and africans use religion as a window to understand reality and find stability in the face of life-challenges. religion is so fundamental that it will not be wrong to say that african religion is a gateway to understanding africa. michael ndemanu (2018) points out, “any attempt at learning about the african peoples and their cultures without 68 kayode & toyin cultural interaction and yoruba traditional episteme considering religions, the bedrock of those cultures, would be shallow and futile.” however, this has been affected by western religion and its concomitant cultural baggage particularly since the mid-19th century when ex-slaves began to be repatriated to africa. subsequently, there was an end to the monolatric religious system that operated in the traditional african societies (ibenwa, 2014). this signals the weakness in the tenets of genuine african traditional religion which is erroneously considered as archaic, paganism, animism, heathen and idolatry. these are misrepresentations of african traditional religion because of the shallow understanding of african traditional episteme. to appreciate african traditional episteme, this paper focuses on the yorùbá culture as a case study. yorùbá traditional episteme yorùbá is a west african ethnic group most found in the southwest of nigeria. they are also found in eastern republic of benin, togo, brazil, cuba, the caribbean and the united states of america. horton (1979) remarks that, as a people, yorùbá is made up of about twenty kingdoms that are traditionally connected to ile-ife which is regarded as their ancestral place and their spiritual capital founded by their fore bearer, oduduwa. they have a long history of civilization which developed from simple agrarian society to a complex city state. they practiced a form of democratic political system that manifest profound culture heritage and traditional values. these cultural and traditional values are products of the people's attempt to proffer solutions to the wonders and the challenges of their reality. the attempt at forming a worldview and conception of reality develop into a fundamental body of knowledge that is unique to them from which the form a principled way of understanding their world or in simple term their traditional episteme. according to markus kornprobst (2020), “an episteme is a set of fundamental beliefs about what constitutes the world and about how the world works.” episteme refers to the fundamental body of ideas and collective presuppositions that defines the nature and sets the bounds of what is accepted as true knowledge in a given epistemic epoch. according to monica jain (2021), “an episteme is a fundamental body of ideas and collective presuppositions that defines the nature and sets the bounds of what is accepted as true knowledge in a given epistemic epoch.” foucault (1970) describes “episteme as implicit 'rules of formation' which govern what constitutes legitimate forms of knowledge for a particular cultural period. they are the underlying codes of a culture that govern every facet of the life of a people such as; language, logic, schemas of perception, values and techniques, etc.” through divination by its experts, ifa is believed to possess the secret of nature and the ability to predict to predict future occurrences, to provide remedy for certain situations and used to prevent certain events from occurring. burges (2001) defines traditional episteme as the conception of reality that warrant how people approach issues of life; 'a way of making sense of the world'. it is the guiding principle that is at the core of a people's worldview and the unwritten understanding of what things are and they work among a people. from the above, the 69 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 yorùbá traditional episteme refers to the traditional belief that is unique to the yorùbá. it is the foundation of the yorùbá belief systems which are asserted in their worldviews and opinions about reality. in the yorùbá tradition, these are entrenched in the ifa corpus. this is because every aspect of the yorùbá culture and tradition is rooted in ifa corpus. ifa corpus as epistemological basis of yorùbá tradition ifa is a vital element in yorùbá religion, culture, and society, and it regarded as an important source for their knowledge, cosmology, and belief system. ifa is a system of divination practiced among yoruba of southwest nigeria, benin republic and togo in west africa, and it is gaining popularity in the united states, including in maryland, as some african-americans seek a spiritual experience firmly grounded in their own cultural heritage (wangare, 2021). ifa is identified with the knowledge of all things, and it is described as an inexhaustible repository, and fundamental source of indubitable knowledge in the yorùbá culture. it is believed that ifa is an angel of god known as orunmila, the deity of wisdom, knowledge and intellectual development. hence, ifa is considered as the custodian of true and adequate knowledge of human beings in particular, nature and existence in general. according makinde (2017), through ifa, orunmila brought wisdom and knowledge into this world. such knowledge consists of several branches: science of nature (physics), animals (biology), plants (botany), medicinal plants of nature (herbalism), oral incantations (ofo), and the sciences associated with healing of diseases (medicine). furthermore, ifa is held to be the controller of language, culture, philosophy and religion. the rationale for such depth of trust and promise is based in yorùbá cosmology and moral order, which entrusted the ifa deity with the knowledge of all that exists in the universe. ifa is personified as the all-knowing historian, storyteller, and intermediary between the gods and the people. it represents the people's intellectual deity and the public relations officer of the yorùbá pantheon. ifa consists of corpus texts and mathematical formulas. the literary corpus which are called odu are 256 and they are references to all situations, circumstances, actions, and consequences. through ifa, the role of the diviner (known as a babalawo) is to help an individual or community to see what is in store for them in their day-to-day lives. the training to become a babalawo is an intense process. there are in principle 256 chapters in the divination process, called odu, each one contains elaborative narratives of mythic stories related to history, events, ritual practices, etc... importantly, the odu is an oral tradition, and thus the babalawo-intraining must memorize all or most of the 256 odu in order to be qualified to be a babalawo. furthermore, odu has subdivisions known as ese ifa that indicate yoruba history, language, beliefs, cosmovision and contemporary social issues. every aspect of yorùbá life, including religion, philosophy, science, ideology, recreation, literature and so on has one link or another with ifa ì corpus. odu ifa represents an important form of oral traditions dating back to the ancient time and represent compilations of myths, legends, proverbs, 70 kayode & toyin cultural interaction and yoruba traditional episteme songs, and praise poetry. they also signify numerous themes, events, occasions, and places in yorùbá culture and history, such as mythic and historical characters, migration stories, and biographies of cultural heroes, ancestors, animals, and such natural phenomena as trees, groves, and rivers. they also refer to ethical and aesthetic ideas, philosophy, and metaphors, and to sacred journeys carried out by famous ancient diviners. the yorùbá themselves regard the ifa verses as their primary source of instructions for daily life. the verses constitute the yorùbá encyclopedia of knowledge through the interpretation of these texts, and scholars are now examining many deepseated values and concerns in yorùbá culture and society (wande, 1976). ifa worship is one defining of the yoruba and is arguably one of the most extensive religions in west africa. it has long been practiced before the arrival of christianity and islam. it is monotheistic faith like christianity and islam, but in addition, ifa's and spiritual system is based on three distinct components; olodumare, orisa and ancestors. olodumare is the supreme creative figure of heaven and earth. orisas are the spirits and intermediaries between olodumare and humans. they are also charged with the responsibility of particular part of the universe, such as: fire, rebirth, agriculture and the arts. they have access to the habits and occurrences in the upper world (orun [heaven]) and the underworld (ile). orunmila, the god of divination, is regarded as one of the numerous deities and ifa is his divination process. the occurrences, events, and activities are revealed to humans through the elaborate divination process of ifa. the ancestors exhibit somewhat less spiritual power than orisa. they are those have lived an exemplary life without performing actions considered taboo. ifa divination a system of signs that are interpreted by a diviner, the ifa priest or babalawo. as an avenue for people for meaning and solutions to their experiences, it is an act of interactive ritual involving the ifa priest, the clients, and the social and cosmological order of the yorùbá people aimed at producing sought after results to a client's quest and purpose for consultation. consultation takes place when a client inquires of the supernatural order concerning problems or issues that are not quite clear to the client. typically, clients inquire about illness, auspicious marriages, a planned journey, or choice of the succeeding king. no dilemma or issue is too small or complex in traditional yorùbá society to lend itself to consulting ifa. the ifa divination system is applied whenever an important individual or collective decision has to be made (wande, 2008). the outcome of the divination determines the next cause of action by the client which could be prayer, worship or sacrifice to appease the spirits. however, a good number of yorùbá in the 21st century do not know this, neither do they believe in the rich content of ifa. they consider imported culture of the west as the best and the only way to go. this attitude is consequent to the pejorative conception of ifa as idol worship or an ancient religious practice too remote to the issues of this era. such negative conception has rippling effects on the individual and the general belief system of the yorùbá. 71 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 findings this study has attempted to analyze that yoruba culture, especially in the area of spirituality should not be seen as fetish. this is because, before the western religion was brought to us, yoruba's have their way of lives by consulting ifa which is the intermediary between olodumare and human being to give directions on how to live our lives in a better way. therefore, the following findings were revealed in paper. ·that culture communicates and contributes to the development of our daily lives. ·that yoruba's believed so much in predestination known as (akosejaye, ipin, ayanmo or kadara in the ifa divination. this reveals what a child becomes in future. ·that culture should have an impact on the development of the society. therefore, this study recommends: · that the yoruba film producers can also preach the essence and importance of ifa in their respective storylines. this is because film is also seen as a cultural ambassador that can reveal everything about a society to the world. ·moreover, the teachings about ifa should start from the elementary schools to higher institutions by incorporating it into the course curriculum. this will make everyone to be familiar with its essence, rather than having a doubtful mind of what ifa can do. ·traditional institute of traditional rulers should not shy away from the importance of ifa in selection of king who becomes a ruler of a community. this will prevent future calamities that may befall the land. it has been observed in recent times that king makers hardly follow ifa instructions in choosing a ruler, but rather base their assessments on the social and influential status of whoever they choose. conclusion consequently, it is pertinent to reawaken the consciousness among the yorùbá that meaningful understanding of issues in the yorùbá milieu can only by possible with right understanding that the yorùbá tradition devoid of ifa corpus can allegorically be compared to disrobing a king of his staff of office. in such case, he is just a title bearer. in the same manner, a yorùbá cannot be authentically if he is ignorant of the centrality of ifa to the race. irrespective of the degree of the yorùbá romance with foreign culture, it is imperative that ifa corpus is continuously regarded as the guiding principle of every sector of yorùbá tradition. it is therefore important to eliminate all negative stereotypes and prejudices of foreign culture about ifa. this will pave way for appreciating the epistemic inherent in yorùbá culture even in the reality of sophisticated 21st century that uniquely scientific technological and media-driven. this reality calls for an appreciable blend of both imported western idea and traditional episteme in the understanding of issues in all aspects. 72 kayode & toyin cultural interaction and yoruba traditional episteme references blakemore, b., (2019), what is colonialism? the history of colonialism is one of brutal s u b j u g a t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s , https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/colonialism. burgess, j., (2001), episteme, the literary encyclopedia. first published 01 november, https://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&uid=348, accessed 09 august 2022. foucault, m., (1970), the order of things: an archaeology of the human sciences, london: tavistock publications ltd. fryer, v., (2022), the history of commerce: from the silk road to modern ecommerce, https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/commerce/#the-history-of-commerce-fromtrading-shells-to-buying-iphones. ghadami, m., ghayumi, a., mohamadkhani, k.and ardahaey, f., (2022) 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cultural interaction and yoruba traditional episteme page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract there is wide debate on a proper understanding of addiction anchored so far on whether addiction is a disease (that is, a pathological compulsion the individual cannot resist), or a matter of choice (that is, a matter of willpower and self-control). on the other hand, covid-19 is a pandemic that is currently ravaging the globe since november 2019 when the first cases were reported in wuhan, china. today, covid-19 has given birth to several variants forcing governments of nations, traditional authorities, among others, to call for vaccinations as a way of regulating its spread. many have yielded to this regulation (the vaccinated) and others (the unvaccinated) have refused while very many others have stopped half way in the vaccination exercise, and governments have outlined certain mechanisms against the unvaccinated and half-vaccinated. the vaccinated are required to take boosters and doses to protect the effectiveness of the vaccine. now the problem one stands to wonder about is that the additional booster could, in prospect, be an attempt to drive individuals into addiction (dependence on boosters and doses) to keep their immune system healthy. the question now is: what is the need for the booster after taking both the first and second shots; and with even the booster, one could still be affected by the virus? it is in this respect that the paper therefore sets out to explore the underlining addictive tendencies inherent in the management of covid-19 through the vaccination series and the booster. the expectation from this paper is an analytical exposition that the vaccinated may be heading into addictive tendencies in the future where taking of boosters and doses becomes a compulsion for healthy immune system, as it concludes that the governments of nation-states should not only be immediate conscious but also future conscious about this. the paper shall adopt analytical and expository methods. key words: addiction, vaccinated, unvaccinated, covid-19, booster, doses, addiction introduction human history is characterized by varieties of challenges which husserl referred to as 'border lines or boundary situations' (portuondo, 2016). among these challenges are diseases and sicknesses under which covid-19 pandemic is characterized. covid-19 vaccines, boosters and doses and the question of addiction ikeagwuchi ikechukwu ukwuoma. department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka & anayochukwu kingsley ugwu. department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka 151 subsequently, in response, man as the most intelligent among the visible realities has always attempted to prove his humanism by intellectually engaging these existential challenges to proffering solutions to them. in the case of the covid-19, a.k.a coronavirus, man has intervened by coming up with certain social measures, medical inventions like variants of vaccination, timing in taking the vaccination and even booster and even food therapy which have all today been referred to as the 'new normal'. it is upon this that this paper focuses on the addictive tendencies inherent in these measures especially as they concern the medicals as pictured in the booster as an addition to the vaccination. with the addition of booster to the two vaccination doses/shots to curb the intensity of affections of the covid-19, one may begin to wonder if that is not indirectly encouraging and instilling, in the consciousness of the people, addiction! what are the health implications of the booster vis-à-vis addiction? are there possible effects of all these medical intakes under different names and timings vis-à-vis human fertility, proper functioning of the body cells, sensitive parts like the brain as it concerns memory, liver, kidney, and generally the human person? it is in responding to these questions that the paper sets out to cross-examine the addictive tendencies in these vaccinations and booster and equally argues that absolute care must be taken in these medical administration and intakes. applying analytical and expository methods, the contribution of the paper is the analysis and exposition of covid-19 as a pandemic ravaging the world at present, its social and medical management and the addictive implications therein its medical measurement. the paper is structured under a summarily abstract, an introduction which attempts to expand the abstract, a section dialoguing the emergence, nature and management of coronavirus, another on the conceptualization of the virus (covid-19), another on the covid-19 vaccines, doses and booster and the addictive tendencies cum side effects, and finally a concluding section. the emergence, nature and management of covid-19 covid-19, also known as coronavirus is a novel human disease that has spread globally to become the fifth documented pandemic since the 1918 flu pandemic (moore, 2021). the world health organization declared the venomously widening 2019-ncov thoutbreak as a public health emergency on 30 january 2020 and as a pandemic on march th 11 , 2020 (https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronaviruscovid-19/novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov). in the first months of covid-19, global health authorities, government agencies, and the public were unsure of how the disease would spread and how it would impact everyday life. globally, strict measures were put in place around the world to curtail the spread of the virus. social distancing, travel restrictions, advice on proper hand-washing techniques and ways to sneeze in public were introduced. these measures were predicted to only slow the spread of the virus as scientists believed that in order to overcome the pandemic, a vaccine needed to be developed (cyranoski, 2020). however, the introduction of 152 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 restrictions was helpful because cases of the virus and consequent hospitalizations and deaths dropped in affected countries. but like a noon day about to be struck by unwanted darkness and doom, early 2020 witnessed emergence of variants that posed increased threat to public health. research showed that the virus that causes covid-19 is sars-cov-2 and that it changes over time having little or no impact on the virus properties, such as how it spreads, the associated disease severity and so on (https://www.who.int). the first voi (variant of interest) was the lambda variant which has spread to at least 29 countries. another was the alpha variant (the first voc-variant of concern) which has evolved mutations that help it to evade immune detection and accelerate its transmission, and which is more significant than the original virus because of how fast it spreads around the world. the discovery of these variants was significant because it showed that the virus was evolving thereby causing changes in symptoms and disease outcomes. according to evidences so far gotten, the alpha variant may pose a heightened risk of poor covid-19 outcomes (liu, et al., 2020). aside this variant, there are also the delta and omicron variants (ellyatt, 2021). the delta and omicron have similar mutations found in alpha but these are even more aggressive in transmission even though delta remains the dominant variant worldwide. as a scientist, zuliani-alvarez noted, “the virus will keep evolving and adapting to the host and every time it will adapt better and better.” it should be noted that development of vaccines were based on studies around the vocs because scientists believe that these give us ideas about how sars-cov-2 evolves (marks, 2021). in march 17, 2020, the first covid-19 human vaccine trials began with the moderna mrna vaccine (cortegiani, 2020; luo, 2020) and by november 2020 vaccinations (pfizer, biontech, moderna, university of oxford and astrazeneca) were developed in record time. (https://www.who.int/news/item/31-12-2020-who-issues-itsfirstemergency-use-validation-for-a-covid-19-vaccine-and-emphasizesneed-for-equitablethglobal-access). as at 27 april, 2021, one billion covid-19 vaccine doses had been administered as many hoped that a continued roll-out of vaccines in all countries is vital to bringing the pandemic under control and preventing future outbreaks (moore, 2021). this paper will seek to make the case that the vaccinated might be heading into addiction. conceptualizing addiction addiction can be described as a phenomenon that is a puzzle, a paradox and a slippery concept because definitions and classifications in diagnostic systems are prone to changes according to cultural, political and scientific developments (berridge, et al., 2014). the national institute on drug abuse (nida) defines addiction as “a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug-taking and use, despite harmful consequences. it is considered a brain disease because drugs change the brainthey change its structure and how it works. these brain changes can be long lasting and can lead to the harmful behaviours seen in people who abuse drugs” (frank and nagel https://www.ncbi.mlm.gov/pmc/articles/pmc54864_99/). also, the diagnostic and statistical manual of the american psychiatric association asserts that addiction usually involves compulsive drug-taking behaviour. consenting to these definitions, carl elliot (2002) argues that the addict is no longer in full control of himself, and as such, must go to 153 okwuoma & ugwu covid-19 vaccines, boosters and doses and the question of addiction where his addiction leads him because it holds the leash. thus, the initially voluntary behaviour of drug-taking gradually transforms into involuntary drug-taking. ultimately, the addict reaches the point where the behaviour becomes driven by a compulsive craving for the drug (in this case, covid-19 boosters). the scientific discourse about addiction has been dominated by two models: the 'disease model' and the 'choice model' (uusitalo, 2013; henden, 2013). the choice model holds that addictive behaviours are governed by universal principles of choice and motivation. the choice model has been referred to as the successor of the moral model of addiction (kenett & mcconnell, 2013) where addiction is considered a moral failure and addicts could be perceived as people of bad character (pickard, 2017a). in contrast, the disease model follows a disease-like course, with behaviours that have taken hold of the person (so-called compulsive actions). a modern version of the disease model is the view that addiction is a brain disease (kenett & mcconnell, 2013). the brain disease model holds that neural processes and chemical reactions following repeated intake of drugs cause lasting brain changes so that the reward system is hijacked; it equally governs the motivations behind addictive behaviours. this model has recently been challenged from a number of perspectives (heyman, 2009; henden, et al., 2013; lewis, 2015; pickard, 2017b; heather, et al., 2017). recently, several authors have argued in favour of views that place addiction somewhere in the middle of a continuum between non-voluntary behaviour and voluntary actions (henden, et al., 2013; holton and berridge, 2013; heather, 2017a). this middle ground involves excusing conditions for addictive behaviours, meaning that there are strong forces at play that are difficult, but not impossible to resist (levy, 2011; pickard & pierce, 2013). for the present paper, not that the disease model bypasses the addict's will, but that even with the addict's willpower intact, the individual moves towards taking boosters (levy, 2006). if addiction is considered an appetite, it becomes evident that addicts are generally competent in decision-making in this respect. addiction, is not, thus, anything that would absolutely and categorically deprive the addict from all the other possible ways of acting, unless appetites necessarily amounts to that. nonetheless, even if the addict can act differently in this sense, it does not rule out the possibility that the addict may be compelled to follow his addiction (boosters) in some sense (for instance, the will to stay healthy and alive). in taking this line of argument, the paper considers the logic of suzanne uusitalo (2011) who argues that even though addicts are described in terms of not being able to control their addiction (that their action is compulsive), addiction in general is not compulsive, as addictive behaviour is not something in which people absolutely lack choices. besides, it is not absolutely impossible for the addict to choose not to satisfy the addictive desire. so, even in the vaccinated people's addictive tendencies, they also wield the willpower to decide whether to take the boosters and continue taking it or whether not to receive the boosters and face the consequences. thus, the kind of addiction that is of interest to this paper involves one in which an individual would indulge in some particular behaviour (taking boosters) whether the behaviour has a positive or negative impact on his own health and or wellbeing, and the 154 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 wellbeing of those around them. these behaviours may lead the individual into treatment or a recovery program. and evidently, the covid-19 vaccines and boosters lead one into treatment and recovery programs. the world started out with one doze of boosters and today it is talking of four boosters and nobody knows when the fifth will arise and the number keeps rising. there are presumably many addicted people who do not have any intentions to alter their behaviour (walker 2010). in the same manner, it surely appears that the vaccinated who do not accept that they could be heading into addictive behaviours do not at present see any need to alter their behaviour (of taking boosters). perhaps, when they realize that there is need to alter their behaviour, it might become too difficult because of their desire to stay alive through intake of boosters, or possibly under compulsion to engage in drug-taking (boosters) because of the hijacking of their brains by the chemicals used in producing the covid-19 boosters and doses. being an original paper fundamentally addressing the reality of situation regarding the high rate of intake of hard drugs among the people especially youths and public figures especially in the entertainment and sports industry, there should be a high fear and threat of addiction in the intake of these vaccines and boosters. weather as another factor enhances intakes of hard drugs where the people in a society of constant low temperature are driven to the continuous intake of such vaccines and boosters in order to maintain a certain level of constant temperature in order to escape being infected. moral decadence and erosion of the value system which today instil in the mind of the people some level of social abnormal characters of intake of certain toxic substances all in the name of trending value and attempting to belong to the civil class but ignorant to the detriment of their health and well being are factors to be considered when the issue of demand of taking vaccines and boosters from time to time in the prevention attempt of covid-19, is brought to the table. these realities are factors to be afraid of, which could facilitate the attempt to addiction having been living in a situation that its social principles ease and enhance addiction (ugwu and ozoemena, 2019a, 2019b). from this lens comes the validity of levy argument (2015) that pharmaceuticals currently in widespread therapeutic use are already having unintended effects on processes (such as cognitive, affective and motivational). in recent past, there have been attempts to develop pharmaceuticals designed specifically to enhance normal cognitive, affective and motivational processes. some scholars have expressed worry over these pharmaceuticals basing their argument on the ground that these may be used to enhance human beings in ways that are unacceptable because they conflict with reasonable social norms and manner of behaving. again, they raise significant concerns about social justice, and because they may have serious side effects and for other reasons (fukuyama 2002; kass 2003; sandel 2007). at this point, it could be seen the rationale behind the scholarly criticisms against these pharmaceuticals especially the ones designed to morally enhance human psychology/behaviour (harris and chan 2010; harris 2011; harris 2012; sparrow 2014). the essence of levy's work was to motivate others to engage in the scientific and normative work of further exploring these effects, investigating other drugs (covid-19 vaccine and boosters inclusive) for similar effects, and examining the ethics of using drugs that have these effects. levy (2014) mentioned examples of cognitive enhancers to include modafinil, atomoxetine and methylphenidate. on examination, levy found that 155 okwuoma & ugwu covid-19 vaccines, boosters and doses and the question of addiction pramipexole and some other dopamine agonists used to treat parkinsonism also produce pathological gambling and hypersexuality in some people, as well as more rarely, to induce extreme paraphilians as noted by bostwick, et al. (2009) and wolters, et al. (2008). covid-19 vaccines, boosters/doses: side effects and drive towards addiction covid-19 vaccine is a drug developed to help an individual's body immune system to fight against the virus. a covid-19 booster shot is an additional dose of a vaccine given after the protection provided by the original shot(s) has/have begun to decrease over time. this additional dose was originally called a 'third dose', and is given to people with moderately or severely compromised immune systems to improve their response to the initial vaccine series. 'third dose' was itself first used to refer to additional doses from the two mrna vaccines but, now called 'additional dose' because persons who received johnson & johnson (j&j) vaccine 'one dose' may also be eligible for a dose based on their immune system. typically, an individual gets a booster after the immunity from the initial dose(s) naturally starts/start to wane. the booster is designed to help people to maintain their level of immunity longer. these covid-19 vaccine boosters and additional doses have been authorized by the u.s. food and drug administration (fda) and recommended by the u.s centres for disease control and prevention (cdc) for certain people. these include persons who are 18 years or older and have received the (j&j) vaccine at least two months before; persons who are 18 years or older and have received both required doses of the moderna vaccine at least six months prior; persons who are 16 or older and have received both required doses of the pfizer-biontech vaccine at least six months prior. the pfizer-biontech vaccine is the only vaccine and booster authorized for people ages 16 and 17. additional dose is also recommended for persons receiving active cancer treatment for tumours; persons who have received an organ transplant and taking medicine to suppress the immune system; persons who received a stem cell transplant within the last two years and are taking medicine to suppress the immune system; persons diagnosed with moderate or severe primary immunodeficiency; persons diagnosed with hiv and have a high viral load or low cd4 count, or are not currently receiving treatment; persons who are taking drugs like high-dose steroids or other modifications that may cause severe suppression of the immune systems (kelen 2021). according to the world health organization (who), the vaccines are safe; and getting vaccinated will help to protect one against developing severe covid-19 disease and avoid death eventually. for who, the vaccines are therefore designed to give persons immunity by increasing blood flow so that more immune cells can circulate and raise an individual's body temperature in order to kill the virus. first mass vaccination programme started in early december 2020. however, there are reported cases of side effects to covid-19 vaccines which the who reports have mostly been mild to moderate and short-lasting though. the who regards these as signs that an individual's body is building protection against the virus. these side effects include but are not limited to fever, fatigue, headache, muscle pain, chills, nausea, diarrhoea, pain at the injection site, severe allergic reactions, such as anaphylaxis, bell's palsy (temporary one-sided facial drooping), enlarged lymph, unwell insomnia, difficulty in breathing and myocardatis (inflammation of the heart). some side effects as observed may even temporarily affect an 156 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 individual's ability to drive or use machinery. notably, these effects may differ according to the specific vaccine. more worriedly, series of clinical trials have also shown the possibility of more serious or long-lasting side effects (https://www.health-govt-nz/ourwork/diseases-and-conditions/covid-19/novel-coronavirus/covid-19-vaccines/covid19-vaccine-side-effects-and-reactions, https://www.who-int/news-room/featurestories/detail/side-effects-of-covid-19-vaccine). experiencing side effects after drug-intake is often a normal occurrence and so it can be accepted that experiencing side effects after getting vaccinated means that the vaccine is working, and immune system is responding as it should. however, in recent times, there have been reports of the vaccinated getting sick again with covid-19. mikel arteta (arsenal fc head coach) and many others are examples (bbc news). in response to this occurrence, the who says that after vaccination, it usually takes a few weeks for the body to build immunity against sars-cov-2 and this creates the possibility of a person to be re-infected after vaccination. consequently, the person will require treatment programmes and boosters or doses which is the claim of the proponents of disease model of addiction. it can now be seen why the paper considers covid-19 management and treatment as having the tendency to lead the vaccinated into addiction because of their dependence on boosters and doses from time to time as the need arises. besides, who admits that there is currently no evidence that people who have recovered from covid19 are protected from re-infection since they do not know how long the antibodies developed by people who get covid-19 last and even add that the current vaccines are not as effective when it comes to protecting an individual from catching newer variants (who, https://who.int). in the words of u.s food and drug administration (fda) and us centres for disease control and prevention (cdc) officials, these doses are 'booster shots', a term that suggests they will need to be regularly repeated to maintain protection against sars-cov-2 infection. in fact, moderna and novavax, have announced that they are working on combining covid-19 and seasonal influenza shots, which would make an annual booster against sarscov-2 more convenient (rubin 2021). in another dimension, one who lives with anxiety might start drinking to cope with stress. overtime, this person would become reliant on alcohol, which would increase anxiety and push them further into substance use. in the same manner, the vaccinated overtime might become reliant on boosters and additional doses in order to protect their immune system against the virus. this no doubt is a disease as said earlier that demands treatment programme as argued by the disease model of addiction and which will consequently drive the vaccinated into substance use. this may be a speculation but all science begins with speculation or hypotheses. presently, no research or study has been conducted or is known by the researcher that looks at how vaccines might affect the vaccinated in the case that even more subsequent doses will be needed. so, while the globe seeks immediate ways to manage and respond to the spread of covid-19, there is also urgent need to consider the tendency of these vaccines and doses driving the vaccinated into addiction because only time will tell whether covid-19 vaccines require periodic boosting. 157 okwuoma & ugwu covid-19 vaccines, boosters and doses and the question of addiction conclusion much can be learned from the story of the covid-19 pandemic, and many lessons hoped to be learnt will prepare one for future infectious disease outbreaks; and equally prevent potential future pandemics (moore 2021). this article indicates that the vaccinated may be heading into addictive tendencies in the future where taking of boosters and doses become a compulsion for healthy immune system. the paper therefore concludes that the 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(2008). “parkinson's disease-related disorders in the impulsivecompulsive spectrum.” journal of neurology, 255(s5). pp 48-56. world health organization. “tracking sars-cov-2 variants.” https://www.who.int (2019). “coronavirus disease (covid-19) pandemic. world health organization.” avai lable a t : h t tps : / /www.euro .who. in t /en/heal thtopics /heal themergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/novelcoronavirus-2019-ncov aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 139 impact of church persecution in northern part of nigeria awings yusuf sule gindiri theological seminary, plateau state, nigeria awingsyusuf@gmail.com abstract the study examines the impact of persecution on humanity, especially christians in northern nigeria. the paper argues that christians in nigeria are being persecuted by their muslim neighbors and compatriots. their latest offensive is carried out by islamic fundamentalists whose aim is to islamise nigeria. the insidious and elevated persecutions used have badly affected both northern and southern christians in different human endeavours in northern nigeria. it has resulted to leaving many as widows, widowers, childless, orphans, extinction and set back to the growth of christianity in northern nigeria. the paper also tries to document the recent attacks carried out in northern nigeria, from 2020 to date. the recent attacks on the plateau are worth noting especially in central zone (mangu. bokkos and barkin ladi local government areas) in plateau state where many lives are lost and properties destroyed between may to october this year 2023.the objective of this research is to find out the origin, causes and impact of persecution and suggests ways for peaceful coexistence through deliberate actions by the government and dialogue through religious tolerance in northern nigeria. the solutions to the problem of persecution in northern nigeria and the recommendations suggested may assist to arrive at the desired goal of tolerance and coexistence. the method the researcher adopts is a historical method in which the origin, impact and causes of persecutions are clearly investigated for onward suggestions. the findings prove that government should improve on her responsibility of protecting lives and properties, christians should be more proactive by being vigilant encourage dialogue for peaceful coexistence. the findings will contribute to existing knowledge on peaceful coexistence of humanity. the recommendations will add more value to the work and regards humanity if taken into consideration. keywords: persecution, church, northern –nigeria, impact introduction persecution is a global phenomenon; it has affected human philosophy of life. it has affected humanity from the perspective of christian faith in northern nigeria which is quite alarming. nigeria in recent years has an alarming record of religious violence which has resulted to loss of lives and properties especially in northern nigeria. the phenomenon has triggered debate 140 among analysts and commentators as to whether the situation in nigeria is actually a persecution or civil unrest. the paper seeks to find out why both insidious and elevated forms of persecution against christians in northern nigeria were carried out. the paper also attempts to raise concern on humanity in using religious freedom to become a casualty in the philosophy of life (uka 2012). persecution of innocent christians comes in different forms in northern nigeria as follows: boko-haram, bandits, kidnappers, fulani herdsmen, and other terrorist groups have surfaced through islamic religion against christianity in northern nigeria. christians in northern nigeria are treated as second class citizens in which religious freedom is abused. the paper argues that humanity should be treated with high level of respect and honour as created beings by the creator. destruction of lives and properties which is against the philosophy of life is the order of the day. the paper examines the origin of persecution, the causes, the impact and the solutions to christian persecution in northern nigeria so that there will be religious freedom and tolerance in especially the northern part of the country. the main source of persecution in northern nigeria is islamic terrorism. it is clearly evident that religious freedom is restricted or violated by northern muslims political and religious elites, the muslims fulani herdsmen and also by the wide spread culture of political violence upheld by states practices and policies that discriminate against christians: it is clearly reported that persecution in form of discrimination, restriction, lack religious freedom, mostly come from the northern region of nigeria. northern nigeria is predominantly muslims with twelve sharia states and seven non sharia states (ewelina ochab 4-5, 2020). conceptual clarification of terms: in this section, the researcher will clarify the following terms including impact, persecution and church. impact: this refers to the force of impression of one thing on another, a significant or major effect (merriam-webster’s collegiate dictionary, 1999). it means the force or action of one object hitting another, having a strong effect on someone or something, a powerful effect that something new has on a situation or person, countable, usually singular, uncountable, the powerful effect that something has on somebody or something which could be either positive or negative (a.s hornby, oxford 1995). therefore, impact means a force of impression of one thing on another, a powerful effect that something new has happened in a particular situation. to our context, it refers to the negative effect of persecution on the church in northern nigeria. persecution: persecution comes from the greek word dioko meaning run after, pursue. it literally means to chase, pursue, run after or drive away. it is associated with some people whose intentions are hostile (collin brown 805-806, 1977). persecution deals with harassment and suffering which people and institutions inflict upon others for being different in their world view, faith, culture or race. persecution seeks to intimidate, silence, punishes and even kill people (brown and drapper 1277, 2003). impact of church persecution in northern part of nigeria awings yusuf sule aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 141 church: the word ‘church’—from the greek word ‘ekkaleo’—means to call out. it was a common term for a congregation of the ‘ekkletoi’ those who are called out or assembled in the public affairs of a free state or body of free citizens. a good example is the congregation of israel, was called an assembly (acts 7:38). in the new testament, the term ‘ekklesia’ denotes the community of the redeemed believers in christ (dan kore 5, 2020). the word church, assembly or body of christ or ekklesia means people who assemble or come together to worship god (awings 12 ,2010). many churches have been destroyed in northern nigeria. brief history of northern nigeria it was an autonomous division within nigeria, distinctly different from the southern part of the country with independent customs, foreign relations and security structures. in 1962, it acquired the territory of british northern cameroons which voted to become a province within northern nigeria during the time of ahmadu bello in 1962. this is the northern part of the country nigeria where persecution has affected christianity. the church in northern nigeria has suffered set back through destruction of lives and properties. thus this paper examines christians persecution in northern nigeria context (lwati vol.9, no1, 2012). origin of persecution in northern nigeria the origin of christian persecutions is traced back to usman danfodio, maitatsine and sardauna of sokoto in northern nigeria. in 1961 late sardauna of sokkoto formed jama’a nasril islam (jni) an islamic movement charged with the responsibility of propagating islam. this was thought by some people to be a religious wing of political party (northern people’s congress (npc) though other muslims did not accept it (uka 6, 2012). religious war persisted even after the war had ended. it came in the form of a religious cold war. the issue of sharia law was another strategy initiated by usman dan fodio to implement it in the northern emirate in order to reform what was initially perceived as the lax practice of islam among the rulers. thus the jihad of usman dan fodia led to the establishment of islamic state base on sharia law (7, 2012). while the northern constituent assembly were debating on the matter, muslims outside tried to make it by force if not accepted, threats and riots were going to make the country ungovernable. students from ahmadu bello concurred to this idea and pleaded for the implementation of the sharia. later on protesters kicked against the initiative sensing that it was a way of establishing an islamic state and secondly, it was a major source of conflict in nigeria body polity. this also resulted to the prevalent religious political conditions that existed at the time alhaji shehu shagari became the president in the second republic in 1979-1983. even though it was not included in the constitution, the stage was set for the achievement of the will of ‘’allah’’ for effective islamization of the country (8, 2012). in december 18-29, 1980, prior to kano riot outbreak, there had been over thirty violent incidents of religious riots in northern states. the burning of churches is known in kano in 142 october 1982 was an example of an inter religious crises in northern nigeria. in 19833-1985, buhari over threw shagari, people suffered all over, the religious riot this time was political in nature. when baban gida mounted the throne, he registered ngeria as a member of oic, that resulted to crises in 1986-1991 during the regime of obasanjo from 1990-2004, the governor of zamfara state, ahmed yerima introduced the sharia legal system in his state since then several northern states follow suit. this several riots which led to the destruction of lives and properties in the north (10, 2012). christian persecution in nigeria appeared in different ways. an estimate of thirty million christians in northern nigeria from the largest minority in mainly muslims environment and are at risk of violent persecution. romans started the the persecution under nero in 64 ce after great fire in the city of rome (james 10 january, 2023). another outbreak of persecution or riot were series of violent uprisings instigated by islamist militants in northern nigeria between 1980 and 1985 and represented northern nigeria’s first major wave of religiously inspired violence under maitatsine (adesoji, 2011, pp. 98-119). thus, believers were being insulted, isolated, beaten, tortured, burned or killed because of their faith. persecution started due to some factors which resulted to insidious and elevated forms of persecutions against christians in northern nigeria. it is also understood that inter religious conflicts bordering on struggles over power and resources led to initiation of persecution. these conflicts have been used as vehicles to pursue the objectives of persecution and widen its scope (open doors, 2020). the world watch unit acknowledges a researcher in nigeria whose name remains confidential for security reasons. the first category of persecution experienced by christians in northern nigeria is insidious. this include discrimination in employment, stagnation in promotion in public placess of service, suppression of ministries; denial of church building permits; preventing christian children in public schools from receiving christian religious studies; admission into tertiary institutions, appointments, imposing the use of veil on christian female students, denying christians students places of worship on compuses; forcing young christian girls into marriage against their wishes and forbidden christian boys from having relationship with muslim girls; maltreating and threatening of converts to christianity. such discriminations are common in most of the twelve sharia states in northern nigeria (yusufu turaki 18, 2010). the second category of persecution against in northern nigeria is elevated persecution. elevated persecution is employed by extremists against christians in northern nigeria. at first it took the form of sporadic violence which involves attacks against christians, their places of worship and homes. a good example is the 18th february 2006 violence against christians by muslim group in maiduguri in reaction to catoons of prophet mohammed published in a danish news paper in 2005; attacks against christians in kano in reactions to america’s launching of war in afghanistan and many other attacks are good examples of elevated impact of church persecution in northern part of nigeria awings yusuf sule aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 143 persecution. both insidious and elevated forms of persecution are tactical ways of weighing down christianity in northern nigeria (b. salami, 2010, 345-353). persecution eclipse allows attacks to be escalated against a religious group during a situation of conflicts; it derives energy from civil conflict, because both insidious and elevated persecutions can be used to pursue the same goal. in nigeria, civil conflicts have been used to increase pressures on christian minorities in the northern region. the elevated persecution has been deployed against christians to prevent any expansion of christianity and push it to the background with regards to civil and political rights which was reported on independent news paper: the plight of syria’s christians (2 november, 2012). it is clearly understood that the origin of persecution could be traced back to insidious and elevated influence instigated by some islamic violence groups for their selfish religious interest. it is clearly affirmed that the origin of persecution against christians in northern nigeria is islamist terrorists as boko haram and other groups. it has been reported that religious freedom was already restricted or violated by northern muslims political and religious elites. the muslims fulani herdsmen are part and parcel of the system in which persecution, discrimination and restriction of religious freedom mostly come from the northern regions of nigeria where by twelve sharia states are predominantly muslims, while seven for non sharia state. when president muhammadu buhari was sworn in as president on may, 29 2015, he promised to tackle the issue of islamic extremism posted by boko haram, yet it did not work but increased, thus nigeria was ranked 3rd on the 2015 global terrorism index from 2000-2016. terrorism increased by 62 percent in the violent killings of christians in northern nigeria. this is traced back to boko haram during this period (open doors, 2020). it is historically evident that the origin of persecution in northern nigeria is traced back to usman dan fodio in the 19th century, when he came up with his radical ideology of jihad with his team and conquered what now constitutes northern nigeria. this historical event gave birth to islamic dominance that has spread across northern nigeria. thus boko haram, iswap and extremist muslims have couched their ideologies on this historical background to advance islam by persecuting christians in northern nigeria (kukah, 2023, 5). causes of christian persecution 1. christianity—catholic, evangelical and pentecostal— is growing dramatically in what is often called the global south. such growth is only possible because christians actively evangelize, sharing the gospel of salvation with others. this missionary zeal is seen as a threat and directs attention towards christians. 2. christianity is growing rapidly in some of the most dangerous areas of the world, particularly in parts of asia, sub-saharan africa, and even in the middle east. in these volatile areas, any disruption of the fragile status quo is potentially disastrous and christians are suffering because of it, more specifically northern part of nigeria. 144 3. christianity is often seen as a form of western imperialism and identified with “the west.” this makes christians a natural target for many nationalist movements. nationalism invariably seeks to unify the nation by excluding minorities. they create unity through hate and christians, who live for another kingdom, are often the target of this nationalist hatred. an example of this is extreme hindu nationalism which targets christians as anti-indian and even their muslims brothers against christians in northern nigeria. 4. christians are often at the forefront of promoting human rights and democracy as well as opposing violence, corruption, and exploitation of the poor. as such, they are often targeted by the powerful, whether governments or mob groups, who don `t hesitate to use violence or other forces of coercion to get what they want. for example, the latin american drug lords who murder catholic priests and other christian leaders because they are the only ones defending the rights of the poor, nothern nigeria is also a good that christians are targeted. 5. christians have their ultimate allegiance to the kingdom of god which is not of this world. as such, they are viewed with suspicion by totalitarian governments who, as their name suggests, want total control over the bodies and souls of the people. this is the reason behind much of the persecution in places like china and even more so in north korea and northern nigeria. 6. christians, on the whole, reject violence and retribution. persecution is invariably deals with oppression of the weak or in the case of christians, because of their faith. 7. christians are persecuted because christ is persecuted. satan “knows that his time is short” and so, unable to get to christ or his mother (revelation 12:12), he makes war “on the rest of her offspring, on those who keep the commandments of god and bear testimony to jesus.” (revelation 12:17). this is the hidden reality behind all persecutions. the world and the devil continue to persecute christ through his people (cf. acts 9:4-5) just as christ said they would: “if they persecuted me, they will persecute you.” (john 15:20) it’s important to understand the social, historical and political reasons why christians are being persecuted. understanding them more fully might be able to help us reduce persecution. we must do whatever we can to protect our christian brothers and sisters, not just in providing short-term relief but helping to build a global culture of religious freedom. at the same time, we can not lose sight of the fact that the real enemy here ultimately isn’t the terrorist with the gun or the bureaucrat with the agenda. they need our prayers and our love (ignitutum, 2023). impact of persecution the church in the northern part of nigeria has suffered setback as a result of persecution from different violence groups from islamic faith. this persecution of christians has affected the church in diverse ways. impact of church persecution in northern part of nigeria awings yusuf sule aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 145 terrorists activities of boko haram and iswap have affected the christians communities. there are cases of attacks by fulani herdsmen in some communities like suntai village in taraba state. forceful conversion of rural christian minority communities is ongoing. about 200 houses were burnt on sunday 20th march 2022 as a result of attack by fulani militia in agbam chiefdom, kaura local government of kaduna state. in the same kaduna state, bandits have attacked and displaced over 500 people in villages like: tamal, zangon tamal, zangon tama ll, dillalai igaga and many others. in warji local government, bauchi state, violence erupted against christians on 20th may 2022 as a result of an alleged blasphemous statement against islam by 40 years old lady, rhoda jatau. that resulted to the burning of 13 houses and destruction of shops belonging to christians. thus christians have been targeted both in terms of marginalization, exclusion and physical violence because of their faith (tvc news, 2022). in benue state, fulani herdsmen attacked communities of guma and tiortyu local government areas on monday 11th april, 2022, more than 23 persons killed, after two weeks three people including a pastor were murdered by the same fulani herdsmen on the 29th march 2022 at waku village (channels television, 2022). christians in the north western region of nigeria are victims of mob actions. report show that between 2019 and 2020, more than 190 people were murdered in sokoto as a result of blasphemy. in june 2016, an angry mob in kano beheaded a christian woman bridget agbahwe for allegedly blaspheming prophet mohammed. the most recent of this mob was the killing of a christian lady, deborah yakubu from rapa local government area of kebbi state, an nce student, she was stoned and burnt to death on the 12th may, 2022 (all africa 2021, 2022). the impact of persecution is deeply felt in the church in northern nigeria. seven priests in northwest of nigeria were kidnapped in different incidences and one died as a result. father joseph of saint monica catholic church in kauru lga was kidnaped on sunday 6th february 2022, father joseph aketeh of st john catholic church kaduna south lga, was kidnapped on the 8th march, 2022 and many others. father joseph died in the custody of this people on the 11th may 2022 after spending two months. the first reason is to extort money from the church by holding religious leaders as hostages until ransom is paid; secondly, it is out of persecution against christians (12-13, 2023). documentation incidents of attacks within july 1 to september, 30, 2023, by boko haram and iswap are as follows: in northeast, 154 people died, 64 people died in north central by fulani herdsmen attacks and in the northwest, a total of 127 persons were killed within the period of documentation. comparative analysis show that northeast people were killed, more than other regions. thus boko haram; fulani herdsmen and bandits have a huge impact on the lives of victims (kukah 14-15, 2023). the analysis so far depicts that persecution has affected the church to a large extend, the impact is negatively felt. in the north central, plateau and benue are the epic centers of fulani attacks. these attacks exist because of religious motives and attempts to grab the fertile lands in the region. the persecution through these violent groups have affected christians in the regions. beside, the open violence, systematic persecution faced by christians working with the government, students in public institutions, business men and 146 women in states like zamfara and sokoto face these challenges. two categories of atrocities are committed against christians that are worthy of note are the violent aspects of persecution and the systematic which is non-violent but approach to christians by individuals in key positions that bridge christians fundamental rights concerning freedom of worship, acquisitions of lands access to equal opportunity. destruction of lives and properties is very common. herdsmen killed about 60 people in taraba and displaced 120,000 in taraba state, all in the name of claiming and expansion of islamic territory (the imbue newspaper 2022). some clear references to christian persecution by islamic fundamentalist in northern nigeria worthy of note in history are as follows: vanguard 31 may, 2013, nigeria: boko haram killed christians. can raised alarm on continues killing of christians and burning of churches by islamic sect boko haram in adamawa, borno and yobe states are quite alarming. it was reported also that rev. luka bazigila and a member of cocin by name yohanna who attended christian fellowship were killed in borno state. on the 26th feb. 2012, a boko haram suicide bomber killed three christians in church premises in jos; on april 8, 2013, boko haram killed 36 people and wounded dozens outside of a church in kaduna on easter day; on 3rd june, 2012, boko haram suicide bomber killed 15 in an attack in bauchi, october 28, 2012 boko haram killed 8 and wounded over 100; in november 25, 2012, boko haram suicide bomber killed 30 persons in st. andrew protestant church in kaduna; in december 24, 2012, boko haram killed pastor and members four others at cocin patiskum, yobe state; on january 2, 2012, boko haram declared that christian should leave northern nigeria within three days. following the declaration more than 30 christians were killed; on 7th august, 2012, pastor ali samur was killed in maiduguri, borno state; on november 18, 2012, a retired cocin minister (elisha kabura) was killed in maiduguri; 25th november, 2012, a christian couple and their son were shot death on their way to the church in kano; in decmeber 1, 2012, boko haram attacked four churches in borno; on december 28, 2012, fifteen christians were killed in musari, borno state; on may 154, 2013 (can) secretary was murdered (rev. faye pama musa) in maiduguri borno state; in june 10, 2013, rev. jacob kwizer of cocin was killed in gwoza, borno state; in july 30, 2013 four bombs exploded and killed 45 christians in anglican church, kano. in september 25, 2013, boko haram killed a pastor and his two children and set the house ablaze in yobe state; in november 2, 2013, boko haram killed 30 wedding guests in a road in borno state. (uka journal vol.5 10-12). other crimes against humanity include: sexual slavery, prostitution, kidnapping of human beings (for example chibok girls) are other forms of persecutions. solutions to christian persecution 1. be aware of what is happening and take proactive measures. 2. raise our voices and make persecution difficult to ignore, awakening slumbering consciences. impact of church persecution in northern part of nigeria awings yusuf sule aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 147 3. provide material support to those persecuted in a variety of different ways, and 4. pray for the “suffering and pray for a change of heart’’ (canopy gambrell hall, 2022). summary and conclusion the study examines the impact of persecution on the church in northern nigeria. the origin, the impact and the causes of persecution, the solutions to persecution and recommendations were critical examined in this research. the findings show that christians in northern nigeria are persecuted through insidious and elevated forms of persecution with the aim of bringing a set back to the growth of christianity for the expansion of islam in the northern region. the research resolved that lack of respect and honour to humanity results to all these vices. the findings encourage deliberate actions by the government to implement laws that will bring peaceful co-existence and tolerance through dialogue, constitutional rights and religious tolerance. the government should critically address areas that lead to destruction of human identity in the name of selfish gains whether through religious or political means, man is created to serve god and humanity, not for destruction of lives and properties. recommendations 1. churches and christian organization/institutions should create awareness through seminars, workshops and crusades on current realities of christian persecution to provide counter narratives to the existing secular narratives on political and economic competitions as the causes of these violent conflict. 2. can should voice out as christian organization by kicking against christian persecution, bearing in mind the church as a registered organization with freedom of operation. 3. religious bodies like christian association of nigeria and the catholic bishop’s conference of nigeria (cbcn) should from time to time confront the government on current security challenges and at the same time collaborate with ingos to offer humanitarian assistance to victims that have not been assisted by the government. 4. the federal government should constitute an interreligious commission saddle with the responsibility of handling issues on religious conflict and persecution. 5. federal government should establish official internal displaced camps to accommodate victims of conflicts and persecution. 6. the federal government should adopt community led policing, where by indigenes and residents of communities are employed, trained and equipped to secure their environment. 7. law makers should come out with legislation that will promote inclusivity free access to land, place of worship and equality in the country. 8. christians should be wise by focusing their attention on god not going back to idol worship, god is always ready fight the battle when christians remain faithful. 148 9. in countries that the government favors terrorism and lawlessness as the order of the day, christians can defend themselves by trusting in god. 10. the church should be organizing press conferences to counter any move against christian organizations and christianity at large. references an african (2021) nigeria: containing increase cases of jungle justice in this day news paper available to: https://allafrica.com/stories/2021/10120348. awings, yusuf sule. divisions in the body of christ, mth thesis, unpublished, 2013. bauchi church bombing: we did it says boko haram, “vanguard, 4 june 2012: http: www.vanguard ngr.com/2012/06/bauchi church bombing-we did it says boko haram. boko haram claims responsibility for nigeria church bombings, “cnn, 18 june 2012: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/18/world/africa/nigeria-church bombings. brown, colin (ed) dictionary of the new testament vol.2: grand rapids, zondervan publishing house, 1977. channels television (2022) 23 locals killed in fresh attacks on two benue communities updated 12th april, 2022, retrieved 18th april 2022, accessed: https/wwwchannelstv.com/2022/04/12/23/localskilledinfreshattacks, on two benue communities. copyright©2023 ignitutum topay/powered by astra word press theme. gambrel hall. suit 310, 1301 clifton rd. emory university, atlanta, ga,30322 canopyforum@emory.edu hornby, a. s. oxford advance learners dictionary of current english: england, oxford university press, 1995. “human rights watch report, “the miss world riots: continued impunity for killings in kaduna, “23th july 2003: http://www.unhr.org/refworld/country,hrn,nga,3f4f594b0,0.html. kore, dan. trust for healthy churches: bukuru, acts bookshop, 2020. lwati: a journal of contemporary research vol.9 no.1, 2012. “nigeria riot over blasphemy, against islam’s prophet” bbc news africa, 23 november, 2012. ochab, ewelina. christian persecutions in northern nigeria, press release may 19, 2020. impact of church persecution in northern part of nigeria awings yusuf sule https://allafrica.com/stories/2021/10120348 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/18/world/africa/nigeria-church aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 149 open doors, killings of christian in northern nigeria has increased available at https://www/opendoors usa.org/christian-persecution/stories/tag-blog-post/killing of christian in nigeria has increased by 62,11 febuary,2020. persistent killings: christian flee dead by attack in nigeria, “nbc, 8 jan. 2012 nigeria unrest: suicide targets churches in jos, “bbc 26 feb. 2012: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world:africa-17169935. pew:http://www.pewforumorg/government/rising.tide of restriction on religion findings. as pxinteractive. see yusuf turaki, tainted legacy: islam colonialism and slavery in northern nigeria, 2010 (mclean/va: isaac publishing). suicide bombers attacks cocin hqtrs church in jos during service”, leadership, 26 feb. 2012: http://leadership.ng/ngs/articles/17437/2012/02/26/suicide bombers attack cocin htrs jos during service html. the tribune news paper (2022) herdsman killed 60 persons in taraba, displaced 120,000 in two months available at: http://tribuneonline ng.com/herdsmen-killed 60 persons in taraba, displaced 120,000 in two monthslaw maker/accessed 22 july 2022. uka, e.m. religious situation in nigeria: a case of christian persecution not a religious conflict, a reviewed journal vol. 5 10-12; webster,james corke.past and present,gtac041 https://doi.org/10.1093/past/gtac041:published 10 january 2023. https://www/opendoors http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world:africa-17169935 http://leadership.ng/ngs/articles/17437/2012/02/26/suicide http://tribuneonline/ https://doi.org/10.1093/past/gtac041:published aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract this paper looks at religious violence and its implications for peaceful co-existence in nigeria. to this end, the discourse begins by investigating the causes and implications of religious violence for a peaceful co-existence among the adherents of different religious beliefs in nigeria. the possible ways of mitigating religious violence and the prospect of ending this conundrum are equally examined. applying the narrative and analytical tool, the study depends completely on written sources which comprise of documents, monographs, manuscripts, books and book chapters, journal articles as well as magazines. as deduced from previous studies, the religious violence in nigeria has claimed many lives and property worth billions of naira have been lost to this monster called religious violence. it is argued here that proper education, tolerance, religious dialogue and reconciliation, to mention but a few, serve as potent avenues with which to douse the phenomenon of religious violence in nigeria. the deliberate application of the aforementioned will undoubtedly, ensure peaceful co-existence of christians, muslims, traditionalists and members of other religions as a panacea for peaceful co-existence in nigeria. invariably, this paper concludes by stating that peaceful co-existence of all religious adherents in nigeria would indeed help in the restoration of peace, security, growth and stability of the nigerian nation. keywords: religious violence, peaceful co-existence, remedial solutions, nigerian nation introduction looking at religious violence and its implications for peaceful co-existence in nigeria, this discourse begins by investigating the causes and implications of religious violence for a peaceful co-existence among the adherents of different religious beliefs in nigeria. according to kamal-deen olawale sulaiman (kamal-deen 2016), there is no disputing in the fact that the problem of religious violence casts a serious doubt to the order, progress and stability of the country. this is because the country has recorded very bizarre experiences in the domain of religious violence (ikenah-metuh 1994:2; ogege 2001: 23-26; kanu 2017: 31-40). a time line of some of the prominent examples may be necessary here; these include those of the kasuwan magani in 1980, zango kataf and gure-kahugu in 1987, kafanchan and lere in 1987, ilorin and jerein 1989, tafawa balewa in 1991 as well as that of zango kataf in 1992 (eniola 2010: 77-81; teehan 2010: religious violence and co-existence in nigeria ikechukwu anthony kanu, phd department of philosophy and religious studies tansian university umunya, anambra state. ikee_mario@yahoo.com & mike boni bazza, phd department of history and international relations veritas university abuja. bazzam@veritas.edu.ng 14 145-147) the category of conflicts exists mostly in the northern part of the country where the main protagonists are hausa/fulani muslims and christian ethnic minorities. the 'pagan question' it has been argued, seems to play a major role in creating a climate of suspicion and intolerance among the groups (sulaiman, 2015: 111-120; eniola 2010: 7781). just like the recent lynching and eventual burning to ashes of deborah yakubu, a second year christian college student who was killed by a mob of muslim students in sokoto, after being accused of blasphemy (the punch, 12 may, 2022), we can go far back in history to the religious crises in kafanchan in 1987, which started from the college of education gidan waya for example, was precipitated on 6th march by what was considered as blasphemous remarks when a convert from islam to christianity was said to have misinterpreted the holy qur'an while preaching. this led to a fight between the christians and the muslims on the campus. later it was spread to kafanchan town as well as six other towns in the old kaduna state, namely: kastina, funtua, zaria, kankia, daura and kaduna. in the process, hundreds of people were killed, many churches and mosques were set ablaze, and hotels were destroyed, altogether resulting in massive destruction of people and property (obioha 1999: 45; eniola 2010: 77-81; kanu 2017: 300-310). also, the april 1991 violence in tafawa balewa (bauchi state) was also precipitated by a quarrel in the market between a christian butcher and some hausa/fulani people. in the ensuring impasse, many muslims were killed. on carrying the corpse from tafawa balewa to bauchi town a reprisal was launched on the christians in the town. this led to the massacre of many christian settlers in the town. the invitation of the army to restore order only worsened the situation as a result of series of massacres in which thousands of people were alleged to have been killed' (alanamu 2005: 165170; armstrong 2014:10). in the year 2001, the religious clash between muslims and christians in the same tafawa balewa local government area of bauchi state, this began on june 19 and ended on july 4, resulted in the death of over 100 persons (alanamu 2005: 165170; odey 1999: 21-14). in like manner, the zango-kataf crisis of january 1992 started when the kataf controlled local government council decreed that the market would be moved out of zango on february 6, 1992. this immediately led to the attack of the zango community and killing of many of the kataf people. this later assumed a religious dimension and spread to kaduna and zaria. consequently, this led to attack and counter attack and the resulting effect was series of massacre in which thousands of people were killed. what started as an inter-ethnic conflict soon widened into a national crisis with religious dimensions (egwu 2001: 10-12; ademola 2006: 33). another serious dimension of religious crisis was the upsurge of movement known as yan tatsini popularly known as maitatsine. this group was notorious for inflicting severe religious violence on the people in northern part of the country. between 1979 and 1983, two maitatsine uprisings occurred. the classic case was the kano uprising of 1980 which left between 4,000 6,000 people dead and property worth millions of naira destroyed. it was after the intervention of the army and the air force that the 11 days' riots were finally quelled (olupona 1992:23-27; rowley 2014: 361-402). again, in year 2000, many killings were recorded from religious disturbances. from february 21 to 22, an estimated 3,000 people lost their lives in a clash between muslims 15 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december and christians in kaduna, the capital of kaduna state. there was a reprisal attack in aba, abia state and about 450 persons were killed (olukorede 2002: 8). the riot was initially sparked up by the introduction of islamic criminal law (sharia law) in some northern states. between may 22 and 23, kaduna was again brought to its knee when muslims and christians clashed. over 300 lives were lost (olukorede 2002: 8; kanu 2016: 3). in november 2002, religious violence again rocked the city of kaduna after an english newspaper, this day, made a disparaging remark about prophet muhammad (saw). the remark was made in the context of an international beauty pageant being staged in the country. many muslim organizations and some political leaders had objected to the holding of the miss world contest in nigeria. members of a militant muslim grouping had gone on the rampage in kaduna, targeting churches and private property, a day after the report appeared. the rioting briefly spread to abuja, the federal capital territory. the newspaper has since tendered an unconditional apology and the author of the article was ordered to resign. there was also a violent reaction from the minority groups. more than 200 people lost their lives and thousands were rendered homeless (cherian 1995: 12-13; sulaiman 2014c: 18-35). plateau state particularly, has been a theatre of war, as a result of frequent ethno-religious crises in virtually all parts of the state; apart from massive killings of innocent people, there were systematic humiliation, wanton destruction and large scale displacement of people which had changed the sobriquet of plateau from 'home of peace and tourism' (shobayo 2004:10). plateau war started as a conflict between those that considered themselves the indigines and their seemingly settlers. however, in the year 2001, religious undertone crept in, thus by september 2001, jos experienced an eruption of violence, which was unprecedented. between september 7 and 12, over 500 persons were killed. about 1,000 others were injured (onyeka-ben et al. 2004: 12; kanu, omojola, bazza 2019: 1-13). th adamawa state has also had its own share of religious conflict, on the 8 of june 2004, religious violence erupted in numan town, headquarters of numan local government area of the state, leaving more than 17 persons dead and some worship centers destroyed. the violence was believed to be the climax of two weeks of tensed relations between the native bachama christians and the local muslim community over the location of the town's central mosque, a few yards away front the bachama paramount ruler's place (alanamu 2005: 170177). the reconstruction of the mosque, which was destroyed during a similar religious clash in the town in the year 2003, had ignited passions among the native christians who thought that building the mosque's minaret higher than the hama bachama' s (bachama paramount ruler) palace was an assertion of dominance in the town (murray & ajose 2004: 6; mustapha 2004: 23-25). clarification of key concepts violence: violence is defined by the world health organization as the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation (dogo 2003: 33-37; 16 religious violence and co-existence in nigeria ikechukwu anthony kanu & mike boni bazza wellman and tokuno 2004: 29; fox 2004b:3-5). this definition associates intentionality with the committing of the act itself, irrespective of the outcome it produces. also, violence or a violent act involves threat or actual execution of acts which have actual or potential capacity to inflict physical, emotional or psychological injury on a person or a group of persons (short & wolfgang 1972: 41-43; cavanaugh 2009: 272). violent act ranges from trivial assaults to mass murder and takes place in public, in the home, in the workplace, in clubs, schools and on the road where 'road rage' has recently become yet another manifestation of the assumed spread of violence (short & wolfgang 1972: 4143: fox 2004a:1-2). however, violence is inevitable when accommodative structures break down (punch editorial may 17, 2004:6). violence is best explained relative to its etymology to violate (yahaya 2009: 43-50). the basic issue about violence is that somebody is been violated. from the above views, the extended definition of violence enables us regard any action that infringes upon the rights of citizens as constituting violence. religion: religion, unlike other disciplines like music, geography, history, mathematics, chemistry and a host of others, has no universally acceptable and satisfactory definition. religion is looked at from different perspectives based on the angle which one understands it. it originates from the latin words: relegere (to unite or link) and religio (relationship, bond) (kanu 2015: 1-22; sani 2007:12; fox 2002: 415434). it therefore means a link or a relationship between man and a being that exists which is greater than man. man and religion are inseparable in all human cultures. however, according to webster's dictionary of english language, religion refers to man's expression of his acknowledgement of the divine or a system of belief and practices relating to the sacred and uniting its adherents in communities. this shows that religion focuses on what is ultimate or absolute and taught of worship. therefore, relationships between the transcendent and men demands total submission and an absolute obedience (short & wolfgang 1972: 41-43; juergensmeyer 2004: 23). similarly, religion is a system of symbols which act to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic (peter 1998: 10-17; tanner 2007: 5-6). religion also, is the consciousness of one's dependence on transcendent being and the tendency to worship him. it is a body of truths, laws and rites by which man is subordinated to the transcendent being (adeniyi 1993: 12-18; juergensmeyer 2001: 1323). religious violence: from the aforementioned perspectives, religious violence may be described briefly as the threat or actual implementation of acts which have potential capacity to inflict physical, emotional or psychological injury on a person or a group of persons for religious ends. the perpetrators of religious violence often represent or act in the name of a particular religious cause. religious violence is also defined as a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the subject or object of violent behavior (wellman & tokuno 2004: 291.). religious violence is, specifically, violence that is 17 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december motivated by or in reaction to religious precepts, texts, or doctrines. this includes violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or when the violence is motivated to some degree by some religious aspect of the target or precept of the attacker. religious violence does not refer exclusively to acts committed by religious groups, but also includes acts committed by secular groups against religious groups. causes of religious violence in nigeria having attempted to clarify some conceptual issues on the subject of this research paper, the following discussion will now focus on the causes of religious violence in nigeria. these causes differ from one environment to another. in nigeria, certain constant factors breed and nurture religious violence with obvious consequences on the stability order of the citizens. on the basis of the foregoing, a number of factors can be identified to be reasons responsible for incessant religious violence in nigeria, among which are as follows: the theological factor as it were, all religions involve specific intellectual beliefs. each has a number of literatures held especially sacred which contain historical materials with which the validity of the doctrines are connected as well as their modes of propagation. however, owing to lack of in-depth understanding, outright ignorance, misinterpretation or cheer mischief, scriptural texts have been given whimsical and capricious interpretations towards predetermined ends. such actions have often sparked off emotional responses and violence among the adherents of the various religions in nigeria (ekwenife 1993: 1016; nayak 2008: 273 -291). in a situation like this, missionary workers should distinguish between missionary work and conversion work because religious propagation is being altered by social and political changes and most importantly by worldwide mental revolution. religious intolerance religious intolerance is a blind and fixated mental and psychological negative attitude towards religious beliefs and practices that are contrary to one's cherished beliefs and practices (balogun1988: 23 30). such negative attitudes constantly manifest themselves in violent outburst that spill over the political and economic lives of the citizens. the inability to recognize and accommodate views and opinions of others is therefore, one of the major sources of religious violence in nigeria. nigerian religious adherents, especially the muslims and the christians have demonstrated intolerant attitudes to result to violence. religious fanaticism religious fanaticism, in this context, can be seen as a violent and unreasoning religious enthusiasm. religious fanatics show excessive irrational zeal to defend their religions in nigeria; consequently, they become destructive agents of religious disharmony in the society (balogun 1988: 2330; sulaiman 2014a: 6378). the adherents of christians and muslims are at one stage or another influenced by fanaticism to result to violent confrontation. 18 religious violence and co-existence in nigeria ikechukwu anthony kanu & mike boni bazza unbridled action of the press the traditional function of the press in any society is to inform, entertain and educate. under no circumstances is the press expected to misinform, mis-entertain and miseducate people. the mass media practitioners ought to be cautioned in their reports on sensitive issues that could threaten stability order in the society. in nigeria, experience has shown that the mass media reports, news analysis and features are capable of playing a positive or negative role in the relationship between religious adherents, particularly muslims and christians depending on the intention and orientation of the journalist concerned. more often than not the actions or reactions of the muslims to christian's action or vice versa are determined by the mass media reports (bashir 2002: 2330). the press on many occasions in nigeria have fanned the embers of disunity through junk journalism and sensational headlines (bashir 2002: 2729). such negative and sensational press reports and news analysis often breed religious violence. for example, the demonstration led by mallam yakubu yahaya which resulted to a riot in katsina in april 1991. the demonstration which led to riot was caused by an article titled: “would you marry a known prostitute turned born again?” published in fun times, written by orlando emmanuel giwa atanda. in this article, the personalities of both jesus christ and prophet muhammad were ridiculed (dauda 1993: 20-26). the role played by the press in the year 1987 kafanchan riot was also negative. members of the public were grossly misinformed by the press which created a crisis between muslims and christians (bidmos 1993: 32-39; sulaiman & ojo 2013: 21-38). even as at today, the unbridled actions of nigeria press towards national issues like sharia and other sensitive religious issues are capable of causing violence. aggressive or militant preaching/evangelism this means an offensive or coercive approach to conversion and propagation of one's religious faith. this happens when any religious group or individual preachers within that group set out to convert those they consider infidels or ' pagans' to their own religious system. poverty the problem of poverty, especially in the urban areas apparently accounts for the bulk of violence (whether ethnic or religious) due to such problems as unemployment, inadequate housing, physical and social infrastructures (obateru 1994: 32-35; sulaiman & ojo 2013: 21-38). the current depression in the nigerian economy must have worsened the problem of poverty, thereby partly responsible for the creation of religious violence. also, poverty creates societal problems particularly when many people cannot afford their needs like shelter, clothing and feeding. since nigeria lacks structural economy to cater for large population the resultant poverty creates societal problems. extremely poor people can do anything to sustain themselves. thus, the poor youth (almajiris) particularly in northern nigeria are manipulated with small amount of money to cause religious disturbance. wrong religious orientation people are taught differently under different religions. when wrong methods are used in 19 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december indoctrinating adherents of a particular religion, what often follows is religious obsession which invariably leads to violence. literacy level of religious adherents every nigerian belongs to one religion or the other. but not too many people are educated in nigeria, since people often believe what their religious leaders say; illiterates are easily manipulated since they are not critical in their thinking. selfishness on the part of religious personalities some religious leaders despite their calling have given to selfishness. they employ fowl means to perpetrate religious violence knowing that they will be invited by the government in power to seek their advice. that way they get closer to the government for their personal interest. external influence on religion there is a mutual suspicion among the different religions in nigerians. while some people think that christianity is an agent of american and european imperialism, others think that muslims have close ties with saudi arabia. both religious bodies are believed to often get financial support from these places. implications for peaceful co-existence there is no gainsaying about the fact that the problem of religious disturbances in nigeria has devastating effects on stability and peaceful co-existence of the citizenry. the destruction which religious violence has caused to nigeria cannot be quantified. the frequent clashes which erupted as a result of this had inflicted untold hardships on both individuals, in terms of loss of lives and property and on the government in terms of occasional provisions of relief materials for the victims of religious disturbances. though, there are many consequences of religious violence, but the most obvious consequence has been loss of lives and property and a growing suspicion resulting in a huge trust deficit between people of different faiths who hitherto have seen themselves as brothers and sisters. innocent citizens are in most cases the victims of violence, and have increasingly found themselves unable to co-exist with each other. religious violence has the potential of resulting into large-scale physical displacement and forced relocation of individuals, families and groups. the spate of this violence in the last three decades has certainly resulted in varying degrees of internally displaced persons (jibrin 1989: 65-82; egwu 2001: 30-33). apart from undermining the stability order, religious violence tends to dent the image of the country in the international community. the frequent eruption of religious uprisings has forced some countries to issue travel warning advising their citizens not to travel to nigeria because of religious tension that could erupt quickly and without warning. for instance, in december of 2003, the american state department citing alleged resurgence of violence crises, warned its citizens of the dangers of traveling to nigeria (abubakar 2003: 6; sulaiman & ojo 2013: 21-38). also in december year 2004, the government of united states and britain re-issued travel advice to their citizens traveling to nigeria. the advisory noted among other things that “religious tension between some muslim and 20 religious violence and co-existence in nigeria ikechukwu anthony kanu & mike boni bazza christian communities result in occasional acts of isolated communal violence that could erupt quickly and without warning…” (egua & makinde 2004: 6; avalos 2005: 32). it is a truism that this kind of warning does not augur well for stability order in the country, hence, the need for religious peace. it also causes psychological trauma to those who witness the killing of their relatives, and burning of their properties. and it increases the unemployment level when most of the small-scale industries that employ youths are lost to religious violence. in other words, while religion has been a factor in national development, it has also been manipulated to wrought havoc on the nigerian populace. as earlier mentioned at the beginning of this paper, between the year 1980 and the year 1990, nigeria recorded eight major religious disturbances with heavy human and material losses; many monuments of high and historical value were also destroyed. apart from the monumental losses which can be qualified, the crisis further deepened the division which hitherto existed among the various religious adherents. for example, the psychological trauma among the victims of religious disturbances is a recurring decimal. such persons never live to forgive or forget the persons involved in the carnage. and economically, nigeria has lost opportunities of economic recovery owing to suspicions based on religious rivalry. for example, in the year 1984, nigeria lost an opportunities of an interest free loan from saudi arabia which agreed to lend nigeria a substantial part of the 2.5-billion-naira loan, she was negotiating with the i.m.f. the rumour then was that nigeria's regulation of her membership of the organization of islamic conference (oic) would make nigeria an islamic state (ojie 2004: 1217; eniola 1990: 24-30). nigeria lost this golden opportunity even when relatively smaller nations such as garbon, uganda, burkina faso, sierra leone, cameroon and guinea bisau enjoy comprehensive economic facilities of the oic and have not become islamic states in the process of their regular membership. the incessant nature of violence in the country also has the impact of breeding social miscreant and criminals who by their access to weapons of war (which are usually sophisticated) become terrors to both their immediate community and the larger society. after the crisis, it is always difficult to retrieve such weapons back because most of these people are originally jobless, they often found solace in terrorizing the society. also, the inability (in most cases) of the security forces to nip in the bud this religious violence before they escalate to the level of wanton destruction of lives and property is a major concern. prospects and remedial solutions in combating/fostering religious violence and peaceful co-existence having synthesized the implications of religious violence for stability order in nigeria, it is necessary to make some recommendations which the following antidotes are, therefore, expected to go a long way in combating. the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria must be strengthened and respected. this include the respect for the rule of law, respect for the fundamental human rights, independence of the judiciary and respect for all democratic norms and values. this is the running of government affairs in a positive and progressive manner that will be beneficial to the governed. the issue of religious faith is the concern of many individuals in nigeria. thus, people have the choice and freedom to follow whichever religion they think they can find solace 21 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december and tranquility in (bashir 2002: 2729; sulaiman 2014c: 368-387). so also must every person be free to invite others to consider his or her religion of choice without any harassment whatsoever. in doing this, the principles enumerated by different religions on how to invite people to the way of god should be employed. invitation of another person to a religion should not be done in an aggressive manner. the invitation should be done with wisdom and discretion, meeting people on their own ground and convincing them with illustrations from their own knowledge and experience, which may be very narrow, or very wide. the use of social and economic diplomacy can also be employed to win souls to one's religious belief. also, to avert religious violence, the nigerian government should, at the federal, state and local government levels, adopt an open and uncompromising neutral attitude towards religious groups in the country. by this, it means that anyone in the position of power in a multi-religious country should not allow his or her religious inclination to override common interests. nigerians should be treated equally and be given equal rights and privileges irrespective of their religious background. relatedly, religious leaders should preach the genuine teaching of their respective religion about peace to their followers. all religions could promote peaceful and harmonious co-existence among people if only their teeming followers are informed of the erroneous consideration of anyone outside their faith as an antagonist. biblical and qur'anic injunctions are germane for promoting love and religious peace in contemporary nigeria. in addition, the nigerian press can play a big role towards averting religious violence and promoting national peace and stability order. the objectivity of the press in reporting religious matters, will promote religious harmony and peaceful co-existence. it is expected that media practitioners should always imbibe the ethics of professional journalism whenever they are reporting or making news analysis and features. furthermore, at the level of education in nigeria, students and their lecturers should constantly reflect on the value of religious tolerance in a mixed community of religious believers. in all tertiary institution; symposia, lectures and conferences should be frequently organized on this (lederach 1995:43; ekwenife 1993: 10-16). experts on dialogue with different religions should be invited to present leading papers that will promote meaningful dialogue. enlightenment campaigns should also be organized for the members of the public on religious peace. the need for inter-religious dialogue in a religiously pluralistic state like nigeria is equally expedient. the aim of dialogue should not be to obliterate the identity of a participating religious group. rather its objective should be to discuss the various aspects of the problem that pose a threat to the peaceful co-existence of different religious groups. the promotion of inter-religious dialogue in nigeria, will therefore contribute a great deal to averting religious violence. in another development, all religious bodies should work hand in glove to identify the fundamental aspects of religion in relation to the complex national and international issues (balogun1988: 2330; sulaiman 2014b: 106 -120). for instance, what does religion say about corruption, child abuse, secret cultism, terrorism, poverty, to mention but a few. they should come together to fuse their knowledge and fight these social 22 religious violence and co-existence in nigeria ikechukwu anthony kanu & mike boni bazza problems in unison rather than broad generalizations and more sentimental statements of concern from different religious bodies. the problem of religious violence can also be tackled through poverty alleviation programmes. in this respect, it is imperative that the economy should be empowered to take care of the unemployed and a poverty-ridden populace. besides, government should pursue democratic governance that respects individual and group rights while shifting emphasis from distribution to innovative and productive politics. furthermore, there is the need for the development of an early warning system for raising alarm on the imminent eruption of religious uprising. such warning system will enable the law enforcement agents to intervene promptly in religious tension before it escalates into violent outburst. the pluralism on religious matters and ethnicity call for sincerity when relating with people of different faiths, we must be truly tolerant of each other especially where the practice of religion proves divisive. since all religions preach peace and love and since we are children of one god; all efforts must be geared towards unity. any country that is divided by religious conflicts finds it hard to recover. christian and muslim preachers must carefully guard their utterances so as not to wound people's sensibilities. finally, the curriculum of religious studies in the nigerian educational system should be wholly reviewed. basic tenets that are characteristic of the three major religions should be more emphasized through realistic comparative studies, which should be made compulsory in all schools and for all students. through this, students shall be opportune to know more about themselves, not only in their christian or muslim faiths or religious understanding but also attain a sound, sharpened and refined view of other people's belief system. conclusion in this paper, it was found that among the causes of religious violence in nigeria are: religious intolerance, religious fanaticism, unbridled action of the press, aggressive or militant preaching/evangelism, poverty, wrong religious orientation, literacy level of religious adherents, selfishness on the part of religious personalities, poverty and external influence in religion. it was also discovered that the destruction which religious violence has caused to nigeria cannot be quantified. the frequent clashes which erupted as a result of this have inflicted untold hardship on both individuals and the government. apart from undermining the stability order, religious violence tends to dent the image of the country in the international community. also, the frequent eruption of religious uprisings has forced some countries to issue travel warning advising their citizens not to travel to nigeria because of religious tension that could erupt quickly and without warning. it also causes psychological trauma to those who witnessed the killing of their relatives, and burning of their properties. likewise, economically, nigeria has lost opportunities of economic recovery owing to suspicions based on religious rivalry. in good conscience, it is believed that religion is meant to bring peace and stability to the world and unite humanity irrespective of tribe or language. moreover, anyone who understands the teachings of religions will not relate the overwhelming presence of violence in nigeria to religious mission. the study concludes that religious violence in nigeria has claimed many lives and property worth billions of naira. the violence has not helped the growth and development of 23 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december the nation. however, education, tolerance, religious dialogue, reconciliation, among others, should serve as avenues for dousing the social violence that emerges from the practice of religion in nigeria. this will ensure peaceful coexistence of christians, muslims, traditionalists and members of other religions. invariably, this would help in the restoration of peace, security, growth and stability of the nigerian nation. references alanamu, a.s. 2005, reflections on religious violence in nigeria (19992004). in alanamu, a.s. 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is it really the ultimate goal underlying every human desire or motive? can the human person pursue power just for its own sake? is there no thing more primordial than power in human pursuits? in this research i wish to establish that will-to-power is not the ultimate goal of humans but rather the will-to-win. in all that humans do, they search for victory. even power, in itself, is empty and lacks a locomotive force to move human beings for actions if not pursued for victory. hence, in this research i shall show how the will-to-win and not nietzsche's willto power is the ultimate goal of humans. in that regard, the work is divided into five main parts. after this introduction, which is the first part, the second part analyzes nietzsche's idea of will-topower; the third situates the nietzschean understanding of will-to-power and shows that it is ultimately a psychological principle; the fourth part establishes how it is the will-to-win and not the will-to-power that is the ultimate force in humans, while the fifth concludes the research work. a philosophical reconsideration of nietzschean will-to-power as will-to-win marcellinus chigozie obi spiritan school of philosophy, isienu-nsukka (an affiliate of the university of nigeria, nsukka). 27 nietzschean will-to-power in his books and those of his commentators, the will-to-power is expressed in the following terms: " the dominating will", "an insatiable desire to manifest power", "willing to be stronger", " the will to outdo, excel and overpower one another", etc. from the foregoing, it can be said that the will-to-power, for nietzsche, means the will to conquer or to overpower. this implies that for him, the will-to-power exists in the forms of domination and overcoming, that is, self-overcoming (charles ajogi, 2003:67). will-to-power as domination etymologically, the english word "domination" comes from the latin dominus, meaning "a master or mastery". to dominate means, therefore, to be a master over another, to have power over another or to have control over others, the same way a master can have control over his slaves. hence, the nietzschean will-to-power as domination is the lust to dominate; the desire that others recognize us and submit to us; the drive for supremacy over others. because such a drive is characteristically brute and absolute, it could involve violence and injury. thus, in his work beyond good and evil, nietzsche, while talking about the willto-power as domination, says: man of a still natural, barbarians in every fearful sense of the word, men of prey still in possession of an unbroken strength of will and lust for power, threw themselves upon weaker, more civilized, more peaceful, perhaps trading or cattle-raising races, or upon old mellow cultures […] the noble caste was in the beginning always the barbarian caste: their superiority lay, not in their physical strength, but primarily in their psychical – they were more complete human beings (friedrich nietzsche, 1973: 173). by describing will-to-power using the instance of the ' barbarians' who violently attack and dominate weaker societies, nietzsche affirms this uncaring, cruel and violent nature of the will-to-power as domination. elsewhere in on the genealogy of morals, nietzsche argues that life, which of course for him is will-to-power, "operates essentially, that is in its basic functions, through injury, assault, exploitation, destruction and simply cannot be thought of at all without this character" (friedrich nietzsche, 1969: 76). put differently, for nietzsche, will-to-power as domination is the desire to brutally or violently manifest one's supremacy over another. though nietzsche, as demonstrated above, accepts harmful and violent acts of domination towards others as means to express power, he does not encourage human beings to search for or to express power in such a manner. in kauffmann's words, “he [ nietzsche] does not consider the neurotic's will to power admirable […] the will to power is a positive motive which would make us strive for something” (walter kauffmann, 1974: 190). surely, what interests nietzsche most in his theory of will-topower is the self-overcoming aspect of it. will-to-power as self-overcoming self-overcoming as a form of will-to-power is the will to self-overcome; the will to create; the will to involve oneself in the continuous process of self-development. in a 28 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december word, it is the will to say “yes” to life in the face of nihilism resulting from the “death of god”. in the gay science, nietzsche in his poetic style writes: have you not heard of the madam who lit a lantern in the bright morning hours, ran to the market place, and cried incessantly, ' i seek god! i seek god!' as many of those who do not believe in god were standing around just then, he provoked much laughter [...] 'wither is god ' he cried. 'i shall tell you. we have killed him you and i. all of us are his murderers. but how have we done this? [...] what did we do when we unchained the earth from its sun? whither is it moving now? whither are we moving now? away from all suns? are we not plunging continually? backward, sideward, forward, in all directions? is there any up or down left? are we not straying as through as infinite nothing? do we not feel the breath of empty space? […] do we not hear anything yet of the noise of the gravediggers who are burying god? do we not smell anything yet of god's decomposition? gods too decompose. god is dead. god remains dead. and we have killed him [....] (walter kaufmann, 1954: 95) with this death of god, comes the crumbling of all the values and philosophical doctrines associated with the god-concept. and the direct consequence of this is what nietzsche calls nihilism. what is nihilism? nihilism derives from the latin word nihil, meaning "nothing". in philosophy, nihilism can be viewed as the perception of life as meaningless, purposeless and as having no value. in this regard, nietzsche in the will to power argues: “what does nihilism mean? that the highest values devaluate themselves. the aim is lacking; “why” finds no answer” (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 1). thus, for nietzsche, nihilism sets in when our highest values, that is, all that we earlier thought to give meaning and purpose to the world, are considered as worthless. put simply, nihilism means losing sense of direction, “straying as through an infinite nothing” (walter kaufmann, 1954: 95). accordingly, in the face of nihilism, one must choose between the two options: either he/she gives in to schopenhauerian pessimism which nietzsche refers to as passive nihilism, that is, “decline and recession of the power of the spirit”; or, he/she chooses saying "yes" to life, which nietzsche refers to as active nihilism (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 17). in the active nihilism, the death of god is viewed differently; not as a catastrophic event, but as an opportunity for "our ship" to "venture out to face any danger" (walter kaufmann, 1954: 448). so, instead of resigning to pessimism because of the death of god and the consequent crumbling of the values associated with the godconcept, the active nihilist confronts the horror and terror of existence through the means of will-to-power as self-overcoming by creating meaning, purpose, value and by determining his/her life. hence, the will-to-power as self-overcoming is a necessity for he/she who wishes to take charge of his/her existence amidst nihilism resulting from the death of god. having analyzed the two senses in which the expression "will-to-power" is used by 29 a philosophical reconsideration of nietzschean will-to-power as will-to-win marcellinus chigozie obi nietzsche, let us situate it within the context of its interpretations as a metaphysical reality and a psychological principle, in view of making more vivid his perception of will-topower. situating the nietzschean will-to-power a. will-to-power as a metaphysical reality in his writings, both the published and unpublished notes, nietzsche sometimes presents will-to-power as a foundational or an ultimate reality. for instance, in the will to power, he says that “life is will to power” and that “the only reality is the will to grow stronger of every center of force – not self-preservation, but the will to appropriate, dominate, increase, grow stronger” (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 367; see also 35-39, 355-356). elsewhere, he opines: and do you know what 'the world' is to me? shall i show you it in my mirror? this world: a monster of force, without beginning, without end, a fixed, iron quantity of force which grown neither larger nor smaller, which doesn't exhaust but only transforms itself, as a whole unchanging in size, an economy without expenditure and losses, but equally without increase... – 'this world is the will to power – and nothing besides'! and you yourselves too are this will to power – and nothing besides! (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 549-550) in the above citation, nietzsche appears to describe the nature or foundation of reality as "will-to-power". in this perspective, therefore, nature or reality is only a monster of force or quantum of power. the will-to-power is by implication found in everything that exists in the universe. arguing on this, heidegger asserts: "[t]he expression 'will to power' designates the basic character of beings; any being which is, insofar as it is, is will to power" (martin heidegger, 1961: 18). thus, in heidegger's view, will-to-power as perceived by nietzsche, is foundational to all that is: being and becoming, change and permanence, etc. hence, for nietzsche, it is not only that will-to-power underlies the organic world, "it guides the inorganic world as well...." (friedrich nietzsche, 2009: 34). he argues further: action at a distance cannot be eliminated: something draws something else closer, something feels drawn. this is the fundamental fact: compared to this, the mechanistic motion of pressing and pushing is merely a hypothesis based on sight and touch, even if it does indeed serve us as a regulative hypothesis for the world of sight (friedrich nietzsche, 2009: 34). in the above, nietzsche would want us to replace the mechanistic interpretation of the world with the interpretation of the universe simply as will-to-power. for that which underlies all events in the universe is nothing other than the “dynamic quanta […] the will to power not a being, not a becoming, but a pathos – the most elemental fact from which a becoming and effecting first emerge” (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 339). similarly, in beyond god and evil, nietzsche reduces everything in the world (organic and inorganic) to “a single fundamental form [...] of the will to power"(friedrich nietzsche, 1973: 3). 30 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december here, will-to-power, as we have seen in his other works, is perceived as the underlying principle of all things, and everything in the universe can be explained in terms of its relation to will-to-power. he avers: "[...] we assume that nothing is "given" as real other than our world of desires and passion and that we cannot access from above or below any "reality" other than the direct reality of our drives [….] seen from inside, the world defined and described according to its “intelligible character” would be simply “will to power” and nothing else” (friedrich nietzsche, 1973: 36). there are some other expressions in nietzsche's writings that strongly support the claim that will-to-power is a metaphysical reality: “power quanta”, “power centers”, “force”, etc. (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 339, 368, 222, 290, 294, 305, 366) certainly, as we have seen, understanding of will-to-power as a metaphysical reality finds much support in nietzsche's works. however, many nietzschean philosophers reject this for various reasons. the basic argument postulated by them is that the interpretation of will-to-power as a metaphysical reality is totally logically inconsistent with nietzsche's philosophy, since he saw himself as an anti-metaphysician (walter kauffmann, 1954: 344), and attempted to attack metaphysicians in his writings. another important argument employed against this position is that most texts in support of this interpretation of willto-power as a metaphysical reality are found in nietzsche's unpublished work. in his published works, many of the passages on will to power do not discuss it as metaphysical. this makes it even more doubtful on whether nietzsche in the unpublished writings really understood will-to-power as a metaphysical reality (jeffrey beery, 2020: 28-31). given these concerns, we have strong reasons to reject the interpretation of will-to-power as a metaphysical reality. nietzsche mainly discussed will-to-power in psychological terms. b. will-to-power as a psychological principle in general, there is a motivation behind every human action/behavior towards a fellow human being or his environment. this motivation is what nietzsche in his writings calls drives. accordingly, among the drives, there exists will-to-power which is the ultimate drive. put in different terms, the will-to-power is the primordial drive of human actions. in his words, it is “the most universal and basic instinct in all doing and willing” (friedrich nietzsche, 1967: 356). drawing from this, it can be categorically asserted that in nietzsche's perspective, all that human beings do are done for the sake of power. on this, paul edwards affirms that, for nietzsche, “the only thing that all men want is power, and whatever is wanted is wanted for the sake of power. if something is wanted more than something else; it must represent more power” (paul edwards,1967: 511). in regard to this, walter kauffmann maintains that for nietzsche, “the will to power is the positive motive which would make us strive for something” (walter kauffmann, 1974: 190). if, for nietzsche, all that human beings do are done for power, it implies that, for him as well, all human acts or events can be explained in terms of will-to-power as their ultimate drive. for example, will to truth or drive for knowledge can be explained in terms of will to power as its ultimate drive? accordingly, in one of his works, nietzsche maintains that the will to truth is a “will to the thinkability of all [things],” and that this will is found in every human being (walter kauffmann, 1954: 225). that said, the drive for truth, however, never exists for its own sake; it rather exists for power. in other words, human beings search for “truth” in view of understanding and becoming masters over nature. put differently, truth is pursued ultimately for power. this position is much clearer in what 31 a philosophical reconsideration of nietzschean will-to-power as will-to-win marcellinus chigozie obi nietzsche says of theologians and metaphysicians in beyond good and evil: “their knowing is creating, their creating is law-giving, their will to truth is – will to power” (friedrich nietzsche, 1973: 123). thus, will-to-truth is a manifestation of will-to-power. drawing from the above arguments, therefore, it can be strongly affirmed that for nietzsche, will-to-power is a fundamental human drive or a psychological driver that underlies other drives in human beings, including the drive for truth. as an ultimate drive, will-to-power is, therefore, the primum mobile or first drive of all human desires. but, is will-to-power really the primordial drive? can the desire for power be the drive underlying all human desires? can power be sought for its own sake? do we not desire power for the sake of some other primordial need? in a word, do we not desire power for winning sake? will-to-power or will-to-win? berton barley (2023) wrote a poem entitled the will to win: the will to win if you want a thing bad enough to go out and fight for it, give up your time and your peace and your sleep for it if only desire of it makes you quite mad enough never to tire of it, makes you hold all other things tawdry and cheap for it […] if dogged and grim you besiege and beset it, you'll get it! our interest here is not necessarily in the content of this poem whose aim is to motivate the one who strongly desires a goal; the interest is rather in the title of the poem itself which is 'will to win'. the title of the poem shows that there could exist 'will-to-win' in humans. what is will-to-win? to be able to establish clearly the meaning of will-to-win, we need to underline first what th 'to win' means. according to chambers 20 century dictionary, to win is “to achieve”, “to be a victor”, “to gain influence”, to excel, to be successful, to reach one's potential (e. m. kirkpatrick, 1983: 1495). hence, will-to-win is the drive or desire to succeed; the urge to reach one's potential; the desire to unlock the door of one's personal excellence; the drive to go beyond one's present level of ability. but, does this desire exist really in humans? if it does, has it any ontological priority over the nietzschean will to power? will-to-win: the ultimate drive of human actions vincent lombardi, former american footballer, coach and executive in national football league (nfl), in some of his speeches affirms: 32 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december winning is not everything but making the effort to win is. success demands singleness of purpose. if it doesn't matter who wins or loses, then why do they keep score? winning is not a sometime thing… it is an all the time thing. you don't win once in a while…you don't do the right thing once in a while…you do them right all the time. winning is a habit…winning isn't everything, it's the only thing. the objective is to win [….] (beau dure, 2015) analyzing this literally would imply that all that really matters for humans is winning. put differently, it is the will-to-win, the will to be a victor, the will to be successful, the will to reach one's potential that underlies all human actions. it, that is, will-to-win, is like a driving force which propels all human activities. thus, in all that the human person does, he/she searches to excel or to be a winner. this means that will-to-win is, therefore, the primordial drive in humans and has an ontological priority over every other human drive, including will-to-power. so, it is not the will-to-power that is the ultimate drive of human actions but rather the will-to-win. nietzsche's worldly power is in fact 'power-less' if it is not driven by the will-to-win. looking at it from a different perspective, human beings do desire power not just for the sake of possessing it; they search for power because it 'empowers' them to become winners and successful beings. analyzing it in relation to nietzschean will-to-power, humans lust for power simply because it enables them to become victorious and successful, either in the form of domination over others or in the self-overcoming. elsewhere, lombardi (2023) opines that “the quality of each man's life is the full measure of that man's commitment of excellence and victory – whether it be football, whether it be business, whether it be politics or government or what have you”. from the foregoing, it can be said that the existence of the human person is measured by the will-to-win, and that all human activities are manifestations of the will-to-win. thus, morality, sports, businesses, politics or government, inasmuch as they are human activities, are all manifestations of will-to-win. analysis of 'morality', for instance, in relation to will-to-win portrays this much clearer. morality, which of course is 'will-to-do-good' is no other thing but a manifestation of willto-win. evidently, it is founded on the principles of reward and punishment. by implication, those who behave well get rewarded for their good actions while those who do evil get punished for their evil actions. surely, human beings naturally desire to win/gain reward, and purposefully do good for that reason. drawing from this analysis, it follows therefore, that will-to-win is at the foundation of every form of human morality. a similar analysis could be applied to other human activities, portraying that they are only manifestations of will-to-win. the basic implication of this, is that existence involves struggles or striving. regarding this, pope paul vi (2023) affirms: all life demands struggle. those who have everything given to them become lazy, selfish, and insensitive to the real values of life. the very striving and hard work that we so constantly try to avoid is the major building block in the person we are today. the above shows that struggle or striving is part of human life. surely, human beings do 33 a philosophical reconsideration of nietzschean will-to-power as will-to-win marcellinus chigozie obi strive, not for striving sake; they strive to be winners in whatever kind of struggles they are involved in. even earlier than pius vi, heraclitus did say something very similar: “we must recognize that war is common, strife is justice, and all things happen according to strife [.…] war is father of all and king of all; some he made slaves, some free [….] justice is […] the whole pattern of domination of one opposite followed by that of the other” (daniel graham, 2019). this means that for heraclitus, existence could be equated to struggles. these ageless struggles in human beings as well as in the cosmos, keep the world and makes it what it is. soren kierkegaard and albert camus share a similar view in their existentialist writings, as analyzed in the ukessays (2018): “[…] we struggle to make sense of the world but it keeps getting difficult as we try. […] we live in a constant state of conflict with the world.” hence, for them, human life is that of a struggle, a struggle for an existential meaning. and in this struggle, the human person desires winning. in sum, human life involves constant struggles. and to exist truly, is to be a winner in the struggles, that is, to be a winner over all that militates against meaningful existence in whatever manner. conclusion my enquiry on nietzsche's 'will to power' led me to the analysis of the above concept and its philosophical implications. i demonstrated that will to power has two senses, namely, domination and self-overcoming. situating the concept as expressed in both nietzsche's published and unpublished works, i showed that, above all, will-to-power is a psychological principle, that is, the first drive underlying all drives or desires in humans. as the primary drive, in all their actions, human beings search for power or attempt to express power. this research contends this position of nietzsche, arguing that human beings have a drive more primordial than will-to-power. this drive is called 'will-to-win'. will-to-win is that ultimate drive or desire in humans which pushes them in search of victory or success in all their actions/activities. thus, in all that human beings will or desire, including their desire for power, they ultimately desire victory or success. if human beings search for victory or success in all their desires/endeavors, this presupposes the obvious, that is, that the life of humans in the universe (being-in-theuniverse) is a struggle or a striving, and that humans who exist authentically strive in such a way as to be victors in this struggle called life. 34 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december references ajogi, c. (2003). nietzsche's philosophy of power, unpublished project, spiritan school of philosophy isienu, an affiliate of university of nigeria, nsukka. beery, j. a. (2020). towards an understanding of nietzsche's will to power, unpublished project of bridgewater state university. dure, b. (2015). “winning isn't everything; it's the only thing. right?” in the guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/sep/24/winning-everything-sports accessed 11/09/2023. edwards, p. (1967). ed the encyclopedia of philosophy vol. 5 & 6, new york, macmillian publishing co. graham, d. (2019). heraclitus, https://plato.stanford.edu//entries/heraclitus/ accessed 11/09/2023. kauffmann, w. (1954). the portable nietzsche, new york, the viking press. kauffmann, w. (1956). existentialism from dostoevsky to sartre, new york, penguin books. th kauffmann, w. (1974). nietzsche: philosopher, psychologist, antichrist. 4 edition, new jersey, princeton up. th kirkpatrick, e. m. (1983). ed. chambers 20 century dictionary, edinburgh, w & r chambers ltd. nietzsche, f. (1967). the will to power, trans. by walter kauffman and r. j. hollingdale, new york, vintage books. nietzsche, f. (1969). on the genealogy of morals, trans. by walter kauffmann and r. j. hollingdale, new york, vintage books. nietzsche, f. (1973). beyond good and evil, trans. by r. j. hollingdale, harmondsworth, penguin books. pope paul vi. (2023). “all life demands struggle” in internetpoem. https://internetpoem.com/amp/pope-paul-vi/quotes/all-life-demands-strugglethose-who-have-58766/ accessed 11/09/2023. theodore de laguna (1921). the importance of heraclitus, durham, duke university press. 35 a philosophical reconsideration of nietzschean will-to-power as will-to-win marcellinus chigozie obi page 35 page 36 page 37 page 38 page 39 page 40 page 41 page 42 page 43 150 national goals and objectives: towards a national response to political rivalry in the context of nigeria yusuf j. luxman, ph.d. post graduate studies gindiri theological seminary (an affiliate of university of jos) plateau state nigeria luxmanyusuf1@gmail.com abstract the nigerian quest to have a system of government that is potent has continually being marred by individual political interests at the expense of national interest. political rivalry is considered as a threat which has continued to linger on the minds of citizens whose patriotism hangs on the nigerian common goals and objectives. although many approaches have been utilized to curb the scourge of political rivalry in nigeria, yet individual party interest seems to be life and well in the nigerian political atmosphere. this paper premised on the nigerian national goals and objectives as the catalyst for neutralizing the scourge of political rivalry and its stubborn effects on national common interest. this contribution is actualized through a systematic review of relevant materials explored within the nigerian national policies and other secondary recourses that have unpack corresponding views on the subject under consideration. other supporting discourses include an overview of the nigerian context, nigerian political system, national policies on national aspirations, political parties in nigeria, political rivalry in nigeria, scourge of political rivalry in nigeria and national response to political rivalry in nigeria. the paper concluded that as an institution, the judiciary and other forms of law enforcement agents in nigeria can be more viable if focus is fully placed on practical implementation and actualization of the nigerian common goals and objectives irrespective of individual party or political affiliations. keywords: national, goals and objectives, response, political, rivalry, nigeria introduction the effort and commitment of the nigerian system of government to actualize a dependable and viable system of government has often been flawed by individual political ambitions at the detriment of common interest. the obstruction mostly expressed connotation of rivalry in the way politics is being practiced in nigeria. the ugly situation is mostly attributed to the nigerian context which is evidently characterized by negative application of pluralism. contextually, nigeria is based known as a multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multi-political nation when compared with other nations in africa and particularly the in the western milieu. national goals and objectives: towards a national response… yusuf j. luxman, ph.d. mailto:luxmanyusuf1@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 151 political rivalry comes to fore when politics is practiced on the basis of religious, ethnic, language or party interest. in view of the seemingly projection of individual goal and objections based on the elements of pluralism in nigeria and how this has adversely affected the smooth implementation of the nigerian policies which are often documented and reviewed with the sole aim of achieving national goals and objectives. taking into account attempts by government to respond to the scourge of political rivalry in nigeria, this paper called into question the nigerian response and its potency in mitigating political rivalry and its effects on common development goals and objectives. in the quest to discover the roots causes of rivalry in the nigerian political arena, the paper highlights the various elements that constitute the nigerian context. attention was given to the contentious atmosphere within the political sphere which is characterized by religio-cultural and sociopolitical interests. these interests often result into division, factions and violence between conflicting parties. understanding the nigerian political system as captured in the paper forms part of the background towards examining the nigerian national goals and objectives. the policies are documented and reviewed based on contextual inferences and institutional demands with the aim of achieving national goals and objectives. while highlighting the nigerian quest for human holistic development, the paper examined policies on national aspirations and the modalities proposed by government towards the realizing its goals and objectives. political rivalry in the nigerian polity as delineated in this paper connotes envy and competitiveness in the quest for political opportunities among partisan politicians. such political indifferent attitude is rooted in the attempt to project individual sentiments that are detrimental to common goals and objectives. conceptually, nigerian national goals and objectives and its nexus with nigerian aspirations and particularly national development plans remains the driving force among political aspirants and flag bearers. the paper concluded that the scourge of political rivalry can be neutralized when partisans are guided by national development plans which aim at achieving a collective goal and objective. the nigerian context the complexity of nigeria as the most populated nation state in africa is attributed to its multiethnic, multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi religious character. in all, it has about 390 ethnic groups. three quarters are from the middle belt and forty-four of these are from central nigeria. according to ogunleye (2021), the pluralistic nature of nigeria contributed greatly to the eruption of different forms of conflict experienced in most parts of nigeria. according to oyebode, (2022) nigeria’s complex socio-political identities have been exploited by those who wish to use its ethnic and religious diversity as a reason to engage in violent conflict against human life. he further stated how nigeria is today a context engulfed with religious and ethnic intolerance. sometimes beginning from a simple misunderstanding, they can metamorphose into religious, communal, and ethnic conflagration nigerian urban and semi 152 urban areas have been affected most by these religious and multi ethnic conflicts. whenever conflicts of this nature reoccur, they erupt much more and claim many more casualties. in the light of this reality, ethno-religious and socio-political conflicts in contemporary nigeria are attributed to the contentious environment shaped by multiplicity of religions, socioeconomic instability, political rivalry and grave individual interest for amassing wealth at the expense of human dignity. kolapo and njoku (2022) further hold that, ethnic and religious conflicts against human life are attributed to such ill-gotten power, superiority, wealth linked to the religious and ethnic identities. this is contained in the discriminatory attitude of those in power. in recent decades religious and ethnic affiliation have become major criteria for appointments to key offices, the military, the police force, the civil service, enrolment in schools, colleges and universities the military, the police force, the civil service, enrolment in schools, colleges and universities, and so on. in a report on nigeria at 2050, nigeria is rated as the most complex country in africa. this is attributed to its over increasing population and its multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi religious character. in all, it has about 500 ethnic groups. three quarters are from the middle belt and forty-four of these are from plateau state. as pointed out in this report, the pluralistic nature of nigeria has contributed and will greatly contribute to forms of violence and poverty due to its pluralistic nature. the report further holds that due to the pluralistic nature of nigeria, ethnic culture have wrongly been utilized to breed tribalism, manipulation of religious sentiments, regionalism, religious fundamentalism, and political tension which has left the country in a trail of destructive violence that does not only threatened the integrity of nigeria but also threatens human life (yebona, 2022). this contentious situation according to nirmalasari and sarwono (2021) presents an atmosphere of rancor and domination within the nigerian community. they further argued that, violence can be triggered through symbols because they can speak and provoke the people’s emotions which mostly result into violence. accordingly, the violence in nigeria does not only seek to destroy or cause physical damage to lives and properties but also has psychological connotations that undermine human dignity due to cultural, religious, or political affiliations. human rights watch (2021) while searching for the root causes for rancor and prejudice which helped to contribute to use of violence, could conclude. the leaders of christian indigene groups often openly accuse the hausafulani of attempting to take over their land, “dominate” the minority groups, and impose islam on the region. they also point to the willingness of the hausa-fulani to resort to violence to achieve these ends. from the forgoing, the context of nigeria assumes an environment favorably disposed for breeding political tension and other forms of violence against human life. as highlighted, ethnic and religious rivalry presents an atmosphere of despair and uncertainty not only on economic emancipation of the nigerian citizens, but also affect the realization of the nigerian development goals and objectives. national goals and objectives: towards a national response… yusuf j. luxman, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 153 nigerian national development plan national development planning represents a contextual research and potent plans which prioritize particular activities utilizing available resources towards achieving well articulated goals and objectives (alweendo, 2017). while delineating the conceptual understanding of the nigerian national development plans, tedaro, argued that development planning should be seen as a composition of multi-dimensional process involving structural, attitudinal and institutional changes. thus development plans encompasses mercenaries set in place to accelerate economic sustainable growth that has the capacity to cope with new trends towards achieving political, economic and social objectives. it is described as government response towards improving the standard of living of citizens of a particular government (iheanacho, 2014). according to ejumudo (2008) planning is as old as mankind involving all facets of human endeavor. thus, planning has continually become the center stage in almost every human society and since it embraces aspects of human activity, it can conceptually be described as a means to an end (ejumudo, 2008). in principle, planning presupposes pro-activeness and time consciousness on when and how activities are carried out with the sole aim of achieving national goals and objectives. although attempts were made to develop a national development plan before nigeria got her independence, this paper focused on the national development plans aftermath nigerian independence. the selection of the category is based on the idea that before independence national goals and objectives were master minded by colonial administration which seemed to project colonial goals and objectives at the expense of nigerian development plans. comparatively, development plans initiated after independence are man by the nigerian government and the processes of implementation coordinated by government policies and institution which are saddled with the responsibility of enforcing national policies towards actualizing national goals and objectives. historically, the first national development plan which was between the years 1962-1968 was launched after independence in 1960. the desired objectives included, cultivating a favorable environment where national income could be equally distributed irrespective of ethnic, religious, political affiliations, economic growth could be accelerated, generation of savings for viable investments nationally and internationally and uplifting standard of living for nigerians with particular emphasis on food security, housing and development of viable infrastructure of the nation (onyenwigwe, 2009). as documented and impressive as this plan could be, history have shown that this development plan was weaken ethnic rivalry which led to civil war from (1967-1970) (iheanacho 2014). the second development plan was constructed immediately after the civil war around 19701974. taking into account the contextual background of nigeria, the development plan centered on the restoration of peace nigeria had enjoyed before. thus, it was captioned, national development plan of reconciliation, reconstruction and rehabilitation. although, this plan 154 recorded a significant improvement, yet was marred by vagueness, incompetent leaders, lack of finance, corruption and mono-cultural oil economy between (1975-1980). other development plans include the national development plan that was captioned development of oil boom plan. the non-realization of the objective of this plan was attributed to religious, political and ethnic rivalry. the fourth development plan (1981-1985) constructed aftermath military intervention in 1966. it was aimed at consolidating the third development plan in its targets and policy formations. it recorded a significant development on generating funds through petroleum revenue. however, due to dwindling resources, high cost of living, and unemployment, most government projects were abandoned. the dwindling resources were also attributed to individual interest such as religio-cultural and socio-political bigotry and mismanagement of public funds (adedeji 1989). from the foregoing, it can be argued that although the series of the national development plans were well articulated, constructed, recorded and often reviewed yet they were pressured and made into a public disappointment in the face of underdevelopment in all facets of life in the nigerian polity. from the inferences, the failures are attributed to achieving individual goals and objectives at the expense of common goals and objectives. nigerian political system the nigerian political system cannot be told devoid of referencing the attainment of nigerian independence and its probable reconstruction and inculcation of a distinctive political system that appeals to the religio-cultural and socio-political context of nigeria. comparatively, although the nigerian political system cannot be completely distanced from the west after independence, yet it was an attempt to identify with the nigerian peculiarities. it was a political style that created space only for the elite class whose ideologies metamorphosed into a political culture that projects the practice of democracy that seek to realize individual party goals and objectives (brown 2013). by definition, the nigerian political system is a whole which embodies the formation of government by and for the people. in other words, it is a government which is democratic in nature. as copied or borrowed from the west, the formation of a democratic government requires well informed and functional political parties each projecting its goals and aspirations. party goals and objectives are expressed in what is democratically called party manifestos which are usually underpinned by the parties’ quest to provide democratic dividend to the populace. it can be argued that the nigerian political system as highlighted seems to be entrenched in its inherent challenges that have the capacity to mar nigerian development plans and make a caricature of the development of nigeria in all human spheres. while taking into account the challenges of the said political system as practiced in nigeria, (jinadu, 2011) delineates that while political parties propagate their individual interests, it should not negate the tenets of nigerian sovereignty and national goals and objectives. in other words, every political party national goals and objectives: towards a national response… yusuf j. luxman, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 155 within the political system should be informed by goals and objectives that are rooted in the nigerian national goals and objectives. the various arms of government as spelled within the nigerian political system were aimed at not creating institutional interests at the detriment of national interest. the executive, legislative and judiciary are institutions working in synergy with the nigerian quest to provide good governance and sustainable development. the aim is to further provide interdisciplinary approaches towards achieving the nigerian goals and objectives (brown, 2013). although the nigerian political system was well constructed, structured and defined yet the achievement of the national goals and objectives remains improbable. the assertion is attributed to indifferent dispositions of political institutions which are saddled with the responsibilities to enforce and implement institutional precepts towards achieving collective goals and objectives. political parties which constitute part of the nigerian political system have become entities and exercise independent interests at the expense of national interest. the attitudinal divergence is expressed in the way and manner in which political campaigns are conducted. extreme propagation of parties’ goals and objectives by party stake holders and members has nursed animosity, resentment, bigotry and rivalry. there is no gainsaying that the continual incubation of bigotry and rivalry within the nigerian political system has the potentials to relegate national goals and objectives to the margins (mangvwat, 2008). political rivalry in nigeria political rivalry denotes an unhealthy atmosphere within a nation’s political system. such atmosphere is characterized by forms of competition, contention, enmity, conflict, challenges, jealousy and antagonism (stephenson, 2013). political rivalry can also be described as a contest between two political interest groups with cutting edge divergence in their ideologies. it is an attempt to exclude a political opponent by using derogatory statements and messages with the aim to inflict discouragement and some forms of political defeat. contextually, nigeria is known for its pluralistic character and how the multiplicity in its religio-cultural and socio-political background has brought contention in the political atmosphere. the institution of multiple political parties in nigeria before and after independence seems to have contributed in the political rivalry experience in nigeria. historically, intense competition rivalry broke out, when political parties were name after some elites and regions. the competition was further nursed and express through a religio-culturally influenced constitutions. political parties which were supposed to enhance national unity and peaceful co-existence have turn into independent elements for discrimination and hegemony. scourge of political rivalry in nigeria historical antecedence has reveal skirmishes of party rivalry in the formation of the four republics after independence. in the first republic from 1960 to 1966, there were three parties 156 action group (ag), national council for the nigeria and the cameroun (ncnc) and northern people congress (npc) (orugbani, 2005). the three parties represented three regions with three flag bearers representing the interest of their regions at the expense of national goals and objectives. the second republic (1978-1983) evolved after thirteen years of military rule. although the transition resulted to sustainable development which produced a constitution, creation of states and election into states and houses of federal assemblies, yet failed due to the loss of confidence in the electoral system. the third republic (1985-1993) was constituted by the announcement of one military regime and the beginning of another. for the fear of the unknown, the babangida administration reduced the number of parties from five to two in the quest to draw attention to the collective interest of nigeria. general badamasi declared that his administration will not handover political power to any person or persons no matter how distinguished or wealthy but rather to a virile civilian political organization which is openly committed to the purpose of power in the national, nations interest? those who think otherwise and who are parading themselves as presidential candidates for 1992 would be disappointed in the end (alkali, 1999). from the forgoing, it can be inferred that national goals and objectives seemed to be made top priority and national unity for sustainable development was made a center stage in the quest to offer good governance. however, the cancellation of the presidential primaries of 1992 and subsequent cancellation of the entire election called into question the government enthusiasm to achieve collective objectives through a credible election. this is further deduced in the ibrahim badamasi babangida broadcast as saying, it is no longer news that the events which proceeded the armed forces decision constitute a set back to the transition programmes and pose a serious dilemma to me not only as a person bu also as general and officer of the nigerian army….no less a dilemma our country men and woman who looked forward to that date, january 2, 1993, when our country was suppose to commence the full stage of the transition programmes and from other democratic nations around the world (alkali, 1999). the annulment of the election and refusing to declare m.k.o. abiola as the elected president of nigeria even though it was an election that was conducted devoid of ethnoreligious sentiments yet was annulled. the electoral commission was falsely blamed in order to mop up the mess towards satisfying an individual interest at the expense of national goal and objectives (falola, 2001). the fourth republic was a composition of series of elections ranging from 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011 which despites their structural adjustments yet seemed to be impotent in terms of democratic quality and sustainable development. while sorrowing and lamenting in the disposition of party philosophies and ideologies towards the collective interest of national goals and objectives: towards a national response… yusuf j. luxman, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 157 nigeria, dkihru states parties’ indifferent attitudes towards the nigerian goals and objectives. the multiplicity of parties no matter how well constructed they could be have succeeded in promoting individual or party interest more than collective interest (adingupu, 2012). in contemporary nigeria, political party rivalry was the order of the day. this negative connotation is expressed through head speeches and messages by party extremist and fundamentalists whose quest to project party interest more than national interest was undoubtedly noticed (tamuno, 2015). taking root right from skirmishes of party rivalry in the first republic, political parties were initiated and build based on religious and ethnic affiliations. the dispositions of some parties towards others are confrontational and only seek to threaten democratic governance in nigeria (cinjel, 2015). consequent to the contentious atmosphere political rivalry pose to the political system of nigeria, it can be argued that the development plans as highlighted earlier become fantasies and complete illusion. torwards a national response to polititcal rilvary in nigeria in view of the dwindling peaceful co-existence and holistic development in nigeria, more cogent measures must be put in place to neutralize all forms of threats impeding the tents of good governance. political rivalry and its scourge against nigeria’s aspirations, call for a national response that has the capacity to curtail this ugly situation within the nigerian polity. while acknowledging the idea that government response to situations in nigeria is not monolithic, this paper focuses on nigeria’s collective goals and objectives as the center where other interests will inhabit and find their definition. in other words, collective goals and objectives should be clearly defined and translated in the language every citizen can read and understand. in the nigerian quest to actualize national unity and sustainable development, this paper calls for a deliberate reflection on the nigerian goals and objectives and be considered as the panacea to the contentious atmosphere political rivalry has posed to the tenets of the nigerian government. consequent to the nigerian civil war in the year 1970, national unity and peaceful coexistence in the nigerian society were adversely affected. religio-cultural and sociopolitical intolerance was the order of the day. in response to this mayhem the government initiated and articulated cogent goals and objectives which if implemented have the capacity to curb rivalry of any sort in nigeria. taking into account the role of education in nation building, these goals and objectives were endorsed in 1973 as the necessary resource for national policy on education which was later published in 1977 as a working document. it was later pronged into five development goals and objectives for building a 158 government that could stand the test of time (eneh 2000). below is a synthesis of the five development goals and objectives re-instated: a. free and democratic society: in view of the contentious atmosphere pose by the civil war and the pluralistic nature of nigeria, this goal and objective seek to create and promote inclusivity, equity and opportunities for all citizens irrespective of the affiliations. it further emphasizes full documentation, enlightenment, and implementation during and after the emergence of any government in nigeria (gultung, 1994). although this goal and objective seem to be marred by political rivalry and political bigotry, corruption and projecting individual party interest yet its potency is still undiluted and has the capacity to neutralize current party rivalry that has resulted into conflicts of different forms in nigeria. b. just and egalitarian society: just and egalitarian society connotes a conviction that everyone is equal and should have equal rights and opportunities. chapter four of nigerian constitution re-iterates this objective and made it binding on every citizen of nigeria. the right of every citizen irrespective of his or her political party and whatever interest that party projects must still be subservient to this goal. as enshrine in the constitution, dignity of human life must be the top priority of every political leader in nigeria. penalties for violation of this goal are enforced by all enforcement agencies in nigeria (yusuf, 2017). while acknowledging the harm political rivalry have posed this goal, this paper calls for a quick return and immediate utilization and enforcement by the judiciary and be considered as one of the ultimate panacea curbing the scourge of political rivalry in nigeria. c. united, strong and self-reliant society: this goal and objective is an expression of the nigerian quest to initiate national unity, unshakable and formidable government that can stand the test of time and a clarion call of all citizens to contribute towards sustaining the independence being celebrated annually (ayodeji and odukoye 2014). the potency of this goal cannot be underestimated because it jeopardizes resentment, animosity and bigotry which are sustained by religious, ethnic and political sentiments. it has the capacity effect human capacity development towards actualizing a self-reliant society and if it is enforced and properly implemented can neutralize political rivalry that have adversely affected the tenets of the nigerian government. d. great and dynamic economy: a great and dynamic economy encompasses government capacity to produce, engage in trade with the sole aim of generating funds for the smooth running of the government. the second development plan as highlighted earlier initiated by general yakubu gowon was sorely constructed to re-construct the broken wall of hostility due to the civil war and to eradicate corruption and organize parties that can contribute in actualizing the achievement of the nigerian goals and objective not party interest that today is being projected above national and collective interest (eneh,2000). dynamic economy infers an economy that is diversified alongside petroleum and other sources of income to the nigerian government. national goals and objectives: towards a national response… yusuf j. luxman, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 159 e. a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens: this goal constitutes the nigerian hope in its hopelessness aftermath the civil war. it is an expression that seeks to give attention to the natural resources which if harnessed and developed can create cogent opportunities for all citizens (yusuf, 2017). opportunities for all citizens imply a re-iteration on equality and upholding the rights of all citizens irrespective of their religio-cultural or socio-political affiliations. if this is properly implemented, the idea is that all citizens will have ample employment opportunities thereby curtailing idleness that breeds criminality among today’s young nigerians. the enforcement, implementation and actualization of this goal will contribute towards mitigating political rivalry since most unemployed young nigerians are used to breed violence and conflicts as an expression of political rivalry by party elites and party flag bearers. conclusion political rivalry as expressed and demonstrated by political parties in the pluralistic context of nigeria calls for a cogent national response to ensure good governance and sustainable development. although there could be alternative responses, this paper offers a distinctive response which takes root in the nigerian development plans. through a synthesis of the five cogent nigeria’s development goals and objectives, this paper re-discovered the potency of these goals in mitigating the current political rivalry in the nigerian political atmosphere. thus, a quick enforcement and implementation of these goals by the nigerian 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(a conceptual analysis of the rule of law in nigeria” bayero journal of international law & jurisprudence (bjilj). pp. 101-127. aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract this paper is a reflection on the practical utility of gabriel marcel's thought in the face of strising social crises and division in the society. at the dawn of the 21 century, humanity seemed to have slowly descended into chaos. although the world experienced scientific and technological breakthroughs, the products of these achievements have further caused a lot of harm to man. man's social identity is threatened as individuals and communities wage wars against one another. men have closed themselves against one another and have failed to reflect on another's self-worth. socially, humanity have lived in dread of what marcel described as the 'broken-ness' of the society. as a solution, marcel advocated humanity to live intersubjective life. this paper employs descriptive and analytic methods. it argues that as a task for social revolution, marcel's thought has to be engaged to bring about national cohesion. the paper asserts that the practical benefit of intersubjectivity appears most clearly in the value it assigns to unity of purpose, and ideas of human worth, camaraderie, shared aims and brotherhood to resolve the growing tensions in the society. keywords: role, philosophy, national cohesion, intersubjectivity introduction today, humanity faces a number of social problems. quite true that this is a decisive period of history, a glorious age marked by scientific and technological achievements; it is indeed a time of globalization and the whole world is experiencing remarkable changes in all areas of existence. unfortunately, this is only one side of the story; there is another side, mostly unsaid and dark in all sense. baiju (2006) professed that it is a terrible time, we happen to live, tainted with unheard cruelties of man against man and devastating wars of nation against nation. although man glories in his achievements, he is threatened by the stuff of his creativity. the invention of military hardware such as weapons of mass destruction, missiles, and guns rather threatened man's existence. no wonder baiju (2006) adds that it is an age of material progress and moral regress where the value of culture, religion, tradition, family, relationships and morality is at shake. it is a fact that, human today life is filled with anxiety and threatened by 44 the role of philosophy of social sciences in national cohesion: a reflection on gabriel marcel's intersubjectivity godwin aondover gbande department of philosophy, university of abuja, abuja, nigeria terfa kahaga anjov, phd department of philosophy, benue state university, makurdi, nigeria. justine peter galleh department of philosophy, university of abuja, abuja, nigeria. meaninglessness. in africa, the problem of human existence is multifaceted. news of terrorist attacks, wars and communal conflicts are common headlines. there is hardly any television or radio bulletin without mention of violence. dokubo and oluwadare (2011) notes that nigeria in particular, has experience a dramatic increase in violence, terrorism and the like in the past few decades. lawless sects have risen in various parts of the country. media reports on boko haram bombings, insurgent killings, herders' attacks, kidnappings, armed robbery and banditry, militancy and so on are a commonplace. these happenings are pointers that human existence in this part of the world, like the rest of africa is unspeakable and appalling. it is a phenomenon that threatens and undermines the economic, political, religious and social security of the nation. world over, philosophers have tried to address the problem of human existence. for instance, having witnessed the horror of world war i and ii, philosophers like kierkegaard, jaspers, heidegger, sartre up to marcel (dukor, 2009) raised existential questions. while all existentialists addressed different topics their focus was to hoist the position of man.marcel in particular, became popular in his view that man has become a slave to the products of his ingenuity. he recommended intersubjectivity as the answer to calm the chaotic world. sunnie (1993) remarks that marcel's position appeals to the life experiences of us all. during his time, marcel's treatise made a qualitative impact in human relations. the crux of this paper is to reflect on practical benefits of marcel's thought to the condition of human existence in a modern state. the concept of intersubjectivity intersubjectivity refers to an interpersonal relationship or bond that exists among humans. brinck (2008) defines it as “the sharing of experiences”. she categorized three ways that experiences can be shared namely: jointly, reciprocally, and by complementary interaction. the variety of shared experiences include; emotion, attention, and intention. gillespie and flora c (2010) points out that, it is as a short-hand description for a variety of human interactions. it has been used to refer to agreement, treaty or truce between people on a given set of meanings. thus, intersubjectivity in this sense is simply a word for agreement. susswein and racine (2015) define intersubjectivity as a technical concept used to classify interactive behaviours and abilities. the “perspectives” expressed in these definitions do not convey a univocal notion of intersubjectivity, however it point to a complex phenomenon, or a set of related phenomena, in which experiential, behavioural, genetic and neural processes and levels are interwoven in both potentiating and actualizing what it means to be human. thus, intersubjectivity in marcel's thought is similar to the zulu concept of ubuntu and tiv philosophy of ya na angbian the society and human existence africa generally is the most conflict-ridden region of the world and the only region in which the number of armed conflicts is on the increase (dokubo and oluwadare, 2011). it is no gainsay that human existence in africa and nigeria in particular is filled with terror. violence and carnage characterize the society pariticularly in the north east, 45 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 northwest and middle belt regions of the country. this is not to say that the south east and west are spared of bloodbath. armed gangs and militancy prevails in the creeks of delta regions. adekanye (2007) identified many of the causes of violence in africa today with the potent ambition of socio-economic dislocation burdens of debt, imf structural adjustment programmes, the stresses of environmental and human insecurity and the pressures of democratization, including the contradiction of forces of exclusion, marginalization or domination and demands for empowerment. the combined effect of these had produced the alarming rise of social and ethnic tension and conflict. in nigeria today, man's worth is calculated in terms of functions and he is titled by his functions. the inherent majesty and sacredness of human being have now been replaced by his functional values. technology enjoys the absolute primacy. the value of human beings is determined by human ability and man loses his real personality. his life has become a journey without any purpose and goal. this why marcel complains that “man appears more and more, both to himself and to others as an agglomeration of functions” (lescoe, 1974); marcel is not against technology, but he is against technocracy, technology and techno mania, which are the attitude of worshiping technical progress. it could be summarized here that, life in nigeria is no longer considered as a divine gift, but as a joke. man is considered only as an instrument among many others. he is no longer is human but a commodity to be used and exploited by some mass movements whether social, industrial or political. pathway to marcel's theory of intersubjectivity marcel introduced the notion of intersubjectivity in his famous gifford lectures of 1949 entitled “a broken world” (lescoe, 1974). baiju remarked that “for marcel, today's world is a broken world and it causes lots of stress and tensions in man, giving rise to the feeling of alienation, despair, anxiety and uneasiness” (pg. 3). sawchenko (2013) further explained that marcel struggled with the existentialist questions of life and death in his own life, he also wrestled with them in his philosophy and his writing. thus, marcel's thought was influenced by experiences of his time, private and public. sawchenko (2013) traced that, during the first world war, marcel worked as head of the information service organized by the red cross, a role in which he was surrounded by death and grief. of course, his duties included carrying news of injured and deceased soldiers to their families, an experience that influenced him deeply. like his public life, marcel's private life was not healthier either. sawchenko (2013) also notes that: the early death of marcel's mother and his red cross work with the families of deceased soldiers caused him to question the meaning of life and death. losing his young wife emphasized for him this existentialist predicament. he was preoccupied with the idea of maintaining relationship with those who have been separated from loved ones through death. this led to his inquiry into these existentialist themes in which he explored ideas of loving faithfulness and fidelity (pg. 9). murchland (2008) added that, marcel's “views on interpersonal relations were deeply influenced by his own family's relationships as he was growing up having lost his 46 terfa, et al. the role of philosophy of social sciences in national cohesion... mother before his fourth birthday. questions of openness and connection, of devotion and love, of fidelity and responsibility toward others grew in him as a result of these early experiences. as an only child, and growing up in a household in which differing temperaments and opinions resulted in strained relationships, pressed him to take a more mature attitude than children at ease in their environment. marcel came to understand that life presents radical incompatibilities which cannot be resolved by means of intellectual formulae or conventional attitudes. thus, in the gifford lectures, marcel pointed out that “we live today in a world at war with itself, and this state of world-war is being pushed so far that it runs the risk of ending in something that could properly be described as world-suicide” (marcel, the mystery of being, 1950). marcel asserted that the world is broken because the structure of society based on true and authentic relations collapses due to several reasons. he also observed that the world loses its real unity. the idea of community becomes more and more impossible. what marcel bewailed here was the loss of human dignity which has been flaunted on account of violence, wars and conflict evidenced in the world war i and ii. having witnessed the horrors against humanity at the war front, marcel was convinced that the world was really set for a suicide. he believed that our world is slowly succumbing (if not that it had already succumbed) to a passionless age – a completely “mechanistic age” where the power of machines rules. indeed, as marcel remarked, we live in a 'heartless' world. furthermore, marcel identified three factors that accounted to the world's losing of its real unity and peace namely: (i) increased socialization of life where man's true identity is reduced to mere 'identification cards/documents'; (ii) extension of the powers of the state where the government acts like an omniscient god; and (iii) the loss of real unity due to lack of brotherhood, privacy, creativity and reflection (the mystery of being, pg. 181). marcel stated that these signs are certain global evils which present a reality that needs to be transcended or overcome. these are atrocities which, at their very foundation, are due to man's failure to reflect on the presence and worth of the 'other' by “taking one's own self as the center”. yosnhiy (2009) also notes that seeing man's cruelty against man, marcel queried, how then do we hope in the midst of our world's broken-ness, a brokenness which holds us captives in our own world?. marcel's existentialist ontology therefore provided a realistic stance that affirms the dignity and unity of the person. marcel offers us a perfect formulation of hope: “i hope in thee for us” (pg. 112). the very essence of this declaration lies within the intersubjectivity of hope. his works emphasized the first person, and the intertwining of the life experiences of persons in his writings revealed his theme of intersubjectivity. marcel noted, “it must be realized that our situation as a 'broken world' is a form of captivity – where we, as human beings, are alienated or deprived of a certain kind of liberty; we are captives in a sense that we are trapped inside a system of a mechanized world – “a bureaucracy of life” . it is based on this background that marcel rolled out the notion of intersubjectivity as a road-map for world peace, freedom from scientific slavery and development of humankind. 47 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 marcel's proposal intersubjectivity is a premise aimed at bridging authentic relations in between persons, communities and nations. marcel identifies availability, freedom, fidelity and fraternity, faith, hope and love as the values capable of constructing the desired peaceful world. availability also called disponability implies openness, welcoming, surrender, readiness to respond, loving attitude, sympathy, admiration and commitment (schilpp and hahnm, 2013). marcel says that disponability and commitment go hand in hand. disponability refers unqualified and unreserved availability. it is just like the availability of the mother for her child. one becomes totally available for the other without foreseeing any egoistic profit. marcel gives equal place to the second pillar, freedom and fraternity. he noted that “the freest man is also the most fraternal….the fraternal man is linked to his neighbour in such a way that this tie of fraternity not only does not fitter him but frees him from himself. the unfree man is the most self-enclosed within himself” (collins, 1963). freedom grabs the uniqueness of individuality. fraternity enhances the individuals to exercise their freedom. freedom strengthens our relationship. therefore fraternity is the expression of the i-thou relationship. he says that a fraternal man is enriched by his brother and the society becomes strong in its nature. thirdly, marcel argues that fidelity, the third value implies an unconditional vow to another person. in fidelity, we make commitment and promise in order to which we need faithfulness, a “creative fidelity”. fidelity, according to marcel, is a risk and a leap to darkness in the sense that “…in swearing fidelity to a person, i do not know what future awaits us or even, in a sense, what person he will be tomorrow; the very fact of my notknowing is what gives worth and weight to my promise (marcel, being and having). the next pillars of marcel's bridge are faith, hope and love. faith is the highest expression of fidelity. faith can be understood in two ways, i.e., as conviction and as commitment (marcel, homo viator 1962). in a genuine commitment one engages in a mystical encounter with the other (baiju 2006). marcel explains faith as conviction, “…when i believe in god and when one asks me questions about this faith or i question myself about it, i would, of necessity, have to declare that i am convinced of the existence of god” (lescoe, 1979). whenever there is faith, it will carry love. love gives meaning to human existence. all forms of authentic relationship find its climax in love. marcel stated that “love is substantial, love is rooted in being, and love is not commensurate with anything on which a value can be set or with anything 'marketable'” (marcel, man against humanity). finally, marcel maintained that hope is fundamental presupposition of fulfilled human life. hope gives meaning to man?s existence. hope is born from humility and not from pride, because a proud man is cut off from certain form of communion from his fellow men. hope is always liberative and is not a way to escape from realities. a genuine hope is not at all escapism. hope is not only a personal appeal to the self but an appeal to the selves of all of us. the subject of hope is not “i” or “you”, but “we” born out of love. thus, these values become pillars the bridge could be made up of. schilpp and hahh captured that: 48 terfa, et al. the role of philosophy of social sciences in national cohesion... intersubjectivity in marcel is the relation between two subjects. it is the subject to subject relation, which is opposed to ego-centricity, but founded on love and harmony with the other. presence belongs only to the being capable of giving himself to others. therefore presence is intersubjective. friendship, marriage, paternity and fraternity are the various modalities of intersubjectivity. it is through creative fidelity, hope and love that one can attain the stage of intersubjectivity. the growth of the society and its every member is based on the intersubjective relation of the members....we should be open to others and must be able to meet them without allowing oneself to be dominated or utilized (pg.16). marcel's position shows his view that intersubjectivity is that authentic relationship capable of constructing the world of love that is made up of values. availability, faith, hope, love, freedom, fidelity and fraternity are those values which are called the pillars of the bridge. these values are not what 'we have' but what 'we are'. they help humanity to realise their own self and strengthen our relationship. very significant to his theory is the concept of i-thou. recall that, also foundamental to marcel's doctrine of intersubjectivity is his view on “being and having”, “…being as the common foundation and unity” of all beings” (schlipp and hahh, 1991). but today's man is more concerned with his havings rather than his being. today's man is assessed by what he possesses, rather than what he is, therefore he is running to gather more and more havings (baiju, 2006). man can transform, meanwhile, his having into being. when one escapes from his ego-centricity and enters into the realm of self-giving, then the person becomes capable of transforming his having into being. marcel makes allusion to i-thou who is the facilitator of this intersubjective relationships. i-thou relation is the transformation of “having” into “being”. marcel noted that an inauthentic person is self-enclosed, while an authentic person is open to all others and considers other persons as thous, more than a he or she or it (lescoe, 1974). marcel declares here that “when man considers others as objects or things to be used, then he goes back to having from being”. this i-thou relationship crafts opportunity for a presence, participation and intersubjectivity among human beings. presence, participation and intersubjectivity are in marcel's estimation reciprocally all-encompassing. an i-thou relation is embedded in a communion or collectivism. baiju (2013) interpretes that in i-thou relationship, man becomes present to the other in a mutual openness and self-giving. he becomes aware of his existence in the most unqualified manner only when he meets the other as thou, as another subject. it could be understood that, the relationship is a loving encounter, a genuine meeting in love, a friendship and spiritual availability. in an i-thou relation, person respects and loves the other as he loves and respects himself. here one sacrifices himself for the best of others. he is governed not by any egoistic desire, but by a selfgiving desire. next to i-thou, marcel proposed that an absolute thou brings validity for i-thou relationship, because the being finds depth and dynamism of this relation in the absolute thou (schilp and hahn, p.g.139). marcel points out that to love a creature is to love him in 49 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 god. i-thou relationship discovers my freedom, because my freedom is actualized when i am available to my neighbor. in this relation one is present to the other, in the same way as he participates in the other's being. i-thou relationship is a pure relation between two subjects, which is an intersubjective relation. marcel's concept of intersubjectivity is indispensable for the progress of the human person in nigeria in that intersubjectivity or the relation to the other, on which the community is based, provides man with a means of discovering ourselves and of finding bearings in the world. marcel calls intersubjectivity a corner stone of ontology (marcel, mystery of being pg. p.g 225). a good illustration of intersubjectivity according to schilpp and hahn (1991), can be found in the relationship between a musician playing an opus of chamber music, where each musician plays a role and makes a contribution in collaboration with others. the nigerian society for its smooth running needs necessarily the presence and participation of all members in the society. this is analogous to the saying that “united we stand and divided we fall”. applying gabriel marcel's recommendations of intersubjectivity to nigeria will mean that we are but a single tribe. it could be observed that sectionalism, nepotism and ethnicism constituted a thorn in the flesh to nigeria. to the extent that 'juicy' appointments, sensitive political offices, certain government parastatal are highly reserved or given on the basis of where one comes from. implementing intersubjectivity will correct the pointless dominance of the so-called 'major' tribes. even the killer herders in the bush will begin to see farmers as brothers. insurgent and militant groups will see no need for bloodshed. people will begin to dialogue instead of resorting to violence. this will take the nation to a point where people will consider one another as brothers and sisters, an extension of oneself. an igboman will treat an hausa or yorubaman like himself and vice versa. only by entering into that interhuman relationship both emotionally and physically as marcel recommended can there be peace. conclusion this paper reflected on the practical relevance of gabriel marcel's notion of intersubjecivity. it was argued that although africa and nigeria in particular is broken by wars, violence and banditry; that marcel's intersubjectivity is sufficient to heal her broken-ness. marcel observed that the cause of violence in the world is the disconnection between humans; the inability of one to identify with the other, or see one as an extension of oneself. in his proposal, marcel proposes a remedy to heal this broken world. it was stated that an authentic interpersonal relationship can change the disorderly world by reestablishing affinities based on genuine love. man needs to be open to his fellow men. intersubjectivity is the best way of interpersonal relationship, the bridge between people. this paper submits that a dependable rapport will bring more meaning to human existence in the world. in this paper, marcel's fundamental notions like i-thou, absolute thou, being and having and intersubjectivity are conversed. all these notions add to highlight the dignity of man as subject and as a person. 50 terfa, et al. the role of philosophy of social sciences in national cohesion... references adekanye, b.(2007). linking conflict diagnosis, conflict prevention and conflict management in contemporary africa. lagos: ababa press ltd, p.g.27. baiju, n.t. 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(2010) “intersubjectivity” in journal for the theory of social behaviour, p.g 40-56. grote, c. (1930) plato and the other companions of socrates. oxford: mettnen. heidegger martin (1996) being and time: a translation of “sein und zeit,” trans. joan stambaugh. albany: state university of new york press. jaspers c (1965). reason and nothingness a phenomenological essay on ontology trans. hazel e.bernes, new york: kensington pub. corp. katsina, r.i. (2009) “an appraisal of the existentialist philosophy of gabriel marcel”. a dissertation in the department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka, pg. 23. sunnie d. (1993). “the mystery of intersubjectivity” presented at the sorbonne, in the french, 4 december, paris, p.g 2. kierkegaard s (1983), concluding unscientific postscript. trans. david f. swenson and walter lowrie: princeton university press. lescoe, f. j. (1974). existentialism-with or without god, alba house, new york, p.g. 119. manimala, v.j (1991) being, person and community, intercultural publication, new delhi. marcel, g (1965). being and having, the fontana library, london. marcel, g (1962) homo viator, hasper and brother, new york. marcel, g. (1952). man against humanity, harvill press ltd., london. marcel, g. 91950) mystery of being, vol-i, reflections and mystery, harvill press ltd, london. marcel, g (1948) the philosophy of existence, harvill press ltd., london. schilpp p.a and hahh l.e. (1991) “the philosophy of gabriel marcel”, volxvii, the library of living philosophers, america. 51 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 sawchenko l.d. (2013). “the concept of person: the contributions of gabriel marcel and emmanuel mounier to the philosophy of paul ricoeur”. a thesis submitted to the faculty of graduate studies, calgary, alberta, january, p.g 6. solomon c. r. (2004) existentialism. usa: oxford university press. solomon c. r (2000). no excuses: existentialism and the meaning of life. virginia: the teaching company. yoshiy f. (2009). “fresh hope for a broken world: gabriel marcel's phenomenology of liberation”. talisik: an undergraduate journal of philosophy. vol. ii, issue no.1,. 52 terfa, et al. the role of philosophy of social sciences in national cohesion... page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract insurgency is spreading in every part of the world in different forms particularly in subsahara africa and its impact has deteriorated the political landscape, thereby shaping the politics and government and by extension the foreign policy posture of the victim countries in a global scale. thus, the growing incidence of insurgency in form of religious fundamentalism remains a serious and an on-going international threat. no region in the world has been spared and africa is one of the hardest hit regions partly due to the other developmental issues that help to intensify the consequences of terrorism. the emergence of terrorism in nigeria owing to the rise of islamic fundamentalism in northern nigeria has greatly undermined the country's foreign policy drive and as such, their activities in nigeria have called to question bases for nigerian foreign policy relation particularly with the affected neighboring countries this research therefore aim to appraised critically the impact of the activities of islamic/religious fundamentalism on nigeria foreign policy relation. it adopts political economy approach as a theoretical framework to unearth the interrelationship between politics, fundamentalism, economy and foreign relation. the research will use a qualitative method of data collection where both primary and secondary sources of data will be used to obtain qualitative data that can be interpreted within a given context of the study. a research conclusion and recommendation will be provided for policy formulation and further academic research purposes. keywords: foreign policy-fundamentalism-terrorism-religion introduction insurgency has continued to spread unabatedly across the globe and its impact has gone beyond the location of the actual incident. thus, the growing incidence of terrorism remains a serious and on-going threat to global peace. no region in the world has been spared and africa is one of the hardest hit regions partly due to the other developmental issues that help to intensify the consequences of terrorism. (adele b, 2013) security is among the core areas of focus in the internal and external development of states affairs. a closer look at the political history and external relations of nigeria would only make one realize that nigeria is passing through a phase that seems the most challenging for the country's foreign policy experts, observers and average nigerians since the main focus of all architects of foreign policy is to distinctly marked off in clear terms country's national interest which serves as a guide in their relations with other nations. the efficient administration of foreign policy objectives is therefore based on an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing pattern of nigeria foreign policy suleiman mohammed evuti. smevuti@ibbu.edu.ng department of history and international studies, ibrahim badamasi babangida university lapai. 145 credible and widely accepted principles that help shape a country's image in the international system. (marc a., verjee n., & mogaka s., 2015) the emergence of terrorism in nigeria owing to the rise of radicalization of some islamic fundamentals in northern nigeria has greatly undermined the country's foreign policy drive and as such the activities of this group in nigeria have led to negative reactions from groups and nations that have been affected by its activities in the country, thereby leading to determination of foreign relations of these countries with nigeria. the manifold attacks and activities of this group have made the nigerian state to be ungracefully popular among the comity of nations. boko haram is a home grown terrorist group in nigeria that has become a threat that everyone dreads and fears because of the dimensions its activities have taken from just an ordinary religious sect to notorious terrorist group. (james j. and olusola e., 2014) shola (2015), opines that boko haram is a reflection of the nigerian society. it pictures the paradox of a country so wealthy yet so poor, and so endowed yet so deprived. its citizens wallow in abject poverty. this state of affairs manures the prosperity of the sect. the youth who are now instruments of manipulations in the hands of the leaders of the sect are among the teeming unemployed and deprived ones the nigerian state has abandoned. boko haram's activities have included recurrent attacks, killing of persons and wanton destruction of property, population displacements and other forms of aggression. the activities of this terrorist group in recent time have had excessive influence in creating instability and insecurity in the country and has contributed to the diminution of the country's image among the country of nations. also, economic development most especially in the north-east is nothing to write home about while nigeria's foreign policy is being determined by this internal crisis. subsequently, the nefarious activities of the insurgency and other groups have generated so much interests from the international community thereby raising questions as to the potentiality of government strategy to deal with the threat constituted by the terrorist group. this is because the audacity of the group has continued at intense rate amidst government claims of winning the war, everyday casualty's increase at alarming rates after each attack, making the general public to lose confidence in the system. as a result, the activities of the insurgency group have extended beyond the nigerian territories to her immediate neighbors (shola o. j. 2015). insurgency insurgency, term historically refers to rebellious acts that did not reach the proportions of an organized revolution. it has subsequently been applied to any such armed uprising, typically guerrilla in character, against the recognized government of a state or country. in traditional international law, insurgency was not recognized as belligerency, and insurgents lacked the protection customarily extended to belligerents. herbert w. briggs in the law of nations (1952) described the traditional point of view as follows: the existence of civil war or insurrection is a fact. traditionally, the fact of armed rebellion has not been regarded as involving rights and obligations under international law. recognition of the belligerency of the insurgents by the parent state or of the contestants by foreign states changes the legal situation under international law. prior to 146 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december such recognition, foreign states have a legal right to aid the parent state put down a revolt, but are under a legal obligation not to aid insurgents against the established government. (herbert w. briggs, 1952) the status of the faction opposing a government was usually determined by what charles cheney hyde described as “the nature and extent of the insurrectionary achievement.” if the government was able to suppress the hostile faction rapidly, the event was described as a “rebellion.” in such cases recognition of the insurgents by a third party was regarded as “premature recognition,” a form of illegal intervention. if the insurgents became a serious challenge to the government and achieved formal recognition as “belligerents,” then the struggle between the two factions became in international law the equivalent of war. support given to the insurgents by a third party amounted to that foreign government's participation in the war. (charles cheney hyde 1994) after world war ii the emergence of a number of communist states and of new nations in asia and africa changed the established international legal doctrine on insurgency. communist states claimed the right to support insurgents engaged in “just wars of national liberation.” the new nations resulting from decolonization in asia and africa after world war ii supported in most cases insurgents who invoked the principle of “national self-determination.” the united states and other western countries in turn rejected such intervention as “indirect aggression” or “subversion.” international legal consensus regarding insurgency thus broke down as the result of regional and ideological pressures (gurr tr, 1994). causes of insurgency poverty, political, social, and economic inequalities between groups predispose to conflict; policies to tackle them will reduce this risk. eight out of 10 of the world's poorest countries are suffering, or have recently suffered, from large scale violent conflict. wars in developing countries have heavy human, economic, and social costs and are a major cause of poverty and underdevelopment. the extra infant deaths caused by the war in cambodia, for example, were estimated to be 3% of the country's 1990 population. most current conflicts, such as in the sudan or the congo, are within states, although there is often considerable outside intervention, as in afghanistan. in the past 30 years africa has been especially badly affected by war. major root causes include political, economic, and social inequalities; extreme poverty; economic stagnation; poor government services; high unemployment; environmental degradation; and individual (economic) incentives to fight. in wars, political leaders may deliberately “rework historical memories” to engender or strengthen this identity in the competition for power and resources. for example, in the conflict in matebe land in post-independence zimbabwe, ndebele identity was used to advance political objectives. other well-known examples include the nazis in germany, the hutus in rwanda and, today, the emphasis on muslim consciousness by the taliban and others (alexander j, ranger t, 2000). economic factors which predispose to war four economic hypotheses have been put forward to explain intra-state wars, based on 147 an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing... suleiman mohammed evuti factors related to group motivation, private motivation, failure of the social contract, and environmental degradation. failure of the social contract: this derives from the view that social stability is based on a hypothetical social contract between the people and the government. people accept state authority so long as the state delivers services and provides reasonable economic conditions (employment and incomes). with economic stagnation or decline, and worsening state services, the social contract breaks down, and violence results. hence high and rising levels of poverty and a decline in state services would be expected to cause conflict. (stewart f., 2001) group inequality: there is consistent evidence of sharp horizontal inequalities between groups in conflict. group inequalities in political access are invariably observed—hence the resort to violence rather than seeking to resolve differences through political negotiation. group inequalities in economic dimensions are common, although not invariably large (such as in bosnia18). horizontal inequalities are most likely to lead to conflict where they are substantial, consistent, and increasing over time. although systematic cross country evidence is rare, one study classified 233 politicized communal groups in 93 countries according to political, economic, and ecological differences and found that most groups suffering horizontal inequalities had taken some action to assert group interests, ranging from non-violent protest to rebellion. foreign policy foreign policy, general objectives that guide the activities and relationships of one state in its interactions with other states. the development of foreign policy is influenced by domestic considerations, the policies or behavior of other states, or plans to advance specific geopolitical designs. leopold von ranke emphasized the primacy of geography and external threats in shaping foreign policy, but later writers emphasized domestic factors. diplomacy is the tool of foreign policy, and war, alliances, and international trade may all be manifestations of it. (von ranke, 1975) factors that influence foreign policy in the modern world, no single state can survive on its own. each state is bound by interdependence. this is why every state has to dream of good relations with other states. as a member of the international society, the relations of the states are determined and controlled by foreign policy. several things also determine foreign policy and those things are called determinants of foreign policy. determinants of foreign policy 1. geographical location there are two aspects of the influence of geography on foreign policy; the geographical environment of the state and the political importance of its geographical location. the state's geographical environment refers to its size, area, and climate. the ideal geographical environments of the state are: the size of the state will be such that it will help the residents to maintain a decent living standard. 148 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december the climate needs to be favorable to hard labor. terrain needs to be supportive of national resistance. mountains, rivers, sea-borne countries enjoy the advantage of being free from foreign invasions for natural reasons. the shape of the state needs to be such that one can easily fast during the war period. in nature, it is not possible to achieve the favorable geographical environment of a country. the geographical location of each country is particularly influenced by its foreign policy. its insular position in great britain helps spread connectivity with other countries. again the united states has succeeded in pursuing a policy of separation from europe for its geographical location. 2. population the population is considered one of the important determinants of foreign policy. for a long time, the population has been regarded as an important criterion for measuring state power. in the past war, the massive infantry of the people's republic of china helped to resist the us forces. the relation between population and foreign policy gains importance in terms of the capability of a state. the importance of the population to determine the policies of solidarity among all parts of the citizens, the development of political organizations, the quality of the public, the promotion of political consciousness, the spread of the political participation, the pressure of public opinion, the type of government etc. however, its quality is particularly important with respect to population size. citizens' skills, abilities, and quality money help to spread national influence. 3. history each nation's history is influenced by its foreign policy. the outline of the history of each nation is formed through the special circumstances of the chips and events. it is possible to identify its identity. the geographical boundaries of each nation are determined through the constraints of historical events. through the history of the development of a nation, many basic features of foreign policy are developed. in light of historical experience, each nation forms the basis of its foreign policy. 4. economic resources the nature and style of foreign policy is largely determined by economic resources. the economic strength of a state is an indicator of its affordability. the effect of that ability is reflected in relations with other states. the main objective of the economic structure is to utilize the country's land, labor, capital and enterprises for production. distribution of economic wealth produced, consumption, public welfare, improvement of living standard of the citizens etc. are also included in the economic activities of the state. a country rich in natural resources can easily achieve its economic prosperity. for example, mineral oil has become one of the most important political hubs of middle east international politics. natural resources and industrial development are the basis of the international status of a country. in the present world, each country's resistance depends on the rate of industrialization and natural resources. 149 an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing... suleiman mohammed evuti 5. ideology each state-system is governed by specific political ideologies. the values, policies, programs, objectives, and goals of a state are governed by that ideology. ideology does not simply determine the internal policies and values of a state; is governed by foreign policy and those ideologies. so it can be considered one of the most important determinants of foreign policy. for example, socialist states are convinced of the principles of international peace, friendship, mutual cooperation, refusal to interfere in the internal affairs of other states, etc. in the end, capitalism maintains its existence through exploitation and oppression of home and abroad. it is for this reason that capitalist countries follow aggressive policies in economic, political, and cultural fields. 6. efficiency of government and nature of political leadership government leaders are the main source and strength of foreign policy. the role of the state at any given time and the type of foreign policy to be followed depends on the quality of the decision makers. on the basis of practical experience, it can be said that foreign policy cannot be separated from the nature of government leadership under any circumstances. foreign policy decisions are bound to be influenced by the leadership of the government, including psychological structure, political experience and foresight, personality, realization of world-politics. for this reason, it is possible to notice differences in political issues between leaders of the same political party. 7. quality of diplomacy quality of diplomacy one of the most important determinants of foreign policy. the success or failure of a state in international politics depends on its diplomatic tactics and excellence. each of the goals and objectives of the state is determined by the diplomatic ingenuity of the government. all the goals of foreign policy are determined by the people involved in diplomatic activity. it is through diplomatic activity that the main linkages and differences with other states are resolved. diplomats determine the mechanism for combining different interests. conflict theory conflict theory, first developed by karl marx, is a theory that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources. conflict theory holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than by consensus and conformity. according to conflict theory, those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any means possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless. a basic premise of conflict theory is that individuals and groups within society will work to try to maximize their own wealth and power. conflict theory focuses on the competition among groups within society over limited resources. 150 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december conflict theory views social and economic institutions as tools of the struggle among groups or classes, used to maintain inequality and the dominance of the ruling class. marxist conflict theory sees society as divided along lines of economic class between the proletarian working class and the bourgeois ruling class. (marx and engels, 1885) later versions of conflict theory look at other dimensions of conflict among capitalist factions and among various social, religious, and other types of groups. conflict theory has sought to explain a wide range of social phenomena, including wars, revolutions, poverty, discrimination, and domestic violence. it ascribes most of the fundamental developments in human history, such as democracy and civil rights, to capitalistic attempts to control the masses (as opposed to a desire for social order). central tenets of conflict theory are the concepts of social inequality, the division of resources, and the conflicts that exist among different socioeconomic classes. the central tenets of conflict theory can explain many types of societal conflicts throughout history. some theorists believe, as marx did, that societal conflict is the force that ultimately drives change and development in society. marx's version of conflict theory focused on the conflict between two primary classes. each class consists of a group of people bound by mutual interests and a certain degree of property ownership. marx theorized about the bourgeoisie, a group that represented members of society who hold the majority of the wealth and means. the proletariat is the other group: it includes those considered working-class or poor. with the rise of capitalism, marx theorized that the bourgeoisie, a minority within the population, would use their influence to oppress the proletariat, the majority class. this way of thinking is tied to a common image associated with conflict theory-based models of society; adherents to this philosophy tend to believe in a pyramid arrangement in terms of how goods and services are distributed in society. at the top of the pyramid is a small group of elites that dictate terms and conditions to the larger portion of society because they have an outsized amount of control over resources and power. (marx and engels, 1885) uneven distribution within society was predicted to be maintained through ideological coercion; the bourgeoisie would force acceptance of the current conditions by the proletariat. conflict theory assumes that the elite will set up systems of laws, traditions, and other societal structures in order to further support their own dominance while preventing others from joining their ranks. marx theorized that, as the working class and poor were subjected to worsening conditions, a collective consciousness would raise more awareness about inequality, and this would potentially result in revolt. if, after the revolt, conditions were adjusted to favor the concerns of the proletariat, the conflict circle would eventually repeat but in the opposite direction. the bourgeoisie would eventually become the aggressor and revolter, grasping for the return of the structures that formerly maintained their dominance. 151 an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing... suleiman mohammed evuti the imact of insurgency on nigeria's foreign policy based on the prevailing cordial diplomatic relations between the two states, nigeria and u. s of america; decided to purchase lethal weapons from the us, the decision to buy weapons became urgent, given several reports blaming the government for inadequate weapons for the nigerian soldiers in the war fronts, (udo, b. (2014) certainly, inadequate sophisticated arms and government ineptitude among other factors were critical to the failed military counterterrorist operation, in his statement to the military tribunal, a soldier, whose unit could not dislodge the terrorist from their hideout in the borno state's section of the dreaded sambisa forest, provides insight into the decadence within the nigerian armed forces. the dismissed soldier stated that the troops were only armed with five bullets each and expired bombs made in 1964, whereas the boko haram enemies were armed with sophisticated arms such as anti-aircraft with a range of over 1,000 meters, (vanguard, 2015) convinced therefore that acquisition of more offensive arms was pivotal to defeating the sect; the nigerian government opted to buy weapons from the us. specifically, nigeria wanted to buy cobra attack helicopters and other sophisticated military hardware, mcgregor, a. (2015) even though us had pledged its readiness to help nigeria decimate the sect and had since 2013 declared the group a foreign terrorist organisation (fto), it nonetheless refused nigeria's request for weapons, citing human rights record of the nigerian soldiers fighting the terrorists, obaji, p. (2015) it only supplied defensive weapons such as landmine-resistant vehicles to the nigerian military, but declined to supply offensive weapons to the country. of a truth, the military operation against boko haram under the umbrella of the joint task force had grave consequences for the human rights of the people in the region, the security outfit has been variously accused of extra-judicial and summary executions of the suspected terrorists, detention of innocent citizens for years without trial, arbitrary arrest of individuals suspected of being members of the outlawed sect, intimidation and harassment of the residents of the place (amnesty international, 2014; amnesty international, 2015), washington hinged its refusal to sell the weapons based on the implementation of the leahy law against nigeria, the law was specially enacted within the us external relations to deny the us military assistance to foreign military units involved in the violations of human right. (foreign affairs, 2017) commenting on the outrageous human rights profile of the nigerian fighting force, nigeria and the great powers: maintains that human rights abuses of the military especially its summary and extra-judicial executions played a major role in the radicalization of many members of the sect who were known to be pacifists. accordingly, the leahy law states that: 'no assistance shall be furnished under this act… to any unit of the security forces of a foreign country if the secretary of state has credible information that such unit has committed a gross violation of human rights' (legal information institute, nd), over the years, leahy law has been implemented to block military assistance to some countries whose military units involved in the abuses of human rights of the civilians. such countries include turkey, columbia, bolivia, and mexico, also, the pakistani military has equally come under the hammer of the law for its extra-judicial killings and other forms of gross human rights abuses. while justifying the us's refusal to 152 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december sell deadly arms to nigeria, american ambassador to nigeria, ambassador james entwistle stated that washington would not sell arms to nigeria because 'the us government is against human rights abuses by any country in the world'. he maintains that the 'nigerian military had been massively involved in human rights violations in its war against the terrorists, guardian, (2014) israel and brazil also declined to supply offensive weapons to nigeria due to the us's pressure. elaborating on the 'no objection' request from these two countries to sell arms to nigeria, entwistle declares that: the us department of state and defense review all potential arms transfers for their consistency with us policy and interests, as detailed in the us conventional arms transfer policy, this includes any requests from a country that we have sold or donated weapons to resell or donate those same weapons to another country, such as nigeria. we examine whether an arms transfer makes sense for the needs of the prospective country, part of our review considers whether equipment may be used in a way that could adversely affect human rights. the united states believes that we bear a certain responsibility for how equipment is ultimately used. we take this responsibility very seriously, and our laws require strict accountability for all sales, entwistle, f. j. (2014) expectedly, the us's global arms embargo imposed on nigeria was largely interpreted by nigerians as a betrayal by a friend that failed to help nigeria in its moment of crisis, siollum, m. (2018) the president barak obama's nigerian policy during the administration of the president goodluck jonathan especially the regime's refusal to supply the nigerian air force with cobra attack aircraft, all helped to wreak serious damage to the us-nigerian relations, the diplomatic furor generated by the us's action made jonathan's government to sever nigeria's security partnership with washington (tukur, 2014) to protest the us's 'betrayal'. president muhammadu buhari, who succeeded jonathan, heaped the blame of lingering boko haram crisis on the us decision, pointing out that the arms denial amounts to 'aiding and abetting boko haram terrorists in the country' bbc, (2015) in its desperation, nigeria was forced to turn to the south african black market to procure weapons, however, the weapons sales were blocked by the south african government who described the botched deal as illegal, ibekwe, n. (2014) reprieve only came the way of nigeria when russia was approached for the much-needed arms. moscow's prompt response campbell, j. (2014) in the delivery of the weapons to nigeria severely shattered the aura of invincibility with which boko haram had been carrying out its attacks, the deployment of the russian weapons as well as the regional military alliance; the multinational joint task force (mnjtf) degraded the terrorists and dislodged them from their gworza caliphate and other dreaded camps in the northeast, the weakening of the sect prompted president buhari to publicly proclaim that the boko haram terrorist group has been technically defeated, onapajo, h (2017) the implications of boko haram on nigeria's foreign policy are enormous especially as it manifested in the diminishing image of nigeria in the comity of nations. the us's visa ban imposed on individuals alleged to have compromised the integrity of the 2019 general elections in nigeria (leadership 2019) has further complicated efforts at normalizing the ruptured diplomatic relations. president buhari, who was declared the 153 an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing... suleiman mohammed evuti winner of the 'rigged' poll, has not reacted formerly to the visa ban. while the us declined to reveal the identity of the affected persons, it is believed that the list contains the names of the president's 'big boys' and members of the ruling all progressive party (apc) the policy to stonewall arms delivery to nigeria underscores the growing irrelevance of nigeria in the us's geo-economic and strategic calculations. the upsurge in shale oil production, making the us the largest oil-producing states in the world (global terrorism index, 2014) means that nigeria is no longer crucial in the american energy sector. ditching abuja's efforts to get arms, therefore, brings no consequence to washington. although president buhari has declared that nigeria had paid for the delivery of lethal arms form the us, however, as of writing, the weapons are still being awaited in the country. barrack hussein obama's first visit to the sub saharan africa, in which he chooses ghana, in place of nigeria and in his all exciting speech to a large crowd of ghanaian in accra, including top government functionaries of the host country and nigeria. the erudite president simply advised all the states in the sub-saharan africa to learn from ghana, that is nigeria inclusive, the choice of president obama's visit to ghana instead of nigeria was considered as a major diplomatic failure for the nigerian state, particularly judging by its size, resource endowments and its laudable leadership roles, over time, on the continent of africa (siobhan, o. 2015). boko haram's trans-border terrorism in the chad basin region set this jihadi group in opposition to nigeria, cameroon, niger, chad and by extension, france, the incursion of boko haram into the french speaking countries constitutes an unacceptable threat to french interests in west and central africa. this is more so given the several attacks by boko haram against france's interests in the region. the boko haram attack in waza park, in northern cameroon where the terrorists abducted seven french tourists on february 19, 2013, was one of the classic examples of the sect's direct threat to france's core national interest. commenting about the abduction, former french foreign affairs minister noted that: 'it (abduction) shows that the fight against terrorist groups is a necessity…', therefore, both france's and nigeria's interests converge on the boko haram crisis. france's active participation in the counter-terrorist effort 'was informed by the fear that the escalation of terrorism in nigeria poses a threat to french geostrategic interests in its former colonies', the burden of fighting the group's terrorism ultimately falls on all the regional countries in the basin, including france, this is more so given the french policy of dealing with the threat posed by many islamic terrorist gangs that seek to further destabilize the already structurally weak states in the unstable region. france's regional agenda is succinctly captured by the assertion of the country's ex-law makers; andre dulait, saying, 'the african continent is our neighbors and when it is shaken by conflicts, we are shaken as the crisis triggered by boko haram had shaken the african continent particularly when it was rated the deadliest terrorist group in 2014 (gti, 2014) the regionalization of the boko haram violence has ensured that france works closely with its african partners through the provision of right arms and specialized training on effective counterterrorism. more importantly, boko haram's allegiance to isis in 2014 154 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december and the subsequent change of name to islamic state west africa province (iswap) suggests that the group can only be tamed by superior firepower similar to what was unleashed on isis in the middle east, commenting on the allegiance, francois hollande, french president maintains that the pledge of allegiance by the nigerian terror organization to islamic state group poses a major threat to west africa security and must be taken at face value, he further emphasizes that: “we know boko haram is linked to daesh (isis) and so receives help (and) support from this group, the fight against boko haram is the fight against daesh…. boko haram is largely seen as is' caliphate in west africa province” (siobhan, o. 2015) the crisis in the north east region, has continued to attract negative attention globally, especially by international right groups and humanitarian bodies like amnesty international (al), human rights watch (huriwa), who have all written at various times damaging reports on the activities of the nigerian state, especially as it concerns the north east region this barrage of criticism to a very large extent has the potentials of reducing nigeria to a pariah state among the comity of nations. the kidnap of 300 chibok school girls to sambisa forest, opened a new vista in the activities of boko haram and its implication on nigeria's external image, as the kidnap draw the attention of the whole world and this led to the famous global campaign of “ # bring back our girls”, the kidnap of the school girls and the crisis within the armed forces that led to the dismissal of some officers from the frontline exposed the weaknesses of the counter terrorist measures of the nigerian government before the world, the above made analysts, the world over, to begin to see nigeria as a 'failed state, a state which lacks the potential of providing security of live and prosperity as well as inability to meet its constitutional mandate of providing basic amenities of life to its citizens. furthermore, nigeria's status in africa and international organizations continued to be menaced. the activities of the rebellious sect have negative implications on the big brother's role nigeria play to other african nations; preaching, upholding and advocating for peace, equity, justice and ethnic terrorism have sent a wrong signal. therefore, her status as the 'giant' of africa is at stake. this situation, (bariledum, k. 2013), observes made some countries in africa to contest the leadership position with the country. for every available position in which nigeria has an interest on, there are wontly some other countries which compete with her and in some instance overcoming the nation due to the image problem. the activities of boko haram have contrary affected the inflow of foreign investment into nigeria's solid mineral sector in the northern part of nigeria as oil serving companies, julius berger construction giant, among others have pulled out their operations from the region and prefer other african neighboring countries as a result of the insecurity situation. conclusion nonetheless, scholars, politicians and human rights organizations point out that not only boko haram is to blame for the escalation of violence in nigeria, the government gradually intensified its repressive response, especially under the administration of the newly elected president muhammadu buhari ,amnesty international estimates that some 7,000 people have died of starvation, suffocation or torture while being held in military 155 an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing... suleiman mohammed evuti detention since march 2011 and at least 1,200 men and boys are thought to have been executed by the military since february 2012 (amnesty international, 2015c), largely, three main reasons for the outbreak of violence in 2009 are put forward: religious radicalization and the quest for a sharia state, the socio-economic state of the country in general and the relative deprivation of the northern region in specific, and failed governance and weak institutions. furthermore, some studies have criticized that escalatory counter-terrorism approaches have taken preference to dialogue and conciliatory measures an in-depth analysis on boko haram insurgency and nigeria's foreign policy, it submits that issues of terrorism in nigeria have been caused by governance failure which is indexed by the inability of government to provide the basic needs of its citizens which include job creation, health care services, education, maintenance of the rule of law and non the least security. references adele b. j. (2013), the boko haram crisis and nigeria's external relations, british journal of arts and social science, vol. 11, no. 2, retrieved on 14th july, 2014 from: http://www.bjournal.co.uk/bjass.aspx. alexander j, mcgregor j, ranger t. (2000) ethnicity and the politics of conflict: the case of matabeleland. in: nafziger ew, stewart f, vayrynen r, editors. war, hunger and displacement: the origin of humanitarian emergencies. oxford: oxford university press; 2000. pp. 305–336. bariledum, k. (2013), ethnic terrorism as a political tactic in nigeria: implications for nigeria's external relations. asian journal of humanities and social studies 1(15): 325-336, retrieved from www.ajouronline.comon20/09/2019 bbc nigeria's muhammadu buhari interview: (2015) u.s. “aided” boko haram with arms ban. 23 july. available at: www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33634607 , 2015. campbell, j. (2014) “nigeria turns to russia, czech republic, and belarus for military training and materiel”, council on foreign relations, 29 october 29. available at: www.cfr.org/blog/nigeriaturns-russia-czech-republic-and-belarus-militarytraining-and-materiel . 2014. charles cheney hyde, (1994) war and ethnicity: global connections and local violence in north east africa and former yugoslavia. oxford dev stud. 1988; 25:77–94 entwistle, f. j. (2014) “american commitment to secure nigeria”. the guardian, 25 october 53. 2014. foreign affairs, getting the leahy law right. 29 june. available at: https://www.2017-6 29/getting-leahy-law-right/ (accessed 02 june 2018). global terrorism index.(2014) measuring and understanding the impact of terrorism institute for economic and peace, gti, new york, 2014. gurr tr. (1993) minorities at risk: a global view of ethnopolitical conflicts. washington dc: institute of peace press; 1993. herbert w. briggs in the law of nations (1952) ibekwe, n. 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(2015), the challenge of stability and security in west africa. nw, washington: international bank for reconstruction and development/the world bank, vol. 10-11, no. 5 marx and engels, (1885) the communist manifesto, introduction by martin malia (new york: penguin group, 1998), pg. 35 isbn 0-451-52710-0 marx and engels, the communist manifesto, introduction by martin malia (new york: penguin group, 1998), pg. 35 isbn 0-451-52710-0 mcgregor, a. (2015) conflict at a crossroads: can nigeria sustain its military campaign against bokoharam? terrorism monitor, 13(13) the jamestown foundation,globalresearch.availableat:https://www.jamestown.org/program/c onflict-at-a-crossroads-can-nigeria-sustain-itsmilitary-campaign-against-bokoharam/ accessed 08 november 2015. obaji, p. (2015) “us to nigeria: no gun to fight boko haram”, daily beast, 5 may. available at: https://www.thedailybeast.com/us-to-nigeria-no-gun-t-fight-bokoharam /accessed 02 august 2015. onapajo, h (2017) “has nigeria defeated boko haram? an appraisal of the counterterrorism approach under the buhari administration” strategic analysis, 41(1), 61–73, 2017 shola o. j. (2015), globalization of terrorism: a case study of boko haram in nigeria. international journal of politics and good governance, volume vi, no, 6:1. siobhan, o. (2015) “france to nigeria: it's all one fight against boko haram and the islamic state”. foreign policy, 15 september. available at : foreignpolicy.com/2015/09/15/france-to-nigeria-its-all-onefight-against-bokoharam-and-the-islamic-state. siobhan, o. (2015) “france to nigeria: it's all one fight against boko haram and the islamic state”. foreign policy, 15 september. available at : foreignpolicy.com/2015/09/15/france-to-nigeria-its-all-onefight-against-bokoharam-and-the-islamic-state 2015. siollum, m. (2018) “an arms deal won't heal what ails muhammadu buhari”, foreign policy, 11 may.available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/05/11/an-arms-dealwont-heal-what ailsmuhammadu-buhari, 2018. stewart f. (2001) horizontal inequalities as a source of conflict. in: hampson f, malone d, editors. from reaction to prevention. london: lynne rienner; 2001. pp. 105–136. stewart f. (2001) horizontal inequalities as a source of conflict. in: hampson f, malone d, editors. from reaction to prevention. london: lynne rienner; 2001. pp. 157 an appraisal of the impact of insurgency on the changing... suleiman mohammed evuti 105–136. tate, w. human rights law and military aid delivery: a case study of the leahy law. political and legal anthropology review, 34(2): 337-354.2011. the guardian “why we won't sell arms to nigeria: united states accuses military of human rights abuses in fight against b' haram”. the guardian, 10 october, available at: https://guardian.ng/lead-story/182355-why-we-won-t-sell-armsto-nigeria-by-united-states, 2014. tukur, s (2014) “nigeria cancels u.s. military training as relations between both nations worsen”.premium times, 1 december. available at : https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/172178udo, b. (2014) “jonathan signs nigeria's 2014 budget as defence gets 20 per cent”.premiumtimes,24may.availableat:https://www.premiumtimesng.com/bu siness/161390-jonathan-signs-nigerias2014-budget-defence-gets-20-percent.html (accessed 17 january. 2014. vanguard, 2015 sambisa forest: army dismisses 200 soldiers for cowardice.28may.availableat: https://www.vanguardngr.com/200/sambisaforest-army-dismisses-200-soldiers-forcowardice/ accessed 05 may 2015. von ranke_hlk145191962, pattison, spedding, gardiner," (1975) the quarterly review, vol. cxxxix, july/october 1975. 158 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 153 page 154 page 155 page 156 page 157 page 158 page 159 page 160 page 161 page 162 page 163 page 164 page 165 page 166 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 128 abstract throughout history, power has more often than not been wielded through terror that is, by inciting fear. all despotic societies have been founded on fear, as have so-called totalitarian regimes in the modern era. the precursors of terrorism are many and they include political, economic, social, ethnic, racial and religious factors. however, this paper focuses on the religious factor. this is because of its highly volatile nature in nigeria. religion plays a serious role in fostering terrorist tendencies because of its conception against people identified as” infidels”. it is quite disheartening that islam; a religion that translates to peace is in the forefront of terrorism (various violent militant groups like boko haram and al sunna wal jamma) in nigeria. the major reason for this could be because the history of islam was very violent as indicated by the “jihad” fought by the founder of the religion and other later adherents to proselytize the society. this killing of “unbelievers” at that time has transmuted into terroristic activities today. the “blame islam” argument would suggest that there is something inherent to “islam” as a unitary phenomenon, which inspires and motivates muslims to kill and die in the name of islam. arguably, religious extremism is a major derivative of terrorism in the contemporary world and in nigeria today, the major factor that have led to the upsurge of terrorism is religion. keywords: nigeria, islam, jihad, religion, extremism, terrorism, fear, introduction in the past, terrorism was practiced by a collection of individuals belonging to an identifiable organization that had a clear command and control apparatus and a defined set of political, social, or economic objectives. radical leftist i.e., marxistleninist/maoist/ stalinist movements organizations such as the japanese red army, the red army faction in germany, and the red brigades in italy, as well as ethno-nationalist terrorist movements such as the abu nidal organization, the irish republican army (ira), and the basque separatist group, eta, reflected this stereotype of the traditional terrorist group. “they generally issued communiqués taking credit for and explaining in great detail their actions” (lesser 1999, pp.8). however disagreeable or distasteful their aims and motivations may have been, their ideology and intentions were at least comprehensible albeit politically radical and personally fanatical. significantly, however, these more familiar terrorist groups engaged in highly selective and mostly discriminate acts of violence. they targeted for bombing various symbolic targets representing the source of their animus (i.e., embassies, banks, national airline carriers, etc.) or kidnapped and assassinated specific persons whom they blamed for economic terrorism in nigeria and the question of religion okpanachi, elijah ojochonu department of philosophy, federal university lafia, nasarawa state. 129 exploitation or political repression in order to attract attention to themselves and their causes. even when these groups operated at the express behest of, or were directly controlled by, a foreign government, the connection was always palpable, if not necessarily proven beyond the shadow of legal doubt. according to magnus, following the 1986 retaliatory u.s. air strike on libya, colonel qaddafi commissioned the japanese red army to carry out revenge attacks against american targets. in hopes of obscuring this connection, the japanese group claimed its libyan-sponsored operations in the name of a fictitious organization, that of the “anti-imperialist international brigades” (2010, pp.62-63). similarly on the other hand, iranian-backed terrorist operations carried out by hezbollah in lebanon during the 1980s were perpetrated under the guise of the so-called “islamic jihad.” (1993, pp.63). edmund burke was among the first to use the term, which he invoked to describe robespierre's “reign of terror,” a strategy aimed at stifling opponents and controlling the masses after the french revolution. robespierre was the radical jacobin leader of the new french government. thus, he used terrifying means tens of thousands were executed at the guillotine, and hundreds of thousands of others were shot or left to die in prisons in the name of virtuous democratic ideals, as an instrument of social control by the state to restore order in a climate of anarchy. this somewhat positive connotation of terrorism remained largely until the 1930s, when the term became used to connote repression of the masses by totalitarian states, including nazi germany, fascist italy, and stalinist russia.' (burke 1993, pp.90). the modern usage of the term, developed in the mid-twentieth century, “regards terrorism as a tool of ethnic and religious fanatics to serve political ends, such as liberation from an alien occupying group, or simply to exact righteous vengeance against a group labeled as a threat or enemy.” (hoffman 2006, pp.40). today, the more traditional and familiar types of ethnic/nationalists and separatist as well as ideological group according to king “have been joined by a variety of organizations with less-comprehensible nationalist or ideological motivations. these new terrorist organizations embrace far more amorphous religious and millenarian aims and wrap themselves in less cohesive organizational entities, with a more-diffuse structure and membership.” unlike the specific, intelligible demands of past familiar, predominantly secular, terrorist groups who generally claimed credit for and explained their violent acts, no credible claim for the embassy attacks has yet been issued. indeed, the only specific information that has come to light has been a vague message taking responsibility for the bombings in defense of the muslim holy places in mecca and medina and promising to “pursue u.s. forces and strike at u.s. interests everywhere.” (weiner 1998, pp.6) the fact that the most notorious instances of contemporary terrorism have a religious dimension, notwithstanding their political aims, should serve to remind us that this has also been true historically of most forms of terrorism, such as that of the jewish zealots of the first century c.e., for example, or of the ismailia sect of assassins from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. indeed, the religious point of reference was long aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 130 central to most societies, and this phenomenon has not yet exhausted itself. nowadays, terrorism beats out guerrilla warfare as the preferred and practically exclusive weapon of the weak against the strong. in other words: its primary target is the mind. in that sense, terrorism is the most violent form of psychological warfare, and its psychological impact is commonly understood to be far greater than its physical effects. stooping to often pathetic means, terrorism is a way of creating power in the hope of seizing from below that which the state wields from on high (chaliand and blin 2007, pp.9). typologies given the virtually infinite variety of circumstances surrounding terrorist events, every group or act that fits any conventional definition of terrorism is unique, usually in several respects. still, there are a few generic dimensions that distinguish some terrorists, terrorist groups, and terrorist acts from most others. according to forst, he argues that: particular terrorist groups and individual acts of terrorism fall into any of a variety of categories, based on the following dimensions: whether or not politically motivated, whether or not operating under state authority, degree of association with larger terrorist organizations or networks, extent of organization and planning, whether justified in religious or ethnic terms, whether aimed primarily at people or at symbolic targets and the types of people targeted (forst 2008, pp.8). each case can usually be characterized conveniently and usefully in terms of the particular combination of these and possibly other dimensions that fit. the variation of behaviors among these various categories may in most instances be greater than the variation of behaviors within a particular category. politically and nonpolitically motivated terrorism acts of terrorism are generally carried out with a political agenda: to induce the state or citizens in a state to act in ways that those who carry out the acts perceive are unattainable through legitimate means. typically, a terrorist act achieves its aim by instilling fear in a target group and thereby pressuring the state to act in accordance with the wishes of the terrorists. it may aim to destabilize the political, economic, or social order. it may attack symbolic targets, such as government buildings, a venerable statue, or a sacred shrine a mosque, temple, or church rather than people. in some cases, however, the acts of terror are committed out of sheer hatred, strictly with the goal of exterminating a group of people perceived as undesirable referred to euphemistically as “ethnic cleansing” by the perpetrators and as “genocide” by objective observers or inducing the targeted group to flee the territory. gus martin refers to these acts as cases of “communal terrorism” (martin , pp.171). such acts are not generally characterized as politically motivated, although principled political motives may be claimed to provide an element of legitimacy to a terrorist because that is rooted, in fact, primarily in hatred. okpanachi terrorism in nigeria and the question of religion 131 terrorism by the state we have noted that the term “terrorism” was coined in the nineteenth century to describe acts conducted by the french republic. more than a century later, some of the most devastating episodes of terrorism continue to be committed by or sponsored under the authority of sovereign nations. among the most brutal examples are the following: these various forms of support may have anyone or a combination of several aims: to destabilize a state to gain greater influence in the region, to create international visibility for a persistent problem, such as that of palestine, to retaliate against a target state in the region perceived as an enemy and to undermine the influence of a larger power operating in the region. although acts of state-sponsored terrorism are well known both those involving direct initiation and control and those involving patronage and indirect support few sovereign nations officially acknowledge involvement in or support of these activities. today, terrorism is widely thought to originate with groups like al qaeda, operating outside the official auspices of the state. constitutional democracies have taken particularly strong stands against terrorist attacks on noncombatants, especially in the post-cold war era. leaders of nondemocratic nations generally express opposition to terrorist activities as well, especially when the targets of those activities are people who are friends of the state or when the activities are aimed directly against the state and its resources. terrorist groups and individuals are, at one extreme, operative of larger terrorist networks, much like business franchises. some are only loosely affiliated al qaeda is the best known of such loosely associated networks. terrorism by militant religious extremists the fact that the most notorious instances of contemporary terrorism have a religious dimension, notwithstanding their political aims, should serve to remind us that this has also been true historically of most forms of terrorism, such as that of the jewish zealots of the first century c.e., for example, or of the isma\ili sect of assassins from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. indeed, the religious point of reference was long central to most societies, and this phenomenon has not yet exhausted itself. much terrorism is conducted in the name of a religious mission. with the 9/11 attack, islamic jihadism became the most prominent example of terrorism motivated by religious extremists, but by no means the only example of terrorist acts done in the name of religion. millions of innocent people were slaughtered as infidels by muslim crusaders for some 200 years beginning in 1099, as were countless others by militant extremist factions of all the major religions over the years. ethnic terrorism ethnicity is typically associated with unique combinations of genetics, culture, language, religion, and common heritage, and ethnic terrorism is terrorism an ethnic group. it occurs typically following long-standing ethnic or tribal rivalries and is accompanied by slogans, such as the following: you are not one of us, you interfere with our well-being and thus threaten us, and we must defend ourselves against you and your kind. ethnic terrorism usually follows acts of persecution, with the persecutor and persecuted often switching roles in episodes of mutual retaliation. daniel byman observes that ethnic terrorism is often the product of government 1 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 132 interventions against ethnic minorities. “he identifies several common characteristics of such interventions. when a government acts with force to stifle the dissent of an ethnic minority against government rule, the actions tend to polarize the opposition and induce a stronger-than-anticipated reaction” (byman 1998, pp.149). such acts of force often induce other countries and institutions that are unfriendly to the government to provide support to the ethnic minority. the nature of terrorism the american colonialists did to the british military in the late eighteenth century. in the end, overly aggressive government action tends to escalate ethnic terrorism. every continent has its history of ethnic rivalries that simmer and then boil over into acts of terrorism, some not involving government intervention. although each of these histories has its own unique elements, they tend to share many attributes: small differences become greatly magnified while large commonalities and shared values are ignored; intermarriage between individuals of opposing clans or tribes become taboo, and the identities of the children of such marriages become confused; extremists on both sides put moderates under pressure to choose sides and give up conciliatory or neutral positions; and government interventions tend to be alternately inept and needlessly brutal, with both sorts of reactions having the eventual effect of energizing the opposition. suicide terrorism arguing in line with jf forest in his work titled centering terrorism, sheikh muhammad husayn fadlallah, spiritual leader of hezbollah's avers that “what martyrdom is greater than making yourself a human bomb detonating it among the enemy? what spiritualism is greater than this spiritualism in which a person loses all feeling of his body and life for the sake of his cause and mission?” (ganor 2001, pp.10). ganor defined suicide terrorism as “. . . an operational method in which the very act of the attack is dependent upon the death of the perpetrator”) often characterize it as violence carried out by islamists or islamic fundamentalists, that is, martyrs and self-sacrificers, against a range of targets. (ganor 2001, pp.135). pedazor ami posited that “recent efforts to trace the history or pre-history of suicide terrorism also stress its religious origins” (pedazor 2004, pp.108). the histories of the phenomenon usually run from the assassins and sicarii through the eighteen-century suicide attacks of muslim warriors against western colonial rule in india, indonesia, and the philippines through japan's second world war kamikazes to the iranian children, the basij, used by revolutionary guards to clear out minefields during the iran/iraq war (basij 1980, pp.8). “the causes for which those involved sacrificed themselves and, usually, as many others as possible, were religious or some mix of religious and nationalist/patriotic objectives” (reuter , pp.110). terrorism and religion “to fight in defense of religion and belief is a collective duty; there is no other duty after belief than fighting the enemy who is corrupting our life and our religion”. (ibn tamiyya, c.1300). at the end of the 20th century the world faced a revival of religious fundamentalism, quite puzzling to many people who had assumed that the process of secularization was, although perhaps erratic, an irreversible one. the long-standing liberal assumption that the rise of modern society and the decay of religion were two sides okpanachi terrorism in nigeria and the question of religion 133 of the same coin was suddenly thrown into doubt; and the shock effect of this was soon registered in writing on terrorism, where religion had confidently been consigned to the margins of terrorist motivation. in the 1980s terror was still the business of a handful of radical revolutionaries and some all-too-familiar nationalists. the next ten years, however, saw a remarkable shift. one of the leading surveys 96 in the late 1990s asserted that 'the religious imperative for terrorism is the most important defining characteristic of terrorism today', while the author of an american college textbook on terrorism put 'religious fanaticism' top of her list of terrorist motives. official assessments reflect this too; for instance, the canadian security intelligence service 2000 public report states that 'one of the prime motivators of contemporary terrorism is islamic religious extremism'. and while the us state department remains unshakably regional-political in orientation, and still does not isolate religion as a category in its statistical breakdown. bruce hoffman's inside terrorism, an authoritative recent study by the head of the rand corporation's terrorism research unit, is devoted to religion. hoffman notes that the first 'modern' religious terrorist groups did not appear until around 1980. “by 1994, however, fully a third (16 out of 49) of known terrorist groups 'could be classified as religious in character and/or motivation and this proportion leapt again the following year to almost half (26 out of 56).” (41) huffman further argued that “those involved in religious terrorism see violence as an act of sacrament or divine duty carried out in direct response to some theological requests or expectations” (43). religion and terrorism in nigeria there is a continued threat from extremist groups operating in nigeria. the al qaedalinked terrorist group jamaat al ansar al muslimeen fi bilad al sudan, better known as ansaru, has previously carried out attacks and kidnappings, including that of westerners, across northern nigeria. nigeria faces growing threat of boko haram. boko haram's international connections to al-qaeda and its affiliates is obvious. according to doris dokua, nigeria has one of the highest terrorism threat levels in the world” (dokua , pp.10). despite a general decrease in terror-related deaths, the country recently recorded the second highest number of people who died in terrorist attacks worldwide, after afghanistan. several militant groups are active in nigeria, leading to attacks on both civilian and military targets. boko haram is by far the deadliest, mostly active in the north of the country. certain deaths have also been attributed to fulani extremists, while further violent outcomes have been characterizing conflicts among other herdsmen, farmers and ethnic groups. most attacks take place in northern and north east nigeria; there has been an increase in insurgent attacks in borno state. however, there have been a significant number of attacks elsewhere. public places where crowds gather have been targeted, including places of worship, markets, shopping malls, hotels, bars, restaurants, football viewing centers, displacement camps, transport terminals, government buildings, security and educational institutions schools, further education colleges and universities are all regular targets, and international organisations. attacks have taken place around religious and public holidays in public or crowded places, including places of worship as well as during election periods. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 134 according to omomia, the current spate of religious terrorism in nigeria is concealed by the perpetrators as a desire to “fight for god”. it is often argued by the insurgents that they are fighting for god”. the present level of terrorism in nigeria, occasioned by the boko haram insurgency, is commonly adjudged to be the most devastating in her religious and political history (omomia 2021, pp.107). he also argued that boko haram sect which holds the philosophy that the “western form of education is forbidden” is said to have captured some towns which include “damboa, gwoza, bama, and some of nigeria's towns bordering the cameroons, borno state and mubi, madgaki and michika in adamawa state” (omomia 2021, pp.66) he further avers that the boko haram sect believes that western education is sin, and boko haram is bent on introducing sharia law across nigeria. the implication of this, according to them, is to govern the nation according to the teachings of islam. it is their opinion that they can enthrone spiritual sanctity which allah demands. the implication of this, according to them, is to govern the nation according to the teachings of islam. it is their opinion that they can enthrone spiritual sanctity which allah demands (2021, pp.113). methods of attack have included coordinated armed assaults, rocket attacks, assassinations, kidnapping, use of improvised explosive devices (ieds), bombings (including by child and female bombers), car bombings and arson. use of military uniforms and vehicles have been used as a tactic to get close to the intended target. since 2019, there has been an increasing trend of terrorist groups constructing illegal vehicle checkpoints on major supply and commercial routes in northern nigeria and attacking vehicles travelling on major roads into maiduguri, borno state, including the maiduguri-damaturu road. these attacks have directly targeted civilians, security forces and aid workers. there have been a number of actual and attempted attacks against idp (internally displaced persons), camps, markets, places of worship, security force installations, government and educational facilities in borno and adamawa. there has also been an increase in suicide attacks in central maiduguri, borno state. th the premium times of 19 may, 2022 reported that governor nasir el-rufai has raised concerns about the emergence of boko haram elements, terrorists' enclave and the activities of ansaru insurgents in birnin gwari and chukun local governments of kaduna state. the governor disclosed that the debriefing of the first abuja-kaduna train kidnap victim to be released indicated that the terrorists were making comments like “the forests in kaduna are even better than that of sambisa and so they should all relocate here” (2007, pp.1). according to el-rufai, “the problem of insecurity now has moved from the north east to the north west.” he argued that the security situation in the state indicates ''a movement from banditry to terrorism with expertise in making explosive devices. and again, this is because boko haram and ansaru elements have moved into the state.'' (2007, pp.1) timeline of terrorism in nigeria, 2022 th in niger state, the punch reported on the 17 of january that governor sani bello said that at least 220 people were killed by the terrorists within the first two weeks of 2022. the punch also reported that: the most affected local government area in the state, with 34 persons killed on january 12, another 18 persons killed on january 29 and 20 persons killed on february 3. okpanachi terrorism in nigeria and the question of religion 135 on february 5, no less than 44 persons were killed while 31 persons were abducted, and on february 21, about 14 persons were murdered by the criminals in galape, a community in the local government. the biggest carnage was in dilalai community, giwa local government area where at least 50 people were killed on march 20. in zamfara state, no fewer than 200 people in anka and bukkyum communities were killed on january 5, the biggest single attack so far this year. despite the rising insecurity, however, security experts have warned against the declaration of state of emergency in the north-west. in separate interviews, the experts, patrick agbambu, timothy avele and a former director of the department of state services, mike ejiofor, said a state of emergency did not achieve the desired result the last time it was declared. https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-monthly-protection-report-unhcr-sub-officemaiduguri-february-2022 that: suspected iswap members attacked an ambulance which was conveying drugs for an ingo in gujba town on 4/1/2022. similar attacks by nsag were also reported on muktum, goniri and kasatchiya communities on 16th, 25th and 29th january 2022. during one of the attacks in the nearby nigerian army institute of peace in buratai, vehicular movements on the referenced road linking to adamawa state was disrupted for a day. also, on 25th january 2022, suspected iswap members on the damaturu-biu road abducted at least 04 civilians. again, reports still have it in https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › 2022_zamfara_massac... that from 4 to 6 january 2022, over 200 people were killed by bandits in zamfara state, nigeria. this was the deadliest terrorist attack in nigeria. according to premium news online, on the 23 jan 2022 — at least 486 people were killed in the first three weeks of 2022 by non-state actors across nigeria, an average of 22 people a day, ... 28 march— at least eight people were killed and many others missing when gunmen detonated a bomb on the tracks and opened fire on the train ... thus, following the track of events vanguard online on 6 apr 2022 https://www.vanguardngr.com › reports that “the first attack on tabanni took place on march 15, 2022, where two people were abducted and one was killed on dogon dawazaria road. there has been an increasing number of attacks on humanitarian workers in north east nigeria. areas of particular concern include northern and north eastern borders with niger and chad as well as more widely across borno, yobe, gombe and adamawa states in north east nigeria, and some northern and middle belt states including bauchi, kano, kaduna, and niger. ansaru, boko haram and iswa have carried out a number of kidnaps in nigeria. kidnappings could occur anywhere in areas where terrorist groups have a presence. terrorist groups operating in nigeria boko haram or jasdj is an islamist terrorist group operating in nigeria, cameroon, chad and niger. the group aspire to establish a sharia state in nigeria and west africa, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 de-stabilise the nigerian government and remove western influence from the country. the group was formerly linked to al qaeda in the islamic maghreb (aqim). the group split into 2 factions: islamic state in west africa (iswa) and jasdj or boko haram. iswa is affiliated with isis core in iraq and syria and has expressed an intention to target nigerian government, christian and western interests. iswa have launched a series of successful attacks against nigerian military locations, increased their freedom of movement across borno and yobe states. ansaru is another islamist terrorist organisation based in northern nigeria, and is proscribed by the uk. it emerged in 2012 and is motivated by an anti-nigerian government and anti-western agenda. ansaru is broadly aligned with al qaeda. conclusion the issue of terrorism has become a major threat to the civil liberties that form an essential basis for constitutional government. while human beings tend quickly to forget the ravages caused by epidemics or the death toll from natural disasters, even when they occur on a vast scale, memories of the carnage caused by war, terrorism or other forms of political violence rarely fade. this is in part because the purposeful nature of such violence demonstrates what human beings are capable of doing to each other. because of the increased lethality of the contemporary wave of terrorism, a government cannot wait until a terrorist attack occurs to act. counterterrorism must be largely preventive. but the traditional law enforcement mind-set is to wait for an incident to occur in order to begin an investigation. even today, law enforcement systems are designed to act efficiently after the event—to investigate, collect evidence, arrest, charge, and prosecute. unless there is a lead, the average police officer will not expend time, energy, and resources. a sea change in law enforcement culture is essential to combat terrorism. instead of building cases by gathering evidence to prosecute, law enforcement authorities must invest their assets in collecting intelligence to detect and disrupt terrorist attacks. this involves effective use of confidential informants, undercover officers, and other covert assets, a mindand a resource intensive process. winning hearts and minds is key. to prevent terrorists from influencing the public, governments must co-opt ethnic and religious leaders from communities affected by terrorism. in as much as it is communities that eventually defeat terrorism, governments must ensure that muslims are not demonized. since no terrorist group can sustain itself without public support, it is critical to win over public support. like a company, a terrorist group needs to grow in order to survive, and recruitment and flow of support intelligence, funds, weapons, sanctuary remain key. to disrupt the public appeal of terrorist groups, it is essential to legally criminalize and then target the terrorist support networks. comprehensive legislation targeting terrorist propaganda, including through the world wide web, and fund-raising by extremist groups, should be criminalized. likewise, religious leaders who spread hatred in schools and elsewhere must be prosecuted. developing a zero-tolerance policy toward terrorism in nigeria is essential. terrorists are like sharks they rapidly move in search of new opportunities. 136 okpanachi terrorism in nigeria and the question of religion references brian forst, (2008). terrorism, crime and public policy-cambridge university press. bruce hoffman, (1998). inside terrorism, columbia, columbia university press, pp, 188–189. burke, edmund, (1993). reflections on the revolution in france, oxford, oxford university press. byman, daniel, (1998). “the logic of ethnic terrorism,” studies in conflict and terrorism, vol. 21 spring, pp. 149–70. camus, a. (1954). the rebel, new york: alfred, a. knopf, 140–141. chaliand, arnaud blin, (2007). history of terrorism from antiquity to qaeda-university of california press. dokua,d.s., terrorism in nigeria https://www.statista.com/topics/7396/terrorism-innigeria/ ganor, b. (2001). “suicide attacks in israel,” in countering suicide terrorism, herzliya israel ict, pp.135. hoffman, b. (2006). inside terrorism (2nd ed.). new york: columbia university press: 43 / lesser, o.i, (1999). countering the new terrorism-rand, oxford, oxford university press. https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/nigeria/terrorism magnus ranstorp, (1977). hizb'allah in lebanon: the politics of the western hostage crisis, macmillan, houndmills, basingstoke, and london, pp. 62–63. neil king, jr., (1998). “moving target: fighting terrorism is far more perilous than it used to be,” wall street journal europe, august 25. omomia, o. a. (2021). religious fanaticism and “boko haram” nsurgency in nigeria: implications for national security. journal of advocacy, research and education. vol. 2, is. 1:58-73. omomia, a, (2021). religious terrorism in nigeria as renewed determination to “fight for god”, inkanyiso: journal of humanities and social sciences. vol.13, no1. pedahzur, a, (2004). root causes of suicide terrorism, first published 2006 by routledge, pedhazur, a., “toward an analytical model of suicide terrorism a comment,” terrorism and political violence, 16. reuter, c. my life is a weapon: a modern history of suicide bombing, princeton, nj: princeton university press, 13, 48, 49, 1 tim weiner, (1998). “bombings in east africa: the investigation; reward is offered and clues studied in african blasts,” new york times, august 11. townshend,c, (2002). terrorism: a very short introduction, oxford university press. https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-monthly-protection-report-unhcr-sub-officemaiduguri-february-2022 https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › 2022_zamfara_massac https://www.premiumtimesng.com › news › headlines, https://www.aljazeera.com › news › 2022 › more-than https://www.vanguardngr.com › https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/nwest/531081-el-rufai-raises-alarm-saysboko-haram-terrorists-now-in-kaduna.html https://punchng.com/terrorists-kill-1545-in-kaduna-zamfara-others-in-90-days/ 137 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 193 the humean view on miracle and its implications for religious beliefs. hyginus chibuike ezebuilo department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. and asso. prof chinyere t. ojiakor madonna university okija abstract there is no doubt that history plays a crucial role in human existence. it does take the human person back to previous events that occurred even in preceding generations, present events and as well foreshadows the future. all these work according to the natural law. therefore, over the years, the human person consciously or unconsciously produce their social relations, social configuration or organizations and their forms of collective structuring. though they produce this, the result is not immediate, but comes through long and complex collective experiences which they have shared together. the factors responsible for this include religion, education, science and technology, politics, culture, economy to mention but a few. reflectively, the concept of miracle which strictly belongs to the religious worldview has been bastardized by both theistic and atheistic philosophers as a result of its epistemic challenges. with regard to this, hume contended that the smallest and subjective evidences which backup miracles can never outweigh the widespread, objective evidences supporting the contention that they never took place as reported. this has made the objective evidences needed to prove such occurrences significant. hence, the logical background created by hume against the existence of miracle affected not only sense perception but also posed a serious constraint to all religious beliefs. however, for the speculative philosophers, especially those who hinge their system on absolutism, miracle poses no problem but for the logician and empiricist does because there is no rational proof for its existence. the analytic method of research was adopted for this discourse. keywords: miracle, implication, religious, beliefs introduction during the medieval period, the medieval researchers, while trying to know the urstuff of the universe, conceived nature as divinely created and directed by the divine master and saw everything happening according to the instructions which nature has received from the ultimate cause. this perception was supported by the already conceived postulations of some classical researchers that all things are moved by an unmoved mover, and this necessary being was assumed to be god. however, with copernicus’ verdict that the sun is the centre of the universe, 194 as against the church’s teaching which was made firm with galileo galilee’s blood, man discovered that there are truths which could be grasped by reason alone and that man can actually know. already, this has been established during the renaissance period against the formal theological teaching the church with which controlled philosophy, political and social norms, morals, doctrines and institutions, that man cannot know anything except by faith. therefore, with the separation of science from religion per se, many scientists, mathematicians, geometricians etc. delved into research, which continue to give rise to different theories, discoveries and theses till date. therefore, this paper will give an in-depth understanding of david hume’s view on miracle and his arguments against supernatural events. an overview of miracle the above term as a result of its epistemological challenges has remained a subject of debate among philosophers till date. the word “miracle” is sometimes used in general discussions to refer to any unexpected event. however, when it is used in its distinctively religious sense, it implies the occurrence of an unusual remarkable event that would not have occurred in the exact manner in which it did if god had not intentionally brought it about, that is, if “god had not at some point and in some manner directly imposed his divine will on the natural order” ( swinburne, 1970:70). while some philosophers believe in the existence of god and his divine powers on the natural order, others do not. in response to the above, epistemological critics of miracle conceive the term as the violation of natural laws. for them, it is incoherent for such is not obtainable as natural laws. another school of thought, while suggesting that the idea of violation of law be thrown away, opined that “miracle” should be reserved for only those occurrences that are permanently inexplicable in the sense that no event of this type could ever be given a fully natural explanation. david hume’s view on miracle david hume, argues that a wise person will always aportion his or her belief to the evidence. for him, when such evidences are considered rationally, if they pose no problem and for the very fact that natural laws are based on uniform past and present experience, alleged miraculous violations of these laws are supported only by the personal testimony of few individuals. consequently, these testimonial evidences are always weaker than the laws they claim to have contradicted. reflectively, since humans by nature want to find mystery and wonder where there is none, they passionately believe that miracles occur. thus, hume maintained that “no human testimony can have such force as to prove a miracle because our experience codified in natural laws, offers us sufficient reason not to believe that alleged counterinstances to natural laws have actually occurred as reported. according to hume, the evidence for miracles is weak. consequently, he argued against supernatural events and opined that they ought to be received and treated with contempt. the humean view on miracle and its implications for religious beliefs hyginus chibuike ezebuilo & asso. prof chinyere t. ojiakor aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 195 basically, hume outlined arguments against supernatural events which he defined as violations of the laws of nature; laws which are so firm and have been confirmed by unalterable experience. admittedly, since natural laws are uniform, public and from past experiences, we should always seek and question the evidences of such miraculous claims as they consist solely of the personal testimonies of few biased individuals which cannot be substantiated by independent testing. for him, it is possible that all men will die, and no miracle can prevent them. but it is a miracle that a dead man should come to life. he gave this instance because it has never been observed in any age or country. peterson,et al 2014:465) in his empirical view, as uniform experience amounts to a proof, there is a direct and full proof, from the nature of fact, against the existence of any miracle. to maintain this, he established two propositions (inferior and superior), known as relatively destructive arguments, as the standard of judgment for any miraculous act. following the inferior argument, the fallacies and deceptions behind miraculous stories may stand, but following the superior argument which carries natural fact, they cannot be rendered credible because what remains after the deduction is inferior, which does not correspond to miracle. to this effect, no testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle. unless the testimony tends to establish falsehood and there should be doubt regarding miraculous events because it based on prodigal evidence. hume’s five arguments include: the witnesses are not reliable: according to david hume, there has never been a time in history when miraculous events were attested by a sufficient number of people with unquestioned good sense, education and learning let alone having sufficient number of people noted for undoubtable integrity, as to place them beyond all suspicions of being capable of deception. this is a necessary foundation for any testimony to be upheld. he laid emphasis on this criterion because it secures us against all delusions. however, there has never been a time such requirement was met; hence the number of the propagators of these pretentious stories is always insufficient to make their message true. humans are gullible: analytically, a close examination of human nature has shown that human memory is often so unreliable as to distinguish clearly the assurance on human testimony. according to hume, while accepting some of these testimonies, we often drop the use of reason which makes us question such. this is partly due to the passions of surprise and wonder, arising from such testimonies. interestingly, the story does not end there as even those who cannot believe these miraculous events gradually become propagators of what they are not sure. in addition, human gullibility, coupled with religion, necessarily makes one dismiss one’s sensory experiences so that one sees one’s imaginations and wonderful adventures, which are often strange, as reality, not regarding that one is aware that such reality is false … there is no sufficient judgment to canvass their evidence; yet one perseveres in it in order to promote a ‘holy cause’. educated people are seldom convinced: hume believes that educated people, unlike the gullible people, are not easily convinced with supernatural stories. thus, they stand in opposition to ignorant, barbarous people who accept these supernatural stories 196 without questioning. in the same vein, if such belief is found amidst civilized people, it is believed that such stories originated from their barbarous ancestors, who transmitted them with inviolable authority. ignorance then makes one think that these stories are real, but with enlightenment, one comes to learn that there is nothing mysterious or supernatural in such stories. for this very reason, enlightened people often see these strange things as renowned lies, which have spread and flourished because they were sown in a suitable soil (ignorant nation), where there is no large correspondence, sufficient credit or authority to contradict or beat down its delusion. (corner, 2007, p, 458). the counterevidence is always stronger: this is a strong criticism against miracles which diminishes all authority of prodigies. accordingly, there is no testimony, even those which have not been expressly detected, that is not opposed by an infinite number of witnesses. not only does miracle destroy the credit of testimony, but the testimony also destroys itself. all testimonies in different religions stand against one another. as each religion narrates this supernatural story in order to establish its own system, more indirectly does it aim to overthrow other systems, and as it destroys a rival system, it likewise destroys the credit of its already established testimony. hence, there is no corroboration of one fact. as each proof opposes another proof, it makes it even more necessary to reject supernatural stories because the same experience which gives authority to human testimony also assures us of the laws of nature, and it does not contradict itself. why miraculous reports used to support religious belief are even more dubious: there is no doubt that hume recognized his limitations when he asserted that a miracle can never be proved, in such a way as to be the foundation of a system of religion because there could exist the possibility of violations of the usual course of nature which of course can be proved by human testimony. however, it will be impossible to find such in the records of history. he disagreed to agree that religion does not emanate from the stories of violations of the laws of nature. contendingly, outside the experience which we have of being’s productions following the usual course of nature, we cannot know the actions of the being to whom miracles are ascribed. consequently, we are pushed into comparing the instances of the violation of truth in the testimony of men with that considered as the violation of the laws of nature. notably, the violations of truth are more common in the testimony concerning religious miracles than any other matter of fact. therefore, using reason we must diminish and never pay attention to these superstitious stories which were founded on faith, not on reason (hume, 1861: 115). implication of hume’s view for religious beliefs david hume's view on miracles has significant implications for religious belief. he not only challenged traditional religious claims about supernatural occurrences and their role in validating religious beliefs but also the rationality of believing in such, and that is why he defined miracle from an empirical perspective in order to establish its irrationality, unreliability the humean view on miracle and its implications for religious beliefs hyginus chibuike ezebuilo & asso. prof chinyere t. ojiakor aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 197 and the fact that there is nothing unnatural about supernatural stories. the end product of his view is radical scepticism towards miracle. this is so because miracles are incoherent with natural laws and this makes the occurrence necessarily probable and uncertain. accordingly, from the uniform experience of the external world which is based on the regularity of natural laws, it is more reasonable to doubt miraculous claims than to accept them because it is unfair to describe natural operations of the universe as miracle. obviously, his view has laid more ground for naturalistic theology against sacred theology. this seeks to interpret religious truths with human reason, moral sentiments and evidence, (hume, 1978: 212-320), hence it provides justification for considering religion as a social construct that serves a specific function as against the sacred realist conception of an absolute being. therefore, instead of attributing these extraordinary occurrences to divine intervention, many people now seek natural explanations, or question the authenticity of the reported events. in addition, with the credibility of miracles being called into question, contemporary believers have suddenly placed more significance on experiences and proper basic belief which is the rational justification for the existence of god rather than relying on external supernatural stories. this makes religion a philosophical and scientific enterprise, thereby removing the inhuman elements in various religious beliefs. just like nietzsche’s view on eternal reoccurrence which holds that time and events will keep reoccurring till infinity, (copleston, 1965: 189), and in line with the laws of thermodynamics, there is no need of attributing anything to a “being whose actions are unknown” (peterson, 2014:471), because there is nothing absolutely new in the universe; things will keep reoccurring. in line with this, given the incredibility of supernatural stories, man should introspect and find possible ways of turning himself into an overman so as to be able to develop himself and the material world. subsequently, religious claims and concepts such as resurrection, god, angel, salvation, etc could be explained using this view. definitely, the human person would succumb to the change of becoming without relying on any transcendental being. analytically, from the 20th century till date, hume’s criticism of miracle has remained a subject matter for debates and counter debates. while many empirical scientists and philosophers argued against miracle, which implies the denial of the existence of the ultimate reality, who, according to paul tillich, in every divine manifestation, makes himself present in time and space, the theistic philosophers maintained that there exists a being whose existence must not be proven empirically. this has sparked off a contention between the theistic and atheistic philosophers/scientists regarding the nature of miracles and their compatibility with religious beliefs. notably, this has negatively impacted on many religious systems, especially those systems which are not open to critical evaluation and questioning. interestingly, hume’s logical interpretation of miracle embraces matters of fact, and the claims that only authentic proof comes from experience and the use of reason against all form of absolute authority. by implication, matters of fact can actually be known through reason alone and they exist independent of the perceiver. thus, the evidence required to 198 establish a miracle should always be weighed against the evidence for the regularity of the laws of nature. notably, this discards all ‘religious language and symbols’ which make no sense outside the religious context. contrastingly, it is important to note that while hume's views have influenced religious belief, they have not rendered it obsolete or universally rejected. many believers and religious traditions continue to maintain faith in miracles, emphasizing the roles of personal conviction, religious experiences, and the importance of faith beyond empirical evidence. again, karl popper’s view that a theory can be falsified can be properly upheld in regard to this because there was a time in history when science was non-science. therefore, the critics of miracle should take it easy for with time, the rational existence of the being itself may be empirically proven. evaluation hume as a strict empiricist has established that man’s existence is totally different from the creation story fashioned on myth through his enthronement of reason against faith. away from religion, and from an epistemological perspective, there is no doubt that ‘miracle’ offers us knowledge. nevertheless, hume questions the possibility of such knowledge and its certainty and verifiability. the term miracle which entails the violation of nature has been bastardized and misused by man in line with what karl marx considered as the opium of the people, and as such it has become a tool for massive social exploitation. it makes people incapable of understanding their social conditioning (labour) and enthrones extreme fatalism. however, there are things beyond empirical observations and explanations. thus, hume failed to explain the immaterial aspect of the human person that makes for the possibility of miracle owing to the fact that man has some spiritual craving which he aspires to satisfy. in addition, hume’s position was filled with assumptions especially when he opined that enlightened people do not believe or relate these miraculous messages. some philosophers of religion have argued against this position. for them, there are some circumstances could be explained in consonance with nature but the resultant effect of these circumstances could be termed miracle. put differently, there is no need to assume that a miracle must contradict the laws of nature. conclusion in a nutshell, having rigorously examined hume’s view on miracle, it is still worth nothing that upon reflection on hume’s argument, the ultimate problem remains that the individual seeking to accept such a claim has a double burden of holding that the event took place and that it “violated” a law of nature. analytically, if this individual has very strong evidence that a seeming counterinstance to natural law has occurred, then she or he has a very strong reason to believe that the law as currently understood is inadequate. in addition, if this the humean view on miracle and its implications for religious beliefs hyginus chibuike ezebuilo & asso. prof chinyere t. ojiakor aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 199 individual has very strong evidence that the laws of nature are adequate, then he or she has a very strong reason to believe that the seeming counterinstance did not occur as reported. accordingly, to maintain that these laws are adequate and still believe that there has occurred a counter instance is extremely difficult. however, many scholars have criticized the views of hume and his contemporaries using four types of evidence about past events: personal memories, the testimony of others, physical traces, and the contemporary understanding of what is possible. admittedly, experience codified in natural laws, presents justification to believe that alleged counterinstances to natural laws have actually occurred as reported; but while personal memories can be faulty, past experience gives us reason to believe they should be given strong credence. despite the fact that the testimony of others could also be faulty, there are sound methods for determining the reliability of such testimony and this could be easily done through increasing sophisticated physical traces and we ought not to believe that these forms of evidence could not, in principle, outweigh the evidence of physical impossibility. hence, the counterinstances to natural laws cannot be ruled out in an a priori manner. 200 references bradley, f.h. (1914). essays on truth and reality. oxford university pres. copleston, f. (1965). a history of philosophy. volume 7, modern philosophy ii, schopenhauer to nietzsche. image books. corner, d. (2007). the philosophy of miracles. continuum. cottingham, j. (2020). soul, science, and subjectivity. in in search of the soul: a philosophical essay, 70–99. princeton university press, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvp7d4xk.6 ezebuilo, h. c. (2021). a hermeneutic consideration of karl popper’s falsification theory. nnamdi azikiwe journal of philosophy, 12, 2. ezebuilo, h. c. (2022). epistemology at a glance. iprogress press. feyerabend, p. (1985). realism, rationalism and scientific method: philosophical papers. volume 1. cambridge university press. hume, d. (1861). an inquiry into human understanding. j.b bebbington, hume, d. (1978). an enquiry concerning human understanding. in a treatise of human nature. (eds.) l. a. selby-bigge and p. h. nidditc. clarendon press. hume, d. (1999). an enquiry concerning human understanding. (ed.) t. l. beauchamp. oxford university press. lawhead, w. f. (2007). the voyage of discovery: a historical introduction to philosophy. cengage learning. malafouris, l. (2016). how things shape the mind: a theory of material engagement. mit press. peterson, m, w. hasker, et al. (2014). philosophy of religion: selected readings, 5th edition. oxford university press. smith, j. (1968). experience and god. oxford university press. swinburne, r. (1970). the concept of miracle. macmillan. the humean view on miracle and its implications for religious beliefs hyginus chibuike ezebuilo & asso. prof chinyere t. ojiakor https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvp7d4xk.6 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract in an organized society, human beings have revolted against inhuman conditions of living or systems that governed them through structured groups called syndicates, movements, oppositions and revolutions. the uprising could be spontaneous or initiated/inspired by a « wise person » (the philosopher). admitted that existential realities are the bases for every desire to ask for, complain and even demand for substitution in the way of doing things, the fundamental question which the paper intends to answer revolves around the implication of the philosopher either in inspiring or leading revolution. this is why this work is titled: the philosopher and revolutionary attempts in nigeria. one is of the opinion that philosophers are intrinsically part of the revolution either by inspiring others or by actually leading revolution. in discussing this topic, one shall first explain the meaning of revolution; secondly, the paper expounds the debates concerning the involvement of philosophers in revolution and lastly, the paper describes the revolutionary attempts in nigeria keywords: democracy, deterritorialisation, philosopher, reterritorialization, revolution, introduction it could be accepted that “the developments of philosophical reflections were influenced by the paradigm shifts in science” (onah, 2021, 304). in other words, progress in science led to the development of philosophical thoughts. for instance, “the philosophy of plato was influenced by the mathematics of greeks; the cartesian philosophy was shaped by the galileo's construction of the physics; kant's philosophy followed the pattern of newton's physics; the philosophy of e. husserl took after mathematical logic and k. marx science of history had great effect on the philosophy of dialectical materialism” (onah, 2021, 304). however, with regards to revolution, the debate as to whether or not philosophers are the cause of revolution is a complicated one. deleuze &guattari (1942, 96) are of the opinion that “it's not wrong to say that revolution is “the philosophers' fault”. this is in the measure in which his thought provokes the reaction of people in order to overturn a supposedly bad system. that is why merriam-webster's online dictionary defined revolution as “a sudden, radical, or complete change” (revolution, 2023) in order to oust a bad government. in philosophy, the movement of ideas contributed in shaping the structure of the state, in freeing morals from religions (diop, 1987, 30-31). philosophical ideas have led to social revolution which consists in the inclusion of those who were formerly forbidden to occupy certain positions. people from any tribe or religion could be ministers of defense the philosopher and revolutionary attempts in nigeria aloysius uchechukwu onah saint thomas aquinas' major seminary, makurdi, benue state. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4606-5080 45 as long as they have the competence (diop, 1987, 28). besides, the importance of philosophical reflections leading to hitler's belief that the aryan race was the most superior race in the world is linked to the works of hegel and heidegger (onah, 2021, 306). according to mundaya (1996), while habermas' theory of communication was elaborated in order to address the solitary and egocentric conscience of westerners gabriel marcel proposed a new idea of the human being to his contemporaries following the effects of the second world war. this means that every philosophy is conceived in order to solve a particular problem bothering the people at a particular time. from the preceding line of thought, the pertinent question which this paper wants to examine is: to what extent is the philosopher involved in any revolution? do philosophers lead revolutions in person or are revolutions mere product of their thoughts and ideas? this present work is interested in analyzing the responsibilities and roles of philosophers with regards to change in the human society. this change could be cultural, social or political. it will also clarify the implication of playing an “active role” or a “passive role” in any revolution as a philosopher. the reflection in this article will be articulated in three points: first, i will explain the term “revolution;” secondly, i shall examine the dilemma of holding that the philosopher plays an active or passive role in revolution; thirdly, i will describe the nigeria attempts at revolution. what is revolution? according to merriam-webster's online dictionary, revolution can be defined as “a fundamental change in political organization especially: the overthrow or renunciation of one government or ruler and the substitution of another by the governed” (revolution, 2023). this is in view of obtaining a better living condition for the citizenry. that is why it is often seen as “activity or movement designed to effect fundamental changes in the socioeconomic situation” (revolution, 2023). le bon (2001, 11) wrote: “we generally apply the term revolution to sudden political changes, but the expression may be employed to denote all sudden transformations, or transformations apparently sudden, whether of beliefs, ideas, or doctrines”. there are tendencies to mix up the term revolution with reformation, movement, etc, or even to liken it with coup (kandelakki, 2006, 2). minkkinen (2009, 14) likened the term revolution “to re-evolution, which denotes that it is important to reorient the process of evolution which is taking place in a given social formation and geo-historical context”. this means that in the series of events which characterize the life of a group of people, there is need to change the principal cause(s) of human suffering or reason for the malfunctioning of a system. in the case of reformation, it is understood as the end-result of the social order and the form which is reformed (minkkinen, 2009, 14). whereas the death of human beings is indispensable in revolution, that is not the case in reformation. revolution is a concept that resembles but different from rebellion, resistance or secession. considering the impact of revolution in any given society, promoters of “democratization preferred to describe transformation of political regime as 'transition'” (kandelakki, 2006, 2). in the spirit of democratization, revolution could be likened to a “new mentality in order to build a new society” (lamb, 1983, 73). in the thought of many, it could be , 46 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december compared to the struggle for liberation. however, “revolution covers economic, social and cultural spheres of life” (chengte, 2016, 34). although it is possible to consider revolution with reference to changes in a country (french revolution, chinese revolution), regions (the arab spring, the dissolution-revolution of the soviet empire), world (in 1848 and 1968 = read minkkinen, 2009, 17), but one could also think of it in terms of progress in science and technology such as: industrial revolution, digital revolution, technological revolution (united nations, 2016), or even in terms of institutional change marxist revolution (lamb, 109), the aristocratic revolution of the city-states among the early greeks, latins and romans (diop, 1987, 24), demographic revolution (easterlin, 2019, 3) and political revolution. moreover, revolution is characterized by profound questions concerning values – that is, the manner in which holding on to a value affects human existence. when it is positive, it will engender multiple production at different levels in order to improve the living condition of human beings. on the contrary, when the significance attributed to human existence becomes negative it provokes revolt, disgust, reactions and revolution. some of the unhelpful qualities are government's rampant corruption, blatant election rigging (kandelakki, 2006, 2). it is their importance in the society and the existential realities which proceed from them that give rise to different kinds of revolutions. however, there is possibility of a country or society to undergo revolution based on “enthusiasm”. such enthusiasm involves nothing rational or even reasonable (deleuze &guattari, 1942, 96). enthusiasm in this sense presupposes little application of rationality. even though the origin of revolution may be rational, le bon (2001, 11) explained “we must not forget that the reasons invoked in preparing for it do not influence the crowd until they have been transformed into sentiments”. a perfect example would be the georgia's revolution which “involved both a sudden change of power and mass mobilization” (kandelakki, 2006, 3). unfortunately, those who “find the philosophy faculty's teaching a poor substitute for their inclination to enthusiasm” would be unable to make a connection between the expression of passion by the crowd and the reflection that engendered it. albert camus is an ideal representation of a thinker whose idea gathered crowd to agitate for change in algeria. he was a philosopher and a revolutionist. he wrote in many journals and was actively involved in some of the protest that took place. in europe and america, revolutionary movements have either been positive or negative. if the american pragmatic philosophy was successful to the point of producing the democratic revolution and a new society, the french philosophy produced a “republic of the mind” which is expressed in revolutionary cogito. but england will never stop asking why revolutions turn out so badly when they promise so much in spirit. (…) germany, for its part, will not stop reflecting on the french revolution, as something it cannot do (deleuze &guattari, 1942, 99). this reflexive evaluation of revolution is accentuated if one takes time to analyze revolutionary attempts in african continents. generally, the struggle for the independence of african states could be considered as a revolution. this began in kenya when “the mau mau guerrillas fought black africa's first war of liberation (lamb, 1983, 151) and then the nationalist movements (lamb, 1983, 161). according to lamb (1983, 69), “revolution is a popular – and an overworked – word in africa. almost every president likes to think he is either the product or the producer of 47 the philosopher and revolutionary attempts in nigeria aloysius uchechukwu onah one”. one can count the president of samoramoisés machel of mozambique as one of the products and producers of revolution (lamb, 1983, 70); others are president julius nyerere “the conscience of black africa” (lamb, 1983, 70), jomo kenyatta (lamb, 1983, 58-65), jerry rawlings = “coup of conscience” (lamb, 287), etc. one attitude that is common to all the leaders of revolution is the desire to change the living condition of their people. but how successful were they? the terrible happenings in uganda made ugandans rebels and a ragtag of army invading tanzanians to revolt against idi amin and the latter fled to libya (lamb, 1983, 79), mobutu sese seko kuru ngebendu wa za banga of zaire also went into exile to morocco (baggaley, 1997) after exerting hardship on the congo people of kinshasa; in the democratic republic of congo, mobutu sese seko kuru ngebendu wa za banga entertained fear that the presence of the faculty of philosophy (in faculté catholique de kinshasa) would produce great and critical minds who will advocate for change in the system of governance and better living condition. this made him to suppress the department of philosophy in 1971 by merging it with two other universities – l'université de lubumbashi and l'université de kisangani, with the new site in lubumbashi (kaplan, 1979, 71-72). he became conscious of the fact that the unlimited freedom of philosophy/philosophers “to proclaim any sort of opinion publicly is bound to be dangerous both to the government and to the public itself” (kant, 1979, 55). contrary to mobutu's fear, idi amin of uganda “declared himself a doctor of philosophy and the chancellor of makerere university, and the one-time 'harvard of africa'” (lamb, 1983,89). in either case, the fear of the seat of philosophy in a country or the selfdeclaration of doctor in philosophy by dictators does not provide a framework where human beings can attain self-accomplishment. in the case of democratic republic of congo, it produced what albert camus (camus, 1942, 34) described as “freedom of the prisoner” while that of uganda produced “university of semiliterates” (lamb, 1983, 89). to paraphrase the words of kant (1979), mobutu was oblivious of the fact that “the philosophy faculty can lay claim to any teaching, in order to test its truth. the government cannot forbid it to do this without acting against its own proper and essential purpose.” briefly, the purpose of any government consists in providing a framework for citizens to express their freedom. this consideration makes it worthwhile to examine the association of the philosopher in revolution. the debates concerning the involvement of the philosopher in revolution i would like to indicate three levels of the debates: the philosopher-participant, the philosopher-non-participant and the moderate view. the first two are extreme in character while the third is an intermediate position. the arguments revolve around having a concept and then being a spectator or an actor. the explanation of the aforementioned terms will contribute in taking a modest position concerning the role of the philosopher in revolution. to begin, i would like to ask: which is most important, to have a concept and then work towards actualizing it or to act first, and later qualify one's action? on the one hand, to have a concept means to understand and to have knowledge due to some experiences. concepts are not empty thoughts; they are abstract ideas with specific content. on the 48 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december other hand, concepts are functions in the simplest term (oxford dictionary, 2023). with regards to the role of the philosopher in any revolution, this means that from the time of conceiving an idea, the philosopher has an objective and knows the probable outcome of propagating his or her thought. conversely, the philosopher acts and when his or her action begins to have effect, the philosopher begins to interpret the phenomenon by forming a concept. in the former, the philosopher is active while in the latter, the philosopher could be said to be passive. besides, the active or passive nature of the role of the philosopher may also raise curious question like: what is the possibility of separating the “spectator from the actor”? in other words, what is the possibility of separating the philosopher who inspires or instigates revolution from those who actually lead the revolution? here, the philosopher who only inspires revolution is said to be passive and takes the sense of a spectator and the one who actually inspires and leads revolution is said to be active and has the quality of an actor. these are extreme positions. while it appears easy to make this distinction between “philosopher-spectator” and “philosopher-actor,” it is important to find out under what context the philosopher-spectator could be said to be “active”. perhaps, it is better to evaluate the historical context of each revolution in order to arrive at a moderate interpretation concerning the philosopher's commitment, either emotionally or intellectually to the cause of revolution. this consists in affirming that revolution “is self-referential, or enjoys a self-positioning that can be apprehended in an immanent enthusiasm” (deleuze &guattari, 1942, 97). that is to say, it may not be connected to any specific experience in the life of the people who are eager to have a change. however, the above way of thinking does not sufficiently explain why people agitate for replacement in government or change in the system of doing things. in his comments on kant's work conflict of faculties, foucault (2015, 22) explained that the author seems to support the fact that the philosopher is involved in revolution. this is because by asking the question: “what is revolution?” the author introduces new form of historic-philosophical questioning of the sense of that which also affects him. moreover, if truly the philosopher is actively involved in any revolution, it means that “the people is interior to the thinker because it is a “becoming-people”” (deleuze & guattari, 1942, 105). in other words, the philosophers awaken the consciousness of the people to the live-experience which is threatening and which is not dignifying. the philosopher speaks, writes, educates and “incites” people to do something for themselves and for the generation to come. this is because he is enlightened and able to foresee an unimaginable amount of suffering which could beset the people. his effort is limited at doing this because he feels he is “incapable of creating a people” (deleuze &guattari, 1942, 105). besides, the philosopher is intimately involved in revolution, either at the theoretical level by inspiring it or at the practical level by leading it. just like it is difficult to disassociate theory from practice so it is between the philosopher and revolution. in other words, “it is not even possible to draw a clean demarcation between 'doing' and 'thinking,' (king, 2001, 66). practically, the philosopher realizes what he could not accomplish alone by inspiring the crowd to revolt, demonstrate, and reclaim a better condition of living. but theoretically, he uses his tools, paper and pen, to elaborate how people should not be 49 the philosopher and revolutionary attempts in nigeria aloysius uchechukwu onah content with the actual state of existence (king, 2001, 66). from the foregoing line of thought, it is possible to deduce that there is a double force that could trigger revolution. at the conceptual level, the philosopher comes down to the level of the none philosopher in order to make the latter reflect like him, see things like him and reason like him. afterwards, the people develop enthusiasm to bring about a new society with new mindset. perhaps, this is the result of a combined effort of the philosopher and the people. sometimes the active role of the philosopher is perceptible and at other times it is not perceived. what the philosopher and the people who have resolved to overturn a bad system “have in common is resistance: resistance to death, to servitude, to the intolerable, to shame, to the present” (deleuze &guattari, 1942, 105). but what has been the experience in nigeria? revolutionary attempts in nigeria there are three perspectives to understanding the revolutionary attempts in nigeria. the first makes allusion to the struggle for independence, the second has to do with the various coups d'etat after nigeria's independence and the third is linked to the cohesion of the citizenry. i shall describe each of the above attempts to transform nigeria into a beautiful society with a view to pointing out the desire to realize a fundamental change which will impact positively in the life of people. the first perspective could be situated before the independence of nigeria. nationalists such as nnamdi benjamin azikiwe, abubakar tafawa balewa, ahmadu ibrahim bello, chief margaret ekpo, chief obafemi awolowo, chief anthony eromosele enahoro, chief frederick rotimi alade williams, eyo ita, mallam aminu kano, etc are the heroes of the struggle for nigeria's independence/pioneer political, professional and business leaders (the guardian, 2020). it should be noted that the nationalists' struggle for the independence of africa in general, and nigeria in particular is characterized by intellectual production on different themes. they spread nationalist consciousness, national self-determination; they sought to create an egalitarian society, to defend african culture and the decolonization of africa. the significance of the change at that time in the history of nigeria was to achieve selfgovernance and the unity of nigerians. while it is true “that all revolutions are more or less progressive or emancipative” (minkkinen, 2009, 15), that of the first republic in nigeria (1963-1966) was regressive and constituted other forms of slavery. this is evident in the formation of political parties along ethnic and tribal sentiment (regional politics); falsification of census results (olayiwola, 1991, 36) and the attribution of the ownership and media broadcasts with ethnic, tribal and regional status (olayiwola, 1991, 36). it created rivalry, feeling of domination by the ruling party, mistrust and the aftermaths were the civil war and several coups d'etat which wrecked the country and plunged the citizens into misery. although the ambition of the nationalists was great but the ability to sustain it was disrupted by coups and counter-coups d'etat. the second perspective of revolutionary attempt in nigeria is marked by coups and counter coups d'etat. this is not surprising because “there can be counter-revolutions within revolutionary process” (minkkinen, 2009, 16). this point of view can be situated 50 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december after nigeria's independence (between 1966-1984). for instance, nigeria experience “three coups d'etat, the assassinations of two heads of state, and one civil war that claimed a million lives” (lamb, 1983, 301). the coups had the objective either of sanitizing corruption and embezzlement of public funds or to succeed in the areas where the civilian or previous government had failed. the statements issued after the successful take over by coup d'etat made promises that they “will no longer be ashamed to be nigerians” (nyang'oro, 1993,140). the declarations were full of ideas to make nigeria regain her lost glory; they were intelligible remarks which solicited the citizens to obedient followership in order to justify reason for overthrowing previous government. nevertheless, the revolutionary experiences at this time in the history of nigeria could be described as marked by “neo-liberal and anti-social economic policies, in combination with undemocratic rule and the repression of especially the leftist opposition” (minkkinen, 2009, 16). in reality, “the counter coup against general gowon in 1975 had been justified in part by elements in the military who argued that gowon was about to renege on a promise of a return to civilian rule” (nyang'oro, 1993, 130). besides, a close examination of the various coups d'etat in nigeria is best described as “officer coups”. according to nyang'oro (1993, 133), “officer coups are systemic in nature, that is, they reflect cleavages (class, ethnicity, nationality, regional, etc) in society”. again, this perspective of revolutionary attempt failed because the various heads of state imposed themselves on the people against their consent. for instance, the first coup which produced majorgeneral johnson thomas umunnakwe aguiyi-ironsi as the nigeria's first military head of state. it could be said that the military were incompetent in administration, wasteful and abandoned agricultural based economy. being a democratic state, nigeria is governed by the principle of majority carries the vote. however, where democratic principles are not respected and the rule of law is relegated to the background, the people who are supposed to be beneficiaries of the dividend of this form of government will be forced to revolt. the people could justify their collective action using democratic means such as impeachment. this means that military interruption of democratic regime is a kind of revolutionary activity that damages a group of people with an explicit purpose and written rules. the third perspective to the revolutionary attempt in nigeria can best be described along the line of thought of deleuze &guattari (1942) as the willingness to achieve “deterritorialisation”. in this work, the term “deterritorialisation” means the ability of people to recognize their common humanity and to join force in order to fight a common enemy. the people (nigerians) do not look at their individual characteristics such as tribes, religion or ethnic group. their sole objective in the common struggle is to obtain a dignified condition of living for everyone. it is the determination to live together without discrimination. “deterritorialisation” is an assiduous effort to live in the same territory with people from the southern part of nigeria or northern part of nigeria. in this case, it is a persistent activity to realize, in the words of nnamdi azikiwe “one nigeria”. nigerians have made several efforts to live together, to appreciate the humanity of fellow citizen, especially when they became aware that the politicians are the ones inciting them to discriminate and victimize others along ethnic, tribal and religious difference. efforts 51 the philosopher and revolutionary attempts in nigeria aloysius uchechukwu onah in this direction were manifested in the 1993 general elections and 2023 general elections. however, in the former, the results of the general elections were annulled by the military president ibrahim babangida (okorie, 2021, 27) while in the latter, the results are still being contested by major opposition leaders like peter gregory obi and atiku abubakar in the presidential election petition tribunal (pept) in abuja (the cable, 2023). the coming together of nigerians, irrespective of their individual characteristics to express their franchise could only be made possible through the expertise of philosophers – they help the citizens (through debates, analysis and discussions) to be radically conscious of the deplorable condition of living or in extreme case, to inspire the process of the “transevaluation of values”. the intervention of philosophers in this context would be described as “reterritorialization”. by reterritorialization, i mean the conceptual work through which philosophers gather people together in order to fight a just cause. it consists in making recommendations, suggestions and proposals to find solutions to the problem confronting humanity. concretely, reterritorialization inspires everyone, irrespective of cultural background or political affiliation to come together in a designated “space” in order to make it sane. this is the ultimate goal of every revolution or political movement – peaceful co-existence of human beings, equal right and dignity of every human being. conclusion it is evident from this work that revolutions have taken place in the history of human society. even though this article did not give the details of each revolution, the motivations for any revolution remains the desire for a better society, an improved living condition for human beings and the aspiration for an effective system of administration. the implication of philosophers in any revolution reveals that they are part of the human society; their commitment to building a social order where everyone can find his or her place obliges them to educate the people about the need for change. their loyalty to the nation requires that the procedure should be non violent. the philosophers are neither passive nor spectators to what is happening in the society. even if the spark off of revolution could be attributed to philosophers, it is however difficult to control the enthusiasm and the passion of people who are determined to come out of undignified condition of living. when the people succeed in gaining back their self-respect, the revolution is victorious; but their failure to overturn the cause of their misfortune means the revolution did not succeed. in the case of nigeria, three revolutionary perspectives were identified. they were attempts to change the way of things as opposed to what they thought and felt it should be. the existing states of affairs were: the fight for independence, the objectives of various military interventions in the process of government and the effort to express their quality of being benevolent. the procedure of achieving this begins with the philosopher in what i call “reterritorialisation” and the space for experiencing our humanity is what i called “deterritorialisation”. this approach of discussing revolutionary attempts in nigeria reveals that philosophers have their role to play in changing the order of things or systems that are unfavorable, adverse and detrimental to 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(2021). covid-19 and the metamorphosis of culture: voluntary or 53 the philosopher and revolutionary attempts in nigeria aloysius uchechukwu onah involuntary? political and philosophical presupposition. in i. a. kanu, e j. o. ndubisi & c c. kanu (eds.), the socio-religious dynamics of covid-19 p a n d e m i c in africa. proceedings of the international conference of the association for the promotion of african studies on the impact of covid-19 on africa and the quest for afrocentric perspectives 17th september, 2020 (pp. 299-318). revolution. (2023). in merriam-webster's online dictionary. retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/revolution. (accessed july 22, 2023). the cable. (2023). in full: meet the judges of presidential election petition tribunal, retrieve from https://www.thecable.ng/in-full-meet-the-judges-of-presidentialelection-petition-tribunal. (accessed july 23, 2023). the guardian. (2020). heroes of the struggle for nigeria's independence/pioneer political , p ro f e s s i o n a l a n d b u s i n e s s l e a d e r s . r e t r i e v e d f r o m https://guardian.ng/opinion/heroes-of-the-struggle-for-nigerias-independencepioneer-political. (accessed july 23, 2023). united nations (2016). the new digital revolution: from the consumer internet to the industrial internet. santiago: author. 54 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 53 page 54 page 55 page 56 page 57 page 58 page 59 page 60 page 61 page 62 aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr on the compatibility of internet fraud with money ritual in the double acts of immorality in chacherism laleye solomon akinyemi, ph.d department of philosophy adekunleajasin university, akungba-akoko, ondo state, nigeria laleyesolomon@gmail.com solomon.laleye@aaua.edu.ng abstract contemporary human society faces numerous threats to peaceful coexistence, suggesting the vulnerability and possible extinction of the human species. in africa, particularly in nigeria, these threats manifest in many ways. more alarming is the rise of ritual murder as complement to internet fraud, which has heightened insecurity in modern-day nigeria. extensive research has been conducted on internet fraud (yahoo! yahoo!!), but there is a scarcity of comprehensive analysis on its more advanced form, euphemistically referred to as cybercrime (yahoo plus).the few existing studies on this lack systematic exploration of the distinction between traditional internet fraud (yahoo! yahoo!!) and its advanced counterpart (yahoo plus), as well as the association of these crimes with ritual murder for money (yahoo plus plus). this paper examines internet fraud as an act of contractual defection involving the manipulation of unsuspecting victims' psychological states. it differentiates between two types of money rituals that characterize advanced cybercrime. the paper argues that while internet fraud (yahoo! yahoo!!) and advanced cybercrime (yahoo plus) share similar processes and methodologies, they should not be categorized alongside cultic ritual murder for money (yahoo plus plus), which is considered a form of chacherism—the umbrella term for all illicit acts in cyberspace. the paper contends that internet fraud and advanced cybercrime are separate from the heinous act of ritual murder for money. it concludes that they undermine moral contractualism, violate the will and consent of their victims, and threaten the moral infrastructure of society. this analysis employs critical, descriptive, and prescriptive approaches. keywords: advanced cybercrime, money ritual, fraud, moral contractualism, chacherism. introduction the advent of technological advancements in internet connectivity has bifurcated contemporary human society into two intertwined worlds: the analogue and the digital. research shows that the number of internet users has surged, growing from approximately 4.4 million in 2000 to 3.4 billion by 2016 (usman & abdulkadir, 2019, 12). by january 2023, 122.5 million nigerians were active internet users, with that number expected to rise alongside global internet usage, which is projected to reach 5.35 billion by january 2024 (petrosyan, 2024). in this digital age, computer literacy has become a vital skill, and those educated in the pre-internet world are often seen as semi-literate unless they have adapted to the new digital landscape. the digital world has removed the barriers of distance, culture, and language that once impeded effective communication and legitimate transactions. however, despite its many advantages, the cyberspace has also become a breeding ground for illicit and unethical behaviours, generally known as cybercrime. cybercrime includes activities such as hacking, phishing, and identity theft, among others, like trading hacked social media accounts, romance scams, and high-yield investment frauds (maitanmi & ayinde, 2013: 45-51). 23 with approximately 39.6% of africa's internet users being nigerians (hassan, lass & makinde, 2012, 629), many of whom are tech-savvy youths, the country's cyberspace has seen a proliferation of cybercriminals, particularly students, school dropouts, and the unemployed. driven by the promise of quick financial returns, these criminals often referred to as “yahoo boys,” target citizens in europe and america, straining international relations and casting doubt on legitimate economic transactions originating from africa. unfortunately, africans, including nigerians, are not exempt from being victimized by these fraudsters. several factors predispose individuals to cybercrime. they include youth unemployment, greed, peer recognition, and a desire for quick economic success. negative parental influence and the profligate lifestyles of public figures, particularly politicians, also contribute to this problem. additionally, deep-seated socio-economic inequalities and a belief in reparation for africa's colonial exploitation play a role. recently, a growing belief in the use of magical practices to attract wealth has led to the perception that certain indigenous practices are linked to cybercrime. this association has fuelled the evolution of internet fraud from basic scams (yahoo! yahoo!!) to more advanced forms (yahoo plus) and even ritual murder for money (yahoo plus plus), all considered forms of chacherism. while 'yahoo! yahoo!!' refers to internet fraud in general, 'yahoo plus' signifies internet fraud enhanced by traditional medicine to manipulate victims. however, the connection between cybercrime and ritual murder for money remains controversial, as this paper seeks to explore. the cyber world, the natural world, and contractual defection contemporary society is divided into two interconnected worlds: the cyberspace created by the internet, and the residual analogue world inhabited by non-computer literates. the analogue world traditionally isolated societies due to factors such as geographical distance, speed, language, culture, and religion, which acted as barriers to free trade and intergroup relations. in contrast, the digital world has facilitated easier interactions and transactions, leading to a parallel form of life that coexists with the pre-internet world. the digital revolution, driven by computers and internet connectivity, has transformed nearly every aspect of human life, including thought processes and behaviour (barbour, 1993, 147). it has effectively erased the “tyrannies of space, boundaries, and citizenship” that once defined preinternet societies (omazu, 2013, 145). with the rise of computers and the web, activities such as banking, commerce, knowledge acquisition, and socialization have become faster and more efficient. however, these opportunities have also been exploited by internet fraudsters, who undermine privacy, autonomy, and security by hacking into the digital devices of others. hacking, in this context, refers to the malicious infiltration of digital systems, distinct from ethical hacking, which is performed with consent to test system vulnerabilities. ethical hacking, when done correctly, helps secure cyberspace, as hackers are hired to assess weaknesses and recommend remedies. both ethical hackers and cybercriminals, however, possess the same technical skills, but the moral use of these skills determines their intent. cybercrime has caused immeasurable damage to victims' economic, social, and political lives. the results include broken homes, deaths, loss of investments and savings, and the collapse of businesses. as noted by makinde (2014, 494), technology—its benefits notwithstanding—also brings “insecurity, exploitation, and the potential to destroy societies.” in nigeria, these internet 24 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 fraudsters (popularly known as “yahoo boys”) lure victims into fake business transactions through fraudulent emails, leading to financial losses that can reach millions. in other cases, they deceive victims into believing they have received payment for goods or services through fake electronic transfers, creating temporary credit alerts on cell phones but not in actual bank records. romance scams are also common, where fraudsters exploit vulnerable individuals seeking companionship, especially wealthy women, and defraud them as the relationship progresses. at the heart of these scams is contractual defection—a form of manipulation where the fraudster violates the trust and agreement between the two parties. victims are often made to believe in the legitimacy of the transaction and willingly participate, only to be deceived. contractual defection, therefore, involves a premeditated betrayal of trust, as one party in the agreement knowingly intends to default on their obligations from the outset. this behaviour is morally unjustifiable, as it violates the ethical foundations of trust, honesty, and truthfulness, which are necessary for social contracts. contractual defection is not unique to internet fraud. it is pervasive in nigerian socio-political relations, where politicians deceive the electorate with false promises, religious leaders exploit their congregations, and contractors engage in corrupt practices, thereby undermining the common good. in all these cases, there is a breach of moral and contractual obligations. victims willingly enter agreements, only to be betrayed by those who never intended to fulfil their part of the bargain. given the increasing prevalence of internet fraud and the significant losses it incurs, legal and institutional frameworks have been established at national and international levels to combat cybercrime. these measures include efforts to detect, investigate, prosecute, and sanction cybercriminals. however, as these fraudsters face growing challenges, they adapt and seek alternative, more sophisticated methods of wealth generation. this need for diversification led to the emergence of advanced cybercrime, also known as yahoo plus. in the context of advanced cybercrime, cyberspace becomes a business arena where different belief systems converge. for some nigerian fraudsters, particularly those in the yoruba cultural setting, traditional beliefs surrounding wealth creation play a central role. aje, the goddess of wealth in yoruba religion, embodies the principles of economic prosperity and success. this belief system integrates the spiritual and material realms, suggesting that both physical and metaphysical elements contribute to wealth creation. this integration of traditional yoruba beliefs into cyberspace activities blurs the lines between simple internet fraud and more sophisticated cybercrimes. while basic internet fraud is characterized by psychological manipulation, advanced cybercrime involves the incorporation of traditional rituals and medicine, believed to enhance success in scams. this interplay of technology and african spirituality raises critical questions about the nature of wealth, morality, and the ethical implications of these practices. african culture, ethics, and the role of rituals african culture is often recognized for its shared values, such as respect for authority, moral integrity, and communalism which distinguish it from other cultures. as idang notes, “african culture is defined by the religion, aesthetics, and moral values that unite its people” (2015, 97111). although there is diversity within africa, certain cultural similarities—expressed through folklore, proverbs, and religious practices—create a unique identity for the continent. for instance, the south africans' social philosophy of culture called ubuntu, botho and huntu; the yoruba humanist ethic of omoluwabi; the tanzanian and ugandan's obuntu; and the hausa 25 laleye solomon akinyemi on the compatibility of internet fraud with money ritual... human dignity of mutumikir'ki, amana and mutumchi among others, exemplify african's unique capacity to express compassion, consensus, care, solidarity and respect for humanity. again, human life was generally respected and perceived to be sacred, consequently, murder or suicide were largely detested and accumulation of wealth, at the expense of others was detested and regarded as antisocial (makinde, 2014, 500). this and other components of african social philosophy of culture is rightly captured by j. s. mbiti in his famous description of the mutual and cordial relationship that personified the interdependence of the individual and the society or, the self and others as, “i am because we are, since we are therefore, i am” (mbiti, 1970, 141). one core aspect of the african worldview is the interconnectedness of the physical and spiritual realms. according to african cosmology, reality consists of an intricate relationship between the divine, ancestors, and humans. spiritual entities, such as gods and ancestors, play a vital role in the lives of individuals, often determining their success or failure. as such, these spiritual entities are revered, and their favour is sought through rituals and sacrifices. the concept of “life force” is central to this belief, as it is believed that success is directly related to the strength of one's life force, which can be enhanced through rituals. african culture has undergone significant changes due to colonization, globalization, and modernization. however, many traditional practices, including rituals aimed at securing wealth, have persisted. in yoruba culture, for example, wealth and prosperity are overseen by aje, the goddess of wealth. business owners often invoke aje's blessings through rituals, which are believed to attract luck and success in commercial ventures. this belief system underpins the practices of many internet fraudsters, who integrate traditional rituals into their cybercriminal activities to enhance their success. the use of traditional rituals for monetary gain can be divided into three categories: (1) culturally pragmatic rituals, which are seen as harmless and aim to enhance business success; (2) mystical rituals, which involve the use of traditional medicine to manipulate victims into compliance; and (3) ritual murder for money, a heinous crime that involves killing individuals for their body parts, believed to bring wealth. while the first two practices have cultural roots, the third is widely condemned as a perversion of african traditions. the taxonomy of cultural practices involving reverence, veneration, or propitiation in african societies can be divided into sacrifices and rituals. in these practices, the supreme being, divinities, or ancestors are believed to possess the power to remedy human inadequacies. while some sacrifices may endanger certain animals, they rarely involve humans. however, rituals are broad and can take many forms. for instance, visiting a friend every weekend, strict adherence to religious obligations, or offering prayers for divine protection are all examples of non-harmful rituals. historically, life-threatening rituals did occur in pre-colonial africa, such as in swaziland, where human killings were carried out to increase agricultural yield or enhance political status (evans, 1993, 27). in certain cases, human sacrifices were made to protect kings or chiefs, seen as vital acts to preserve the whole society (de jong, 2015, 9-26). for instance, the yoruba of southwestern nigeria practiced the ritual of burying the king's horseman, abobaku, with the king. however, such practices have largely faded with the advent of modern religion, democracy, and western influence. it is saddening to observe that today, ritual killings are being reintroduced, particularly among youths, as a means to achieve quick wealth, often in conjunction with internet fraud. this reemergence of ritual murder for money has heightened the insecurity of vulnerable populations, especially women, children, the elderly, and those with disabilities (malomo, 2004, 10). 26 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 to properly understand advanced cybercrime within the african context, it is essential to differentiate between three types of money rituals: (1) culturally pragmatic means of money rituals, (2) mystical money rituals, and (3) ritual murder for money. the first type involves nonlethal rituals that enhance business success by attracting love, luck, and patronage. in yoruba culture, for instance, rituals such as aajo, awure, and aworo are employed to boost financial gains. these rituals draw their power from aje, the yoruba goddess of wealth, who presides over commerce and prosperity. in yoruba tradition, aje is synonymous with wealth and success, and monday (ojo aje) is considered the day dedicated to wealth generation. business owners seek aje's blessings to ensure favourable outcomes in their ventures. these practices are integrated into advanced cybercrime, where fraudsters attempt to manipulate the spiritual world to enhance their scams. although the underlying business activity—internet fraud—is morally wrong, aje is primarily concerned with blessing a person's work, which fraudsters misinterpret as a means to justify their actions. aje's virtue is extolled by the yoruba thus (kalejaiye, 2011): ajearinginiginiw'oja (aje the spirit that surreptitiously enters into market) this praise is accompanied with prayers for business owners that; aje a wo'gba (may profit enters into your business) the yoruba also praise and espouse the prowess of aje in commerce thus; ajeolokun( aje the owner of the sea) oguguluso (one who has multiple shelter) ajeonisobooji (aje you are the one who people seek solace under her shield or tent) asewedagba (the one who promotes the younger to the position of elder) asagbadewe (you make old looks younger) enitieruatiomo n fi ojojumowakiri. (the one being sort on daily basis both by slave and master). for a person to reap the benefits accruable from aje, such a person must propitiate or venerate her and, she in turn would provide the necessary guide by prescribing the type of business to invest in, the location of business premises and, bestow blessings of wealth on the person's business venture if a choice had already been made before her consultation. in other words, access to wealth is through the combination of physical and spiritual elements. this is one of the ritual practices engaged in by internet fraudsters. even though, the underlying business activity (internet fraud) is morally wrong, aje is mainly concerned with granting the request of blessings on a person's handiwork. this is why chief yemi elebuibon, oluwo jogodo orunmila and kareem adeyemi argue that aajo, oshole, awure and aworodo not only facilitate patronage for clients but they also attract relatively undeserved favour from authorities and individuals. according to chief yemi elebuibon, aajo, awure, aworo and oshole are not immoral acts in yoruba worldview because they do not inflict harm on others, they are simply means by which the rate of turnover in business can be enhanced through increased patronage which ceteris paribus would translate to increased profit margin and money (oral interwiew, 2022). the position of this eminent traditionalist is correct because prayer or ritual that is not injurious to potential clients often precedes all most forms of business. hardly would any human person venture into any business activity with the intention to make money without one form of 27 laleye solomon akinyemi on the compatibility of internet fraud with money ritual... prayer/ritual or the other. the claim to the efficacy of this means could be controversial because one of the realities most western scholars have not come to terms with is the co-existence of the world of science and technology with the metaphysical world of forces where culturally pragmatic means function within a social frame of reference that embodies the social and cultural assumptions of the people. yoruba society personifies this social frame of reference because the internal scheme that defines its cosmological worldview and the efficacy of aje's blessings are compatible. the worldview of the yoruba and by extension africa recognizes the roles that culturally inclined ritual can play in the economic, social and political existence of the people; the efficacy of this typology of ritual to the africans is not in doubt. it is true that the scientific worldview that prides observable elements is more likely to be opposed to a worldview that prides non-observable elements. hence, the scientists and eurocentric scholars would adjudge and define culturally inclined ritual as irrational and illogical thought as corroborated by sax (2010, 6) who maintains that “we call actions rituals when we do not understand the relation between means and ends, when they do not match our context of rationality, when they do not correspond to our criteria of efficacy.” nevertheless, this does not deny its pragmatism as a belief system. mystical means of money rituals the second type of money ritual, the mystical variant, combines traditional medicine with spiritual rituals. although not originally intended for monetary gain, these traditional practices are manipulated by internet fraudsters to coerce victims into financial agreements. this variant of advanced cybercrime, which incorporates rituals such as ase (supernatural command), afose (irresistible order), oruka ere (charmed ring), and oofo (incantations), is designed to force victims into compliance. through diabolical means, fraudsters attempt to manipulate the psyche of their victims, often using their photos, effigies or personal items as a point of contact. in some other instance, “over a bucket or pool of water the name of the intended victim is called, and the image of such person would appear upon the water surface, he or she is therefore simulated” (onongha, 2022, 122). these rituals, though originally meant for defensive or protective purposes in yoruba culture, are repurposed for malicious financial gain. it is important to say that those involve in the redirection of this ritual risk punishment from the gods in the form of insanity, untimely death or incurable sickness. this manipulation of traditional medicine leads to the misconception that african culture supports internet fraud. however, the mere fact that some aspects of african tradition are exploited does not imply that african culture itself endorses such behaviour. it is important to distinguish between the cultural roots of these rituals and the criminal acts of fraudsters who misuse them. the fact that armed robbery is a common phenomenon in the dark does not translate into darkness being the cause of armed robbery. while darkness may technically help armed robbers to carry out their nefarious acts, it is not darkness that causes armed robbery. in the same vein, the fact that science and technology provides the wherewithal for the manufacturing of weapons of mass destruction such as atomic bombs and missiles never justifies their irrational use. therefore, the claim that since some aspects of african culture are negatively appropriated for some illicit activity on the internet does not imply that african culture is holistically guilty. this is more so, when africans detest the immoral behaviour of deprivation of others of their belongings. 28 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 the modus operandi as two sides of the coin the modus operandi of internet fraud differs significantly between simple scams and advanced cybercrime involving mystical rituals. in cases of simple fraud, the victim is often a prey due to ignorance, greed, or psychological manipulation. however, in advanced cybercrime, fraudsters use metaphysical forces to influence their victims in extraordinary ways. despite efforts to raise awareness and prevent these scams, victims of cybercrime continue to increase, suggesting the potent impact of the mystical forces used in advanced fraud. although simple internet fraud and advanced cybercrime are mutually inclusive in terms of methodology—since both involve the manipulation of victims—advanced cybercrime stands apart due to its reliance on spiritual manipulation. while some scholars view both crimes as identical, they are, in reality, two sides of the same coin, differentiated by the use of metaphysical forces in advanced cybercrime. while there are reservations about the effectiveness of mystical money rituals due to their lack of scientific explanation, within the african worldview, the causal connection between events is often metaphysical rather than empirical. the potency of traditional rituals, even when repurposed for internet fraud, is accepted within african belief systems, which may not align with eurocentric views of rationality and cause-effect relationships. however, it is important to note that even within african traditions, the efficacy of traditional medicine depends on the destiny of the individual involved and the psychological state of the person using the ritual. the belief that traditional medicine works only if the user has faith in it emphasizes the importance of mindset in determining the success of the ritual. if a fraudster believes in the power of traditional rituals, it may work for them; if not, the ritual is unlikely to have any effect. ritual murder for money in stark contrast to the culturally pragmatic and mystical means of money rituals is ritual murder for money, a heinous practice where individuals are killed for their body or body parts, believed to attract wealth. this form of ritual is distinct from advanced cybercrime and is primarily driven by occult beliefs. in contemporary nigeria, ritual murder for money is often disguised as internet fraud to avoid detection, but it has no real connection to cyberspace activities. ritual murder for money involves both the perpetrators (often young people posing as yahoo boys) and their collaborators, such as voodoo practitioners, traditional healers, or even some religious clerics. these actors collaborate to murder victims and harvest body parts, believing that such acts will result in financial gain. news reports frequently detail gruesome cases of eyes, hearts, genitalia, and other body parts being removed from victims, further intensifying the fear and insecurity in nigerian society. the preponderances of ritual murder in contemporary nigeria have continually drifted the society toward the hobessian state of nature where life is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. occult practices surrounding ritual murder for money often specify particular victims (e.g., twins, pregnant women) or body parts to be harvested (murray & sanders, 2005, 223-225). items such as hair, nails, or clothing associated with the victim are believed to establish a connection between the victim and the ritual. these practices, though widespread, are widely condemned as irrational and unfounded. rational thinkers consistently question the efficacy of ritual murder for money, as there is no empirical evidence to support the claim that such acts result in wealth. the important questions that arise from these occult practices are: where does the money come 29 laleye solomon akinyemi on the compatibility of internet fraud with money ritual... from? why is the money always in paper form, and why are stronger currencies like us dollars or british pounds not produced? most significantly, if these rituals work, why are the voodoo practitioners themselves not wealthy? these questions expose the irrationality and moral bankruptcy of ritual murder for money, which has no basis in reality. conclusion this paper has examined internet fraud as a serious threat to human security in contemporary nigerian society. it distinguishes between simple internet fraud, advanced cybercrime, and ritual murder for money, arguing that although all are immoral acts, they represent distinct types of illicit behaviour. while advanced cybercrime involves the manipulation of african spiritual beliefs and traditional medicine, it remains separate from the more violent and occult-driven act of ritual murder for money. both forms of cybercrime and ritual murder pose significant threats to the moral infrastructure of nigerian society. however, they remain mutually exclusive in their methods and motivations, despite sharing common threats to the moral and social fabric of the country. references barbour, i. g. (1993). ethics in an age of technology. harper and row. de jong, w. (2015). “makhosi a via (chiefs commit ritual murder): why ritual murder in south africa should be seen as meaningful violence.” afrika focus 28 (2), 9-26. evans, j. (1993). “where can we get a beast without hair? medicine murder in swaziland from 1970 to 1988.” african studies 52(1), 27-42. hassan, a. b., lass, f. d., & makinde, j. (2012). cybercrime in nigeria: causes, effects and the way out.” arpn journal of science and technology 2 (7), 626 – 631. idang, g. e. (2015). “african culture and values.” phronimon 16 (2), 97-11. kalejaiye, d. (2011). “understanding wealth creation through the concept of yoruba traditional religion.” speech delivered at the olokun festival, at the monarch of rdonigbongbo palace square, ikeja, lagos. 3 may 2011. maitanmi, o., & ayinde, s. (2013). “impact of cyber crimes on nigerian economy.” ijes: the international journal of engineering and science 2 (4), 45-51. makinde, m. (2014). logico-philosophical studies. obafemiawolowo university press. malomo, d. (2004). “ritualists hunt male children.” saturday sun newspaper, july 3. mbiti, j. s. (1970) african religions and philosophy. heinemann. murray, c. & sanders, p. (2005) medicine murder in colonial lesotho: the anatomy of a moral crisis. edingburgh university press. omazu, i. e. (2013). “the quest for african identity in the current world order: insights from osigwe anyiam-osigwe.” in a holistic approach to human existence and development. eds. kolawole a. olu-owolabi adebola b. ekanola. hope publications. onongha, k. (2022). “beliefs and practices of magic.” in the palgrave handbook of african traditional religion. eds. ibigbolade s. aderibigbe & toyin falola. palmgrave macmillan. 30 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 pagnotta, s. (2017). what motivates some young people to become cybercriminals? http://welivesecurity.com2017/05/03motivates-young-becomecybercriminals/ may, 2017. retrieved june 23, 2023. petrosyan, a. (2024). statista research. www.statista.com usman, y. & abdulkadir, j. (2019). “appraisal of an expanding global internet-related crime: the case of cybercrime in nigeria.” journal of computing and management studies 3(1), 12. sax, w. (2010). “ritual and the problem of efficacy.” in the problem of ritual efficacy. eds. william sax, james quack and jan weinhold. oxford university press. 31 laleye solomon akinyemi on the compatibility of internet fraud with money ritual... http://welivesecurity.com2017/05/03motivates-young-becomecybercriminals/ http://www.statista.com aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr napep: a tri-causal explanation of why it failed anas elochukwu the confucius institute, nnamdiazikiwe university, akwa. abstract national poverty eradication programme (napep)—the flagship of nigeria's efforts to realize the un's millennium development goal on extreme poverty and hunger—coordinated federal government-funded poverty reduction projects from 2001 to 2014.it replaced poverty alleviation programme (pap) which had been created in 2000.the appellative shift from “poverty alleviation” to “poverty eradication” must have created an illusion of renewed determination to reduce the country's hunger and poverty statistics. napep was generously funded; still it failed to be recognizably different from its predecessors. in fact, the number of nigerians who slipped into poverty during its years increased rather than decreased. the paper discusses the three main reasons for the failure, namely broad-based approach (universalism), state capture (corruption) and beneficiary exclusion. its goal is to problematize poverty reduction efforts in developing countries. keywords: national poverty eradication programme (napep), nigeria, poverty alleviation programme (pap), broad-based approach (universalism), state capture (corruption), beneficiary exclusion. introduction poverty is one of the challenges mankind has been grappling with since creation. modern man has surpassed the achievements of the preceding generations, turning deserts into luxuriant farmlands, contracting distance, bridging seas and tunnelling mountains, cloning animals, increasing life expectancy, turning oceans, space and the polar regions into research fields, curing or retarding hitherto incurable ailments, etc. he, however, has been unable to eradicate poverty. poverty inheres in inhuman existence. it has dogged man since the dawn of time. the bible declared many thousand years ago in the following verse that it is a concomitant of human existence: “there will always be poor people in the land” (deuteronomy15 :11). povertyis one of the fundamental challenges of contemporary world. stories about its havoc in africa, latin america and asia saturate information channels. according to lerman, “today, we live with more awareness and concern about global poverty than at any time in our world's history. more than ever, people can see or read about swollen stomachs of hungry african children, 11 year-old asian children working in sweatshops, and haitian families living in mud huts without medical care, electricity, or clean water. at the same time, many of the richest people are global celebrities. poverty can no longer be kept secret and neither can prodigious wealth” (2002). it is a recurrent theme in development discourse. it is also a trigger for street protest, a priority on legislative agenda, a motivation for philanthropy, a subject of exhortation and denunciation in a diversity of religions, etc. st the united nations entered 21 century,brandishinga two-phase agenda to eradicate poverty and hunger during the first thirty years of the century. the first stage, launched in 2000, sought to 166 halve both the number of people living on less than $1.25 a day and the number of people suffering from hunger by 2015. the second stage, launched in 2015, seeks to end poverty and hunger by 2030. despite all the resources it sank into napep, the flagship of its poverty reduction efforts during the fifteen years of the un's millennium development goals, nigeria was among the african and asian countries that were unable to halve their poverty statistics by 2015. t h i s paper discusses three of the factors that thwarted napep, namely broad-based approach, state capture (corruption), and the marginalization of intended beneficiaries in the formulation and implementation of projects. poverty in nigeria has been onexpansion modesince the country became independent of british rule in 1960. the statistical increase is due to a diversity of factors. one of the factors is the failure of founding leaders to change the orientation of the economy they inherited from the british: “at independence, nigeria, like most african countries, followed the line of least resistance and largely continued colonies policies. in agriculture this meant the promotion of selected export crops such as cocoa, groundnuts, and palm produce” (ake, 1996). nigeria is an interesting case study in“the paradox of plenty”. its landscape is one vast ocean of poverty dotted with is lets of affluence. because the mass of its citizenry lives below breadline despite the generosity of its natural resources, it has been described as “a prime example of the curse that natural resources can bring” (mahler, 2010). its alarmingly high poverty rate mocks its ranking as africa's largest economy and a major oil producer. 70% of its citizenry live on less than $1.25 a day (world bank, 2014a). there are three obvious facts about its poverty. firstly, as the following tables indicate, the proportion of the citizenry sliding into poverty has been increasing rather than decreasing. table 1: nigeria's poverty, 1980-2010 (world bank, 2014a) table 2: nigeria's urban and rural poverty rates, 1980-2010 (world bank, 2014a) year total national population (millions) % of poverty 1980 65.0 28.1 1985 75.0 46.3 1992 91.5 42.7 1996 102.5 65.6 2004 126.3 54.4 2010 163.0 69.0 year urban rural 1980 17.2 28.3 1985 37.8 51.4 1992 37.5 46.0 1996 58.2 69.8 2004 43.2 63.3 2010 61.8 73.2 167 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 secondly, its poverty geography indicates that 66% of the poor live in the northern part of the country(world bank, 2014). it is ironic that decades of northern domination of national politics have failed to reduce poverty in the north. thirdly, there are more poor people in the rural areas than there are in the cities (world bank, 2014a). poverty reduction programmes the following are nigeria's major poverty reduction programmes since its independence in 1960:river basin development authorities (rbdas), national accelerated food production programme (nafpp), agricultural development programmes (adps), operation feed the nation (ofn), green revolution, directorate for food, roads and rural infrastructure(dfrri), national directorate of employment (nde), people's bank of nigeria (pbn), better life for rural women programme (bl), family support programme/family economic advancement programme (fsp/feap), poverty alleviation programme/national poverty eradication programme (pap/napep) and nationaleconomic empowerment and development strategy (needs).maryam babangida and maryam abacha pioneered the feminization of poverty reduction in the country, founding bl and fsp/feap which, being gender-biased, pursued affirmative action for the womenfolk. the fact that the country's poverty rate has been increasing rather than decreasing indicates that the programmes all failed (obadan, 2002). former minister nasir el-rufai attributed the failure to non-inclusive economic growth. national poverty eradication programme (napep) national poverty eradication program (napep) emerged in 2001 from the reorganization of poverty alleviation programme (pap) which had been established in 1999. it had a mandate to inject a minimum of 200,000 jobs into the labour market annually. fourteen ministries, namely agriculture/ rural development, education, water resources, industry, power/steel, employment/labour/productivity, women affairs/youth development, health, works/housing, environment, solid minerals development, science/technology, finance and national planning commission participated in the implementation of its mandate. it focused on four core areas, namely youth empowerment, rural infrastructure development, social welfare and natural resources development and conservation. the need to align the country's anti-poverty efforts with the un's proclamation against extreme poverty and hunger might have induced the appellative switch from “poverty alleviation” to “poverty eradication”. olusegun obasanjo became president at the time the un was finalizing the launch of the millennium development goals. poverty was on his hit list and he had begun his assault on it with this declaration in his maiden budget speech: [poverty] must be seen, by every one of us, as a major source of embarrassment that over 70 per cent of our population live below the poverty line. this is in spite of the abundant natural and human resources that has been bestowed on our great nation. one of the major issues that this administration has undertaken to resolve is this lingering poverty that has stricken our people along the length and breadth of the nation. the extent of poverty has reached frightening proportions primarily due to the neglect of past governments (1999). he was a farmer. his ota farms at abeokuta was a testament to his commitment to poverty eradication through food security. operation feed the nation (ofn) which his military regime launched in 1976 sought to imbue the country with the autogenic capacity to feed itself. during 168 elochukwu napep: a tri-causal explanation of why it failed his civilian presidency(1999-2007), he collaborated with thabo mbeki, abdelazeez bouteflika and abdoulaye wade to found the new partnership for africa's development (nepad). he underscored his commitment to poverty eradication by personally chairing the national poverty eradication council (napec), which formulated and coordinated napep's activities, and whose membership included top government officials such as vice-president, secretary to government of the federation and ministers. in effect, napep wasdirectly supervised by the president. presidential supervision ensured that it received privileged attention and budgetary allocations. it, however, could not make it remarkably different from its predecessor, namely pap. as the above tables indicated, the country's poverty statistics did not improve during the thirteen years the programme was in operation. public awareness of the programme's existence was almost limited to the visual ubiquity of indian-made tricycles popularly known in local parlance askeke napep. el-rufai (this day, 2015) stated that the programme abandoned its mandate and became “a sales agent for indian-made bajaj tricycles.” keke napep has played a major role in expanding india's economic footprint in nigeria. those nigerians, who used its importation and sale to enrich themselves, instigated the ban on commercial motorcycle transport ('okada' in nigerian parlance)in many parts of the country. the ban worsened unemployment and crime statistics in the country (ojo, 2011). most okada transporters could not afford the tricycle because of prohibitive price. why did napep fail? many factors thwarted napep, but only three of them are considered in the present paper. firstly, napep pursued a patently impracticable ambition by adopting the broad-based approach, loosely targeting its beneficiaries and operating an unsegmented timescale. for any anti-povertyprogramme to succeed, it must target specific groups and regions. it also must operate within time segments. the anti-poverty programmes of those countries that were able to halve their poverty statistics by2015did those two things. poverty is a phenomenon that displays group and geographical differentials. in ethnically diverse countries, it generally is a minority phenomenon. for example, in 2010 vietnam's ethnic minorities who constituted less than 15% of the total national population accounted for 47% of the poor and 68% of the extreme poor (world bank, 2012). in geographically vast countries, it generally is a topographic phenomenon. for example, in china it is concentrated in mountainous areas. since distance from the poverty line varies among groups and geographies, targeting groups and geographies is strongly recommended. universal (broad-based) approach which napep adopted could only impact a small segment of the country's vast poverty spectrum. targeting (the narrow-based approach), which espouses affirmative action for certain groups, regions, began to displace the universal approach as a development tool during the 1980s (mkandawire, 2005).its virtues include efficiency in the deployment of exhaustible resources in poverty eradication(besley& kanbur,1990; coady, grosh &hoddinnot, 2004; mkandawire, 2005). according to madavo and sarbib, “for poverty reduction programs to be successful, it is necessary to explore creative solutions that will allow the governments of these countries to target their limited resources to the most needy [sic], and to use these resources in the most effective way. programs that cover a country's entire population…are no longer sustainable…[t]he need for effective targeted programs that provide significant support to the poor within the tightening budget constraints has become more apparent than ever” (2000).similarly, since most successful poverty reduction programmes have been implemented piecemeal, time segmentation is strongly recommended. unsegmented timescale can encumber impact assessment. corruption was the other factor that 169 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 thwarted napep. anti-poverty programmes in many developing countries are “distorted by long-entrenched patron-client relations or “clientelism,” in party politics”(diaz-cayeros, estevez &magaloni, 2012).government has a tendency to use them to lubricate the machinery of party politics. state capture of napep had three important dimensions. firstly, most of the programme's strategic departments were manned by members of the ruling party, pdp. for example, while its career officers were federal civil servants, state coordinators were political appointees(lawal&umar, 2012). the director-general and state coordinators were members of the people's democratic party (pdp), the party that ruled the country from 1999 to 2015. expectedly, those appointees were beholden to their benefactors (ugoh & ukpere, 2009).cronyism, without doubt, starved the programme of technocratic efficiency. secondly, the beneficiary registers were rigged and stuffed with phantom and false beneficiaries. phantom beneficiaries were the front used by the state captors to corruptly benefit from the programme, while false beneficiaries were those who were not actually poor but who still benefitted from the programme on account of close ties with the captors.(certain beneficiaries of the programme's conditional cash transfer from the author's village were civil servants). most of the poverty loans were not repaidsince the beneficiaries regarded them as “a gift” (danjuma, 2013).thirdly,the programme was instrumentalized against political opponents. state coordinators committed enormously to the federal government's efforts to dislodge opposition governors like bola tinubu and peter obi. in short, the programme was weaponized and used to curb the opposition. politicization is a common plague of discretionary programmes. as noted by diaz-cayeros, estevez &magaloni (2012), “discretionary programs give politicians the ability to withdraw benefits on the basis of electoral criteria or for political motivation, such as when a beneficiary fails to vote for the incumbent or an election cycle is over.” the appointment of tony anenihas the pioneer head of the programme must have set the stage for its politicization. the third factor was the marginalization of intended beneficiaries in the formulation and implementation of projects. beneficiary participation has many virtues. for example, involving people in the design, management, and evaluation of projects that would benefit them enhances results (world bank, 2000).also, it saves beneficiaries the indignities of objectification and treatment as passive recipients of relief programmes (iied, 2010). beneficiary participation is of such importance that disregard for it is considered a dimension of poverty (world bank, 2000). some beneficiaries of keke napep were graduates who would have preferred to borrow to start their own business, but who were constrained by a lack of collateral to patronize the exploitative hire-purchase arrangement. many people forfeited their tricycles when they fell into arrears with the arrangement. conclusion napep was an ambitious effort by the obasanjo administration to trigger a paradigm shift in poverty reduction efforts in nigeria. one of the most ambitious poverty reduction programmes in nigeria, it lasted twelve years, straddled three administrations and was indulged by the presidency. despite the amplitude of budgetary and bureaucratic attention it received from the government, it “failed to deliver on its mandate.” the fact that the country missed the un's deadline on halving extreme poverty and hunger by 2015 was evidence of the failure. the present paper considers broad-based approach, state capture (corruption) and beneficiary exclusion the three major reasons why it failed. poverty in nigeria, like in china, is still concentrated in the rural area, hence the need for nigeria 170 elochukwu napep: a tri-causal explanation of why it failed to learn the following lessons in poverty reduction from china. firstly, loan is no longer a major component of china's rural poverty reduction efforts. instead of loan, government may give villagers, particularly those in mountainous regions, fowls, goats or cows so that they could set up in animal husbandry. according to china daily, “though the money value of a goat or a cow may seem just like a drop in the ocean when compared with the hefty central budget on poverty relief, it could make or break a family. in some extreme cases, free access to animal husbandry would be the only lifeline for the poor villagers to climb out of poverty” (2017). this strategy seeks to empower beneficiaries through economic systems they are familiar with. rural economy is so rudimentary villagers may find it difficult to handle loans and conditional cash transfers. where loans are provided, they mostly go to cooperatives and measures are taken to:(1) ensure they are used for production, not consumption (2) prevent leakages and capture by non-poor (3) minimize risk of delinquency. secondly, it involves embedment, whereby government station work teams in the rural areas to administer rural administration and monitor poverty reduction programmes. work teams may help villagers to form cooperatives. for example, in 2015, the work team in shibadong in hunan province “persuaded villagers to pool the relief funds provided by the government---about 6,000 yuan per person---and some of their own money to form partnership with an agricultural company to start kiwi plantation” (liu, 2017). cooperatives engage in many ventures such as farming scorpions, cockroaches or bamboo rats which are sold to pharmaceutical companies or are eaten as delicacies. nigeria had a similar arrangement whereby, until the mid-1980s, agricultural extension officers were stationed in the villages. thirdly, it gives infrastructure development high priority (adb, 2004). for example, the country thplans to spend $120billionon rural road construction during the 13 five-year plan (20162020).the food-for-work programme (ffw), which provides funding for rural infrastructure construction (world bank, 2001),utilizes surplus farm labour to develop infrastructure in poverty-stricken areas (wang, yanshun & zhou, 2004). under ffw, villagers are compelled to participate in building infrastructure projects such as roads and irrigation in their villages. most rural areas operate “work day contribution system” whereby each villager is “obligated to work a certain number of days annually” (world bank, 2001). under certain circumstances, money, instead of labour, might be acceptable. one of the major problems with this metaphor for labour conscription is that villagers might lack the requisite technical skills. fourthly, it uses short-term approach. target periods are usually divided into short time periods. for example, there were three time periods during the fifteen years of mdgs, which tagged three five-year development plans---2001-2005, 2006-2010 and 2011-2015. before the mdgs, there were the 1986-1993 period, the 8-7 plan (1993-2000) which targeted the 80 million poor people left behind during the 1986-1993 period, the outline for poverty reduction and development of china's rural areas (2001-2010) which targeted 50,000 villages most of which are located in those non-poor counties that were excluded from the 8-7 plan and the outline for developmentoriented poverty reduction for china's rural areas (2011-2020). nigeria does not have such a practicable time arrangement, hence its attempt to eradicate poverty in one fell swoop. fifthly, it prioritizes the participatory approach. beneficiary interest in a project is almost assured if the beneficiaries are involved in its formulation and implementation. village committees participate in the selection, formulation and implementation of rural projects in their villages(world bank, 2001). in contrast, many poverty reduction programmes in nigeria are imposed upon the intended beneficiaries. for example, the government may decide to build a bridge even when what the village needs urgently is a borehole. 171 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 sixthly, it encourages reverse migration. county governments offer incentives such as loan and tax rebate to urban dwellers who voluntarily quit the city in order to invest in the rural economy. this strategy focuses on graduates since they have the expertiseto create jobs for unskilled or semi-skilled villagers. returnees engage in ventures such as cockroach, scorpion or fungus farming ande-business. they also help villagers form cooperatives to produce and sell farm produce (chen, 2017). e-business is enhancing the logistics of making farm produce available tocity dwellers. urban-rural migration of graduates is a trend that has been growing since 2005 when china began encouraging graduates to work in rural administration as village chiefs, party chiefs, entrepreneurs, teachers, etc. references adb. (2004, may 24). poverty profile of the people's republic of china. https://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-profile-peoples-republic-china ake, c.(1996). democracy and development in africa. the brookings institution. besley, t., &kanbur, r. (1990). the principles of targeting: policy, research, and external affairs (pre).world bank. chen, n. (2017, february 20). yale graduate helping transform remote china. china daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-02/20/content_28267360_2.htm coady, d., grosh, m.,&hoddinnot, j. (2004). targeting of transfers in developing 　　countries: review of lessons and experience. world bank. danjuma, j. (2013, november 8). napep engages consultants to recover loans.national mirror. http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/napep-engages-consultant-to-recover-debt/ diaz-cayeros, a.,estevez, f., &magaloni, b. (2012, march 26). strategies of vote buying: democracy, clientelism and poverty relief in mexico. http://web.stanford.edu/~magaloni/ dox/2012strategiesvotebuying.pdf el-rufai, n. (2015, january 14). nigeria: rich country, poor people. this day. http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigeria-rich-country-poor-people/96703/ iied (international institute for environment and development). (2010). deepening participation for social change: case studies from africa and asia. lawal, a.o., & umar, h.s.(2012). public service and poverty eradication in nigeria: an assessment of national poverty eradication programme (napep), 2001-2011. public administration research1(1): 94-102. lerman, r. i. (2002, november 5). globalization and the fight against poverty. urban institute. https://webarchive.urban.org/publications/410612.html liu, x. (2017, may 23).ethnic villagers' fortunes rise as they cooperate in kiwi cultivation. c h i n a d a i l y . h t t p s : / / w w w . c h i n a d a i l y . c o m . c n / c h i n a / 2 0 1 7 05/23/content_29452820_2.htm madavo, c.,&sarbib, j.(2000). foreword to bigman, david, and hippolye fofack(eds.), geographical targeting for poverty alleviation: methodology and application. world bank. mahler, a. (2010). nigeria: a prime example of the resource curse? revisiting the oil-link violence in the niger delta. giga working papers120. 172 elochukwu napep: a tri-causal explanation of why it failed https://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-profile-peoples-republic-china https://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-profile-peoples-republic-china http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-02/20/content_28267360_2.htm http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-02/20/content_28267360_2.htm http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/napep-engages-consultant-to-recover-debt/ http://nationalmirroronline.net/new/napep-engages-consultant-to-recover-debt/ http://web.stanford.edu/~magaloni/dox/2012strategiesvotebuying.pdf http://web.stanford.edu/~magaloni/dox/2012strategiesvotebuying.pdf http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigeria-rich-country-poor-people/96703/ https://webarchive.urban.org/publications/410612.html mkandawire, t. (2005). targeting and universalism in poverty reduction. un research institute for social development. obadan, m. i. (2002). poverty reduction in nigeria: the way forward. central bank of nigeria economic and financial review39(4): 16-27. obasanjo, olusegun (1999, november 24). budget 2000.http://www.nigeriaworld.com/feature/ speech/ budget2000.html ojo, t. (2011, march 1). keke napep: a curse or a blessing? economic confidential. https://economicconfidential.com/features/keke-napeps-a-curse-or-a-blessing/ ugoh, s. c., &ukpere, w. i. (2009). appraising the trend of policy on poverty alleviation programmes in nigeria with emphasis on national poverty eradication programme (napep). african journal of business management 3 (12): 847-854. wang, s., yanshun, r.& zhou, l.(2004). the 8-7 national poverty reduction program in china---the national strategy and its impact. world bank. world bank. (2000). world development report 2000/2001. world bank. (2001). china: overcoming rural poverty. world bank. (2012). well begun, not yet done: viet nam's remarkable progress on poverty reduction and the emerging challenges. world bank. world bank. (2014). project performance assessment form. federal government of nigeria community based poverty reduction project (cr. 3447, cr. 3447-1). 173 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 http://www.nigeriaworld.com/feature/speech/budget2000.html http://www.nigeriaworld.com/feature/speech/budget2000.html https://economicconfidential.com/features/keke-napeps-a-curse-or-a-blessing/ page 174 page 175 page 176 page 177 page 178 page 179 page 180 page 181 88 cosmological considerations of religion and science (a comparative analysis) agu, anthony maria department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university awka & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university awka. bonaumeogu@yahoo.com abstract the intention of this article is to make a comparative analysis of how religion and science conceive the universe. both religion and science have made a lot of speculations and extrapolations concerning the nature, origin, evolution, structure, and eventual fate of the universe. in their arguments, there are a number of convergent and divergent views on this subject. based on this, the research’s findings are that proponents of religion argue that the universe came into existence out of nothing by a supreme being who himself is the uncaused or self-existent being. in contrast, some scientists contend that no supreme being is responsible for the coming into being of the universe. their suggestion is that the world emerged through the mechanism of the big bang or steady state theory model of the universe. the greek theorize that matter is eternal and uncreated. if at all god created the universe, he created it not out of nothing but through the pre-existing matter. what is common between the two rivals is that both religious and some scientists believe that the universe has a finite beginning. both also conclude that the universe would one day come to an end through big crunch for scientists but end time or eschatology for christian religions. interestingly, what cosmologists and astronomers call black hole is what christian religion call bottomless pit. the paper’s submission is that the universe is caused and governed by god and he is responsible for the operations of all the natural laws. the paper employs analytic and hermeneutic methods. keywords: big bang theory, cosmology, steady-state theory, eschatology, cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu mailto:bonaumeogu@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 89 introduction in their attempt to describe the universe, many scientists try to remove the need of a creator, whereas many religious adherents insist that the beginning of the universe must be through some supreme spirit and intelligent. the article proposes to expose extensively the controversy between religious and scientific arguments on the cause and origin of this observable universe. the scope of the research would be only on cosmological considerations of religion and science, the research would not delve into full or general arguments between religion and science which is vast and has long history. also the research would make an attempt to answer the following questions: is god the creator of the universe? is the big bang the origin of the universe? is the world eternal without origin or beginning? does the universe have a beginning in time? if so, is it an argument for religion or science? does the universe have any purpose? is the emergence of life anything more than a cosmic accident? was there any intelligent operative in the universe before the creation or appearance of humanity? do our individual lives have any ultimate relevance or significance in the unfathomable depths of cosmic time and space among others? some of these questions are raised by modern science and religion, and these questions have inspired many responses. but many of these responses have been reactionary repudiations of science itself. still, many of them have been shallowly addressed intellectually. and still, many of these questions have been intellectually inaccessible to sincere and able inquirers. the aim of this article is to address these questions. the article shall make an attempt to clear the air that our universe is not without purpose. this work will also make a concise presentation revealing and stating how some scientific approach to reality is not contradictory to a religious interpretation of the reality. instead, there is much more in scientific discoveries, predictions, extrapolations, conclusions, and speculations that might be of great help to understand religion in a new and adventurous way. a brief reflection on the relationship between religion and science one powerful way to distinguish science and religion is the claim that science concerns itself with the natural world, whereas religion concerns itself with the supernatural world and its relationship to the natural. besides, scientific explanations do not appeal to supernatural entities such as gods or angels (fallen or not), or to non-natural forces (such as miracles, karma, or qi) (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). science espouses naturalism, that is the view that all that exists are natural objects within the universe—the combination of the physical mass and energy that make up planets and stars, oceans and mountains, microbes and humans. however, naturalism usually implies the claim that real knowledge of these natural objects comes through, or is at least controlled by, the result of scientific inquiry. in the same trend, cognate terms are materialism and physicalism. the former has traditionally meant “all matter”; the latter technically means reducible to laws, particles, and forms of energy that physicists study. on the other hand, religion revolves round theism, that is the belief in the existence of god— 90 the ultimate reality that transcends the universe as a whole. jews, christians, muslims, and hindus are theists. theism generally or broadly includes pantheists, panentheists (the world is in god), and polytheists—hence most of the native african religions and the world’s indigenous or tribal religions. for theists god is described as a personal being, most often with the attributes of omniscience (all-knowing), omnipotence (all-powerful), omnibenevolence (all-good). theist sacred scriptures includes the bible, the qur’ran, the upanishads, in it they ascribe other qualities and attributes of god, such as consciousness, love, justice, and righteousness. theist in contrast to scientist, believe that god created the world, providentially guides it, and reveals itself in it. this simply means that god does things in the world (‘divine action’), carrying out actions that are either consistent with natural law or that involves setting natural regularities aside (miracles). at first sight, theism and naturalism appear to be incompatible positions. naturalists argue that all that exists is the universe (or multiverse) and the objects within it, whereas theists posit that something transcends the universe. naturalists generally use science as their primary standard for what humans know, whereas theists defend other ways of knowing as well, such as intuition, or religious experience (taylor & francis). in another development stephen jay gould identifies science’s areas of expertise as empirical questions about the constitution of the universe, and religion’s domain of expertise as ethical values and spiritual meaning. he goes on to assert that religious leaders should refrain from making factual claims like evolutionary theory, just as scientists should not claim insight on moral matters. however, if religion were barred from making any statement of fact, it would be difficult to justify its claims of value and ethics. for instance, one could not argue that one should love one’s neighbor because it pleases the creator. moreover, religions do seem to make empirical claims, for instance, that jesus appeared after his death or that the israelites passed through the parted waters of the red sea (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). religious cosmology according to wikipedia encyclopedia religious cosmology is the attempt to explain the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe from a religious perspective or point of view. religious cosmology may include beliefs in the origin of the universe in the form of a creation myth, subsequent evolution, current organizational form and nature, and its eventual fate or destiny. there are various religious mythologies stating and asserting why and how everything is the way it is and the significance of it all. again, religious cosmologies describe the spatiallayout of the universe in terms of the world in which people typically dwell as well as other dimensions, such as the seven dimensions of religion, these includes; ritual, experiential and emotional, narrative and mythical, doctrinal, ethical, social and material. religious mythologies may include description of an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger pantheon of deities, explanations of the transformation of chaos into order, or the assertion that existence is a matter of endless cyclical transformations. cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 91 however, religious cosmology is quite different from strictly scientific cosmology, informed contemporary astronomy, physics, and similar fields, and may differ in conceptualizations of the world’s physical structure and place in the universe, its creation, and forecasts or predictions on its future. the confine or scope of religious cosmology is more inclusive than a strict scientific cosmology (physical cosmology and quantum cosmology) in the sense that it is not limited to experiential observation, testing of hypotheses, and proposals of theories; for instance, religious cosmology may explain why everything is the way it is or seems to be as it is and prescribing what humans should do in this regard. there are various variations in religious cosmology which include those such as from india, buddhism, hindu, and jain; the religious belief in china, chinese buddhism, taoism, and confucianism; japan’s religious belief, shintoisim. abrahamic religious beliefs are judaism, christianity, and islam. religious cosmologies have often developed into the formal logics of metaphysical systems, such as platonism, neoplatonism, gnosticism, taoism, kabbalah, wuxing, or the great chain of being (wikipedia). big bang cosmology according to britannica encyclopedia big bang model of the universe is the scientific theory of the evolution of the universe or the cosmological evolution of the universe. according to this theory, the universe emerged as a result of explosion of a singularity that contains all the substances of the universe; the universe expanded exponentially and rapidly from a highly compressed primordial state, which resulted in significance decrease in density and temperature. soon afterwards, the dominance of matter over antimatter (as observed today) may have been established by processes that also predict proton decay. during this stage many types of elemental particles may have been present. few seconds afterwards, the universe cooled enough to allow the formation of certain nuclei. the prediction of the theory is that definite amounts of hydrogen, helium, and lithium were produced. to this end, their abundances agree with what is observed today. about one million years later the universe was sufficiently cool for atoms to form. the radiation that also filled the universe was then free to travel through space. this remnant of the early universe is the microwave background radiation (three-degree background radiation) discovered in 1965 by arno. a. penzias and robert w. wilson. interestingly, in addition to accounting for the presence of ordinary matter and radiation, the big bang model predicts that the present universe should also be filled with neutrinos, fundamental particles with no mass or electric charge. the possibility exists that other relics from the early universe may eventually be discovered. the model is based on two assumptions. the first is the einstein’s general theory of relativity that describes correctly the gravitational interaction of all matter. the second assumption is popularly known as the cosmological principle which states that an observer’s view of the universe depends neither on the direction in which he looks nor on his location. but then, this 92 principle can only be applied to the large-scale properties of the universe, but it does imply that the universe has no edge, so that the big bang origin occurred not at a particular point in space but rather throughout space at the same time. however, these two assumptions make it possible to calculate the history of the cosmos after a certain era or epoch called the planck time (singularity). but scientists are seriously busy making fervent and assiduous research in order to determine what actually prevailed before the planck time. this type of universe was proposed by friedmann and lemaitre in 1920s but the modern version was developed by george gamow and his colleagues in 1940s (the new encyclopedia britannica). some big bang proponents argue that the big bang is the origin of the world and that the world arose according to the laws of physics, coming into being about 14 billion years ago. steady-state theory cosmology this model or scientific theory of the universe holds the view that universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average density, matter being continuously created to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones become unobservable as a consequence of their increasing distance and velocity recession. this model of the universe has no beginning or end in time; and from any point within it the view on the grand scale that the average density and arrangement of galaxies is just the same. to that end, galaxies of all possible ages are being intermingled (the new encyclopedia britannica). furthermore, it is suggested and speculated that the steady-state universe is spatially flat and therefore infinite and it was eternal both in the past and in the future. there was no entropic heat death in it. moreover, since the mass density remained constant despite the universe being in a state of expansion, then, matter had to be created continually throughout the universe. in any case, the steady-state model of the universe was widely considered to be highly controversial in the sense that its element of spontaneous creation of matter seems to violate the fundamental law of energy conservation. this element of steady state model is highly dissatisfactory to many philosophers and even scientists, and it is also of relevance from a religious perspective. from the latter perspective, the crucial question arises: does the steadystate theory really make god unnecessary? theologians assert that such infinitely old universe is no way incompatible with christian belief. the reason is that the continual matter creation according to steady-state theory might be interpreted as support of the christian notion of an ever-active god who is transcendent as well as immanent. several later theologians concurred with this point, namely that the old idea of creatio continua fits very well with the classical steady-state theory of hoyle and his allies. also bernard lovell’s god is a constantly intervening universal being whose existence is in perfect and complete harmony with continual creation of matter. bernard lovell is a radio astronomer who is a devoted christian. finally, the rival cosmologies and their claimed religious associations becomes an issue in the ideological battlefield of the cold war. for instance, in communist russia finite-age cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 93 cosmological models, and especially closed models of the big-bang type, were seen as political suspect and contrary to the atheistic world view of marxism-leninism according to which the universe is infinite in time, space, and content of matter. lemaitre and gamow defended this theory but they were accused of being apologies for divine creation, which made them unwelcome and politically incorrect. in the same vein, the infinite and eternal steady-state universe was also unwelcomed. the major reason that made the steady-state theory model of the universe unpalatable to orthodox marxists is its element of steady or continual matter creation (kragh, 2020). creationism creationism is the religious belief that everything in the universe originated with supernatural acts of the divine action. in other words, the universe, the earth, life, and humans were all brought into being by god. some creationists reject scientific explanation of the origin of the world such as evolutionary theory that describes the origin and development of natural phenomena. some creationists insist that the only true explanations and interpretations of the origin of the world is the creation myth found in the bible’s genesis creation narrative. however, some creationists such as catholic church and mainline protestants attempt to reconcile modern science with their faith in creation through forms of theistic evolution according to which god purposefully created through the laws of nature. in the same vein, some creationist groups call their belief evolutionary creationism. we have also islamic and hindu faiths that are creationists. creationism: divine action and creation ever since scientists developed their ideas and views on cosmology and the origins of the world, western cultures already had a doctrine of creation on the basis of biblical texts which could be seen in the first chapters of the genesis and the book of revelation, including the writings of the church fathers such as st. augustine. consequently, this doctrine of creation has the following interrelated features, namely: first, god created the world creation ex nihilo, i.e., creation out of nothing. differently put or in other words god did not need any pre-existing materials to make the world, unlike the demiurge (from greek philosophy), who created the world from chaos, pre-existing matter. second, god is distinct from the world; the world is not equal to or part of god (contra pantheism or panentheism) or a (necessary) emanation of god’s being (contra neoplatonism). rather god created freely. the world is a contingent being which depends upon god’s creative act and is also sustained by god. god also has no need of the world as he is self-existent and selfsufficient god. third, the doctrine of creation holds the view that creation is essentially good, in genesis chapter one the goodness of god’s creation is being repeatedly affirmed. although, the world does contain evil, god does not directly cause this evil to exist. moreover, god does 94 not merely passively sustain his creation, but rather plays an active role in it, using special divine actions such as miracles and revelations to care for his creatures. fourth, god made provisions for the end of the world, and will later on create a new heaven and earth, in this way eradicating evil (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy). religious and scientific conception of the world (a comparative analysis) religion argues that god created the universe as well as the laws governing it. but the concept of cosmic creation as it appears in big bang cosmology denies the role of god as the cause of the universe. in order to reconcile christianity with aristotle’s natural philosophy, the theologians were faced with the thorny problem of the age of the world. this is simply because the fundamental dogma of god’s creation of the world seemed irreconcilable with aristotle’s insistency that the world at large was uncreated as well as indestructible. aquinas on his own part suggests that the claim of a divinely created universe does not rule out the possibility of an eternal universe where god is continuously creative (creatio continua). philosophical speaking, during the time of scientific revolution, it was taken for granted that god had created the universe, but how he had done it and what he had created was a matter of fierce dispute. according to rene descartes, a catholic yet a copernican, he tells us that god had originally created the material world as a chaos of particle in motion, and at the same time installed the mechanical laws that would turn the chaos into a cosmos. alas, descartes boldly and somewhat heretically suggests that whatever the initial conditions the laws would necessarily lead to the world we observe. therefore, he argues, after the original creation there was no need for god to intervene in the further construction of the world. the laws would take care of it he says. a non-theistic version of descartes’ deterministic claim has reappeared in modern cosmology under the name “indifference principle”. sir isaac newton refuses to agree with descartes’ indifference principle. instead, with his new mechanical theory and its fundamental law of gravity he proposes a cosmology consisting of an immense number of stars held in mechanical equilibrium. newton insists that it was irrational to believe what descartes says that only the laws of nature were responsible for how the cosmos arose out of the primordial chaos. newton goes on to argue that even an infinite sidereal system would need a divine power to keep it gravitationally stable. but the difficulty is that newton was unable to provide a physical explanation of the stability of the universe, instead he appealed to god’s continual intervention. in fact, this was the first appearance of the so-called gravitation paradox that continues to haunt newtonian cosmology over the next two hundred years. but a german astronomer hugo von seeliger, proposes to solve the problem by modifying newton’s law of gravitation at very large distances. alas, to seeliger and his contemporaries, god was no longer at disposal. also in kant’s treatise titled “universal history and theory of the heavens” god did not play any significant role in the grand cosmological scenario. even though kant piously presented his theory as theistic, but in reality it was naturalistic or deistic in nature. kant in agreement with descartes claims that the mechanical cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 95 laws were sufficient to explain the evolution of the universe, which according to him included not only phases of continual creation but also phases of degradation. kant’s infinite universe was evolving in endless cycles with enormously long periods separating constructive and destructive phases. as for the size of the universe, kant claims that only an infinite universe would accord with god’s omnipotence. while in kant’s philosophical theory of the universe which is known as the ‘divine creation’ somehow maintains the place of god in he cosmic scheme, in pierre-simon laplace’s cosmology god had disappeared. laplace’s nebular theory is simply about the origin of the solar system, not about the universe as a whole. laplace’s theory and kant’ s cosmology were merged in nineteenth century into the popular but also theological controversial kant-laplace’s nebular hypothesis or world view. furthermore, william thomson and rudolf clausius with the second law thermodynamics argue that the degree of order and organization in any closed system would inevitably decrease as the world irreversibly evolves towards a state of death. in clausius’s formation based on the concept of entropy, the world would tend towards a maximum state of entropy corresponding to a ‘heat death’ from which it will never return. thomson and clausius reveal that the second law of thermodynamics definitely contradicted the materialistic and atheistic idea of a recurrent cyclical universe or world. for over a half century or more than that the issue of heat death scenario was hotly debated among philosophers, theologians, and social critics than astronomers and physicists. some of the scientific prophecies were welcomed by some christian writers, whereas it was resisted by writers of a materialist, positivist or atheist inclination. moreover, the apparent agreement of the second law with christian dogmas was strengthened by the so-called “entropic creation argument” implying a beginning of the world. some theologians argue that the universe cannot have existed in an eternity, if so they argue the universe would be in a state of maximum entropy, which it is not. a critical look or reference to the beginning of the universe, should amount to a conclusion that it must have been created by a supernatural power or supreme being namely; god. this argument might be taken to scientific proof of god’s existence which was initiated by german philosopher franz brentano, and over ten decades it was much discussed by scientists as well as nonscientists. nevertheless, the heat death and the entropic creation argument hinged on the assumption that the second law of thermodynamics might be applicable to the universe as a whole and not just to only isolated parts of the cosmos. critics in the camp of materialist completely rejected the second law of thermodynamics as a general law of nature. in another development, cosmology’s old and central questions, namely whether the universe is finite or infinite has been an age long controversial argument. materialists and atheists insist that the universe is infinite and that it was far from obvious that the second law applied to the universe as a whole. in the same vein most atheists were equally convinced that the universe is finite in the sense that it contains only a finite number of celestial bodies. in any case, there was no one-to-one correspondence, and christian scientists thomson among them support the fact that the universe is a finite, divinely created cosmos. 96 interestingly, with the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 a few scientists realized that the new phenomenon might be used as a cosmic clock, an alternative to the problematic entropy. arthur e. haas the austrian physicist might be the first to suggest that the existence of radioactivity elements such as uranium indicates that the universe has a finite age. after all, how could there still be radioactive elements if the universe had existed for all eternity. arthur haas was a catholic and hostile to materialism, he teaches that the argument from radioactivity would play an important role in georges lemaitre’s formation of the first bigbang model theory of the universe (hans & kragh). albert einstein, scientists, and the religious on a closed universe german astrophysicist karl friedrich zollner suggests that the cosmic space might be slightly positively curved and as a result closed. although with no boundary, the universe would be finite both with respect to space and the number of stars in it. but then, it was only with einstein’s general theory of relativity that introduced the concept of curved space which in turn attracted the interest of physics and astronomy. according to einstein’s field equation the model of the universe was static, homogenously filled with matter, and spatially closed. alas, einstein erroneously thought that this was the only model allowed by the general theory of relativity. but then, einstein’s closed universe attracted much interest, not only scientifically but also because of what was thought to be its philosophical and religious implications. but neither einstein nor other contributors to the new cosmological theory associated it with a religious world view. nevertheless, the theory entered into serious discussion in the interwar period concerning materialism, idealism, and religion. kristian schelderup the norwegian theologian examined in details the relationship between einstein’s theory and the christian dogmas, suggesting that the closed and static universe made it necessary to revise the fundamental dogma of a divinely created world. in the same vein, other contributors argue that the finite universe contradicted materialism whereas it was consonant with idealistic and christian thought. besides, arthur eddington (a quaker) supported the einstein universe for scientific reasons but also because of its finitude and static nature agreed with his religious sentiments. for eddington god had not created the universe a finite time ago. his view was in broad agreement with the one of ernest william barnes, a mathematician and theologian who in 1924 was appointed bishop of birmingham. barnes in his book entitled “scientific theory and religion” he analyzed relativistic cosmology and its theological implications. barnes was generally happy with einstein’s closed model of the universe, not only because it was spatially finite but also because it made it difficult to see god as a transcendent maker of the universe. barnes also addressed the old question of pluralism, reasoning that the existence of multiple habited worlds was not a problem for christian faith. concerning einstein’s field equation, the american physicist robert millikan, a nobel laureate in 1923, defended the idea of an eternal and regenerating classical universe. he discovers an irreversible universe governed by the entropy law to be unacceptable and unchristian, and instead he postulated an ever-evolving universe with continual creation of matter. but as a cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 97 christian he believes that the world was created by god, but that creation took place continually rather than being limited to the beginning. william ralph inge in his book titled “god and the astronomers” supported millikan’s idea of an eternal balance between creative and destructive processes in the universe. but then, his preference for a kind of cyclic universe was unusual for a christian thinker (hans & kragh). scientifically, it was realized that einstein’s field equations describe dynamical cosmological model and also models with a zero or negative space curvature (flat or hyperbolic geometries). lemaitre’s expanding universe evolved asymptotically from a closed einstein’s universe and so did not have a definite origin in time. eddington adopted and further developed it and considered it to be a conceptual advantage that the “eddington-lemaitre model” did not include a sudden origin of the universe. lemaitre also proposes what eddington found repugnant, namely a universe with a beginning in an explosive event million years ago, the first example of a big-bang theory model of the universe. lemaitre the belgian cosmologist pictures the origin of the universe as a violent radioactive explosion of a ‘primeval atom’ containing all matter squeezed together in a huge atomic nucleus. obviously and significantly, lemaitre’s primeval atom was quite different from nothingness; the original explosion or firework marked the beginning of the universe, not its creation. however, it may be tempting to suspect that the explosive universe was motivated by lemaitre’s desire to reconcile cosmology and genesis given that he was a catholic priest, and the creation of the universe is a dogma in christian thought. this was what his critics claimed. lemaitre just like eddington was careful to distinguish between science and religion. he severally made it clear that the concept of cosmic creation belongs to theology and metaphysics, and not to the domain of science. lemaitre in 1958 solvay conference says that the primeval atomic theory was perfectly neutral with respect to religion. that it was not inconsistent with theism, but nor was it inconsistent with atheism. besides, while lemaitre’s big-bang theory was positively received in the popular press, astronomers and physicists ignored the theory or even rejected it as a wishful speculation. an american philosopher of religion john e. boodin complained that lemaitre’s theory presupposed a material proto-universe and for this reason failed to explain the creation of the universe in scientific terms. but then, boodin did not realize that this was not what lemaitre had in mind, and his theory was not about creation but about beginning and evolution. edmund t. whittaker, the british mathematician and a convert to catholicism accepted the entropic creation argument and claimed that modern cosmology provided further support for christian faith. in his book entitled ‘matter and spirit’ whittaker argues that the finite age of the universe was strong evidence for a universe created by an omnipotent god. in agreement with lemaitre he cautiously says that creation itself was outside the scope and grasp of science. after world war ii it was often claimed that lemaitre’s primeval atom theory or the big-bang theory was an attempt to reconcile scientific cosmology with the christian creation dogma. in 1951 in a controversial address to the pontifical academy, pope pius xii states that modern physics and astronomy provided incontrovertible evidence for the existence of a transcendent 98 creator. the pope asserts that there was no essential difference between the genesis creation story and modern cosmology, because the modern cosmology just only confirmed what christians had known for ages. it appears that the pope takes the big-bang cosmology as a scientific proof of god. the pope had lemaitre’s cosmology in mind by having said this although he did not mention his name. but lemaitre did not share the pope’s apologetic interpretation of the physical cosmology, which he thought was fundamentally mistaken. at the time of the pope’s address, lemaitre’s fireworks theory had been substantially transformed into a much improved version primarily by the russian-american nuclear physicist george gamow. in 1930 edward arthur milne a british astrophysicist and cosmologist, a professor of mathematics at the university of oxford proposed a kind of big-bang theory completely different from that of lemaitre’s. professor milne without taking into consideration general theory of relativity or curved space develops a world system according to which the universe was expanding, infinite in extent, and had originated in a space-point rather than in an extended object. professor milne was convinced that the universe was created by a transcendent and omnipotent god, who therefore had to be part of scientific cosmology. milne argues that although god is omnipotent, god is also a rational being who could not have created impossible or irrational things. for instance, god could not have created a law of gravitation different from the newton’s law of gravitation. also god could not have created a finite universe originating in a condensed material body as lemaitre would have us to believe in his theory. professor milne passionately believes that only his theory or world system was consistent with god’s will and power. milne develops his cosmological considerations or ideas most fully in the posthumously published ‘modern cosmology and the christian idea of god’ an idiosyncratic work which was not appreciated by both theologians and scientists. just like barnes in 1933, professor milne offers his view of pluralism and how the souls of extraterrestrials might be saved. he suggests that the problem of interplanetary redemption might be fixed by means of radio astronomy (hans & kragh). the big bang controversy between religion and science religion argues that god said let there be big bang and it banged. but science says that the big bang has nothing to do with god, instead, the big bang banged as a result of natural laws. but what is common with science and religion is that both concurred that the world has a finite age and that the big bang is the origin and the development of the universe. for instance, the very first verse of the genesis of the christian bible implies that the universe itself has a beginning and it says “in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth.” the implication of this biblical assertion is that all matter that can be seen, observed, or even inferred to exist in this universe were brought into existence at one moment by a creator who exists outside the limits and laws of the universe itself. interestingly and accordingly, the big bang theory of cosmology also points to a beginning to all of space-time and matter, as well as cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 99 the scientific laws governing them. both the christian bible and science reveal to us that there must be a cause that lies outside of the universe itself. the fact of the matter is that the bible does not tell us that god instantly formed our universe and the earth exactly as we see it today. the process of the creation lasted for a whole of six days. the process takes place in which the chaos is transformed into a well-ordered habitation fit for life and consciousness. consequently, the big bang theory of cosmology has a lot of packages to say about the process of the beginning of the universe. for example, the big bang reveals to us that a planet suitable for life such as the earth does not become possible in the universe quite until a few precise developments that take place. these include the universal expansion of the universe and the receding of the galaxies, the cosmic ripples which eventually results into galaxy and star formations, the production of heavy elements in the large stars, the supernovae spreading them throughout the galaxy, the formation of solar systems, the formation of proton, neutron, electron, atoms, molecules, the nucleosynthesis among many other contributing factors. the truth of the matter is that the universe went through quite a lengthy period of preparation before the formation of the planet earth. it is crystal clear that in many ways the early universe can be seen as a formless and void of the ordered conditions necessary to support life, in total and complete agreement with the genesis creation stories of the christian bible. moreover, this does not necessarily imply that the universe became more ordered in time, which would be a clear violation of the second law of thermodynamics. instead, the planet earth went through a miraculous sequence of events, preparing it for life. the big bang on its part does not give specific predictions about what takes place on planet earth, but it is important for us to realize the amazing and perhaps unique sequence of events on earth, revealed to us by modern science. for example, the earth received just the right amount of radiation from its star, namely; our sun, to warm temperatures to the range of liquid water. it then joined with the moon of sufficient size to stabilize the spin-axis of the earth against chaotic motion. it also develops a thin, transparent atmosphere, which nonetheless serves as a shield against harmful ultraviolet radiation and provides sufficient greenhouse warming. also the oxygen level of the atmosphere was boosted to a level capable of supporting land life following a vast period dominated by photosynthesis marine algae. what is more, these and many other specific characteristics of the planet earth appears to be fine-tuned to make our existence possible. without doubt it appears that modern science is confirming the creation account of the christian bible, a careful process of preparation resulting into a created order described several and oftentimes by god himself with the words “and behold it was good” (steve, 2003). 100 science and religion on the infinity of the universe scientifically and theologically it is believed that the universe has a finite age, but it might also be spatially and materially infinite. but then, if the space is infinite and the cosmological principle is assumed to be correct or valid, then, the universe would most likely contain an infinite number of galaxies, stars, atoms, and everything else. nevertheless, such infinities of the universe would not only cause philosophical and logical problems, it would also cause theological problems without equivocation. however, at the time of the scientific revolution it was commonly assumed that the physical space cannot be truly infinite, but only indefinitely large. infinity was seen as one of the divine attributes which should not be attributed to anything at all, to claim that creature or nature is infinite amounts to endow it with divinity, which is a heretical view characteristic of pantheism. the theists insist that the notion that the universe is infinite is purely philosophical absurd and theological heretical, but there was no consensus on the issue. but then, several christian scientists, starting from descartes in the seventeenth century to edward milne in the twentieth, have argued that an infinite universe is in better agreement with god’s will and omnipotent finite universe. the connection and relationship between finitism and theism, infinitism and atheism, should be seen as historical contingent rather than justified by either scientific or theological arguments or reasons. furthermore, during the early period of modern cosmology, relativistic models with zero or negative curvature were sometimes associated with materialism and atheism on the grounds that they entail or imply a universe of infinite size. in contrast or conversely, einstein’s close and finite universe was highly welcomed and approved by theists. in the mind of the mathematically trained bishop of birmingham, bishop ernest w. barnes, infinite space was “a scandal to human thought”. philosophically, his argument was epistemic as well as theological. one of his arguments is that, only if god’s universe is finite can we hope to understand the full range of his activity. georges lemaitre the catholic priest and pioneer cosmologist his contemporary, reasons likewise that the universe had to be finite in order to be comprehensible. in agreement with his later warning against the “nightmare of infinite space” both of his two innovative of cosmological models, the expanding model of 1927, and the big bang model of 1931, were spatially closed. the rejection of the steady-state model of the 1950s among christians was because of its lack of cosmic creation, but also it implies a homogenous universe of infinite extent. according to a benedictine priest and historian of science stanley jaki, the infinite universe is a scientific cover-up for atheism. currently, the consensus of a geometrically flat accelerating universe is usually taken to imply an infinite cosmos. cosmologists have ignored the troublesome philosophical problems and speak of the infinite universe as just an indefinitely large one. they avoid or rarely reflect on the weird epistemic consequences of an actual infinity and even more rarely on the theological consequences. george ellis the african cosmologist and his colleagues reject this rule and have forcefully argued against an infinite universe, suggesting that the flat space of the consensus model is probably an abstraction that does not hold physically. if the universe is really infinite cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 101 and uniform, he argues, then it can be (and has been) further argued that there would be an infinity of identical copies of all human beings and indeed of everything. such a situation or consequence as articulated by george ellis, max tegmark, alan guth, and many others, obviously is theological disturbing. ellis argues that it is even more disturbing because is it that god may then not be able to keep track of and give attention to the infinite number of beings in the universe. besides, if there is a multitude of cosmic regions, each of which is inhabited with intelligent beings, one may need to contemplate a multitude of christ-figures, incarnations and crucifixions. clearly, george ellis refuses not only to consider such a scenario, he also reasons that it strengthened the case for a finite universe. ellis says thus: “surely an infinite number of christ-figures must be too much, no matter how one envisages god” hans & kragh (as cited in ellis, 1993:394). science and religion on the end of the world (physical eschatology) according kraph, modern cosmology is not only about the past of the universe, but it also offers scenarios about its far future, including speculations about the fate of intelligent life. in the same vein, the bible’s revelation passages speak about the end of the world and a possible new creation. besides, the cosmic future may seem to offer another point of contact between cosmology and theistic religion. however, scientifically based speculations about the state of the cosmos in the far future and the possibility of endless life were first discussed in the late nineteenth century in connection with the controversy over the heat death predicted by the second law of thermodynamics. in the explanation of the eschatology aspects of cosmology, a certain german scientist argues that life might persist even in the very high-entropic environment of the far future. accordingly, while the heat death scenario was welcome by christian authors, it was vehemently opposed by materialists and atheists who argue that for an eternal universe with eternal life. furthermore, since 1970s physical cosmology has emerged as a new subfield of astrophysics and cosmology, pioneered by freeman dyson, jamal islam and many others. the field concerns itself with the state of the universe in the remote future on the basis of extrapolations of cosmological models and the assumption that the presently known laws of physics will remain indefinitely valid. the favored scenario is the open ever-expanding universe where extrapolations typically result in an ultimate future (at about 10100 years from now) in which the universe consists of nothing but exceedingly thin electron-positron plasma immersed in a cold radiation of neutrinos and photons. in the same vein, other studies presume a closed universe collapsing in a big crunch and others investigate the nearer future of the humankind about a few million years from now. the fact of the matter is that whereas many of these studies are not concerned with the final state of life, some are, and it is this later group that constitutes physical eschatology proper. alas, physical eschatologists usually ignore the religious associations of their studies or deny that they exist. but tipler is a controversial exception in the sense that not only does he argue 102 that some kind of life can continue forever in a closed universe, he also claims that it is the very collapse of the universe that permits eternal life. when the final eternity he argues has been reached at what he calls the “omega point,” life becomes omniscient and the temporal becomes atemporal. according to him, the final singularity is god and “theology is nothing but physical cosmology based on the assumption that life as a whole is immortal. undoubtedly, his arguments are extreme one to the extent that it has caused much discussion among theologians. interestingly, the term physical eschatology indicates a connection to biblical eschatology, but it is far from clear that the two are related in any meaningful sense. but then, the bible message is not so much about the end of the physical universe as it is also about the imminent return of christ, the transformation of humans from flesh to spirit, and the final kingdom of god. the bible is also about the ultimate destiny and goal of humans, not of self-robots. tippler also argues that the scenario of a closed universe may appear to be more compatible with the biblical view than the case of the ever-expanding universe, but even in the former case it is hard to establish a meaningful connection. again, while the end of the world does not conflict with the bible, the claims of immortality of intelligent life forms (not necessarily humans) do conflict. for instance, the bible asserts that god alone is immortal and that all his created beings are doomed to extinction unless god decides to keep them to eternity. in another development, many theologians have expressed passionate concern concerning the cosmologists’ scenarios of the end of the world and stressed that there is a universe of difference between these scenarios and proper eschatology. wolhart pannenberg argues that christian affirmation of an imminent end of the world is scarcely reconcilable with the cosmological extrapolations of the state of the universe zillions of years in the distant future ahead. karl peters in his own version of the story according to schwarz, 2000, p. 180 cited by hans and kragh argues thus: if the expanding universe is indeed open, expanding forever, then how can one speak of god recreating the universe? if the universe is closed, then it is likely to end in a ‘big crunch’ of mammoth black-hole proportions. again, it is difficult to see how a new creation can take place (hans & kragh) arguably, whereas pannenberg, peters, arthur peacocke and many others tend to reason that physical and christian eschatology are either contradictory or incommensurable. craig on his part takes a more reconcilable view in which he says that the cosmologists’ versions of secular eschatology furnish ground for taking seriously the hypothesis of a transcendent creative and omnipotent agent. but it appears that this agent in question might not be the classical god, but more likely to be god in panentheistic version or mind-set (hans & kragh). cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 103 summary science and religion concurred that the universe has a finite age. some scientists arguing that the universe started through the big bang but god is not the cause of the big bang. in contrast, religion concluded that god created the universe out of nothing through the mechanism of the big bang. the steady-state theory proponents argued that the universe is eternal. religion applies the steady-state theory and argues that the steady-state theory of the cosmos is the powerful manifestation of perpetual divine creation. conclusion to solve the mysteries of the universe is not an easy task. the mystery behind the universe is one of the most coveted knowledge of mankind down through the ancient epoch. to solve the problem of the origin of the universe, almost every culture has its own theory of creation. the origin of the universe remains a concept of great controversial issues between science and religion and so does the eschatological question of the end of everything, and the meaning of the apparent fine-tuning of the universe. however, cosmological considerations of science and religion are compatible but where it appears that they are different is in their interpretations and explanations. for instance, science explains things in terms of natural causes that before were supposedly explain by divine intervention. religion insists that god made or created the natural causes which science studies. science is just discovering what god has already created and set in motion to be controlled by natural laws. the main concern or business of religion is about relationship with god and the meaning of life whereas the goal of science is about specific explanation of the natural world scientifically. unfortunately, science could not answer the question “what came before the big bang and what triggered the big bang? also science does not provide sufficient and adequate explanation about the origin and consequence fate of the universe. but the bible does explain at length how god created the world and its eventual end time. the paper’s submission is that creation should be ascribed to an intelligent and primordial being who himself is outside space and time. his spirit controls all the forces and natural laws of the universe both visible and invisible or observable and unobservable universes. 104 references hans, h. & helge, k. theism and physical cosmology. retrieved on april 13, 2023 from phil.archive.pitt.edu>cosmology-word2pdf helge, k. (2020). cosmology and religion. encyclopedia of the history of science. retrieved on may 21, 2023 from doi: 10.34758/kyqj-kv70 “ethos.lps.library.cmu.edu>article>gallery>view" john, w. d. (1875). history of the conflict between religion and science. appleton. milton, l. b. jr. (1982: 9-13). big bang: the reconciliation of science and religion. retrieved on september 13, 2023 from http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol1/iss2/5 stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (2022). religion and science. retrieved on may 21, 2023 from plato.stanford.edu>entries>religion-science steve, b. (2003). a christian physicist examines the big bang theory. retrieved on may 21, 2023 from www.letu.edu>academics>arts-and-science>files>big-bang taylor & francis group. religion and science. retrieved on april 13, 2023 from https://www.routlege.com/rsc/download/religion_and_science_freebook.pdf the new encyclopedia britannica (vol. 2: 205). big bang theory the new encyclopedia britannica (vol. 11: 228). steady state theory wikipedia (2023). creationism. retrieved on september 21, 2023 from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/creationism wikipedia (2017). religious cosmology. retrieved on september 13, 2023 from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/religiuos cosmology cosmological considerations of religion and science agu, anthony maria & rev. fr. prof. bonachristus umeogu http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol1/iss2/5 https://www.routlege.com/rsc/download/religion_and_science_freebook.pdf https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/creationism https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/religiuos aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr abstract information and communication technology (ict), in recent times, is increasingly being recognized as a powerful tool for addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable practices. this paper therefore explores the role of ict in environmental management in nigeria, focusing on its applications, benefits, and future prospects. the paper traced historically, the environmental challenges faced by nigeria since 1999, including issues related to e-waste management, water resource management, and biodiversity conservation. it highlights the need for technological interventions to tackle these challenges effectively. the study examines various ict tools and applications that are being utilized in environmental management in nigeria, example, geographic information systems (gis), sensor technologies and networks, citizen science and crowd sourcing. the benefits of adopting ict in environmental management in nigeria are highlighted. however, several challenges need to be addressed to fully harness the potential of ict in environmental management in nigeria such as technological challenges, infrastructure and connectivity issues, capacity building, and awareness require attention among others. the methodology adopted includes the interdisciplinary approach to historical studies involving literature review of selected extant literature on the subject, and critical analysis of information from expert opinions. the paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of ict in environmental management in nigeria and its future prospects. with the proper integration of ict, nigeria can enhance its environmental monitoring capabilities, improve decision-making processes, and achieve sustainable development goals that would enhance development. keywords: data collection, decision-making, environmental management, implementation, information and communication technology (ict), introduction nigeria, as a developing nation, is confronted by many environmental challenges that pose significant threats to its ecosystems, public health, and sustainable development (kifle, t., 2008). these challenges include: 1. air and water pollution: rapid urbanization and industrialization have resulted in high levels of air and water pollution in nigeria. emissions from industries, vehicle exhaust, and improper waste disposal contribute to poor air quality, while industrial discharges and inadequate wastewater treatment lead to water pollution, affecting both surface water bodies and the role of information and communication technology (ict) in environmental management in nigeria, 1999 – 2020 ukegbu, ezionyinye ebere, phd history and international studies, clifford university, owerrinta, abia state. eeukegbu@gmail.com 08033944499 & nwala, kenethtochukwu, phd mathematics and computer science clifford university, owerrinta, nigeria. 49 mailto:eeukegbu@gmail.com mailto:eeukegbu@gmail.com groundwater sources (olisaemeka, b. u, 2019). 2. deforestation and land degradation: nigeria has experienced substantial deforestation due to activities such as logging, agriculture expansion, and urban development. deforestation contributes to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and disruption of ecological balance. land degradation, including desertification and soil erosion, further exacerbates the loss of productive land. 3. climate change impacts: nigeria is vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change, including increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods and droughts (olisaemeka, b. u, 2019). these events result in loss of lives, displacement of communities, damage to infrastructure, and disruption of agricultural activities, further compromising food security and economic stability. 4. loss of biodiversity: nigeria is home to diverse ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, savannahs, and marine habitats, which support a wide range of plant and animal species. however, habitat destruction, illegal wildlife trade, and unsustainable resource extraction practices have led to a loss of biodiversity, threatening the ecological balance and long-term sustainability of these ecosystems. 5. inadequate access to clean water and sanitation: a significant portion of the nigerian population lacks access to clean water and basic sanitation facilities. this contributes to waterborne diseases, poor hygiene practices, and environmental contamination. ict tools and applications in environmental management 1. remote sensing and geographic information systems (gis): remote sensing technologies, such as satellite imagery and aerial surveys, combined with gis, enable the collection, analysis, and visualization of geospatial data related to the environment. these tools allow for the mapping of land use, vegetation cover, deforestation, water resources, and other environmental parameters, aiding in resource planning, conservation efforts, and monitoring of environmental changes. 2. data management and analytics: ict tools facilitate the management and analysis of large volumes of environmental data. advanced data analytics techniques, such as machine learning and data mining, can be employed to extract meaningful insights, identify trends, and detect patterns in environmental datasets. this information assists in understanding complex environmental systems, predicting future scenarios, and formulating effective strategies for environmental management. 3. mobile applications and crowdsourcing: mobile applications can engage citizens in environmental monitoring and reporting. crowdsourcing platforms enable the public to report environmental incidents, share photographs, and contribute data on environmental observations. these applications facilitate community participation, enhance environmental awareness, and provide valuable information for decision-making processes. 4. decision support systems (dss): dss integrate environmental data, models, and decisionmaking tools to support policymakers, environmental managers, and stakeholders in making informed decisions. these systems provide scenario analysis, risk assessment, and evaluation of alternative strategies, enabling stakeholders to assess the potential environmental impacts of various actions and select the most appropriate and sustainable course of action. 50 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 benefits of ict adoption the following ict techniques will enhance environmental management in nigeria: 1. remote sensing and geographical information systems (gis) remote sensing and geographic information systems (gis) play a crucial role in environmental management by providing valuable tools for data collection, analysis, and visualization (ardac, d. et al, 2014). in nigeria, these technologies have the potential to contribute significantly to environmental monitoring, land management, and decision-making processes. remote sensing involves the use of satellite imagery, aerial photography, and other sensor-based technologies to collect data about the earth's surface. the collected data provide valuable information on land cover, land use changes, vegetation health, deforestation, and other environmental parameters. remote sensing data can be integrated with gis, which enables the storage, analysis, and visualization of geospatial data. in nigeria, remote sensing and gis have numerous applications in environmental management. for example: a. land use planning and management: remote sensing data and gis can assist in land use planning, optimizing the allocation of land for different purposes, such as agriculture, urban development, and conservation. by analyzing land cover and land use patterns, decision-makers can identify areas prone to degradation, guide sustainable land management practices, and prevent encroachment on environmentally sensitive areas. b. forest monitoring and conservation: remote sensing data can be used to monitor changes in forest cover, identify deforestation hotspots, and assess the health and extent of forest ecosystems. this information is crucial for implementing effective forest conservation measures, combating illegal logging, and promoting sustainable forestry practices. c. natural resource management: remote sensing and gis enable the monitoring and management of natural resources, such as water bodies, wetlands, and biodiversity hotspots. these technologies assist in assessing water quality, mapping wetland ecosystems, and monitoring changes in habitats. such information supports effective resource management and conservation efforts. d. disaster management and climate change adaptation: remote sensing and gis aid in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. by analyzing satellite imagery and gis data, authorities can assess the extent of natural disasters such as floods or wildfires, identify vulnerable areas, and plan appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies. these technologies also assist in monitoring climate change impacts and supporting climate resilience initiatives. 2. sensor technologies and networks sensor technologies and networks provide real-time and continuous monitoring of environmental parameters, enabling timely interventions and data-driven decision-making. in nigeria, the application of sensor technologies holds great potential for addressing environmental challenges and improving resource management. a. air quality monitoring: sensor-based technologies can measure air quality parameters, such as particulate matter, gases, and pollutants, in real-time. these sensors can be deployed in urban areas, industrial zones, and sensitive ecosystems to monitor air pollution levels, identify pollution sources, and inform mitigation strategies. b. water quality monitoring: sensor networks can provide continuous monitoring of water quality parameters, such as ph, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient levels. this data helps assess the health of water bodies, detect pollution sources, and support effective water 51 ukegbu & nwala the role of information and communication technology (ict) in environmental... resource management and conservation efforts. c. weather monitoring: weather sensors and networks provide critical data on meteorological parameters, including temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind speed. accurate and timely weather information supports early warning systems for natural disasters, facilitates climate modelling, and aids in agricultural planning and management. d. wildlife tracking and conservation: sensor technologies, such as radio transmitters and gps collars, can be used to track the movements and behaviour of wildlife species. this information helps in understanding animal migration patterns, habitat usage, and population dynamics, aiding in wildlife conservation and ecosystem management. 3.citizen science and crowdsourcing citizen science and crowdsourcing initiatives leverage ict tools and platforms to engage the public in environmental monitoring, data collection, and reporting. in nigeria, these approaches have the potential to enhance environmental management efforts and promote community participation. mobile applications and online platforms allow citizens to report environmental observations, such as wildlife sightings. 4. real-time monitoring systems real-time monitoring systems play a crucial role in environmental management by providing timely and accurate information about various environmental parameters (united nation, 2019). these systems utilize sensor technologies, remote sensing data, and networked infrastructure to continuously monitor and collect data on air quality, water quality, weather conditions, and other environmental indicators (barak, m.,et al, 2015). in nigeria, real-time monitoring systems can significantly contribute to addressing environmental challenges and facilitating informed decision-making. by providing up-to-date information on pollution levels, weather patterns, and ecological changes, these systems enable authorities to respond promptly to environmental threats, implement appropriate mitigation measures, and protect public health. real-time monitoring systems also empower communities by increasing awareness about environmental issues and fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility. through the integration of ict tools and platforms, real-time monitoring systems in nigeria have the potential to revolutionize environmental management practices and contribute to sustainable development. 5. data analytics and modelling data analytics and modelling techniques are essential for making sense of the vast amounts of environmental data collected through various sources. in nigeria, the application of data analytics and modelling in environmental management can provide valuable insights into complex environmental systems, support evidence-based decision-making, and facilitate predictive analysis. by analyzing historical and real-time data, these techniques can identify trends, detect patterns, and assess the potential impacts of different environmental scenarios. data analytics and modelling help authorities understand the relationships between environmental variables, predict the outcomes of specific interventions or policies, and optimize resource allocation (beers, p.j, 2018). in nigeria, data analytics and modelling can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of environmental management strategies, assess climate change impacts, and develop proactive measures for disaster risk reduction. these techniques offer a powerful tool for guiding policy formulation, promoting sustainable practices, and ensuring the long-term environmental sustainability of the country. 6. decision support systems (dss) 52 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 decision support systems (dss) are powerful tools that integrate environmental data, models, and decision-making processes to support informed and effective decision-making in environmental management. in nigeria, dss can aid in addressing complex environmental challenges and optimizing resource allocation. these systems provide decision-makers with valuable insights, scenario analysis, and risk assessments, helping them evaluate alternative strategies and select the most appropriate course of action. by integrating data from various sources and applying modelling techniques, dss enable authorities to assess the potential environmental impacts of different decisions, identify trade-offs, and make informed choices (okafor et al. 2011). dss can also facilitate collaboration and communication among stakeholders by providing a platform for sharing information, analyzing different viewpoints, and reaching consensus on environmental management issues. in nigeria, the adoption of dss can enhance the efficiency, effectiveness, and transparency of environmental decision-making processes, leading to more sustainable and informed outcomes. 7. geographic information systems (gis) geographic information systems (gis) are powerful tools for collecting, storing, analyzing, and visualizing geospatial data related to the environment. in nigeria, gis has immense potential for supporting environmental management efforts. gis technology allows for the integration of various environmental data layers, including land cover, vegetation, water resources, and infrastructure, into a single digital platform. this enables decision-makers to understand spatial relationships, identify patterns, and make informed decisions regarding land use planning, resource management, and environmental conservation. gis provides tools for mapping, spatial analysis, and modelling, enabling authorities to assess environmental impacts, monitor changes, and plan interventions effectively. in nigeria, gis can aid in identifying areas prone to environmental degradation, optimizing the allocation of resources, and supporting ecosystem restoration initiatives. furthermore, gis can contribute to public awareness and engagement by providing interactive maps and visualizations that help individuals understand environmental issues and participate in decision-making processes. challenges confronting the implementation of ict in environmental management in nigeria 1. technological challenges the implementation of ict in environmental management in nigeria faces several technological challenges. one of the significant challenges is the availability and accessibility of advanced technology infrastructure. many regions in nigeria, especially rural areas, lack adequate technological infrastructure, such as reliable electricity supply, internet connectivity, and computer systems. the limited availability of these resources hinders the effective utilization of ict tools for environmental management purposes. additionally, the rapid pace of technological advancements requires continuous upgrades and investments, which can be challenging for developing countries like nigeria. 2. infrastructure and connectivity issues infrastructure and connectivity issues pose significant challenges to the adoption and implementation of ict in environmental management in nigeria. limited access to electricity and the lack of reliable internet connectivity, hinder the smooth operation of ict tools and applications. without a stable power supply, monitoring systems, data collection devices, and communication networks cannot function optimally. furthermore, the availability of affordable 53 ukegbu & nwala the role of information and communication technology (ict) in environmental... and reliable internet connections is crucial for data sharing, remote collaboration, and access to online resources. addressing infrastructure and connectivity issues requires investments in building robust technology infrastructure, expanding internet coverage, and improving energy supply. 3. capacity building and awareness capacity building and awareness are essential for successful implementation and adoption of ict in environmental management in nigeria. capacity building involves providing training, technical skills, and knowledge to individuals and organizations involved in environmental management to effectively use ict tools and applications. it is crucial to train professionals in data analysis, gis, remote sensing, and other relevant technologies to ensure the proper utilization of ict for environmental monitoring and decision-making. additionally, raising awareness among stakeholders, policymakers, and the public about the benefits and potential of ict in environmental management is vital. this includes promoting the understanding of how ict can improve data collection, analysis, and communication, as well as its role in addressing environmental challenges. building partnerships between government agencies, academia, and technology providers can help facilitate capacity building initiatives and awareness campaigns to drive the successful integration of ict in environmental management in nigeria. 4. e-waste management e-waste management is a critical aspect of environmental management in nigeria, given the rapid growth of electronic devices and the subsequent increase in electronic waste generation. improper disposal of electronic waste can have detrimental effects on the environment and human health due to the presence of hazardous substances like lead, mercury, and cadmium. to address this issue, ict plays a crucial role in facilitating e-waste management practices. ict tools and platforms can be utilized to track and monitor e-waste disposal, establish e-waste collection centres, and promote recycling and proper disposal techniques. additionally, public awareness campaigns can be conducted using ict platforms to educate individuals on the importance of responsible e-waste management and encourage the adoption of recycling practices. 5. water resource management water resource management is a significant concern in nigeria, given the growing population, increasing water demand, and the impacts of climate change. ict can contribute to effective water resource management by providing tools for real-time monitoring of water quality and quantity, optimizing water allocation, and facilitating data-driven decision-making. remote sensing and gis technologies can be used to monitor water bodies, identify pollution sources, and assess the health of aquatic ecosystems. sensor networks can provide real-time data on water parameters such as temperature, ph, and dissolved oxygen levels. furthermore, mobile applications and online platforms can engage citizens in reporting water-related issues and participating in water management initiatives. by harnessing the power of ict, nigeria can improve water resource management, ensure sustainable water supply, and mitigate the impacts of water scarcity and pollution. 6. biodiversity conservation biodiversity conservation is crucial for maintaining ecological balance, preserving natural habitats, and safeguarding the rich biodiversity in nigeria. ict tools and applications offer valuable support in biodiversity conservation efforts. remote sensing and gis 54 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 technologies aid in mapping and monitoring biodiversity hotspots, identifying areas of high conservation value, and detecting changes in land cover that may affect biodiversity. citizen science initiatives and crowdsourcing platforms enable individuals to report wildlife sightings, document species occurrences, and contribute to biodiversity data collection. additionally, ict can facilitate information sharing and collaboration among stakeholders involved in biodiversity conservation, including researchers, conservation organizations, and government agencies(nworgu b, 2017). by integrating ict into biodiversity conservation strategies, nigeria can enhance its ability to protect endangered species, promote sustainable land management practices, and preserve the country's unique ecosystems. 7. policy and regulatory frameworks effective policy and regulatory frameworks are essential for promoting the role of ict in environmental management in nigeria. these frameworks provide the necessary guidelines, standards, and legal frameworks to ensure the responsible and sustainable use of ict tools and applications. policies should address issues such as data privacy, data sharing, and cybersecurity to protect sensitive environmental information. moreover, regulations should encourage the adoption of ict in environmental management by providing incentives, promoting research and development, and supporting innovation in the field. clear and comprehensive policies and regulations can create an enabling environment for ict integration, foster collaboration among stakeholders, and drive the implementation of effective environmental management practices. 8. infrastructure development infrastructure development is crucial for the successful implementation of ict in environmental management in nigeria. this includes the establishment of reliable electricity supply, internet connectivity, and robust communication networks. infrastructure development should focus on addressing the digital divide by extending internet coverage to underserved areas, especially rural communities. furthermore, investing in technological infrastructure, such as data centres and server systems, is necessary to store and process large volumes of environmental data. by prioritizing infrastructure development, nigeria can ensure that ict tools and applications are accessible and functional across the country, enabling effective environmental monitoring, data analysis, and decision-making processes. importance of ict in environmental management the importance of ict in environmental management cannot be overstated. ict tools and applications offer numerous benefits, including real-time data collection, enhanced data analysis and modelling, improved decision-making processes, increased public awareness, and stakeholder engagement. by utilizing ict, environmental management practices become more efficient, transparent, and evidence-based. ict enables the integration of diverse datasets, facilitating a holistic understanding of environmental systems and supporting the development of targeted interventions. additionally, ict allows for the participation of citizens in environmental monitoring and decision-making, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility. the adoption of ict in environmental management is crucial for sustainable development, ensuring the protection and conservation of natural resources, and mitigating the adverse impacts of environmental challenges. future prospects the future prospects of ict in environmental management in nigeria are promising. 55 ukegbu & nwala the role of information and communication technology (ict) in environmental... with continued advancements in technology and increased investment in infrastructure, the potential of ict can be fully realized. integration of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and big data analytics, can further enhance the capabilities of ict in environmental monitoring, modelling, and decision-making. increased collaboration and partnerships between government, private sector, and academia can drive innovation and knowledge sharing in the field. furthermore, capacity building and training programs should be prioritized to equip individuals with the necessary skills to leverage ict effectively. policymakers should also focus on developing comprehensive regulatory frameworks that address emerging challenges and promote responsible use of ict in environmental management. by leveraging the power of ict, nigeria can address environmental challenges, promote sustainable practices, and achieve its environmental goals in the future. conclusion the research findings highlight the significant role of ict in environmental management in nigeria. the integration of ict tools and applications, such as remote sensing, gis, sensor technologies, and citizen science, has the potential to address environmental challenges effectively. real-time monitoring systems provide timely and accurate information for decisionmaking, while data analytics and modelling enable the analysis and prediction of environmental trends and impacts. early warning systems play a crucial role in disaster risk reduction and response. moreover, the adoption of ict tools in e-waste management, water resource management, and biodiversity conservation enhances monitoring, data analysis, and public engagement. however, challenges such as technological limitations, infrastructure development, and capacity building need to be addressed to fully harness the potential of ict in environmental management in nigeria. references ainsworth, s.e. 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(2018). the impact of internet use on air pollution: evidence from emerging countries. environmental science and pollution research, 25(5), 4174-4189. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-017-0825-1 ozioko re, nwabueze au 2011. information and communication technology for sustainable development in nigeria. library philosophy and practice.(e-journal), paper 600. united nations. transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. 2 0 1 5 , p p . 1 – 4 2 . a v a i l a b l e o n l i n e : https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030agendaforsustain abledevelopmentweb.pdf (accessed: 05/19/2023) 57 ukegbu & nwala the role of information and communication technology (ict) in environmental... https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s2110701721000196 http://www.edu/newbell/publication/newbergrousekruper.pdf https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-017-0825-1 page 57 page 58 page 59 page 60 page 61 page 62 page 63 page 64 page 65 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract the purpose of this essay is to show that globalization as a practice and a phenomenon is attuned to the norms, traditions and mental makeup of many african societies. incidentally, it has equally demonstrated that, more than formal institutions and complex legal systems. the earliest and most enduring superstructure of globalization are to be found in norms around salient social practice, and this is where african societies not only differ from, but also have an edge over western ones. five major norms that support globalization in africa on areas including: trade; strong economic activities has existed in africa before the emergence of slave trade, communality; norms around the practice of communal help have existed in africa before colonialism, and still exist today, arts and literature; a deeper look into the african artistic tradition would reveal that the continent has been gradually moving towards unity of form, taste and purpose in arts, literature and music for centuries, language and communication; nothing speaks loud about the common root and complex relationships of african civilization than language, and gendered division of labour; a common chord runs through traditional societies in subsaharan africa with respect to economic sex-dependency. the paper passionately submits that africa is most amenable for globalization and further predicted that african norms will continue to make conditions favorable for development of globalization in a way in which the continent will be less exposed to globalization's excesses. keywords: introduction when modern scholars write about the rediscovery of africa, it is not the opening up of hitherto impenetrable swathes of forests and unnavigable rivers that they often allude to. more often than not, their focus is on bringing to light instances where africa has blazed a trail in human civilization, or, (in the worn-out metaphor of classical imperialism), aiming to bring out the lighter side of the presumably 'dark continent.' the rationale for afrocentric scholarship (or whatever it is called) is not just to prove that those who propagated the africa-has-no-history hypothesis were actually bent on helping to 'justify the colonial mission and its dispossessions' (davidson, 1992: 52). rather, it is also determined to show that africa did not just make equal contributions to the progress of the human race, but actually was at the vanguard of this progress. there seem not to be a corresponding consensus in identifying ontological factors which predisposed african nations to adapt effectively to globalization. globalization and african common norms: a philosophical introspection jude chibuzo udenkwo, phd. department of philosophy, nnamdi azikikwe university, awka. 138 this study was able to identify five major norms that both drove the proto-globalization of africa in pre-colonial times, and facilitates its ability to leverage on contemporary globalization. africans were the first globalists, due to the ability of african societies to develop norms and practices that cut across tribal, political, regional, economic and social matrices. these norms persist till today, further propelling africa's march to globalization as we have it today. the nexus between philosophy, philosophers and african norms philosophers have always set the pace as well as announced the closure of any meaningful area of human knowledge. their initiating forays direct a whole army of scholars into a knowledge frontier; their grim resignation signals the end of a slow and steady process of demystification, which transforms a body of knowledge from being a mere branch of philosophy to a full-fledged science. in accordance with this kondratieff cycle of philosophical journey, it is not surprising that the scholar who blew the first trumpet for globalization was the philosopher martin heidegger. norms are accepted standards or ways of behaving or doing things that most people agree with. merriam-webster has three interrelated definitions of norms. one, as as an established standard or average; two, as a set standard of development or achievement usually derived from the average or median achievement of a large group; three, as a pattern or trait taken to be typical in the behavior of a social group. from the above analysis, we can see that norms do not necessarily have the seal of the law, though long accepted norms can be instituted into the legal structure in the course of time. they are sociological rather than political; consensual rather than legal. to borrow from the evolutionary school of law, norms grow with the growth, matures with the maturity and dies with the osteoporosis or death of a people. following this perspective, the norms of globalization would be understood in this essay as consisting of those practices and praxis which have developed over time to shape a pattern of relationship as well as create a bond of unity between coexisting contemporary societies. 'so far as africa is concerned, norms have developed around salient areas of interrelationship as african societies intermingled, synthetized, fractured, warred, and reconciled, even during the times when most parts of the world was plunged in darkness…' (rodney, 1972). can we therefore say that africa is the cradle of globalization? definitely yes. most of the complex systems and inventions of today are simply improvements on what is 'a broad and vivid process of human development.' (davidson, 1974:16-17). africa: background to globalization globalization is seen in different spectra. two major views, however, dominate. the first presupposes the fact of bringing the entire globe into a common sphere, in which countries that emerged victorious in the race to industrialization/modernization, and, 139 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december within them, the lords of finance and captains of industry—the big bonus bankers and the fat-cat capitalists (ferguson, 2008)—predominate. the second views it from a rather rudimentary lens, as the gradual economic and sociocultural integration of the world leading to the death of distance (friedman, 1995) and making the world flat (cairncross, 1997). it is against the first view of globalization that critics react, like the controversial reactions to the wto meeting at seattle in 1999. the second conception of globalization has left critics, scholars and observers blowing hot and cold over its mixed legacy. on a positive note, it accounts for the upsurge in international trade which picked up during the period that is now referred as mercantilism, but also sowed the seeds for capitalist exploitation of a fast rising proletariat population. other free economy dispensations in global trade and finance, like neo mercantilism, classical liberal and neoliberal capitalism, have been sources of great increase in global income as well as sources of misery to increasingly large sections of the world population. this paper does not intend to dwell on the merits and/or demerits of any of these measures. rather, it aspires to take a more historical perspective to globalization, and to locate the phenomenon in the matrix of reinforcing relationships among disparate societies, and the mutual exchange of ideas and practices in ancient societies, with emphasis on pre-colonial african societies. norms based on common trade links in reality, the experience of economic relationships between african kingdoms and empires dates to the distant past. from very early times, there has been 'considerable trade going between arabia and the whole of the indian ocean area, especially the east african coast, zanzibar and madagascar' (davidson, 1974:17). again, in a classic study of trade and politics among kingdoms around the axis of the niger delta, dike provides solid evidence of economic interrelationships which gave rise to common economic practices among these people, centuries before the start of the slave trade (dike, 1952). this has been affirmed by later studies. rodney (1982) traces a long trade network between the forests of eastern nigeria, across benin, through the yoruba and dahomey states, to the old kingdoms of ghana (rodney, 1982). today, the african continental free trade agreement (afcfta) has been designed to help african countries put in place a system that facilitates free movement of capital and labour. one remarkable thing about afcfta that tends to escape the attention of the uninformed is how the trade routes designated under afcfta run in the same direction, as trade routes through which societies in old africa exchanged goods and services with each other. clearly, the old norms prevail. communality and mutual aid norms the most widespread example of mutual help practiced in most parts of africa is the isusu--a system of contribution and sharing of small savings among groups of micro 140 globalization and african common norms:... jude chibuzor udenkwo lenders and micro consumers. though social and political theorists, especially marxists, contend that communalism is purported to be one of the most primeval types economic systems, only ante-dating primitive subsistence, aspects of communalism are still present in contemporary african economic practices. thus there is empirical evidence that sharing economies or mutual aid societies have existed in africa before the age of globalization. what globalization has done is to simply give a fillip to what is essentially part and parcel of the african (to use the words of joseph stalin) mental make-up. take the merry-go-rounds in kenya, for instance. the merry-gorounds have survived in kenya, from the ashes of mutual aid practices several centuries ago. these are groups of consumers pledged to provide mutual aid to each other, often in the form of small business capital contribution. there is also the asakya, a system of sharing water according to need. it was practiced in arab-speaking countries in olden days, and have been exported to spain (neuwirth, 2017). it helps address acute water shortage prevalent in the middle east and north africa. a prominent example of african norms that have been adapted and improved with globalization is the igbo apprenticeship system (ias). originally developed around selfhelp norms at the level of the clan, the ias has been transformed to a veritable tool of national economic participation and international trade (ekekwe, 2022). alaba international market-the flagship project of this business model--is ten thousand merchants-strong, and does over 4 billion usd worth of business per annum, making it the biggest electronics market in west africa. neuwirth rightly refers to it as the largest business incubation platform in the world (neuwirth, 2017). common norms in arts and literature the ease with which african societies adapted to the centrifugal forces of globalization in arts, literature and entertainment has been interpreted as evidencing the unique gifts which africans have in the arts and humanity pursuits, in contrast to europeans and asians who have made more invaluable contributions in the sciences. in fact, africa has been a source of artistic creativity and inspiration to people from other continents, with whom it had related in matters of trade, war, diplomacy and other aspects of political economy. there may not be enough substantial proof of the exact nature and extent of this influence, but there is no denying the fact that there were 'literary consequences' to the early 'contact between arab merchants (and other non-africans) and local cultures' in africa (gerard, 2007: 17). it is paradoxical that africa, being one of the primeval human civilizations that left no enviable written records and books, has 'left graphic marks of its history everywhere' even more than literate civilizations. in fact, africa is the continent with the largest number of recorded rock art paintings, populated by crowds of painters who are eager to record, to pray, or to celebrate. (ricard, 2007:7). graphic representation is present everywhere in africa. in view of this, the claim that africa bestowed no form of script or writing to mankind can be argued, given that 'cave paintings are indeed a kind of writing,' that can communicate across cultures and eras because it is a universal code (ricard, 2007:7). 141 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december language and communication norms the origin of many languages seem to be lost in antiquity, but the study of language can reveal to us how deeply connected the human family has been, and for how long. in other words, though 'it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to tell, for instance, who first spoke igbo, where, when and how it was spoken, how related igbo is to other languages and how long this relationship stretches to the past can however be known (odoemenam, 2006). in a groundbreaking research, atkinson found not only evidence of the african origin of languages, but how what could be regarded as the first language which was born in africa, was progressively developed, modified, re-made, and split from earlier sources as the human migration chain continued to elongate (atkinson, 2011). thus, language was the first carrier of norms, cultures, practices and folk spirit between one african society and another, and from africa to the rest of the world. what one could call 'the primordial interconnectivity and interrelationship within african societies and between african and non-african societies' are proof that inter-group communications have long been occurring in africa. african kingdoms and tribes have been forging relationships, alliances and connections using language as a tool, long before the idea of globalization was ever conceived. it is certainly difficult to put a date on it, but we can be sure that this has been ongoing for thousands of years. unarguably, these common linguistic patterns or norms evidences a primordial form of globalization. today, linguists have developed a complex pattern of classification of languages, where language families and divisions attest to common origin from a proto-language. how best to determine the length of this cross fertilization of linguistic patterns is a crucial task. let us, again take igbo language for instance. igbo language, “started when the igbo nation started, and has since come to be known as the indigenous language of the people. all other african languages are also indigenous to their owners.” in fact, “all vernacular languages pre-date the country' (odoemenam, 2006). norms on gendered division of labour taken to a higher level of analysis, what contemporary scholars call feminist economics and gender political economy (bechio, 2020) actually started in africa. women were (perhaps wrongly) regarded as being placed below men in the socioeconomic calibration of most traditional societies, which still persists in some modern societies. this was an exigency which traditional societies fashioned to ensure a steady source for the replacement and continuation of the society. this has given rise to norms which totally ceded the child care industry and its allied institutions to females (nwaogwugwu, 2021; nnajiofor, anozie and onyiluka, 2022). though the situation detailed above developed from what universal norms were guiding male-female relationships, we are not to lose sight of the fact that different societies developed norms on the proper balance of male-female power, which were unique to their conditions. for instance, in traditional igbo societies in particular, and some parts of nigeria in general, women were participants both in economic production and social replacement, in different degrees. 142 globalization and african common norms:... jude chibuzor udenkwo in the pre-colonial times, there was a pattern of division of labour along gender lines peculiar to some indigenous nigerian societies, which enabled women to control such occupations as food processing, mat weaving, pottery making, and cooking. though communal land rights precluded women from owning land, women had access to land through their husbands or parents. although headship of the household was reserved for men in nigeria as in every patrilineal system, older women had control of the labour of younger family members. in addition to the fact that women performed strategic functions by default, it is also on record that in some nigerian societies, women were constitutionally empowered to assume leadership positions. in politics, women were not as docile or powerless as contemporary ideas tend to portray them. the basic unit of political organization was the family, and in the common matrifocal arrangement (which), allowed a woman to gain considerable authority over her children, a woman and her offspring could form a major bloc in the household. 'power and privileges in a household were also based on age and gender, thereby allowing senior women to have a voice on many issues. because the private and public arenas were intertwined, a woman's ability to control resources and people in a household was at the same time an exercise in public power. she could use food production to gain respect. she could control her children and influence men through this power. she could evoke the power of the spirit or gods in her favour. or she could simply withdraw and use the kitchen as her own personal domicile for interaction with her colleagues, friends, and children' (encyclopedia britannica, 2010:4). drawing from the above ideas, one can advance the thesis that the disempowerment and economic disenfranchisement of nigerian women is a later-day development. in a classic summary, it can be seen that: the most serious threat to the influence and privileges of women occurred during the 20th century, when patriarchy combined with colonial changes to alter gender relations. as male chiefs collaborated with the british colonial administration in collecting taxes and governing, the position of female chiefs declined in importance. when the economy became increasingly geared toward the production of cash crops for export, nigerian men and european firms dominated the distribution of rubber, cocoa, qq (peanuts), and palm oil. women, pushed to the background, were forced to shift to the production of subsistence crops. a previous land-tenure system that had prevented land alienation gave way to land commercialization, favouring those with access to money gained from the sale of cash crops. western-style education also favoured boys over girls and thus largely excluded women from many of the new occupations introduced by colonialism (encyclopedia, 2010:6) conclusion the impact of globalization on africa is a subject matter of considerable interest to scholars of african and non-african persuasion. within this praxis, the rate at which africa has been integrated into the so-called “global village" has been a source of marvel to observers. this study therefore concluded that africa was the cradle of globalization, and african 143 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december nations could still experience a unique form of globalization greased by their peculiar norms, in which they will be cushioned against globalization's excesses and backlashes. references atkinson, q. (2011). 'phonemic diversity supports a serial founder effect model of language expansion from africa. science magazine: 332 (6027):346-349. cairncross, f. (2001). the death of distance: how the communications revolution is changing our world. (2nd ed.) usa: harvard business review press. davidson, b. (1974). africa in history: themes and outlines. england: paladin books davidson, b. (1992). the black man's burden: africa and the curse of the nation-state. abuja: spectrum books. ekekwe, n. (2022). a nigerian model for stakeholder capitalism. harvard business review. emecheta, b. (2007). feminism with a small "f"!. in olaniyan, t. & quayson, a. (eds.). african literature: an anthology of criticism and theory. ma: blackwell publishing. ferguson, n. (2008). the ascent of money: a financial history of the world. new york: the penguin group. friedman, m. (2005). the world is flat: a brief history of the 21st century. usa: farrar, straus and giroux. giandomenica, b. (2020). a history of feminist and gender economics. new york: routledge. neuwirth, r. (2017, sunday, november 04: 11.15 am). the age-old sharing economies of africa and why we should scale them. official ted talk, 2017. nnajofor. h. anozie, p.o. & onyiluka, c.c. (2022). the role of women in omugwo care work: implication for education and economy. journal of education foundation and administration, 1, (1) page 151---160. nwaogwugwu, i. (2021). gender and unpaid care work among the igbos of eastern nigeria: a study of the role of women in omugwo postpartun practice. unpublished masters thesis. university of aberdeen. odoemena, i.c. (2006). the rising profile of indigenous languages: implications for literary creativity and literary criticism. journal of nigerian languages and culture, 8 (1): 133-137 ricard, a. (2007). africa and writing. in tejumola olaniyan & ato quayson, (ed). african literature and anthologies of criticism and theory. p. 7-15. ma: blackwell publishing rodney, w. (1972). how europe underdeveloped africa. uk: bogle-l'ouverture publications sackey, b.m. (2003). a woman's perspective on the cultural dimensions of development. p.95 in dukor, m., philosophy and politics: discourse on values, politics and power in africa. (2nd ed). lagos: malthouse 144 globalization and african common norms:... jude chibuzor udenkwo page 146 page 147 page 148 page 149 page 150 page 151 page 152 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 105 political awareness and participation in development interventions: a bedrock for social sustainability? emenike petersixtus department of international development management university of westminster, london united kingdom. & anthony izuchukwu ezeobele department of philosophy university of lagos abstract to achieve the transformative commitment to “leave no one behind” of the agenda 2030 of un’s sustainable development implies adopting actions that recognize the importance of politics in development and putting inclusive power play into the development process and interventions. it stresses the importance of politics of self-determination in development. more so, the importance of agency and politics as a method for building development capacity in communities. this is so because, excluding political aspects from development debate would lead to misinterpretation of the real causes of underdevelopment. using secondary data analyses, the paper has its grounds in the deep connection between development and politics, and in the need for practitioners to value it and reconsider it as an essential method for a successful project aiming at improving people’s lives. this paper argues that if the locals want to advocate for their needs, people need to be aware and informed of the political environment around them. adopting li’s concept of rendering technical, experts focus less on the political structures, they devise technical schemes in the form of technical matrixes that identify the problems and translate them and their solutions in the form of program designs and models which remain prescriptive devoid of participation by the people. but achieving social sustainability of projects demands citizen’s greater awareness and participation of what transpires in the intervention. the paper shows the importance of agency and politics as methods for building development capacity in the communities as well as the use of politically engaging methods as relevant practices towards sustainability of development interventions. keywords: political awareness, political participation, rendering technical, social sustainability, inclusion. 106 introduction the underlying principle of sustainable development, to “leave no one behind” (lnob), is a pivotal and transformative commitment that lies at the heart of the agenda 2030 for sustainable development and its sustainable development goals (sdgs). it is an explicit commitment of all un member states to eradicate poverty in all its forms, end discrimination and exclusion, and reduce the inequalities and vulnerabilities that leave people behind and undermine the potential of individuals and of humanity as a whole. it is not only significant in terms of geographical base, but it also extends to intersectional and interactional aspects of development processes and interventions. this is so because, many of the barriers people face in accessing services, resources and equal opportunities in participation and ownership of development interventions are not simply lack of availability of resources, but rather the result of power dynamics emanating from ‘expertise complex’, discriminatory laws, policies and social practices that diminish political confidence and leave particular groups of people behind in climbing the development ladder. this article will examine the meanings and implications of political awareness and participation in formulation and implementation of development projects. with the research questions centering on the relationships between political awareness and participation towards social sustainability, the paper will expose possible gaps in the approach to development as supply-driven from a technocratic and donor-sided definition of interventions. how sustainable is a development intervention that is formulated without local participation and without inputs from the beneficiaries? what are the gaps in implementing such programs that problems were discovered and solutions proffered by experts with minimal contributions from the locals who have ‘lived-experience’ of the location? in addition, the paper will highlight the relationship between development and politics and underline the importance of politics in development. it will explore the importance of studying and understanding the political context of the recipient civil societies before the enactment of a project or a program. this is so because, it has been shown that excluding the political and social aspects from the development debate is likely to lead to a misinterpretation of the real causes of underdevelopment (carothers, 2013, li, 2007). sequel to this, using tania li’s concept of rendering technical as theoretical framework, the paper will analyze the citizen’s participation in project cycle, to expose the defects and gaps in the system and the paper will suggest inclusive and socially sustainable methods which enhance the people’s understanding of their political and social environment, decision-making capabilities, and skills to implement their own development plan. review of relevant literature this section will elucidate political awareness and political participation. it will further link the two concepts together in order to explain the relationship between the two concepts in political awareness and participation in development interventions: emenike petersixtus & a.i. ezeobele aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 107 understanding the social, political, and cultural occurrences in a given society. with this understanding, we will explain the meaning of social sustainability which gives a voice to the locals in development intervention and then establish a frame of reference that explains the implications of active participation of the people in any development intervention or provision of social services to a given society. political awareness to explain what political awareness it, let us first explain what awareness means as a prelude to understanding what political awareness means. awareness means the act of realizing and understanding. awareness is the individual’s perception of him/herself and of his/her surrounding environment (al faitouri, 2020, p. 133). more so, it is the overall individual’s outlook, understanding, knowledge and assessment of events. it grows and develops with the growth and development of the individual’s life and therefore results from the various social, political, and cultural factors affecting the individual. by implication, the more improvement in the social and cultural milieu results in the higher political awareness of individual in the society (abonu, ogunlade, &yunusa, 2013). politics is about mobilizing support for, and consent to, action in the context of diverse, and sometimes competing interests and may involve either collaboration or competition depending on purpose. this involves building alignment and alliances, strategic direction, and scanning (hartley et al., 2013, p.18). in this context then, political awareness is primarily a function of acquiring knowledge about politics (amer 2009, p. 351). it is the responsiveness and knowledge of political strength in the community (kholisoh, et al., 2019, p.131). it means access to political information, political participation, media exposure, interest in politics and education, with political information being the best indicator overall. it has also been defined as the interlocking set of knowledge, interest, and participation (fiske et al. 1983). political awareness then means the citizen’s knowledge of his/her political rights and duties, of the events and incidents happening around him/her in addition to his/her capability of wholly recognizing the state of affairs around him/her as a comprehensive truth whose elements are intertwined rather than separate incidents or distanced events (kavita, 2017, pp 66-67). it is the understanding of the members of the society of their rights and responsibilities in the face of occurrences in the society with a view of building a just and better society to the best of their knowledge and capabilities at any given instance. it is one of the main pillars upon which the social, political, and cultural systems of any society is based such that ignoring it throughout the process of construction and reconstruction of the state will inevitably mean a baseless constructure that will collapse whenever the state is faced with any crisis involving within the state or with other states whatever the size of the political or demographic construction (fairbrother, 2003). 108 according to zaller (1992, p. 126), political awareness means ‘‘the extent to which an individual pays attention to politics and understands what he or she has encountered’’. it reflects ‘‘intellectual or cognitive engagement with public affairs’’ (ibid.), as indicated by factual information about government and politics that has gotten into people’s minds”. political awareness operates in the political information exchange between the individual and various sources of political messages communicated in the public space. it is commonly understood as an important asset, which determines people’s engagement with politics and how political awareness might be a key asset, which determines participation and active citizenship (solhaug et al, 2018). so, political awareness is a force for good, and for getting things done in organisations, and it is an essential skill in life. also, for surbakti (2007, p.144), political awareness is the consciousness of the rights and obligations as a citizen. the level of political awareness means a sign that community members pay attention to state and/or development affairs (budiardjo, 1985, p.22). there are four indicators of awareness (soekanto, 1982), each of which constitutes a phase for subsequent phase and points to a certain level of awareness, ranging from the lowest to the highest, namely knowledge, understanding, stance, and behaviour (action) pattern. for wilson (2013) as quoted in dioso, m. (2019), there are five levels of political awareness, namely: politically illiterate, misinformed person, general awareness people, activists, and political experts. these levels are basically influenced on how and what elements influenced the knowledge of people with regards to politics. from the foregoing it is evident that, being politically aware and empowered to participate in the political terrain of what happens within an individual’s purview and affecting the decisions thereof implies having access to prepare the individual’s capabilities, to probate his/her will, to consolidate his/her feeling of freedom and to boost the individual’s self -esteem in order to develop the human potentials towards active participation in achieving sustainable change and transformation in the society (al-khaza’leh, & lahiani, 2021, p.205). political awareness is simply an understanding of these ‘power webs’ and an ability to navigate them, and therefore get things done (skillsyouneed, 2021). political awareness is built and develops through some stages. these stages signify the transpires within the individual and the society that gives rise to the consciousness of the political, social, and cultural sensitivities in the society and the responsiveness of the individual to recognize and contribute in what happens in the society. in the first place, political awareness operates on the theoretical level. this involves either conscious or unconscious generation of ideologies imbedded in the social, political, and cultural environment an individual lives such as cultural values, political events, and social norms. this occurs at the theoretical level in three phases, namely; the phase of knowledge, perception, and discovery, during which the individual is disposed to perceiving and understanding truths directly and which shows the readiness to admit the ideas, determine them, analyze, and select them. political awareness and participation in development interventions: emenike petersixtus & a.i. ezeobele aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 109 then, the second stage is that of political interest. this is kindled by the ideas the individual has analyzes and selected. here, the individual shows interest in the community s/he belongs. this comes with the notion of obedience, acceptance, and the sense of belonging to the community becomes deep-rooted in the individual. this might be reflected through the acceptance and conformity to the numerous norms, deeds, rights, responsibilities, and activities the community stipulates for the individual for the harmonious living in the society. the third phase is that of political adherence. under this stage, political awareness requires that the individual observes and engages intellectually or religiously to a particular group, institution, or political establishment. the adherence to these institutions may sometimes make the individuals’ awareness to some objectives benefiting the authority or institution the individual belongs to. for instance, when these institutions are compulsory, like in a school setting, the official awareness of the authority is reflected on that of the students so that they would defend and justify it. however, the individual’s adherence to optional groups makes it difficult for the authority to control the awareness of individuals, and the organized awareness of the individuals often emerges in the case of confrontation with the authority (william, & anthony, 2017). in addition, political awareness can arise on a practical level. in this case, it results from the knowledge and experiences an individual has accumulated from the environment around him/her which then translates into practical ways of living. the knowledge and experiences influence the practical ways the individual lives and responds to events within the society. this in turn is manifested through the individual’s contribution to the political process which sometimes leads to the authority’s approval of the students’ requests and desires. (william, &anthony, 2017). sequel to this, if political awareness is a factor that helps with political practice, then its role is contingent on a number of conditions mainly the feeling of political aptitude. political aptitude is a state of the mind felt by the individual which has the capability to understand the important aspects of the social systems in a society and has the dexterity to support and promote them. this also entails an understanding of the wrong aspects of the system and criticizes then to reveal the shortcomings and negative effects on the individual and the community. political awareness leads to readiness for political participation. that is, the individual’s awareness necessitates that the effective practice of political freedom requires the individual to work hand in hand with other members of the political community in order to contribute to enlisting policies and decisions and choosing rulers that guides the way of life in the society. this leads also to mutual intellectual tolerance. the willingness of the individual to contribute to formulation and implementation of policies and decisions in a fair and equitable manner. in addition, political awareness necessitates individuals to show positive feelings towards occurrences in the state that governs him/her without waiting for the authorities to issue laws and orders or use conceive means to induce the individual to participate in the good of the society. 110 also, political awareness makes the individual to respect the principles guiding the society irrespective of the performance of the leadership of the community, the individual will in a civil manner respect the ultimate principle that underlies the philosophy of the community. this makes the individual to be civil always even when s/he wants to protest, it is done in a civil and non-violent manner. this in turn leads to mutual trust among the citizens. not only trust between the ruler and the ruled, novice and expert, but among other members of the society so far, they share the same guiding principles and philosophy of life (fiske & donald, 2000). from the foregoing, we can deduce that political awareness is one of the main necessities of life because, it opens up avenues for initiation, understanding, analyses of the way of life in a given society. it also creates political freedom, mutual tolerance, obedience, appreciation of the guiding principles and philosophy of life of the people, it builds mutual trusts and facilitates political participation towards a just, fair, and sustainable society. political participation political participation can be loosely defined as citizens’ activities affecting politics (van deth, 2001, p.1). political participation simply means that a person is participating in the political process by making his or her opinions and beliefs known. it is an action taken by a citizen to influence the outcome of a political issue. political participation derives from the freedom to speak out, assemble and associate; the ability to take part in the conduct of public affairs (un, 2001) political participation includes a broad range of activities through which people develop and express their opinions on the world and how it is governed and try to take part in and shape the decisions that affect their lives (ncbi, 2010). this can include voting, protest, public consultation, signing a petition, writing a letter to a public official, blogging about a political issue, donating money to a cause, volunteering for a campaign, joining an activist or interest group, or holding a public official position. barnes et al (1979) would opine that dissent, disapproval, rejection, and provocation are evidently expressions of citizens’ interests and opinions and therefore should be included in the repertoire of democratic political participation. thus, the newer forms of participation also included many protest actions organized by upcoming “new social movements” initiated by pacifist, ecological, squatters’, and women’s groups. political participation has some characteristics that are worth mentioning. it is an activity (or action), it is voluntary and not ordered by a ruling class or obliged under some law. it is the activities of people in their roles as nonprofessionals or amateurs and not, say, as politicians, civil servants, or lobbyists. it concerns government, politics, or the state in broad senses of these words and is not restricted to specific phases (such as parliamentary decisionmaking processes or executing laws) or to specific levels or areas (such as national elections or contacts with party officials). thus, any voluntary, nonprofessional activity concerning government, politics, or the state is a specimen of political participation (van deth, 2001, p.3). so, nonprofessional, voluntary activities that are not located in or targeted at the sphere of political awareness and participation in development interventions: emenike petersixtus & a.i. ezeobele aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 111 government/state/politics can be considered as modes of political participation if they are aimed at solving collective or community problems. (van deth, 2001, p.10). thus, the recent expansions of the repertoire of political participation in democratic societies seem to be based on a shift in the nature of involvement. as such, refusals to buy a specific brand of a product, volunteering in a movement, being a member of a sports club, or posting a blog on a topic that affects the lives of the society are not specimens of political participation, but nonpolitical activities that can be used for political purposes. though social engagement are specimens of political participation, these activities need not require some organization or coordinated action. surely, to be effective a large number of people should behave in a similar way, but they can all act individually, separately, and with distinct aims and motivations. going further to explain political participation and its varied influence on public policy, ramlan surbakti, as quoted by cholisin (2012, p. 150), suggests that political participation as a form of ordinary citizen’s participation in making any decision related to or having an impact on his/her life. miriam budiarjo, (in cholisin 2007, p. 150) further elucidates that political participation can be defined as the activity of an individual or a group of individuals to take an active part in political life by choosing a state leader that will directly or indirectly affect public policy. the typology of political participation as an activity is distinguished into active participation, passive participation and abstain (rahman, 2007, p. 288). political participation is relevant for any political system, but it is an indispensable feature of democracy: “where few take part in decisions there is little democracy; the more participation there is in decisions, the more democracy there is” (verba & nie, 1972, p. 1). political participation is one of the essential aspects of democracy. political participation is a typical characteristic of political modernization. (kholisoh, et al, 2019, p.131). in order to be engaged in influencing the outcome of the functioning of the society and taking part in decision making and implementation, three key components are involved which facilitate political participation. they are resources; engagement; and recruitment. resources such as time, money, and civic skills are considered essential to a person or group’s capacity to engage in political activities. the concept of engagement in this model involves several key psychological conditions. to be involved, people must want to participate, have a strong sense of self-efficacy, and feel personally fulfilled and connected to others. additional indicators of engagement here include identification with a political party and family background of political activity; having politically active parents is considered a predictor for greater engagement than having politically inactive parents. finally, recruitment entails asking and encouraging people to participate in political activity. typically, recruitment occurs within the context of faithbased communities, workplaces, or voluntary associations. (ostrander et al, 2018, p.45). after explaining what political awareness and participation, how they grow and develop towards the active engagement with the political, social, and cultural aspects of the life of a community, the question remains, is there a relationship between the two concepts. 112 the next subsection will try to outline the correlation between political awareness and political participation and how these can be harnessed towards a sustainable society that encourages community-based development. relationship between political awareness and political participation politics is defined as the mobilization of support for a position, decision, or action whereby people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences, deliberate together, analyze occurrences, to conciliate different interests and values, and to make public policies in the pursuit of common purposes (leftwich, 2004, p.14). in this regard, politics is a pursuit of common interests wherein collective effort from the public, private sector, and the government is needed to achieve common purposes. this involves being conscious of what is happening around in the society, being empowered to engage with the occurrences and being able to take part in the decision, formulation of policies and implementation thereof. according to althubetat & jarrar (2013), the degree of awareness of individuals in any community affects the development of the state. they further added that man is both the means and purpose for development; the more the individual in the community is aware of his abilities and potentials, the more contribution is manifested in the field of development. thus, awareness in politics and governance is an essential factor for social progress and prosperity (dioso, 2019, p.1) which necessitates participation to influence the outcome of what happens around the society. political participation can be understood as voluntary rather than coerced activities of persons in political affairs such as voting, membership and activities connected with political groups, political parties, and political bodies. therefore, it stands to reason that people who are unfamiliar with politics and related issues would be less interested to participate (kuotsu, 2016). political participation derives from the freedom to speak out, assemble and associate; the ability to take part in the conduct of public affairs; and the opportunity to register as a candidate, to campaign, to be elected and to hold office at all levels of government. in connection with this, those who engage in political discussions with others usually show an interest in politics and some level of knowledge (kuotsu, 2016). public forums are conducted so that people will be familiar with the candidates. such critical consciousness may foster empowerment, which can increase political participation (ostrander et al, 2015) fulfilling their obligation to the society. the consciousness develops and grows into active involvement in the occurrences in the polity to influence and be influenced by the decisions thereof for the growth and development of the society. political participation is generally considered to be symbolic of the extensiveness to which democratic ideals are applied (rani, 2001). this extensiveness begins with political awareness which raises questions about what is happening in the society and these questions make an political awareness and participation in development interventions: emenike petersixtus & a.i. ezeobele aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 113 individual to be engaged in the political as well as social and cultural aspects of the development of the society. social sustainability social sustainability is an inclusive approach to development where the citizens have a voice in the social, political, and cultural development and the government listens to their contributions to these aspects of their life. it is aimed at addressing the long-lasting barriers to development, strengthening the focus on people who have been excluded from economic and social opportunities, and increasing investment in inclusive growth (world bank, 2021). the key words are inclusive and resilient society. it expands the horizons of opportunities to accommodate socio-economic and environmental sustainability and it is critical for povertyreduction and shared prosperity. thus, creating opportunities for all people and addressing deep rooted systemic inequalities. according to the world bank (2021) the core tenet of social sustainability and inclusion’s work is to help people, regardless of their gender, race, religion, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, or disability, overcome obstacles that prevent them from fully participating in society and supporting their efforts to shape their own future. it does so by working with governments, communities, civil society, the private sector, and other stakeholders to create more inclusive societies, empower citizens, and foster more resilient and peaceful communities. this is so because, inequality, persistent discrimination and exclusion of the poor comes at a high cost to both the people and the communities. so, to offset this cost, social sustainability and inclusion creates opportunities for the people to have a voice and participate fully in markets, services, technologies, and society. this means empowering people to be the focus and drivers of their development. theoretical framework the concept of ‘rendering technical’ in the sections that follow, we draw on tania li’s (2007) concept of the ‘rendering technical’ of development, a concept in which she combines the insights of foucault and gramsci in order to study development projects as outcomes of both diffuse forms of power relations and wider political-ideological struggles (doucette, & müller, 2016, p. 32). drawing heavily on foucault’s concept of governmentality, li argues that experts encapsulated in trustees (experts, planners, authorities) more often than not seek to render the process of development into a technical or apolitical process by simplifying complex political-economic relations into intelligible fields for intervention (li, 2007, p.7). rendering technical is the “extracting from the messiness of the social world” (li, 2007b, p.3) in a framework with interventions that would supposedly yield results and bring about positive impacts in people’s lives. it means reducing complex social and political situations to a matter 114 of bureaucratic, technological, and organizational interventions (ferguson, 1994, p. 256). they are those practices through which experts define a problem and circumscribe its boundaries in such a way that social forces can be managed, and technical solutions applied. through this, experts exclude from their diagrams the processes that impoverish people and focus on the conduct of the poor. they highlight symptoms and correlations, rather than exploring the social relations that cause these conditions. at the long run, the result is to confirm that poor people are responsible for their own fate and should pull themselves up by their own bootstraps and/or take the initiative to move to areas of high growth and new opportunities. through rendering technical, development experts focus less on the political structures and alienate the local populace in the process of making decisions that affect the development of the people. they fail to bring the people into focus as they tend to foster their selfish interests instead of helping the locals towards economic independence. development issues like poverty, inequality, discrimination, and gender are framed as technical problems of growth and participation (doucette, & müller, 2016, p. 32), these are then the problems that can be resolved by those same experts who possess the desired technical knowhow and solutions and who can diagnose and select the ‘correct’ institutional or material inputs to bring about the desired change. in the same vein, though development is rendered technical or anti-political, its practice remains inherently prescriptive in the sense that it is considered to create socio-economic ‘improvements’ to a social and physical landscape that has been found lacking by experts, planners, authorities encapsulated in trustees who are in charge of identifying the ‘‘problem” and devising the desired ‘‘solutions”. thus, they diagnose deficiencies in landscapes and populations, and devise technical schemes in the form of technical matrixes that identifies the problem, translates the problem in the form of program designs and models that is curated for the purpose of development intervention. so, in the long run, development projects thus remain political because their interventions encourage the power of elite and expert actors over the development process by strategically employing particular kinds of expert knowledge and policy narratives to exclude other social forces and secure hegemony. it is important to point out that, li argues that two key practices are involved in devising improvement or development projects. the first is the practice of problematization, or identification and bounding of the deficiencies to be rectified by the expert. this identification of a problem is intimately linked to the availability of a solution (li, 2007, p. 7). the second aspect is devising development interventions which is the practice of ‘‘rendering technical.” so, the effect of this encounter between technical development interventions and local conditions is that development projects rarely proceed as intended, and most never reach their stated objective(s). instead, such projects generate side effects such as the development of new social conflicts, the expansion of bureaucratic state power (ferguson, 1994, pp. 254–255), and the proliferation of the (trans)national development apparatus (li, 2007, p.15). this apparatus is sometimes planned and executed to as an offshoot of the intervention by the experts. political awareness and participation in development interventions: emenike petersixtus & a.i. ezeobele aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 115 though rendering technical seeks to resolve development gaps in communities by making invisible problems visible and framed within a matrix with solutions, in the long run it leads to social conflict and internal agitation within the local populace because the formulations of the problems and solutions fail to recognize the political awareness and participation of the local population. so, satisfying the will to improve and a common sense of justice means combining technocratic expertise with an understanding of the legitimate claims of local parties. it implies taking on board the political participation in development intervention. the effects of political awareness and participation on social sustainability vis-à-vis ‘rendering technical’ expert formulation of problems and identification of solution devoid of participation from the locals may lead to identification of the wrong problem which leads to using a set of wrong solutions to the problem. when some experts use the one-size-fits-all framework to diagnose problems that may be peculiar to a given geographical region and impose the solutions thereof on another location, the outcome will be a compounding of problems that will alienate the people and demean the development intervention. by rendering technical, the experts focus on the symptoms and correlations, rather than exploring the social relations that cause these conditions, they dwell on the periphery rather than the root causes of the problem. but by getting the people involved in the diagnoses of the problem, they will understand the different ramifications of what gave rise to the problem and how they can be addressed systematically. any development intervention that does not deal with the root causes of the problem in any particular geographical location will be chasing symptoms instead of the root causes of the problem. most times, the locals have more knowledge of the solutions of the problems in their locality, depending on the circumstance, they may need fine tuning of their ‘lived experience’ to tackle the problem, or analysis of the problem with them in a systematic manner, or they may need a ‘push’ to get the problem solves. in either of the cases, excluding them from analysis of the problem and solution may be disastrous to the nature and outcome of the intervention. the foregoing implies that there is politics in development intervention, and this should be respected and utilized to the benefit of the development processes at any given time and location. any community that a project is to be cited has their own existing political structures, they have their power play whether and this has to be studied and brought on board in the formulation and implementation of any successful development intervention. failure to do this, may result in compounding of a simple mechanism of development intervention. so, any intervention that fails to bring the people into focus is disastrous in its nature in the same way, any intervention that tend to foster the vested interests of the those in position of trusteeship (experts, planners, and authorities) instead of helping the locals towards economic independence, will make complex a simple process of development intervention. it will reverse 116 the outcome of what is supposed to alleviate the predicament of the people. such an intervention will achieve a different objective from its intended objectives. but when the encounter between technical development interventions and local conditions sprouts and grows mutually and is aligned well devoid of vested interests, the development project thereof will be owned by the people, the level of participation and understanding of the project will be high from both ends and the goals and objectives of the project will be effectively delivered. when this is the case, the will to improve is satisfied because, a healthy balance is reached combining technocratic expertise with an understanding of the legitimate claims of local parties. it implies taking on board the political participation in the development intervention (li, 2007). it follows that, political awareness, and consequently citizen participation, are important as factors contributing to community capacity, which is the aptitude of a community to actively develop proposals and to plan strategically on the long term while relying on specific mechanisms and infrastructures that facilitate this type of input (mcguire et al., 1994). community capacity’s aim is to expand and improve every aspect of its citizens’ lives; flint’s (2013) succinctly puts it thus, “without capacity, communities are merely collections of individuals”, because their existence isn’t fruitful in any meaningful sense for their own development. not only civic capacity is important on its own, but it is also the bedrock of economic development and of a community’s stewardship of its traditions and assets (flint, 2013). moreover, we can consider capacity as made of these three different components: commitment, resources, and skills. in this case political awareness is helpful in enhancing the commitment of the community to promoting actions that benefit its well-being on the long term. in the same vein, given that community-based projects are oftentimes focused on a short-term goal, as, for example, the building of a new schools or health facility, political sophistication of the citizens can help in maintaining the leadership active and healthy for the achievement of goals on the long term (flint, 2013). the aim of development is in fact to provoke a cycle of long-lasting social radical transformation, building up social sustainability, not only to fix the tangible and most noticeable problems in the present. some scholars argue that this type of projects are very often controlled not by the community as a whole but by a few leaders belonging to the elite (mansuri & rao, 2004). if people had the chance to be acquainted with the policy-making process and with the political environment, they would be able to raise their own issues and requests instead of being spoken for by a few representatives, losing part of their agency. under this situation, the project is socially sustainable. social sustainability gives voice to the people, it gives opportunities to the people to participate actively to decisions that affects their lives. when projects are formulated and implemented the people participate in different ways not necessarily through their representatives, but they have avenues to put in their suggestions which are taken on board and addressed during the political awareness and participation in development interventions: emenike petersixtus & a.i. ezeobele aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 117 implementation of the project. in this case, rendering technical becomes facilitating technical, an expert becomes a facilitator, an enabler in the field to coordinate people and accompany them to identify problems and needs of the people and guide them to proffering solutions to the problems. so, the expert/planner works with the governments, communities, civil society, the private sector, and other stakeholders to create more inclusive societies, empower citizens, and foster more resilient and peaceful communities. conclusion social inclusion in development process and intervention improves the capabilities of the people, ownership of the project and hands the agency of the development process to the people. this implies that any development intervention that is deprived of inclusive participation by the local populace is rendering technical. it forecloses opportunities for bottom-top inputs into the project, it alienates the people from being part of the system that affects their future, it creates a barrier to the ownership of the project by the people, it breeds social conflict in the community, and it builds barricades to socially sustainable development because the development process lacks the voice of the people which is the essential pillars that the foundation of any development intervention is built on. this implies that, for a project to be sustainable, it has to focus on the people’s conscious participation. the power play should not exclude the inputs from the local population. if it does exclude the people, then, it may render the wrong diagnosis of the problems as well as the solutions to the problems. so, regardless of their gender, race, religion, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, or disability, full participation of the people in the decisions that affects their life in the society should be paramount in formulation and implementation of any effort to shape their future. thus, creating opportunities for all people and addressing deep rooted systemic inequalities. the legitimate claims of ‘lived experience’ from the side of the locals when confronted with rendering technical from experts begs for a synthesis that would have a strong backing by both efforts and inputs. the outcome would be a formidable collections of long-lasting development that would ensure ownership of interventions as well as focus political interests in the right direction. on the other hand, a one-sided formulation and delivery of a development intervention, would give rise to a social conflict that would derail the objectives of the project. it will deny the people their voices in the project and would alienate them from owning the project which in the long run will affect the objectives of the intervention. in conclusion, we can affirm that the use of politically engaging methods is one of the most relevant practices that can support a horizontal and inclusive 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(1990). political awareness, elite opinion leadership, and the mass survey response. social cognition, vol. 8, no. 1, 1940, pp 125-153 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr navigating the complexities of individual liberty and the security needs of the state fasiku, gbenga cornelius, phd department of philosophy, prince abubakaraudu university, anyigba. gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng tel:+2348169448844 & okwute, dorcas department of philosophy, prince abubakaraudu university, anyigba. attahdorcas14@gmail.com tel:+2347030948827 abstract: the ethical scope surrounding the relationship between individual liberty and the security need of the state is complex. fundamental to this ethical discourse on individual liberty and state security need is the principle of human dignity. liberty is fundamental to human dignity as it entails the essential rights of individuals to make choices about their lives, to express themselves freely and pursue their own happiness, in ways they deem necessary; the security need of the state is equally compelling as it stems from the primary obligation of the state to protect not just the territorial integrity of the state but also the well-being, safety and rights of its citizens. thus, the challenge lies in harmonizing these two moral imperatives. while liberty is the foundation of personal agency and self-determination, security is indispensable for creating an enabling environment in which individuals can exercise their liberties without fear or unwarranted constriction. this paper therefore, argues that achieving this balance requires a careful consideration of the ethical principles that underpin both imperatives. adopting a critical method, this paper concludes that this foundational moral imperative acknowledges the intrinsic worth of every individual and requires that security measures respect and protect the dignity of each person. it further argues that modern democracies strive to strike a dynamic equilibrium that adapts to these changing circumstances of technological advancements, and the ethical dilemmas that come with them. in the end, the trade-off remains an enduring and complex challenge in the realms of politics, ethics, and governance. keywords: liberty, state-security, accountability, individuality, common good. preamble in recent years, the debate over the trade-off between individual liberty and state security need has been intensified as a result of the growing global threats from terrorism and misapplication of individual liberty, which has prompted governments to justify the inevitability of more extensive security measures, such infringement on human rights through surveillance programs, access to personal and private data and restrictions on human freedoms. these debates have ignited ethical discussions questioning government's interference on individual liberty and as such, finding equilibrium between individual liberty and the state security need has become a complex subject at the heart of ethics, political philosophy and governance with societies determinedly struggling 139 mailto:gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng mailto:gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng mailto:gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng mailto:gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng tel:+2348169448844 tel:+2348169448844 mailto:attahdorcas14@gmail.com mailto:attahdorcas14@gmail.com tel:+2347030948827 with the need to safeguard their citizens' right to freedom on the one hand and the need to preserve law and order for political stability on the other hand. “security is a slippery term” (mcsweeney, 1999:199), this is because; its meaning is socially dependent, but in considering the present-day global security drift, it is perhaps pertinent to expand the definition (and what it entails) to go beyond the traditional notion of security to a more comprehensive and all-encompassing definition i.e. incorporating the individual, the state and global protection from and resilience against potential harm and/or any infringement on individual liberty and state territorial sovereignty. at the individual level, it is the protection against any possible infringement on one's liberty. as such, the individual is the principal beneficiary of state security and this is where the friction lies; does the state have the power to restrict or deny the individual of his right or liberty for security reasons in which he is the primary beneficiary? this friction often presents an ethical dilemma that demands careful and critical exploration. this is because from historical antecedence, governments have frequently taken measures by enacting laws in the name of security, which in turn often overstep and violate individual liberty. these measures range from surveillance and data collection to restrictions on speech, movement assembly and privacy in an effort to accomplish maximum security. on the other hand, individuals treasure their liberty, the right to privacy and confidentiality and the autonomy to make choices without unjustifiable meddling and interference. this is why the debate remains perennial thereby raising critical questions about ethics, morality, and the role of the state in our lives. nevertheless, the pursuit for individual liberty has always coexisted with the need for state security as the state is charged with the onerous task to protect her citizen from both external threats and internal disorders and is sometimes obligated also to take measures (sometime harsh and drastic) that infringe on individual liberty. throughout history, governments have engaged in surveillance, censorship, restrictions, prohibitions and other security measures in the name of safeguarding the common good and maintaining social stability. in the light of the aforementioned considerations, the tension between these two concomitant imperatives has become increasingly prominent in the modern era especially with the attractiveness of liberal democracy and its emphasis and objectification of individual liberty and freedom. as societies grapple with the challenges of balancing individual rights with collective security, this study seeks to explore the moral dimension of this trade-off. by examining the historical evolution of this dilemma, analyzing its ethical implications, and considering existing justifications, this paper attempts to contribute to the discourse on how societies can traverse this complex terrain while upholding their fundamental values and principles. the moral imperative of liberty and security liberty according to j.s mill is “lack of interference on individual freedom” (mill, 1993: 78). this mill's argument is established on the utilitarian assumption that individuals should be free to pursue whatever serves their self-interest unhindered but he goes further to state that, “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will, is to prevent harm to others” (78). with this, mill provides a condition for which the government can infringe or interfere on individual liberty. he argues that the greatest threat to individual liberty is social misuse of liberty which causes political tyranny and instability which calls for government interference. thus, this interplay between liberty and government interference becomes a demanding ethical dilemma facing societies today and striking the right 140 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 balance between individual freedoms and collective safety is not only a legal and political challenge, but also a moral one. liberty is a fundamental to human dignity because it entails the essential rights of individuals to make choices about their lives, to express themselves freely and pursue their own happiness, in ways they deem necessary. this moral imperative of liberty is grounded in the belief that every person possesses intrinsic worth and autonomy that should be protected and respected (oliver, 2011: 11; kant, 2009:103). it demands that individuals be accorded the space and freedom to develop their identities, pursue their goals, and participate fully in society. thus, dignity is an inherent moral worth which defines humanity and liberty is fundamental to it. this is why; any form of interference undermines this dignity as dignity provides sufficient reasons for man to exhibit his rational nature. thus, liberty is morally compelling as it is intricately tied around the dignity of the human person to fully exhibit his rational nature by setting ends which is an exclusive property of the human person and what distinguishes him from animality (dean, 2006: 392) liberty is fundamental to an effective democratic society as stated above encompasses a broad spectrum of individual rights and freedoms. these rights include freedom of speech, assembly, and privacy, among others. they are enshrined in constitutions and legal frameworks to safeguard citizens from undue interference by the state. thus, liberty objectifies autonomy, selfdetermination and the pursuit of happiness, acknowledging that individuals have inherent worth and the right to make choices that governs their lives (dryzek, 2002: 25). similarly, the moral imperative of the security need of the state is equally compelling. it stems from the responsibility of the state to defend not just the territorial integrity of the state but also the well-being, safety, and rights of their citizens. security is not merely a matter of physical safety, but also encompasses the assurance of economic stability and social order. this imperative recognizes that individuals are entitled to live free from fear, violence, and undue harm and that it is the responsibility of the state to provide this (gutmann, 2004: 457). thus, the challenge lies in harmonizing these two moral imperatives. while liberty is the foundation of personal agency and self-determination, security is indispensable for creating an enabling environment in which individuals can exercise their liberties without fear or unwarranted constriction. achieving this balance requires careful consideration of the ethical principles that underpin both imperatives. the moral dilemma of liberty and security throughout history, the pendulum of power has swung between individual liberties and state authority. ancient civilizations, monarchies, and totalitarian regimes often prioritized the interests of the state over individual rights. in contrast, the enlightenment era and the birth of democratic ideals championed individual freedoms as a safeguard against tyranny. recognizing this historical framework is necessary in understanding the ethical dilemma involved in liberty and security trade-off (freeman, 2011: 487). as observed by rafael and prados, individuality increases freedom but does so at the expense of a sense of community, (rafeal and prados, 2022:8). while some are of the view that individual liberty (with all it entails) should have preeminence over state security as a way to safeguard against totalitarianism, tyranny and misuse of state powers against the people, others maintain opposing views by drawing arguments heavily from evidences of abuse of liberty and what appears to be increased insecurity but as complex and tricky as this debate may appear, the most perturbing task is to make a choice in a period of increased anxiety and heightened insecurity like this, whether we prefer being secured to 141 fasiku navigating the complexities of individual liberty and the security... maintaining our liberty moral philosophy plays a substantial role in shaping our understanding of this balance between individual liberty and security trade-off. thinkers like john locke, jean-jacques rousseau, and immanuel kant provided foundational principles for evaluating the relationship between individual liberty and state security. locke's concept of the social contract emphasizes the protection of natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, as a central duty of the state (locke, 1988:138).this is because for him, all individuals are equal in the sense that they are born with certain “inalienable” natural rights and which provides a rational basis not only for promotion of individual rights but also the duty of the state to secure those rights. thus, in locke's notion of freedom, individual liberty impacts the security needs of the state. locke argues that individuals have a natural right to freedom, even though locke recognizes that in the state of nature, where there is no government to protect these rights, individuals may infringe upon each other's rights and create a state of insecurity and to address this, locke advocates for the establishment of a social contract and the formation of a government. this government's primary role is to protect individual's natural rights including their freedom by enforcing law and maintaining order. however, locke believes that the government's power should be limited and should only extend to protecting these rights. therefore, in locke's philosophy freedom is essential but it must be balanced with the need for security provided by the state. the state's security needs involve ensuring that individual freedoms are protected from external threats as well as from internal conflicts and violation of rights by others. rousseau notion of liberty particularly in his work the social contract, explores the idea of the general will of the collective will, highlighting the importance of collective decision-making that respects individual liberty. as such, true freedom could only be achieved when individuals participate in creating the laws and regulations that govern society, thereby ensuring that they are governed by rules they have consented to (rousseau, 1968: 118). thus, rousseau emphasizes the importance of the state and the collective good over individual right and liberty, viewing liberty as being achieved through active participation in the political process. in rousseau's notion of the social contract, the government's role impacts individual liberty. rousseau believes that individual should enter into a social contract, forming a collective politics or community. this community would then establish a government to represent the general will and enact laws that promote the common good. however, the government's role is to enforce the general will of the people, which represent the common interests and desires of the entire community. rousseau emphasizes that the government should not merely enforce the will of the majority but should instead strive to discern and enact what is truly in the best interest of the community as a whole. therefore, while rousseau values individual liberty, he also believes that the individual must be willing to submit to the authority of the general will, as represented by the government. in this sense, the government's interference is not seen as a limitation on individual liberty but rather as an expression of collective freedom, where individuals participate in shaping the laws that govern them. it is essential however to note that rousseau's concept of the general will can be controversial, as it can potentially lead to the suppression of both the individual and minority rights in favour of the majority. even though locke and rousseau value freedom, locke emphasizes individual rights and limits government interference, thus, it is more individualistic as it focuses on the right and freedoms of the individuals within the society, on the hand, rousseau emphasizes collective freedom and the importance of the state in determining the laws that regulate activities of the individual. kant's categorical imperative underscores the principle that individuals should be treated as ends in themselves, not as means to an end, which resonates strongly with the protection of individual 142 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 dignity. kant's notion of freedom and the security needs of the state are intertwined within his broader ethical and political philosophy. kant's understanding of freedom is deeply rooted in his concept of autonomy and moral agency. kant emphasizes autonomy and moral agency and sees the state as having a crucial role in protecting individual freedom by providing security within the framework of a just and law-governed society. however, kant also stresses the importance of limiting state power to prevent it from infringing upon individual rights and autonomy kant defines freedom as autonomy, as the ability to act according to principles that one gives to oneself, rather than being subject to external coercion or merely following inclinations (kant, 2009: 105). for kant, true freedom is the ability to act in accordance with rational principles and moral laws. kant also believes that the state has a crucial role in protecting individual freedom. he argues that the state should establish and enforce laws that uphold the freedom and autonomy of its citizens. this includes laws that protect individuals from external threats to their freedom, such as aggression or coercion from other individuals or foreign powers. kant however recognizes that security is essential for individuals to exercise their freedom effectively. in his work perpetual peace: a philosophical sketch, kant argues that a just state should ensure the security of its citizens through measures such as a system of laws, a judiciary, and, in some cases, a military for defense against external threats (kant, 1997: 16). by providing security, the state creates the necessary conditions for individuals to pursue their own goals and moral autonomy without fear of harm or interference. while kant sees the state as necessary for protecting freedom and security, he also emphasizes the importance of limiting state power. he argues for the rule of law and constitutional government, where political authority is constrained by principles of justice and individual rights. kant believes that a just state should respect the autonomy of its citizens and not infringe upon their freedom except to the extent necessary for ensuring the freedom and security of all. thus, peace between individuals within a state can only be permanently secured by the institution of a republican, so the only guarantee of a permanent peace between nations is the establishment of a federation of “frees”. liberty and security trade-off in the modern world, ensuring a balance between individual liberty and security is a complex task as it faces so many novel challenges, predominantly in the context of technology, globalization, and transnational threats. issues such as mass surveillance, data privacy, counter terrorism measures, and the ethical implications of emerging technologies demand careful consideration. the tension between safeguarding individual liberties and ensuring public safety has never been more pronounced as we have today (fukuyama, 2014: 87). thus, an ethical approach to this balance highlights the importance of the principles of proportionality and necessity. these principles are crucial in balancing liberty and state security. proportionality as a principle dictates that any limitation on individual liberties by the state for the sake of security must be proportional to the threat being addressed. in other words, the measures taken should not be more restrictive than is necessary to achieve the intended security objective. for example, if the government imposes surveillance measures to combat terrorism, those measures should be narrowly tailored to target specific threats and minimize the intrusion on individuals' privacy rights. on the other hand, the principle of necessity requires that any restriction on liberty must be necessary to achieve a legitimate aim, such as protecting national security or public safety. it means that the government should exhaust all less restrictive means before resorting to more intrusive measures. for instance, before implementing censorship laws to combat hate speech, the government should explore alternative approaches, such as education and community outreach, to address the underlying issues. in essence, the principle of 143 fasiku navigating the complexities of individual liberty and the security... proportionality ensures that the response to a security threat is commensurate with the level of risk posed, while the principle of necessity ensures that only the least restrictive measures are employed to achieve the security objective. upholding these principles helps prevent the arbitrary or excessive use of state power and safeguards individual liberties in the face of security concerns. security measures implemented by the state should be proportional to the threat at hand and necessary to achieve a legitimate aim. overreach or disproportionate restrictions on individual rights are ethically problematic and may undermine the legitimacy of state actions. accountability and transparency are other twin principles that play critical roles in safeguarding individual liberty while addressing the security needs of the state. holding government institutions and officials accountable for their actions is essential for ensuring that they operate within the bounds of the law and respect individual rights. when security measures are implemented, accountability mechanisms, such as oversight bodies or judicial review, help monitor the conduct of security agencies and ensure that they act lawfully and ethically. this accountability serves as a check on potential abuses of power and helps maintain public trust in the government's ability to balance security with liberty. transparency on the other hand involves openness and disclosure of government activities, policies, and decision-making processes to the public. when it comes to security measures, transparency helps build trust and legitimacy by allowing citizens to understand the rationale behind those measures and assess their impact on individual liberties. transparency also enables public scrutiny of security policies and practices, which can help identify and address potential abuses or inefficiencies. by promoting transparency, governments can enhance accountability and foster a culture of respect for civil liberties while still addressing security concerns effectively. transparency is imperative as it facilitates public participation in the democratic process, allowing citizens to engage in debates and decision-making related to security policies. when individuals have access to information about government actions and policies, they can contribute to discussions about the trade-offs between liberty and security and advocate for policies that strike an appropriate balance. public participation strengthens democracy and helps ensure that security measures are aligned with the values and preferences of the population. in summary, accountability and transparency serve as foundational principles in the relationship between individual liberty and the security needs of the state. by holding government accountable for its actions and promoting transparency in decision-making, societies can mitigate the risks of excessive state power and protect individual freedoms while still effectively addressing security challenges(gray, 1983: 58) at the core of the ethical imperative of balancing the dilemma is the recognition of human dignity and universal rights. the protection of individual rights is not solely a matter of policy but a moral duty. upholding human dignity means recognizing the intrinsic worth of every individual and respecting their autonomy, irrespective of their background or circumstances. ethical considerations in striking a balance between individual rights and state protection also require cultural sensitivity and an appreciation of diversity, as cultural sensitivity plays a crucial role in navigating this trade-off between state security and individual liberty because it acknowledges and respects the diverse cultural perspective and values within the society. different societies may have varying interpretations of what constitutes individual rights, and these perspectives should be respected and considered in the policymaking process by incorporating cultural considerations into policy making process, societies can achieve a more balanced and inclusive approach to the trade-off between liberty and security (gray, 1983: 58). 144 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 conclusion the trade-off between individual liberty and state security need is a multifaceted ethical dilemma. philosophical perspectives, ranging from john locke's emphasis on individual rights to immanuel kant's primacy of the autonomy of the individual and, jean-jacques rousseau's concept of the general will, have all offered distinct insights into this complex issue. nevertheless, the evaluation of this trade-off reveals that there is no one-size-fits-all solution, as context, societal norms, and geopolitical factors play significant roles in understanding the complexities (young, 2011: 105). moreover, the diversity of philosophical viewpoints reflects the moral pluralism inherent in this ethical debate, highlighting basically the complexity of ethical decision-making in governance. this is why practical application often presents challenges, as the effectiveness of state security measures, the potential for abuses of power, and the impact on individual liberties may not align neatly with abstract moral ideals of individual liberty. modern democracies strive to strike a dynamic equilibrium that adapts to these changing and novel circumstances of technological advancements, and emerging ethical dilemmas that come with them. in the end, the trade-off between individual liberty and state security remains an enduring and complex challenge in the realms of politics, ethics, and governance. it requires continuous reflection, adaptation, and careful consideration of the moral principles that underpin our decisions as societies strive to protect both individual freedoms and collective well-being. references armitage, david, and lloyd, karen. the declaration of independence: a global history. harvard university press, 2007. beatty, david m. human rights and judicial review: a comparative perspective. springer, 2017. beitz, charles r. the idea of human right, oxford university press, 2009. cranston, maurice. 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"rousseau on civic education, religion, and the vocation of citizenship," educational theory, vol. 54, no. 1, 2004, pp. 35-50. dryzek, john, s. deliberative democracy and beyond: liberals, critics, contestations, oxford university press, 2002. dunn, susan. the political thought of jean-jacques rousseau: the impossibility of reason, princeton university press, 2019. ________ the political thought of john locke: an historical account of the argument of the 'two treatises of government, cambridge university press, 1969. dean, richard, the value of humanity in kant's moral theory. oxford: clarendon press, 2006 dieter, s. “kant's ground-thesis on dignity and value in groundwork” in journal of value inquiry, vol. 52(1), 2018, pp.81-85 dworkin, ronald. taking rights seriously, harvard university press, 2013. freeman, michael. human rights: an interdisciplinary approach, polity press, 2011. fukuyama, francis. political order and political decay: from the industrial revolution to the globalization of democracy. farrar, straus and giroux, 2014. gray, john. mill on liberty: a defense. routledge, 1983. gutmann, amy, and thompson, dennis f., why deliberative democracy? princeton university press, 2004. hampton, jean. "hobbesian moral and political theory." the stanford encyclopedia of p h i l o s o p h y ( s p r i n g 2 0 1 9 e d i t i o n ) , e d w a r d n . z a l t a ( e d . ) , 145 fasiku navigating the complexities of individual liberty and the security... url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/hobbes-moral/ hobbes, thomas. leviathan, edited by edwin curley, hackett publishing company, 1994. kant, immanuel, grounding for the metaphysics of morals translated by james w. ellington, hackett publishing company, 2009. ____________, the metaphysics of morals, translated by mary gregor, cambridge university press, 1993. ____________, perpetual peace: a philosophical sketch, translated with introduction and note by campbell smith, london: allen & unwin ltd. 1997. locke, john. two treatises of government, edited by peter laslett, cambridge university press, 1988. mcsweeney, b. “conclusion: security and moral choice” in security, identity and interest, cambridge: cambridge university press, 1999 mill, john stuart. on liberty. edited by elizabeth rapaport, hackett publishing company, 1978. __________, utilitarianism. edited by george sher, hackett publishing company, 2001. morsink, johannes. the universal declaration of human rights: origins, drafting, and intent. university of pennsylvania press, 1999. nowak, manfred, ed. introduction to the international human rights regime. brill, 2012. nussbaum, martha c. frontiers of justice: disability, nationality, species membership. harvard university press, 2006. oliver, sensen, kant on human dignity, boston: de grugter verlag, 2011. rafael, g.h &praedoes, j.s.f., “security versus freedom dilemma; an empirical study of the spanish case” in sociological theory, vol. 7(1), 2022 rawls, john. a theory of justice. harvard university press, 1999. riley, jonathan. mill's on liberty: a reader's guide. continuum, 2007. ripstein, arthur. force and freedom: kant's legal and political philosophy. harvard university press, 2009. rousseau, jean-jacques. the social contract. edited by maurice cranston, penguin classics, 1968. ________________. discourse on the origin and basis of inequality among men. edited by victor gourevitch, hackett publishing company, 1992. sen, amartya. the idea of justice. belknap press, 2010. simmons, a. john. the lockean theory of rights. princeton university press, 1992. sullivan, roger j. an introduction to kant's ethics. cambridge university press, 1994. skinner, quentin. the foundations of modern political thought. cambridge university press, 1978. sorell, tom. “hobbes's moral and political philosophy” in the oxford handbook of hobbes, oxford university press, 2016, pp. 187-204. stone sweet, alec. the judicial construction of europe. oxford university press, 2004. tilly, charles. coercion, capital, and european states, ad 990-1992. blackwell, 1992. wood, allen w. 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"democratic theory and trust." in the oxford handbook of political science, edited by robert e. goodin, et al., oxford university press, 2009 young, iris marion. inclusion and democracy. oxford university press, 2000. _____________. justice and the politics of difference. princeton university press, 2011. 146 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/hobbes-moral/ page 147 page 148 page 149 page 150 page 151 page 152 page 153 page 154 aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr autonomy's dominion: ronald dworkin's arguments on abortion celestine edozie anyaorah, ph.d department of philosophy alex ekwueme federal university ndufu-alike, ebonyi state edozie.celestine@gmail.com & solomon eyesan, ph.d department of philosophy alex ekwueme federal university ndufu-alike, ebonyi state eyesansolom@gmail.com abstract ronald dworkin's arguments on abortion are still very ad rem to his rights thesis or liberal theory of law which hinges on the jurisprudential position that people should consider rights as trumps, such that the individual liberty protected by the right, trumps the various collective goals with which the right might be in conflict. for dworkin, the individuals' right to personal autonomy protects their desire to have abortion within the first trimester of pregnancy. the problem that warrants this study is to ascertain the personhood of a foetus, as dworkin denies that a foetus is a person, especially at its early developmental stage. this study's objective is to analyse dworkin's arguments on abortion. significantly, this study will be very important to legal and medical philosophers, legal and medical practitioners, clinical and forensic psychologists, medical physicists, and so on. this research work will help them to do their works better in their different fields. the study adopts the analytic method of philosophical research. finally, this study submits that foetuses are viable persons from the moment of conception. the newly conceived foetus, the newborn child and the mature adult are all at different stages of development. all, therefore, deserve human dignity. more abortions would be prevented when pregnant women are seen as potential allies of their unborn babies. keywords: dworkin, abortion, autonomy, foetus, human dignity, individual rights. introduction in life's dominion, dworkin makes an elegant attempt to persuade thoughtful opponents of abortion to cease advocating their legal prohibition (rakowski, 2001, 33). he defines abortion as “a waste of the start of human life. death intervenes before life in earnest has begun” (dworkin, 1993, 190). he denies the personhood of a foetus. he argues that women's decision to have abortion should be esteemed as a matter of privacy and personal freedom, therefore, government should not interpose. for him, the insistence that women should carry their pregnancy against their will is tantamount to slavery. also, the moral weight of a potential life is dependent upon the quality of life the offspring would have. in other words, if the potential life would be subject to a life of suffering, to itself and to the mother, like being born blind or crippled; he argues that terminating the foetus may be morally justifiable. a detailed analysis and criticisms of dworkin's arguments in this regard is the subject matter of subsequent sections. abortion: dworkin's argument in life's dominion in life's dominion, dworkin handles the debates about abortion that have taken a place in the contemporary politics in different countries including his own country. he urges people to 53 discard portraits of these issues that paint irresoluble conflicts of rights. instead, he suggests that these debates should be re-conceptualised to reflect a recognition that what propels them is an essentially religious disagreement about the intrinsic value of human life (shiffrin, 2004, 195).with regard to abortion, john d. inazu in his 2012 essay, “the limits of integrity,” points out that dworkin identifies three values at issue in the constitutional debate over abortion: (i) law as integrity; (ii) the rights and interests of persons; and (iii) the sacredness of human life. he applies the first value of law as integrity to any constitutional question. it demands coherence within the ongoing practice of legal interpretation (inazu, 2012, 191; dworkin, 1986, 257). dworkin's second value, the rights and interests of persons, comes in two forms: the right to procreative autonomy of a woman seeking abortion and the right to equal protection from harm by the foetus if the foetus is a “person” in the constitutional sense, that is, whether the foetus is a helpless unborn child with rights and interests of its own from the moment of conception, such that permitting abortion is permitting murder. the threshold question of whether a foetus is a person to whom rights attach forms the basis of what dworkin calls the “derivative” objection to abortion (dworkin, 1993, 11; inazu, 111). the objection is derived in the sense that the protections it demands from government come from the constitutional rights attributed to the foetus. he disregards the derived objection in his most inclusive consideration of abortion in life's dominion. the last value that dworkin regards in his interpretation of the problem of abortion is the sacredness of human life. he associates this value with the “detached” objection to abortion, by which he means that the responsibility of government to protect the foetus is not derived from constitutional rights. he explains the value of sacredness: the hallmark of the sacred as distinct from the incrementally valuable is that the sacred is intrinsically valuable because, and therefore only once, it exists. it is inviolable because of what it represents or embodies. it is not important that there be more people. but once a human life has begun, it is very important that it flourish and not be wasted (dworkin, 1993, 73-74). he goes further to observe that the sanctity of life is a highly contentious value. it is controversial, for example, whether abortion or childbirth best serves the intrinsic value of life when a foetus is deformed, or when having a child would seriously depress a woman's chance to make something valuable of her own life (dworkin, 151). abortion: religious beliefs and judicial decisions dworkin's appeal to the sacred leads him to conclude that “we may describe most people's beliefs about the inherent value of human life, beliefs deployed in their opinions about abortion, as essentially religious beliefs” (dworkin, 155). his philosophical authority for this turn to religious belief is the supreme court's decision in united states vs. seeger, 380 u.s. 163 (1965), which suggested that an atheist's system of beliefs may have a place in the life of its possessor parallel to that filled by the orthodox belief in god (dworkin, 184). dworkin makes a point to which he returns in religion without god: “once the idea of religion is separated from the idea of a god, however, courts that accept the constraints of integrity face great difficulty in distinguishing between religious and other kinds of conviction” (dworkin, 2013, 162). furthermore, he argues that one constraining principle is content. for instance, he states that a belief in the objective and intrinsic importance of human life has a distinctly religious content. he contends that people should classify a belief as religious by asking whether it is sufficiently similar in content to plainly religious beliefs (dworkin, 155). for him, the category of religious 54 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 belief is expansive. in life's dominion, therefore, there is an emphasis that religious belief or conviction need not presuppose a god: convictions that endorse the objective importance of human life speak to the same issues, about the place of an individual human life in an impersonal and infinite universe, as orthodox religious beliefs do for those who hold them… i can think of no plausible account of the content that a belief must have in order to be deemed religious that would rule out convictions about why and how human life has intrinsic objective importance, except the abandoned notion that religious belief must presuppose a god (dworkin, 163-164). having established his broad interpretation of religious belief, dworkin sets out to assess the competing interpretive arguments about abortion on the basis of the three values he has identified: integrity, rights and interests, and the sacredness of human life. his value of legal integrity reinforces both the right to procreative autonomy and the rejection of any notion of rights for a foetus. as for procreative autonomy, he writes: “the law's integrity demands that the principles necessary to support an authoritative set of judicial decisions must be accepted in other contexts as well. it might seem an appealing political compromise to apply the principles of procreative autonomy to contraception, which almost no one now thinks states can forbid, but not to abortion, which powerful constituencies violently oppose” (dworkin, 158). so, he argues that the point of integrity in the legal system is to rule out political compromises of that kind. law as integrity should represent conviction, not the tactical strategies of justices eager to satisfy as many political constituencies as possible. therefore, dworkin argues that his claim for procreative autonomy takes cognizance of precedent which law as integrity demands. given that griswold vs. connecticut and einsenstadt vs. baird have acknowledged the right to avoid conception when having sex, he argues that the right to terminate pregnancy must follow, because the likelihood of unwanted reproduction is all the greater once pregnancy has begun. meanwhile, if the right to avoid procreation is deemed fundamental before conception through the use of contraception in certain cases, it should be equally fundamental after conception occurs. for dworkin, integrity equally provides a clear answer to the question of the personhood, and, thus, the rights, of the foetus. he believes that precedent interpreting the equal protection clause clearly rejects the idea. he clarifies that his argument accepts the u.s. supreme court's decision that a foetus is not a constitutional person “with rights and interests of its own,” and instead frames the issue in terms of what governmental regulation is permissible to express respect for the sanctity of human life (inazu, 160). dworkin translates his argument into an account of constitutionally allowable and unallowable governmental stanard. he distinguishes between government insisting upon, that is, coercing conformity and encouraging responsibility: government may not compel a woman's abortion decision to further its view about sanctity, but it may regulate in ways that encourage her to 'treat the question of abortion seriously,' because it is a decision implicating the intrinsic value of the sanctity of life (dworkin, 161; inazu, 193). most of dworkin's legal arguments track the supreme court's controversial progression from griswold vs. connecticut 381 u.s. 479 (1965), which announced a constitutional right of privacy, to eisenstadt vs. baird 405 u.s. 438 (1972), which transformed that right to an individual right, to roe vs. wade 410 u.s. (1973), which applied that right to abortion (dworkin, 160-168; inazu, 193). dworkin admonishes that few people understand the constitutional issues 55 anayorah, c.e. & eyasan s. autonomy's dominion: ronald dworkin's arguments on abortion raised in roe. in a single paragraph in life's dominion, he identifies three leading features of the decision: (1) states may not prohibit abortion at all before the second trimester. (2) states may not prohibit abortion before the third trimester except in those rare cases when it would jeopardize the mother's health. (3) roe held unconstitutional the anti-abortion laws of most states (mcclain, 1998, 91). dworkin appends a fourth important feature: (4) states may outlaw abortion altogether when the foetus has become viable, that is, in the third trimester of pregnancy (dworkin, 107). dworkin senses he has a “persuasive interest” at hand in his insistence that women have right to abort especially when the foetus has not become viable. he declares that unwanted pregnancies impose a kind of slavery on women, that a woman's life might as well be destroyed. avoiding slavery and self-destruction would seem to be compelling interests (dworkin, 103), in establishing a right to abort, he contends that if the state cannot impose the harm of unwanted pregnancy upon women, it follows that the state cannot impose the greater harm of carrying, bearing and caring for that unwanted child (dworkin, 155). the question now is: would giving out a new born child for adoption not alleviate this burden? dworkin brushes it aside in a short paragraph. according to him, “many women could suffer great emotional pain for many years if they turned a child over to others to raise and love, even if the only alternative was abortion” (bradley, 1993, 339). he observes that the right to procreative autonomy, from which a right of choice about abortion flows, is well grounded in the first amendment as well as in the best interpretation of constitutional liberty and equality (dworkin, 106-107). dworkin also grounds the right to procreative autonomy in “western political culture more generally,” namely, in its belief in individual human dignity: that people have the moral right and the moral responsibility to confront the most fundamental questions about the meaning and value of their own life for themselves, answering to their own consciences and convictions (dworkin, 103-104). moreover, he reiterates the essentially religious nature of the issue, enlisting some of the core tenets of his account of ethical liberalism. he argues: tolerance is a cost we must pay for our adventure in liberty. we are committed, by our love of liberty and dignity, to live in communities in which no group is thought clever or spiritual or numerous enough to decide essentially religious matters for everyone else. if we have genuine concern for the lives others lead, we will also accept that no life is a good one lived against the grain of conviction, that it does not help someone else's life but spoils it to force values upon him he cannot accept but can only bow before out of fear or prudence(dworkin, 166). in religion without god, dworkin returns to his argument for a first amendment grounding for the right to procreative autonomy. acknowledging the problems with a concept of religion limited to theism, he avers that “if freedom of religion is not restricted to opinions about a god, but embraces all deep convictions about the purpose and responsibilities of life, then it might be 56 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 thought an open question whether the right to abortion is a religious issue” (dworkin, 2013, 107). for dworkin, “much of the opposition to abortion assumes that a god has forbidden the act; but not all opposition is based on theism, and few women who want an abortion believe that a god has equally ordered them to abort” (dworkin, 107). this idea of being “ordered” to abort is not a good way to put the matter; although analysis of women's abortion decisions may indicate that a woman's religious convictions play a role in her decision-making to continue or to terminate a pregnancy. in our right to choose: towards a new ethics of abortion, beverly w. harrison avers that different religious denominations vary in their ethical teachings about whether and when abortion is morally permissible; even within denominations opposing abortion rights, some dissenting voices argue for protecting a woman's moral and legal right to follow her conscience in matters of sexuality and reproductive health (harrison, 1983, 117). in this sense, a subtler framing of dworkin's argument could draw on a spectrum of conscientious religious views to suggest the “essentially religious” nature of the issue for many people. also, dworkin revisits the abortion issue in religion without god to contend that moving away from a special right to religious freedom to a more general right to ethical independence could help to make progress on the “religious wars” that have entered into politics, in which “sexual and reproductive morality,” including the right to abortion, is undoubtedly the most divisive issue of all (dworkin, 2013, 137). dworkin observes that when the supreme court decided that a state lacks power to criminalize early abortions, the court had no choice but to locate its opinion doctrinally in “the equal protection and due process clauses” rather than the “first amendment guarantees of religious freedom” because, while opponents of abortion very often cite a god's will as warrant, few women who want choice in these matters conceive their desire as grounded in religion (dworkin, 2013, 138). meanwhile, dworkin's sacredness of life language does more work but is ultimately unpersuasive. he classifies all views about the sacredness of life as “religious” because, as one has already quoted, “once the idea of religion is separated from the idea of a god courts that accept the constraints of integrity face great difficulty in distinguishing between religious and other kinds of convictions.” having framed these arguments as religious arguments whose expression is protected by the free exercise clause, dworkin declares that they fall beyond the competence of legal interpretation. according to him, any government that prohibits abortion commits itself to a controversial interpretation of the sanctity of life and so limits liberty by commanding one essentially religious position over others, which the first amendment forbids. he writes: a state may not curtail liberty, in order to protect an intrinsic value, when the effect on one group of citizens would be special and grave, when the community is seriously divided about what respect for that value requires, and when people's opinion about the nature of that value reflect essentially religious convictions that are fundamental to moral personality (dworkin, 144). dworkin's resolution of the abortion debate thus hinges on two assumptions. first, he classifies secular beliefs “about the intrinsic importance of human life” as religious. second, he classifies secular beliefs that a foetus lacks personhood as not religious. after this razor-thin difference between religious and non-religious beliefs, his interpretive theory is almost an afterthought: religious arguments are wholly excluded, and the only permissible conclusion under a theory of law as integrity is to embrace roe vs. wade that considers and rejects the notion that the foetus is a person (dworkin, 1993, 165). 57 anayorah, c.e. & eyasan s. autonomy's dominion: ronald dworkin's arguments on abortion dworkin argues that the free exercise of religion should include a broad understanding of what “religious” belief is. the key to resolving the abortion controversy, therefore, is to broaden the scope of this “religious” belief and then discard those beliefs from the argument. once the debate is recast in these terms, according to him, “we will see that a responsible legal settlement of the controversy, one that will not insult or demean any group, one that everyone can accept with full self-respect, is indeed available” (bradley, 335-336). dworkin and investment-based theory of human life in life's dominion, dworkin defends what he calls “investment-based theory of inviolability,” that once a human life has begun, it is regrettable when the investment in that life is wasted. he uses this investment theory to explain people's feelings toward human life after as well as before birth. the longer a child has been alive, the more effort invested in her and the more regrettable it is if the child dies prematurely. on the other hand, if the investment in someone's life has largely yielded good results or paid off, as with the elderly, or is destined to be frustrated in any event, as with the severely disabled, then death is not so tragic (dworkin, 1993, 98). human life, for dworkin, is normally most inviolable from early adolescence to early middle-age because people within this range embody great investment and also, if healthy, great promise. as an example of how abortion can actually manifest respect for life's inherent value, he mentions the pregnant teenager who may find a greater investment in her own life wasted if she does not, by abortion, waste a lesser investment she and others may have made in her unborn child (dworkin, 99; stith, 310-311). for, dworkin, the inviolability of life may well require the desolation of life, paradoxically speaking. it is apparent dworkin's approach to the issue of abortion is troublesome. he attempts to eliminate the fact that the foetus is a human entity that has vital interests that are worth discussing and protecting (araujo, 1993, 745). patricia a. king in her article, “the juridical status of the foetus: a proposal for legal protection of the unborn,” takes a thoughtful approach in considering how we think and talk about the interests of the foetus. unlike dworkin, king asserts that the pre-viable foetus does have interests and those interests merit discussion and protection. she states: “the unborn foetus, the newborn child and the mature adult are all at different stages of development, and the fact that a foetus is not conscious or socially responsive should not preclude all legal protection” (king, 1979, 1673). revisiting dworkin's concept of abortion in life's dominion, dworkin has presented an argument that unborn foetuses do not have equal rights to life. he argues that nothing can have a right without having interests, and nothing can have an interest without having consciousness. therefore, he reasons that because foetuses at least in the early stages of pregnancy lack consciousness, they do not have interests and rights (dworkin, 1993, 15-16; stith, 303). dworkin's argument is problematic at this point. there are people who, because of illness or misfortune, concede apathy to carry on with life. would they, therefore, have flimsier rights? even more questionable is dworkin's claim that an entity cannot have interests, and thus cannot have rights, if that entity does not have consciousness (dworkin, 16-20). the query, therefore, is: do people's rights become attenuated as they tire and fall asleep at night? he is also not correct when he makes the claim in life's dominion that a caterpillar has no interest in becoming a butterfly (dworkin, 16; stith, 304). these examples could be used against dworkin to demonstrate that interests without consciousness are indeed quite possible. so, wanton killing of insects or even plants is wrong despite their alleged lack of consciousness. how much more 58 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 human beings? in life's dominion, dworkin actually begins with the pro-life thesis that abortion destroys an inviolable human life, but he ends with a pro-choice position even stronger than that of roe vs. wade and its progeny. dworkin understands human life to be inviolable only to the extent that killing would result in a net waste of investment: where it produces a net investment gain, killing can be required by people's sense of life's inviolability. foetuses and infants, because they have less investment in them, are less inviolable than older human beings (dworkin, 153). their lives, thus, can be outweighed by others. infants, for dworkin, are scarcely more inviolable than foetuses, for little has been invested in “mere biological development: conception, fetal development and infancy. to really count, one's life must have been determined not just by biological formation, but by social, individual training and choice” (dworkin, 88; stith, 317). therefore, the death of an adolescent person is worse than the death of a toddler because the adolescent's death spoils the investments that have been made in his or her life, in dworkin's conceptual schemes. dworkin's theory of investment initially came up from his efforts to mediate and solve the abortion controversy. reflecting upon common pro-choice and pro-life attitude towards abortion, he comes up with that theory believing that it will make sense to both sides. however, his theory is very pernicious in consequence and very erroneous in concept. the idea of respect for human life expresses much more closely, and safely, how we feel about human life. so, common commitment to respect for life, to the inviolability that undergirds all individuality, may be the safe source of solidarity (stith, 358), also, dworkin rightly lays much emphasis on another explanation of the respect-worthiness of human life: it is made in the “image” of god (dworkin, 82). however, he fails to understand the biblical or psychological import of the idea of image and representation. he believes it means only that each individual is “a creative masterpiece” treasured fundamentally, for the talent and effort already committed. god's image is not just a divinely great masterpiece, as he believes. it does not just exemplify divine beauty; it exemplifies god himself to humanity. reverence and respect for our neighbours is apparently called for because the one god is literally present in them. in the gospel according to st. matthew 25.40, christ can then say: “whatever you do to the least of my brethren that you dounto me.” in evangelium vitae, that is, the gospel of life, pope john paul ii points out that human life is a manifestation of god in the world. man has been given a sublime dignity based on the intimate bond which unites him to his creator. in man there shines forth a reflection of god himself; hence, the life which god offers to man is a gift by which god shares something of himself with his creature (john paul ii, §65).in what seems almost a direct reply to dworkin's notion that being an “image of god” means only that each human being is “a creative masterpiece,” the pope adds: “man and his life appear to us not only as one of the greatest marvels of creation: for god has granted to man a dignity which is near to divine. in every child who is born…we see the image of god's glory. we celebrate this glory in every human being, a sign of the living god, an icon of jesus christ” (john paul ii, §84). also, in the problem of threats to human life, joseph cardinal ratzinger argues that abortion is more than murder because the victim is not an adult, but a helpless child. according to him, “abortion is part of true war of the mighty against the weak. with the complicity of states, colossal means have been used against people at the dawn of their lives” (ratzinger, 15). unlike dworkin's theory of investment, i believe that there is something in every normal human being that responds to weakness with compassion and deference. those whose lives are diminished or weakened deserve special respect. i am deeply convinced that when a blind man is robbed of a wallet, our humanity is more greatly injured than when a sighted person has his wallet stolen. again, hans jonas affirms that our treatment of newborn children stands out as a kind of 59 anayorah, c.e. & eyasan s. autonomy's dominion: ronald dworkin's arguments on abortion archetype for decency. he points to the newborn, whose mere breathing unquestionably addresses an “ought” to the world around, namely, to take care of him or her (1985, 131). dworkin's idea reasons to the contrary: because the unborn child is utterly dependent, he may be killed. moreover, the human image in an infant elicits from us more than reverence. unlike some divine presence in a church or painted icon, the image of god or humanity in a child is dynamic, rather than static. as a “directed power,” it can, therefore, call forth respect as well as reverence. in contrast to dworkin's position, according to richard stith, no distinction should be drawn, with respect to the right to life, between the born and the unborn or between any prenatal stages of human development. to draw such a distinction would be to hold that human nature, the latent but developing human image, is insufficient for human dignity, and some actualised human perfection is needed. by so doing, he undercuts the inherent inviolability of neonatal as well as prenatal human life (stith, 367). furthermore, humanly speaking, most women who commit abortion would not wish to do so if they were fully advised and empowered. the mother-child bond, even in its earliest and weakest stages, can have influence against abortion in favour of active back up for the child. so, unlike dworkin who argues that laws against abortion impose “a kind of slavery” on women, i really see abortion as a “self-wounding” by the pregnant woman. therefore, it is a mistake on dworkin's part to view troubled pregnant women as necessarily unfriendly, unconcerned or nonchalant to the life of the foetus, or as enemies of the foetus who must be retrained by force. more abortions may well be foreclosed by considering pregnant women as prospective friends of their unborn babies, women who would offer support but often have no means to do so. unlike dworkin's approval of abortion in order to uphold individual rights and autonomy, catherine a. mackinnon points out that abortion often harms women either physically or psychically (mackinnon, 1281). conclusion and recommendations this study proposes that states and their legal systems should approve the substitution of counselling that favours life, especially for women having crisis with their pregnancy, instead of penal threats on them during early pregnancy. in other words, rather than always debating over how many burdens pregnant women can or should be made to bear, the constitution should stipulate or mandate a regime, that is, organised method, in which the state is required to encourage, mitigate and alleviate maternal self-sacrifice to the extent humanly possible. in this manner and for the most part, abortion remains technically illegal and unsupported by public or private health insurance, in order to teach its wrongfulness. furthermore, for the state to take any part in abortion, it would implicate it in an “act of killing” (stith, 378). in addition, the dignity of the unborn is to be taught in other ways as well. for instance, the constitutional court should indicate that the state has a duty to strengthen the public's will to protect unborn life in its school curricula and in all broadcast media, which are also legally bound to maintain human dignity. also, the state must proactively keep down coercions to abort by insisting upon a “child friendly” society. for example, it must ban the termination of leases as the result of the addition of a newborn child, as opposed to what is obtainable in some countries like china. more still, it must guarantee that the task of raising children will not lead to discrimination at the workplace (stith, 378). again, the state's law should protect the pregnant woman from pressures to abort coming from third parties, like husbands, parents, friends or employers, for instance, by enacting appropriate laws punishing such behaviour, especially when it ends up causing an abortion. even the adherents of dworkin's theory who think abortion justified or excused, and who thus oppose its penalisation, might agree to these measures designed to encourage a choice for life. furthermore, many of them might concur that birth is too much to expect of a woman only insofar as it requires her to bear burdens that are both “heavy” and “unusual”(kommers, 32). aid to 60 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 women in defying sexist and other coercions to abort could make childbearing less severely burdensome and so, more expectable. likewise, demanding greater levels of sacrifice by men and other non-pregnant people, for example, legally required blood or marrow donation by parents to children, would make pregnancy's level of burden less unusual. (stith, 378). as all these processes heighten, abortion could come to seem less justified or excused to many who endorse it. they might still not consider penalisation the best route to prevent, but they would support other forms of state action solicitously mindful of unborn life. references araujo, r. j. (1993). abortion, ethics and the common good. who are we? what do we want? how do we get there? marquette law review. 79. 4, 701-754. bradley, g. v. (1993). life's dominion: a review essay.notre dame law review,69. 2,329-391. dworkin, r. m. (1993).life's dominion: an argument about abortion, euthanasia, and individual freedom. new york: alfred knopf press. dworkin, r. m. (1975). hard cases.harvard law review, 88. 2, 1057-1078. dworkin, r. m. (1977).taking rights seriously. cambridge: harvard university press. dworkin, r. m. (1981). the forum of principle.new york university law review, 56. 4, 469494. adworkin, r. m. 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(2010). rights, harm, and duties: a response to justice for hedgehogs. boston university law review, 90. 1, 819-837. 61 anayorah, c.e. & eyasan s. autonomy's dominion: ronald dworkin's arguments on abortion aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract the nigerian citizens are facing a lot of challenges both internal and external. most of the internal problems originate from the government and the corruption from government agencies. over the years, nigerians have endured a brutal maltreatment from nigerian security agencies especially the nigerian police force (npf). there have been instances of extortion, bribery, unlawful arrest, and collaboration with armed robbers, kidnappers, fraudsters (419), ritualists and scammers by the nigeria police force. unfortunately, nothing tangible has been done to correct these anomalies by either the government or authorities of nigerian police force. in 2020, these anomalies came to a climax that warranted the nigerian populace, especially, the youth to start a protest against police brutality in nigerian. the effects, consequences, implications of the protest are still fresh in the minds of nigerians. it is on the strength of the above that this work employs the method of analysis to investigate the origin, the causes and effects of police brutality in nigeria. this work will observe that the nigerian police are in the habit of dehumanizing, harassing, and degrading her citizens as objects instead of as subjects for their selfish gains and not necessarily to keep law and order by all means. this work will employ the work of immanuel kant on groundwork of metaphysics of morals to conclude that human beings should be treated as subjects not as objects. they must be seen as ends in themselves not as means to an end. keywords: human dignity, brutality, police, nigeria, kant. introduction the beginning of october 2020 was heated up with demonstrations and protests clamouring for an end to the highhandedness of the police in dealing with the citizens of nigeria. thousands of nigerian citizens trooped out to the high ways and the byways, including government squares to cry out about this awful development. they at the same time demanded for justice for the victims of police violence and extrajudicial killings. following the peaceful protest and demonstration (tagged “end sars”) to draw the attention of those in power to the anomalies of the police, the young people that gathered at lekki, city of lagos had a horrible experience with the men in the force. this was duely confirmed by amnesty international osai, (2020 – 10 28) nigeria authorities must stop attempts to cover uo lekki toll gate massacre – new investigative timeline url. many were also injured. the same army blatantly attempted to conceal evidence of the carnage by taking away the dead on the scene. immanuel kant's concept of human dignity: a panecea for police brutality in nigeria nnajiofo osita department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university awka. og.nnajiofor@unizik.edu.ng & unadike chimezie nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. 101 the cries of the young nigerians (especially) were not without facts. reports and witnesses of such police acts of unprofessionalism were overwhelming. such dehumanizing treatments ranged from being bound and suspended in mid-air in painful positions, being kicked and beaten with machetes, gun butts, boots, fists, electrical wires, animal hides and other instruments. police commit rape affecting both sexes; engage in extortion at every rare opportunity. what points will one hold on to gainsay this open secret? the news went viral about how the dead bodies of about fourteen youths were carried along the owerri onitsha expressway. those were the bodies of unarmed young men who were murdered in cold blood by the policemen for merely being suspects, as the police claimed. following these narratives, one sees that the nigerian police are yet to understand, appreciate and value the worth of the human person in the society. this worth and value of the human person is principally the concern of immanuel kant. the human person, for kant (1997), is a value in itself and does not depend on another existence to make its value worthwhile. many personnels in the nigerian force seem to be bereft of this truth. little wonder then they handle human beings like animals. examples of such treatments are outlined above. a reflection on this brutal act became timely and important for the perpetrators of these inhuman and beastly acts on the one hand to know the gravity of their offence and on the other hand for the victims, so as to possess the knowledge of the unlawfulness of the actions towards them. the above burden is the preoccupation of this article. to investigate police brutality in nigeria and the place of human dignity following this backdrop is not only essential, but also timely. let us try to understand some basic terms before progressing with this discourse. conceptual clarification human dignity firstly, let us see what dignity is before trying to understand it in relation to human beings. the word, 'dignity', comes from old latin word “dingus” meaning 'worthy'. the webster's dictionary (1975) gives a common knowledge of it as “the quality of being worthy of esteem or honour”. that means to say that a thing has dignity means that it commands respect. it should be treated with honour and esteem. according to stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (2023), dignity is the idea of a certain moral status, involving possession of an inherent, unearned form or worth or standing. dignity as such, is not worked out but inherent to the possessor. it is the determining basis for the actions that may be directed to them and relating to them. to capture the whole respect and worth that should be accorded to human beings, kant said that a human being is an end in himself. police brutality the word brutality comes from the adjective brute. brute according to webster's new world dictionary (1975) is coined from the old latin “brutus” meaning “irrational”. one takes from this that brutality is largely connected with being irrational. it is associated with savage physical violence; great cruelty. it is therefore an irrational physical violence or cruelty against another. on the other hand, folayan (2018) remarked that the word police is derived from the greek word “polis” which means that part of non-ecclesiastical administration having to do with safety, health and order of the state. one quickly knows from here that the institution of the police is basically for the welfare of the citizens. the 102 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december encyclopedia britanica (2023) defines it as body of officers representing the civil authority of government. police are responsible for maintaining public order and safety, enforcing the law, and preventing, detecting and investigating criminal activities. these functions are known as policing. the action of the police can however turn against this desired welfare of the people. an instance of which can be police brutality. police brutality is the use of repressive measure by personnel affiliated with law enforcement when dealing with suspects and civilians. the term is also applied to abuses by “corrections” personnel in municipal, state, and federal penal facilities, including military prisons. police brutality is usually applied in the context of causing physical harm to a person. it may also involve psychological harm through the use of intimidation tactics that often violate human rights. police brutality refers to use of excessive or unnecessary force by law enforcement when interacting with citizens. it is when the police metes out savage physical violence on the citizens. it is irrational, cruel actions of the police against persons. kant's concept of human dignity immanuel kant (1997) treated the concept of human dignity in the general theme: “transition from moral philosophy to metaphysic of morals”. kant's position is no doubt, rationally based. he refuses to link up his thoughts and position to anything empirical, in order, for him to achieve the objective position which he desires in morality. in this direction, he expresses his concern thus: “here, then, we see philosophy put in fact in a precarious position which is to be firm even though there is nothing in heaven or on earth from which it depends or on which it is based” (kant 1997, p. 35). one quickly notices from this, the effort of kant to detach the principles of morality and standard of relating to human beings from being conditioned by what is happening here and now. for kant (1997), if this is allowed, it will lead man into a contradiction to his starting point. kant (1997) clearly stated: “the will is thought as a capacity to determine itself to acting in conformity with the representation of certain laws. and such a capacity can be found only in rational beings. now, what serves the will as the objective ground of its determination is an end, and this, if it is given by reason alone, must hold equally for all rational beings” (36). kant (1997) himself was point blank about maintaining equality and justice in treating human beings. he said: now i say that the human being, and in general every rational being exists as an end itself, and not merely as a means to be used by this or that will at its discretion. instead, he must in all his actions, whether directed to himself or also other rational beings, always be regarded at the same time as an end. all objects of inclination have only a conditional worth; for if there were not inclinations and needs based on them, their object will be without worth (p .37). one thing is clear from kant (1997) that he maintains that rational beings must not be treated as objects. they are subjects according to him and they must be treated as such. for kant (1997), by universibility, we understand that the principles are true for all 103 immanuel kant's concept of human dignity: a panecea for police brutality in nigeria nnajiofo osita & unadike chimezie rational beings. these principles are deducted by reason which has moral commands. kant calls them categorical imperative. man is a rational being and only a rational being has ability to act according to principles. each persona is capable of being conscious of moral principles. so man is fully autonomous given the fact of reason. based on our common rationality every human being is equal. individuals should therefore treat one another, as equal. he has taken man as having an absolute value because of his rationality. every rational being no matter where you find him deserves an equal respect. this is why a moral agent in kant is an end in himself. let us go ahead and see something about the nigerian police whose activity militates against this status kant (1997) recognises for man. paragraph 1 of the section 214 of the nigerian constitution (1999) stated that “there shall be a police force for nigeria which shall be known as the nigerian police force and subject to the provisions of this section no other police force shall be established for the federation of any part thereof”. paragraph 2 stated that subject to the provisions of this constitution, the members of the nigerian police force shall have such powers and duties as may be conferred upon them by law. such duties are outlined as follows: crime prevention, protection of lives, property protection, order preservation, offenders arrest, crime duties, military duties, prosecution, person identification, search through belongings why is it important to know the duties of the police as a citizen of nigeria? as a citizen of nigeria, it is important to know the powers, functions and duties of the nigerian police force. the reason is that it is an executive organ of the government. this implies that they are closer to the government than any organ of government. since the executive is closer to the citizens, it is largely expected that in performing their legal duties, they may breach the rights of citizens. it is apparent also that the executive is the strongest organ of the government in nigeria. police brutality as kant's untutored self love police brutality is one of the commonest terms in our localities today. this is because our neighbourhood towns, streets, cities are replete with brutal acts of the police to the citizens of nigeria. even though many of these acts are hidden yet many happen in broad day because there is seemingly no check to their actions. it has been earlier underscored that brutality in an irrational physical violence or cruelty against another. police brutality is the use of repressive measure by personnel affiliated with law enforcement when dealing with suspects and civilians. according to gale (2023), the term is applied to correction personnel in municipal, state, and federal and penal facilities. police brutality is the use of excessive force, usually physical, but potentially in the form of verbal attacks and psychological intimidation, by a police officer. with this backdrop, one can now see endless lists of acts of police brutality in our surroundings. we record daily about the police instances of extortion bribery, unlawful arrest unlawful collaboration with armed robbers, kidnappers, fraudsters, ritualists, scammers by the nigerian police force. one quickly wonders what propels the police in deciding and executing these actions. is it because they want to insist on the maintenance of law and order by all means? this is practically not the case because; they are themselves contradicting and taking the law into their hands, by their choice of actions. the point is that what drives the passion of this 104 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december policemen is nothing but their personal gains. the authorities in the police command know this. this is the reason they do all in their power to ensure that their actions are covered. nevertheless, there are some of the policemen, who neither tolerate nor cover up these crimes. as eniola (2023) reported, just this last january, operatives of the nigerian police force guarding the palace at ilasan, lekki phase i were captured in the video assaulting the lady when she attempted to record them during conversation with an uber driver. the lady's phone was seized and she was arrested too. reacting to the matter on twitter when his attention was called to it, force spokesperson olumuyiwa adejobi said that the state command should investigate all information relating to the incident. responding to the incident, spokesperson of that police command benjamin hundeyin said that it is not a crime to record a policeman on duty as long as it does not obstruct duty. one notices from the above incident a conscious and even violent effort by the offending police officers to conceal all these illegal steps they took in carrying out their duties. they are quite aware of the fact that what they are doing is not supported by the law. so they make effort to cover those actions so that they will not be known. if not the police officer who is carrying out an assignment given to him by the federal republic of nigeria has no reason to hide himself or to reject a video of him being taken when carrying out his constitutional assignment. the effort to hide and not to be seen shows that something is being done wrongly. on the other hand, the authority of the nigerian police force should be praised here for bringing to book their offending colleagues. if efforts like this continue, the problem will be eradicated. what happened in the central city of ilorin is rather more worrisome. according to salako (2022), theophlius blamor and two of his friends were walking with him to buy th items for their dinner in the central nigerian city of ilorin on the evening of september 6 , when a black pickup truck stopped beside them. one door opened and someone shouted at them to enter. it was a policeman. when they didn't reply, two policemen jumped out and cocked their gun, the trio, now scared, entered. just before the vehicle drove on, a policeman recognized one of the young men as a fellow church member and let him go before driving off to the nearby police station. they searched their phones but didn't find anything incriminating. they checked their account balance and found one had just withdrawn the last #1,000 (one thousand naira). one officer asked why they were not yahoo-yahoo boys (internet fraudsters), ostensibly so there could've been more money for the talking. when blamoh asked why a policeman should ask that, they started hitting them with the butt of their guns. who needs to be told that these policemen were not out to maintain law and order? this is how they go about being nuisance to others instead of fishing out those who indulge in these kinds of acts. they were driven by untutored self-love. in order to get their own gains; in order to extort money from poor young boys they started suggesting to them a crime they may not have thought about. now all these are done behind the scenes. that is to say that the police officers who perpetrate these acts will not proudly have it as maxims with universal imperative. it cannot continue as a method of policing and be consistent. the issue about brutality in the exercise of police duty has become so frequent that some people now regard it as part and parcel of the police work. zinat jimada (2021) explained that torture is an intrinsic part of the functioning of the npf as documented extensively by 105 immanuel kant's concept of human dignity: a panecea for police brutality in nigeria nnajiofo osita & unadike chimezie local civil society organizations and u.n human rights mechanisms. police, however, regularly use torture to extort money, obtain information and other confessions during criminal investigations. despite substantial evidence of violations, implicated police officers are very rarely prosecuted. in almost all the cases of police brutality, there is always a pointer to personal gain. jimda notes it clearly that the purpose of some of these brutal acts is to extort money. even when it is to induce confessions, it is still connected to getting some gain, like being promoted on the ground of having falsely given and impression to be working so hard. the question is; how will these police officer play with the lives of their fellow human beings in order to achieve their whims? how has their personal gain or drive for promotion or positions of power become more important than the lives that they are employed to protect. these things unfortunately happen under the watch of those in authority. why are these actions not prosecuted? why are they not being checkmated? unfortunately, many of the politicians collaborate with these police officers to promote this inhuman treatment as they help them to cover some of their crime. th ukpong (2023) reported a case with regard to the election of 25 february 2023. police in rivers state, southsouth of nigeria, claimed that they have arrested three of their personnel for alleged electoral malpractice in the state. the police spokesperson in rivers, grace iring –koko, who disclosed this in a statement on monday said the arrest followed a viral video of the alleged malpractice. there have been reports of police officers and other security offices colluding with politicians in rivers to manipulate the polls in the state. in a clip circulating on twitter, a police pickup truck is seen, driving away from a supposed polling unit, with ballot papers littered on the ground. this is a very recent and real evidence to the point being made here. following this kind of experience, one is not to be told what happens when the politician for whom ballot box is being carried, gets into the power. obviously, it will be practically impossible for him to punish the policeman that committed crime to put him in the office even when it is clear that they are guilty. this way, crime is perpetuated. this is why we record cases of police brutality everyday. there is need therefore to regularly awaken the consciousness of the police found to brutalize their fellow human just to satisfy their self-love through thoughts raised by kant (1997) as follows: “so act that you use humanity whether in your own person, or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means” (p.37). if therefore a policeman is about to torture a person to extort money, to get confession or to rape a suspect, kant (1997) suggests a thought proposition within which the policeman will consider his actions. that, if the police officer were treated in the same way he deals with the case of the suspect whether that will go down well with him. evaluation quite significant to note, what kant has done is to provide a moral principle that safeguards the equality of all humanity, all rational being. no one should take the decision for action arbitrarily. this according to him must follow a universal imperative. i must not act at an instant in a certain way for a particular situation because it is convenient for me to act in that particular way and act another time in the same particular situation in another different way because that is how it is convenient for me to act at that time. again, i do not respond to a particular behaviour in a certain way because “a” is involved and respond in 106 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december another different way to the same behavior because “b” is involved. at all times and in all situations human beings or rational beings are always the same and must be treated as such. reactions to the behaviours of human beings in all situations must be the same. kant (1997) advocates that a maxim which must be a guide for action should follow a universal imperative. this maxim for kant (1997) is a subjective principle for action. that is the principle one has to follow for action. this principle is deducted by reason which has moral command or reason. and the fact that it is deducted by my reason is not what makes it plausible and universally acceptable but because it can be applied at all situation and it will successfully pass the crucible of morality and rationality. the backdrop of this line of thought in kant is his conviction already shown in the body of this work that every human being and in general, all rational beings exist as an end in itself, not merely as a means to be used by this or that will at its discretion, but he must in all his actions, whether directed to himself or also to other rational beings always be regarded at the same time as an end. man must not serve as a means through which another man achieves his own end. conclusion the position of prominence which man occupies among other beings must not at any instance play a second fiddle. this kant's horizon of looking at the human person is employed by this work to look at the attitude of the police to the nigerian citizens. it has been employed in detail to interprete to the government the highhandedness of the nigerian police force in dealing with the citizens of nigeria. over the radio, television, newspaper social media, internet, there are countless cases of people who have received different forms of inhuman treatment from the nigerian police. this is what this work has articulated, investigated and analysed. following from this kantian prism of understanding humanity, it has been established that what the police is doing is a contradiction to the universal character of moral maxims. kant (1997) was clear that a nature, whose law it will be to destroy life itself by means of the same feeling whose destination it is to impel towards the furtherance of life would contradict itself and would therefore not subsist as nature. on the other hand, police brutality is a household issue in our country nigeria today. the police terribly lack the required training. in some cases, they have refused to appropriate the training which they received. for their own selfish gains, they prefer to act in certain unprofessional ways. kant's notion of human dignity has explained that employing a rational being as a means to achieve one's own end contradicts the universal principle of morality. the principle of morality being proposed by kant (1997) recognizes the personhood and dignity of all human beings notwithstanding their colour, race, nationality and other natural and artificial endowments. this is a principle the police must employ to record a pass mark. 107 immanuel kant's concept of human dignity: a panecea for police brutality in nigeria nnajiofo osita & unadike chimezie references binney, a. (2011). the political and social thought of kwame nkurume. new york: palgrave macmillan. class, m. (2012). coleridge and kantian ideas in england, 1796-1817 coleridge's response to german philosophy. london: bloomsbury. dukor, m. (ed.) (2018). mohammed chris alli's the federal republic of nigerian army symposium on saga philosophy. lagos: malthouse press limited. fukuyama, f. (1992). the end of history and the last man. new york: free press. igwubor, a.c. (2017). how to develop africa. kaduna: virtual insignia ltd. jost, l. & wuerth, j. (eds.) (2011). perfecting virtue: new essays on kantian ethics and virtue ethics. new york: cambridge university press. kant, i. (1997). groundwork of metaphysics of morals. cambridge university press: edimburgh. webster's new world dictionary with student handbook. (1975). online sources aborisade, r. and obilaye, a. “systematic brutality, torture and abuse of human rights by the nigerian police”, https//www.researchgate.net>3279 (21/01/2022) eniola (2023 – 01 – 11) police subject officers to disciplinary action after assaulting a lady in lagos the guardian url enslin, j. v, kant on human dignity: a conversation among scholars thhttp:/hdi.handle.net/2345/3807. acessed, september 13 2021. etanibi, a. and chukwuma i. police community violence in nigeria, https//nairametrics.com (23/02/2022) eveline, l. “the global turning point: the journey of dignity and humiliation from neolithicc evolution to 1957 and 1958 is there a future of dignity for human kind” www.humiliationstudies.org (26/02/2022) folayan, h. (2018) “the police in nigeria: meaning foundation scope and essence” journal of law policy and globalization, vol. 73, gale (2023)https://www.fdle.state.fl.us/fcjei/programs/slp/documents/fulltext/biondi, louis mamoudu, h. “universal consciousness of human dignity” doi10.1515/kant20150009 (21/01/2022) salako, p. (2022 – 10 – 20) “two years after #endsars, police brutality in nigeria goes on aljazeera url ukpong, c. (2023 – 02 – 2023) #nigeriadecides2023# peter obi wins portharcourt lga in rivers, despite reports of voters' suppression premium times url zinat, j. (2021 – 10 – 22) police brutality in nigeriaa crisis of non implementation; oxford human rights hub url 108 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 109 page 110 page 111 page 112 page 113 page 114 page 115 page 116 76 an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization florence eke adejoh department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state. adejohflorence@gmail.com anthony chukwudi areji, ph.d. department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state. anthony.areji@unn.edu.ng jetty joe odey department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state. ochecheowoni@yahoo.com abstract kwasi wiredu in his work cultural pluralism and particulars advocates for conceptual decolonization. there are twin essential concepts in wiredu’s conceptual decolonization negative and positive programmes. these, to him are two complementary ideas. in the negative sense, wiredu’s conceptual decolonization is the process that seeks to avoid and reverse “through a critical self-awareness the unexamined assimilation” in the thoughts of contemporary african philosophers those conceptual frameworks that are found in western or other philosophical cultures that have influenced african habits and thoughts. on the positive sense, it involves the exploitation of the enormous “resources” of african conceptual frameworks in philosophical exercises or reflections on all the fundamental and important issues of contemporary philosophy. using the combined methods of exposition, thematic content analysis (tca) and evaluation, this study aims to appraise wiredu’s conceptual decolonization. the study establishes that the negative programme of wiredu’s conceptual decolonization which enjoins african scholars to think effectively using african languages as proposed by him is almost impossible to apply. this is because, we are so globalized in such a way that our languages are heavily influenced by other cultures and languages that we cannot think in them effectively and so many ideas which are presumably thought to have african origins could have been adopted and adapted from other cultures but are termed africans. the work proposes the application of wiredu’s positive programme through the critical assessment for reappropriation and incorporation of experiences, practices, beliefs, values, and ways of life of sub-saharan africans into african universities curriculum in general and philosophy in particular. keywords: conceptual decolonization, negative programme, positive programme, and universities curriculum. an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization – f.e. adejoh, a.c. areji, ph.d & j.j. odey mailto:adejohflorence@gmail.com mailto:anthony.areji@unn.edu.ng mailto:ochecheowoni@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 77 introduction according to kwasi wiredu, conceptual decolonization can be achieved through negative and positive programmes. negative programme of conceptual decolonization has to do with the act of either avoiding or reversing via “a critical conceptual self-awareness the unexamined assimilation in our thought (that is, in the thought of contemporary african philosophers) of the conceptual frameworks embedded in the foreign philosophical traditions that have had an impact on african life and thought”kwasi wiredu, 33.on the positive programme of conceptual decolonization wiredu subscribes to “exploring as much as judicious, the resources of our indigenous conceptual schemes in our philosophical meditations on even the most technical problems of contemporary philosophy”wiredu, 22. it is from the above views that the problems which this study seeks to address arose. wiredu asserts that there are three principle avenues through which the european categories of thought were superimposed on african thought systems – consequently has twisted our worldview; these avenues are as follows: language, politics and religion. according to him, they can be dislodged through what he refers to as conceptual decolonization of the african thought system. the problem which this study investigates is whether wiredu’s conceptual decolonization can solve the problem of epistemic colonization in africa. in order to determine this, the work explores the concept of conceptual decolonization, the three foreign categories of thoughts superimposed on african thoughts systems, and rethinking wiredu’s conceptual decolonization and the need for a change in universities curriculum in africa. hence, let us take a look at what wiredu means be conceptual decolonization. kwasi wiredu on conceptual decolonization for wiredu, conceptual decolonization involves two vital but interconnected ideas: negative and positive programmes. negative programme of conceptual decolonization has to do with the act of either avoiding or reversing via “a critical conceptual self-awareness the unexamined assimilation in our thought (that is, in the thought of contemporary african philosophers) of the conceptual frame works embedded in the foreign philosophical traditions that have had an impact on african life and thought”kwasi wiredu, 136. on the positive programme of conceptual decolonization, wiredu subscribes to “exploring as much as judicious, the resources of our indigenous conceptual schemes in our philosophical meditations on even the most technical problems of contemporary philosophy”wiredu, 136. for wiredu, the negative programme is only but a reverse of the positive. he chose to address the negative aspect before the positive side because the need for decolonization was brought about in africa “in the first place by the historical superimposition of foreign categories of thought on african thought systems through colonialism”wiredu, 136. furthermore, the negative programme demonstrates clearly the predicament which african philosophers and african philosophy experiencing. this predicament in which africans are experiencing has led 78 to the twist of the african worldview. the serious question is, how did the african thought system get distorted the three foreign categories of thought superimposed on african thoughts systems wiredu holds that there are three principle avenues that the european categories of thoughts were superimposed on african thought systems which include the following: language, politics and religion. as regards language, he holds that our education in philosophy has been done in foreign languages of our colonizers. this for him is the basic “subtle, pervasive, and intractable circumstance of mental colonization”wiredu, 136. the two other ways in which the colonizers superimpose their categories of thoughts is through religion and politics. it is “through these have been passed to us legacies of long-standing religious evangelization, in the one case, and political tutelage in the other. these fundamentally left in africa, certain historical legacies that tend in diverse ways, diminish the cultural values of africa before the emergence of colonialism. owing to the truth that when the language, religion and culture of a people are destroyed or taken away from them, such people are left without any value of selfworth or esteem. it is the impacts of these three historical issues that wiredu makes efforts to address through his view on conceptual decolonization. wiredu on the linguistic situations wiredu further stressed on how language is a means of mental colonization by holding that the essential concepts ‘of philosophy are the most vital categories of human thought” wiredu, 137. however the main forms of thoughts that brought about these concepts may demonstrate the particular treats “of the culture, environment, and even the accidental idiosyncrasies of the people concerned”wiredu, 137. in other words, wiredu asserts that the specific patterns of thought that generate these concepts reveal the peculiarities of the culture, environment and also the accidental behaviours of the people that are involved. thus, “conceptual idiosyncracy, although an imponderable complication in human affair…”wiredu, 137, may in diverse ways be the core reason for the differences and disparities that are contained and inherent in various “philosophical traditions, especially the ones in which individual technical philosophers are deeply implicated”wiredu, 137. wiredu suggests to the contemporary african philosophers to reflect then on the “possible enormity of the avoidable philosophical deadwood we might be carrying through our historically enforced acquisition of philosophical training in the medium of foreign languages”wiredu, 137. by implication, this weight of “philosophical deadwood”wiredu, 137 would have been avoidable if only contemporary philosophers were trained through the medium of their own native languages. one is forced to ask the following questions is this situation common to only africa? how is this possible in a multi-lingual african society? can africa pay for the retraining exercise that could help in conceptual decolonization? to wiredu, the response to these questions is in the negative. this assertion an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization – f.e. adejoh, a.c. areji, ph.d & j.j. odey aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 79 can be seen in his argument that the “historical inheritance” of every society or culture influences their philosophical thought. he further states that evidence of this “historical inheritance” can be seen even in contemporary western philosophy. however, to him, the situation appears worst in africa as can be seen in “our situation of cultural otherness, for even ordinary common sense would depreciate needlessly carrying other people garbage”wiredu, 137. the following concepts are what wiredu points out reality, being, existence, thing, object, entity, substance, prosperity, quality, truth, fact, opinion, belief, knowledge, faith, doubt, certainty, statement, proposition, sentence, idea, mind, soul, spirit, thought, sensation, matter, ego, self, person, individuality, community, subjectivity, objectivity, cause, chance, reason, explanation, meaning, freedom, responsibility, punishment, democracy, justice, god, world, universe, nature, supernature, space, time, nothingness, creation, life, death, afterlife, morality, religion. wiredu, 137 with regard to these aforementioned concepts, the easy way for decolonization to take place for the african is to try to think them through in your own african language and, on the basis of the results, review the intelligibility of the associated problems or the plausibility of the apparent solutions that have tempted you when you have pondered them in some metropolitan language. the propositions in question may be about the internalities of an african thought system wiredu, 137. for wiredu, africans can only establish modern african philosophy that depicts african worldview, by undertaking conceptual decolonization. the issue of language as presented by wiredu in his project of conceptual decolonization tends to establish the fact that everyone thinks in the language of his/her education. the implication of this is that for contemporary african philosophers to think in english or french which is their language(s) of education there could have been a great difference if this was done with indigenous african language. however, to wiredu, recourse to “african vernacular” will not lead to “instantaneous philosophic revelation”wiredu, 138. furthermore, wiredu asserts that africans should take into serious consideration wealth of knowledge found in our culture and belief system and utilize these resources in doing philosophy in order to bring out the genuine interpretation of the african conceptual systemwiredu, 137. reacting to wiredu’s view of conceptual decolonization balogun noted: the two conceptions of conceptual decolonisation given above are interrelated and complementary of each other. they involve the “comparative utilisation of different languages in philosophical thinking” (wiredu 1991, 81) intending to guarding against and freeing philosophical thinking in africa from the entanglements imposed on it by the uncritical assimilation by african scholars of alien conceptual scheme. oladele balogun a., 277 80 from the excerpt above, it is obvious that wiredu’s focus is that african philosophers should bring western categories to systematic and critical examination. that is, african scholars should decolonize concepts such as morality, evil, spirit, person, mind, and gods knowledge. oladipo expresses it thus: “the african must direct his thought of all modes of conceptualization emanating from the colonial past that cannot stand the task of due reflection’’olusegun t. oladipo, 16. legacies of religious evangelism and political tutelage it is clear that africa has experienced serious anguish and suffering from the political legacies of colonialism. sadly, africa continues to suffer directly or indirectly, from the political teaching of the west. there are several causes to this, which according to wiredu is not always of african making. among the causes is the obvious suspension of belief in african political traditions on the part of many contemporary african leaders of opinion. he avers that, after several years of being subjected to the one party dictatorship in africa, there is now visible happiness among many african intellectuals and politicians for multi-party democracy. furthermore, there is little sign in african intellectual circles, of a critical examination of the particular doctrine of democracy involved in the multi-party approach to government. for wiredu, this approach or political doctrine appears to be clearly against the philosophy of government that is foundational to traditional statecraft wiredu, 143. according to wiredu, the lesson that is learnable from the traditional philosophy of government that might be of importance to the modern quest for democracy is that, there is a certain unity of approach among huge number of africans based on archeological evidence. the unity has to do with the insistence on consensus as the standard of political decision-making. for wiredu, this decision-making is different from that which makes the will of majority, by and large, decisive. since majorities are easier to come by than consensus, it must be assumed that decided preference for consensus was a deliberate transcending of majoritarianismwiredu, 143. he stresses that it was not an unreflecting preference; it can be shown to have been based on reflection on first principles. the most fundamental of these principles may be stated as follows in any council of representatives-traditional councils usually consisted of representatives elected by kinship units-the representative status of a member is rendered vacuous in any decision in which s/he does not have an impact or an right of the representative, and through him, of his consistency to be represented in the making of a decision that affects their interests broadly construed. wiredu, 143 furthermore, there are issues of the legacies of religious evangelism and political tutelage of the west. these legacies to wiredu have brought to africa enormous sufferings and historical distortions so, there is the need for conceptual decolonization. but the questions here are; what are the problems of religion and politics? are these problems created by the west? wiredu did an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization – f.e. adejoh, a.c. areji, ph.d & j.j. odey aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 81 not tell us in concrete terms the sufferings and the nature of religion and politics that generate these sufferings and how conceptual decolonization could help in salvaging the situation especially within the context of globalization which is a reality of the contemporary world and africa. “majotaritarian democracy” based on wiredu’s conceptual decolonization is a problem because it tends to render the view of the minority ineffectual wiredu, 143. but the pertinent questions here could be; does democracy have any value? what is the place of democracy in a globalized world in which africa is included? a search for a reflective and validly satisfactory answer will certainly reveal that wiredu’s conceptual decolonization is a disjointed philosophical discourse that is grossly deficient in logic and validity. it is an idea that needs a thorough systematic rethink for logic and epistemic direction especially within the existential necessity of globalization. rethinking wiredu’s conceptual decolonization and the need for a change in universities curriculum in africa wiredu’s conceptual decolonization has two programmes the negative and positive programmes. the negative programme is the process that seeks to avoid and reverse “through a critical self-awareness the unexamined assimilation” in the thoughts of african philosophers those conceptual frameworks that are found in western or other philosophical cultures that have influenced african habits, and thought system. his positive programme has to do with the judicious exploitation of the enormous “resources” of african conceptual frameworks in philosophical exercises or reflections. these programmes show that wiredu’s conceptual decolonization is based on historical impacts of colonialism on african systems and africans themselves – ranging from education, politics, religion, science, technology, language, and ways of thinking. for him, the two programmes which he put out will help to conceptually decolonize the minds of african scholars if properly applied. hence, we will evaluate the veracity and applicability of his claim below. positive aspects of wiredu’s conceptual decolonization conceptual decolonization promotes the growth and sustenance of local languages. it promotes intercultural studies and research. it enhances epistemic freedom. it helps for the growth and use of indigenous ideas that are capable of bringing about growth and development in every area of the africans. according to balogun, wiredu’s need for conceptual decolonization is because of the following benefits: conceptual decolonization is essential as it has the benefit of advancing cross-cultural understanding in african philosophical studies. it is promoting the search for african intellectual identities as if able to advance various cultural foundations of philosophical ideas and thoughts. decolonization research can intimate how african beliefs can help in dealing with some basic contemporary challenges in our triple-heritage cultureoladele balogun a., 278. 82 as regards the issue of language situation, wiredu holds that “by definition, the fundamental concepts of philosophy are the most fundamental categories of human thought. but the particular modes of thought that yield these concepts may reflect the specifics of the culture, environment and even the accidental idiosyncrasies of the people concerned”wiredu, 136. this puts us in weak situation to carry other peoples’ baggage as far as we are imprisoned to the concepts their linguistic and other cultural conventions promote. the advice of wiredu at this juncture is very important. according to olufemi taiwo, one cannot overemphasize the importance of heeding wiredu’s wisdom in this respect. for example, many have argued that the reason for the repeated failure of liberal representative democracy to take root in africa is, in part, the alienness of its package of ideas, institutions, practices, and processesolufemi taiwo, 135–159. inherent limitations in wiredu’s conceptual decolonization let us look at wiredu’s claim that “the simple recipe for decolonization for the african is: try to think them [concepts like reality, being, meaning, freedom, etc.] through in your own african language and, on the basis of the results, review the intelligibility of the associated problems or the plausibility of the apparent solutions that have tempted you when you have pondered them in some metropolitan language” wiredu, 137. wiredu’s simple injunction — think through in your own african language—is teeming with assumptions that are not always, or for the most part, plausible. let us explore this passage. wiredu assumes that his audience is bilingual, minimally speaking—possessed of an african language and a colonially-imposed one, say, english. but given how the scenario is designed, the colonial language is the primary language, the one that triggers thought and in which thought is originally formulated. this is where the problem begins. the thinker here is supposed to “think through in her own language” the relevant concepts olufemi taiwo, 135– 159. why wait to be prompted in the colonial language? why not proceed to think through the concepts in your primary african language in exactly the way, i believe, that a chinese or portuguese thinker will do in similar situations? taiwo, 135–159. according to taiwo, the answer to this question for wiredu would be that we have divided ourselves from “belief in our languages” and welcomed instead the colonial ones taiwo, 135–159. he further stresses that: if this is true, then it is problematic to assume that those who have been thus separated from their languages could summon, without more, the requisite facility and grounding in those languages of the recondite thinking that we associate with philosophy and other advanced modes of intellection. if what i say is plausible, then wiredu’s facile recommendation is neither easy to indulge nor likely to be productive of exactly the kinds of insights that theoretical explorations are designed to elicittaiwo, 135–159. an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization – f.e. adejoh, a.c. areji, ph.d & j.j. odey aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 83 this is where we must begin to acknowledge the sad fact that where unclear intellectual activity is concerned, many african scholars are not bilingual in the important sense. our languages are already afflicted with a severe case of fossilization that continues to escape our attention. few of us can think in “our own african languages” deep thought respecting many of those concepts in wiredu’s list. no whit of this affliction is removed by our repeated declamations to decolonize our intellectual production. yes, we deploy our languages for colloquial, quotidian purposes. this misleadingly makes us think that our facility at this level and versatility in everyday exchanges amount to an easy shifting of gears from here to theoretical or philosophical discourse. it takes only a little bit of attention to realize that this is a mistaken assumption. the upshot is that there is little, if any, indigenous little known intellection in many of our original languages, especially where research and knowledge production presented by our tertiary institutions are concerned taiwo, 26. according to olufemi taiwo, what we have mostly is equivalence-ism where many labour to find equivalents in our original languages for the concepts that we encounter in the metalanguages furnished by the colonial languages. to limit myself to the yorùbá that i know intimately, the original work being done at a higher level takes place in sociology, art history, language and literature, and linguistics taiwo, 135–159. it may not be what wiredu intended but it is what dominates much writing in academic and professional african philosophy. words are routinely pulled out of their semantic and hermeneutic contexts and made to stand as equivalents for concepts taken from elsewhere. there hardly is any effort at sustained analyses wholly or even mostly in our original language. to the extent that this is the case, the promise of decolonization in the sphere of language may have been oversold taiwo, 26. clearly, the african historical colonial heritage is a major factor limiting the implementation of wiredu’s conceptual decolonization in african philosophy. also, the cultural contact of africa with colonialism and other foreign influences through globalization led to a forced acculturation that has rendered the rich cultural heritage of africa comatose, and left it in a precarious situation of existential eclipse or extinction. this is made more effectual by the globalized and foreign educational system that produced contemporary african philosophers including even wiredu. in the twenty-first century, where the world is so fused together through technological innovativeness that promotes integration, interdependence, inter-culturalism through globalization, wiredu’s conceptual decolonization that merely seeks to isolate africa and africans cannot afford the cost of being localized and seen to be championing racialization of her thought processes when the world is coming together as a “global village” for the existential benefits and social ethics of mankind. since doing philosophy in our local languages seems not possible let us rethink wiredu’s conceptual decolonization as a way for effective decolonization. 84 rethinking conceptual decolonization the need for decolonization of university curriculum in africa in wiredu’s positive programme of conceptual decolonization he encourages african scholars to make judicious exploitation of the enormous “resources” of african conceptual frameworks in philosophical exercises or reflections. this work holds that it will be effectively achieved through decolonizing universities curriculum in africa. according to edwin etieyibo, decolonizing universities curriculum in africa entails transforming the curriculum through “the appropriation, adoption and incorporation into the curriculum the experiences, practices, beliefs, values, and ways of life of sub-saharan africans” edwin etieyibo, 405. however, the appropriation and adoption of african experiences, values and ways of life without proper and critical reexamination of such experiences and values of life of africans will be tantamount to revival of the traditional knowledge. i think what is best for the decolonization of the universities curriculum is the critical assessment for reappropriation and incorporation of experiences, practices, beliefs, values, and ways of life of sub-saharan africans into african universities curriculum in general and philosophy in particular. it is this that will engender knowledge diversity and guarantee intellectual freedom from the colonizer. by implication, it will address “cognitive justice and it is all about the right to think, theorize, interpret the world, develop own methodologies and write from where one is located and unencumbered by eurocentrism” ndlov-gatsheni, 3. this is what will create a veritable platform for the realization of wiredu’s positive programme which involves the judicious exploitation of the enormous “resources” of african conceptual frameworks in philosophical exercises or reflections. grounds for decolonizing philosophy curriculum in african universities there are four basic rationales for the decolonization of the universities curriculum and these rationales are as follows: epistemic ground holds that through colonialism african knowledge production system was silenced. this oppression of other epistemic perspectives as noknowledge can be restored through the transformation of universities curriculum in africa in order to create room for diversity of knowledge production. based on ontological ground, africans have been categorized and classified as sub-humans who are incapable of thinking and that was an agenda orchestrated by the europeans in order to dominate africans through colonialism, neocolonialism and imperialism. hence, for there to be change to this narrative, healing and restoration of the african identity, creating room for the reappropriation of african values, experiences, beliefs and knowledge systems in universities curriculum in africa is a sure way to go. as regards conceptual ground, wiredu argues that colonialism suppressed african ways of thinking by making africans to learn, speak and think through foreign languages thereby abandoning the philosophical suggestiveness that lie hidden in african languages. on this note, it is conceptually imperative to decolonize conceptually the african universities curriculum using the positive programme of wiredu. his positive programme involves exploiting as much as possible the resources of our own indigenous conceptual an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization – f.e. adejoh, a.c. areji, ph.d & j.j. odey aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 85 schemes wiredu, 136 and the best way to do that is through the redesign of african universities curriculum. finally, on moral ground, africans have suffered in all aspects of their lives economically, epistemically, and ontologically as a result of coloniality, hence, it is morally imperative for a redress. and this redress can best be achieved through the epistemic transformation of universities curriculum in africa in order to help create an autonomous space for africans to think and theorize freely. at this juncture, let us look at the usefulness of fricker’s epistemic injustice to the decolonization of african universities curriculum. what is fricker’s epistemic injustice? miranda fricker on epistemic injustice in epistemic injustice: power and the ethics of knowing, fricker discusses the connection that exist between ethics and epistemology by identifying the ethical facet of our epistemic activities. with this she was able to move our attention to injustice instead of justice. it is based on this comes the idea of epistemic injustice. the nitty-gritty of her argument is that there exist epistemic kinds of injustice whereby a person can be wronged in virtue of their status as a knower or knowing subject. fricker presents in her book two kinds of epistemic injustice: testimonial injustice and hermeneutical injustice. for fricker, apart from social or political injustices suffered by women and other minority groups in the society, these persons also go through testimonial injustice and hermeneutical injustice. these two forms of injustice demonstrate some kind of prejudices which according to fricker (whose overarching interest is to propose a virtue epistemological account of knowledge, particularly testimony), the best way of addressing these prejudices is by taking up some ethical-intellectual virtues. with regard to testimonial injustice, the prejudices demonstrated have to do with a case where a person gives “a deflated level of credibility to a speaker’s word” miranda fricker, 1. fricker gives an instance of a woman at a business meeting who was not believed or was taken less believable due to the fact that she is a female gender or woman. the reason this constitutes a form of injustice is that it is motivated by a gender based prejudice. notwithstanding the fact that she may make a good argument at the meeting, her listeners do not take her to be sincere and her arguments to be believable. hence, there may be an injustice resulting from that in the sense that, as the speaker or testifier, she could be missing out on a reward or promotion at work. this form of injustice is basically the type theories of social justice focus on. however, she also suffers testimonial injustice, that is, she is “wronged specifically in her capacity as a knower”fricker, 1. as regards hermeneutical injustice, this kind of injustice is one faced by individuals and minority groups who do not have the common linguistic tools to make sense of their specific experiences. apart from the fact these individuals are excluded from the sphere of meaningmaking, they might be less inspired to believe their own testimony in the same way other people are less predisposed to believe in their testimony. fricker’s instance above was to emphasize the kind of injustice in the late 1960s of a woman who went to a meeting and the aim of the 86 meeting was to have a discussion on post-partum depression. it is obviously that as at this period there was no linguistic tool that can be used to share or understand the experience of post-partum depression. put differently, due to the non-availability of the common linguistic tool that people who suffer from post-partum depression can utilize to express their very own experiences in ways that will be meaningful to others; their testimony about their experiences is not accepted or believed. sometimes they can be referred to as liars or “mentally disturbed”. for fricker, this is a form of injustice, though not the form of injustice that theories of social justice focus on; instead it is an epistemic type of injustice. hermeneutical injustice and the need to decolonize philosophy curriculum in african universities previously, we depicted hermeneutical injustice as a situation whereby an individual is undermined in his or her effort to make sense of the world owing to power relations and structural prejudice. in the same vein, if we take a broad view of this form of injustice in the case of the obligation to decolonize the philosophy curriculum, a non-decolonized philosophy curriculum undermines the autonomy and capacity of africans to make meaning of the world owing to some power relations and structural prejudice as regards knowledge production and its exclusion from the philosophy curriculum. taking into consideration the fact that to undermine the capacity of africans to make meaning of the world owing to power relations and structural prejudice weakens their autonomy, it will be essential that we decolonize the philosophy curriculum. thus, a decolonized philosophy curriculum in universities in africa would be one that will promote the natural right of an individual as an independent being. in other words, it gives africans the resources with which they can make and contribute to meaning-making in the world. testimonial injustice and knowledge diversity as rationale for decolonizing philosophy curriculum in african universities let us reiterate the point that testimonial injustice is that that has to do with the prejudice that makes a listener to give less relevance to a speaker’s testimony. put differently, it is a situation whereby a listener it gives a deflated level of credibility to a speaker’s word. in the same vein, if we take a broad view of this form of injustice in the case of non-decolonized philosophy curriculum on the ground of certain prejudice is one that consequently comes about when a deflated level of credibility is attached to the perspectives of africans. this discourages diversity and plurality of knowledge and perspectives. if this is valid, thus, our duty to decolonize the philosophy curriculum comes from the fact that inability to achieve that commits testimonial injustice against africans. it is ethically wrong because it does support or promote diversity of knowledge. by depriving, undermining and excluding africans from contributing their own perspectives and understanding of the world to enrich the wealth of knowledge in the world in turn deprives africa and the world certain relevant knowledge that could help to drive development both within africa and outside africa. in fact, we deprive, exclude and undermine these perspectives when we do not decolonize philosophy curriculum. an appraisal of kwasi wiredu’s conceptual decolonization – f.e. adejoh, a.c. areji, ph.d & j.j. odey aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 87 conclusion we have argued here that wiredu’s positive programme of conceptual decolonization where he encourages african scholars to make judicious exploitation of the enormous “resources” of african conceptual frameworks in philosophical exercises or reflections can be effectively achieved through decolonizing universities curriculum in general and philosophy curriculum in particular in africa. it is when this is done that african scholars can leverage on it to come up with novel research questions, teach undergraduates based on the new curriculum, engage in constant and free debates among themselves and achieve good researches that will not only help the development of africa politically, economically and epistemically but the world at large. references balogun a. o. (2018). conceptual decolonisation as a post modern resistance. in ka osi so onye: african philosophy in the postmodern era. j.o chimakonam & edwin etieyibo (eds.), 273-290. vernon press. etieyibo, e. (2016). “why ought the philosophy curriculum in universities in africa be africanised?” south african journal of philosophy. 35 (4). doi:10.1080/02580136.2016.1242208 fricker, m. (2009). epistemic injustice: power and the ethics of knowing. oxford university press. ndlov-gatsheni, s. j. (2018). epistemic freedom in africa: deprovincialization and decolonization. routledge. oladipo, o. t. (2020). the third way in african philosophy: essay in honour of kwasi wiredu. hope publication. taiwo, o. (2019) “rethinking the decolonization trope in philosophy. the southern journal of philosophy. 57, 135–159. wiredu, k. cultural universals and particulars. bloomington and indianapolis: indiana university press, 1996. wiredu, k. conceptual decolonisation: four essays introduced by olusegun oladipo. hope publication, 1995. aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract most cultures of the world, especially in africa, still retain some practices that are inherently inimical to human, social and economic development. yoruba culture is not an exception. the cultural practices among the yoruba people that are the focus of this paper relates to gender discrimination which manifests in female genital mutilation, widowhood rites and preference for male children. this requires critical engagement because it borders on the denigration of the humanity of the feminine gender. this paper agrees with kant that humans, women inclusive, should be treated not as means to an end but as ends-in-themselves. one of the defining characteristics of humans is rationality. as rational beings, women have inalienable rights that the society has a moral obligation to enforce and protect. however the work reveals that the patriarchal nature of the yoruba culture denies women of their rights and that the treatment of women was grounded in certain narratives that are not rationally well-founded. it is therefore argued that following kant, there is the need to recognize the humanity in women and preserve their rights and dignity in the society. in other words, the rights of women are sacrosanct and ought to be accorded equal respect as those of their male counterparts. the paper concludes that there is the urgent need for the deconstruction of the narratives surrounding these harmful practices so that women may be accorded proper treatment in the society. keywords: morality, gender discrimination, widowhood rites, female genital mutilation, preference for male children. introduction philosophers, in general, demand that every human belief, proposition or idea be examined critically and carefully in order to ensure that it has its basis in the truth. in fact, the greek philosopher socrates said, “the unexamined life is not worth living”. traditional culture can only become dynamic when those beliefs that are handed down and accepted are examined by subjecting them to analysis and criticism. in the yoruba society, customs, beliefs and values are passed from the older generation to the younger through social relations. the younger ones are not permitted to question the authority of the elderly ones on any issue. in this situation, members of the society inculcate the positive and negative aspects of the culture without subjecting them to any form of 161 moral issues in gender discrimination in yoruba culture omotayo, o. a. department of philosophy, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti & fasoro, j.o. department of philosophy, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti scrutiny. consequently, the ideas, values, attitudes, customs and beliefs of the traditional society are adopted by the succeeding generations. this paper attempts a critical appraisal, evaluation and ethical implications of cultural practices that are discriminatory against the feminine gender in the yoruba culture. it has been discovered that some traditional customs in the yoruba culture are injurious and harmful to the wellbeing of women and the society at large. in other words, they have adverse effects on the health of females (baker, 2009). such practices include female genital mutilation; widowhood practices and preference for male children. for example, female genital mutilation causes bleeding, infection, urinary incontinence, difficulties with childbirth and even death (kimani, 2012). it also leads to the formation of keloids and scar tissues around the genitals which may scare or prevent a man from having sexual relationship with his wife. it is believed that family lineage in yoruba culture is sustained by male children. in view of this, women with female children only are stigmatised. they undergo mental and psychological problems as a result of pressure from their spouses and society for male children. widows also experience unpleasant experiences which are denigrating and derogatory. such beliefs have negative implications on the social, economic and political system of the modern society. they promote gender discrimination because women are usually the victims of the practices. they also deprive females of their human rights. this is not to say that yoruba customs or traditions are not beneficial to the society. in fact, some people have argued that the above cultural practices have some benefits (e.g. it is believed that female genital mutilation prevents a girl from being promiscuous). the work shall examine the reasons adduced for the practices vis-à-vis the dangers inherent in them in order to decide if the customs are to be preserved or eliminated. harmful traditional practices all violations against human rights can be described as harmful practices while all forms of violence against human being which are defended on the basis of tradition, culture or superstitions by some community members are usually regarded as 'harmful traditional practices' (gender and development network, womankind international planned parenthood federation, 2019). in many cases, such practices are performed without the consent of persons involved and thus constitute violation of human rights. harmful traditional practices are a product of social norms which aim to uphold cultural ideas about gender roles and social relations. some of the negative cultural beliefs that affect the wellbeing of girls and women among the yoruba people are: widowhood rites and female genital mutilation (fgm), denial of widow's inheritance of the husband's property and issues relating to preference for male children. the practices are abusive but they are usually seen as acceptable in the community. they are defended based on traditions that are passed down through generations (oguntola, 2022). these customs constitute an act of discrimination against the feminine gender in the societies (udomoh, 2021). female genital mutilation (fgm) female genital mutilation is defined as all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injuries to the female genital organs for 162 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 nonmedical reasons (ofor and ofole, 2015). in other words; it is any procedure that causes injury to the female genitals without medical indication. it is a cultural tradition usually carried out by “traditional circumcisers” without proper knowledge of human anatomy and medicine. it aims to ensure premarital virginity and marital fidelity (who, 2022). it is widely recognized as a violation of human rights, which is deeply rooted in cultural beliefs and perceptions over decades. this is different from the male circumcision which has a relatively low-risk procedure and scientifically proven health gains. it has negative long-term effects on a woman's overall health and quality of life (okeke and aniaehie, 2015). fgm is also regarded as an aspect of genderbased violence which is an act of discrimination against women and girls. (ofor and ofole, 2015). widowhood rites among the yoruba people a widow is a woman whose husband has died and who has not married again (idialu, 2012) while widowhood may be defined as a state of loss of a marital partner. widowhood is described as one of the most distressing of all life events. (utz, reidy, carr, nesse and wortman, 2004). it involves an enduring period of exclusion, restriction, isolation, trauma, insecurity and pain (genyi and george-genyi, 2015). during the period, the bereaved mourns their loss and in many places they are expected to undergo a series of rituals referred to as widowhood rites/rituals. widowhood rites, as practiced in many traditional african societies, are the customs that accompany the mourning of the loss of one's spouse. the practices are as old as yoruba society itself as they are observed across different yoruba communities and categories of people (akinbi, 2015). widowhood rites commences the moment the deceased (either young or aged) dies. widows, regardless of their ages undergo various forms of unpleasant experiences because of the loss of their husbands. a widow is expected to express her sorrow of losing her husband in different ways. for instance, one can easily identify the wife of a deceased person through wearing of black or dull coloured clothes. she is also expected to go into seclusion for several days (akinbi, 2015). in many cases, she is not permitted to visit places, go to markets or attend ceremonies. in some situations, the widow is accused of being responsible for the death of her husband, especially when the man dies at a young age (iloka, 2022).thus, widowhood practices are observed by the woman to prove innocence of the death of her husband. widows are also subjected to the tradition in order to enable the deceased's family to ascertain if the woman had been pregnant as at the time the husband died so that they can claim responsibility and care for the woman. at the end of the mourning period, the widow is inherited by a male relative of her dead husband (even when the decision is against her wish), just like the rest of the man's property. it is disheartening that close relations of the deceased, who are expected to encourage and comfort the widows are usually involved in victimizing them. in some cases, widows are dispossessed of their husband's property. one of the ways through which a widow can retain her household property is to allow herself to be inherited and regarded as remarried to one of her husband's male relatives (olofinlua, 2017). the widowhood rites are not peculiar to the yoruba people for instance, akujobi (2019) notes that: in edo state, widows are treated as outcast. it is believed that the woman knows something about her husband's 163 omotayo & fasoro moral issues in gender discrimination in yoruba culture death either through adultery or witchcraft. in view of this, she is humiliated and not allowed to have her bath or wash her hands after eating; she is not to change her clothes or underwear. she sits and sleeps on the floor during her period of confinement. in some cases, the widows go into the forest to recite some incantations for the purpose of cleansing. the widow is not expected to receive condolence visits from sympathizers during the period of mourning. she is also expected to sit on the floor and be naked during the period of the husband's burial rite, weep and wail loudly at intervals. she is to remain in confinement after the death of the husband for a given period dictated by tradition. in most cases, she vacates the matrimonial home for the relatives of the man. (akujobi, 2009:5) also, in igbo land, widows are exposed to various forms of hardship in order to absolve them of blame. a widow's head is shaved immediately upon the death of her husband. in addition, she is expected to use stick to scratch her body from time to time during the mourning period. she is restricted from washing herself (adaku and ndiukwu, 2019) they are kept in dark rooms with little or nothing to eat. they are made to sleep in the same room with the dead husband and the water used for bathing the dead husband is given the woman to drink. among the hausa/fulani community, mourning and purification rites are also observed. a muslim widow in kano undergoes a four month mourning period and observes reasonable number of days of seclusion which runs .concurrently (adaku and ndiukwu, 2019) the widowhood practices subject women to discrimination and deny them of their fundamental human rights such as right to life and dignity of human person (nwogu, 2015). this compounds the physical and emotional trauma that the death of a loved one already brings. preference for male children and its harmful effects on women's health another form of discrimination which has broad implications for women is the preference accorded to the boy child over the girl child ((ohchr, 2019). the practice is common in the yoruba society. the family lineage is carried on by male children. in other words, the preservation of the family name is guaranteed through the son, a girl takes her husband's family name, dropping that of her own parents. hence, the fear of losing a name prompts families to wish to have a son. a proverb that expresses females being disadvantaged is ai lokunrin nile lobinrin njogun adathe absence of male affords a female the opportunity of inheriting a cutlass. cutlass as a farm implement is traditionally used by men. it symbolizes power and the essence of survival. therefore, for a woman to assume the mantle of leadership, the head of the household must be irresponsible, lazy or dead. when this is not the case, women are understood to be substitutes (eziamaka, 2020). 164 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 women in some cases are threatened with divorce by their husbands if they are unable to have male children. ehirim and osuji (2022) ague that a woman is not fully accepted by her husband's family until she has a male child. therefore, in an attempt to satisfy the husband and secure the home, some women give birth to so many children which they are unable to adequately cater for. fathers sometimes leave the responsibilities of the care and training of the children to the mothers alone. in such cases, women are subjected to physical, emotional and financial stress. the economic cost of having a large number of children may put women at a higher risk for negative health problems as they age (spence, 2009). also, improper family planning exposes the woman to various forms of complications during pregnancy and child birth which sometimes result in the death of the mother. what are moral principles? moral principles are standards of ethical behaviours and norms with which our conduct should conform. they indicate certain things or certain ways of behaviour which should be avoided and other things or ways of behaviour which should be adopted. omoregbe (1993) stated that moral principles are of two kinds: positive and negative principles. the positive principles tell us what we ought to do, how we ought to behave or the attitude of mind we ought to cultivate and adopt. they promote the cultivation of justice, respect for human life and dignity, truthfulness, generosity, kindness, hospitality, etc. the negative principles prohibit some actions and behaviours that are wrong. such behaviours are to be avoided because they are destructive to the society (omoregbe, 1993). examples of such behaviours include: stealing, rape, bribery, murder, cheating, etc. moral principles are by their nature universal. in other words, they are valid and applicable at all times and in all societies. the violation of any moral principle means the destruction of a value which ought to be protected. some basic moral principles that can provide guidance in resolving ethical issues in the society are as follows: 1. respecting the dignity of human life: the lives of persons are to be respected. we are to ensure that our behaviours are not harmful to others. humans have an intrinsic worth, i.e. dignity, because they are rational agents that are capable of making their own decisions, seeing their own goals and guiding their conducts by reason. human beings are not to be regarded as one kind of valuable things amongst others. they are the beings for which mere things have value, and they are the beings whose conscientious value has moral worth. for kant, their value must be absolute and not comparable to the value of anything else (rachels, 1993). 2. respecting autonomy: all human beings are intrinsically valuable and have right to self determination. hence, we are to act in ways that demonstrate each person's worth. the individual has the right to act as a free agent. in other words, human beings are to decide how they live their lives as long as such decisions do not negatively impact the lives of others. human beings also have the right to exercise the power of choice. 3. benefitting others (beneficence): our actions should promote the health and wellbeing of others (ethical principles, 2018) 4. justice: the notion of justice is based on three standards; they are: equality, 165 omotayo & fasoro moral issues in gender discrimination in yoruba culture impartiality and reciprocity. everyone should be treated as equals. it means not being partial in the treatment of people. an impartial person is not bias and he or she does not show favouritism in the treatment of people. (dzurgba, 2000). an impartial person makes no distinction in his or her treatment of individual and social groups. cultural, religious, social, economic, political and gender differences do not play significant roles in his style of thinking, behaviour and working. 5. being faithful: this involves loyalty, truthfulness, promise keeping and respect. this principle is related to the treatment of autonomous people. these principles eliminate all forms of discrimination by protecting individual rights and promoting trust, security and fair treatment in the society. without the endorsement of such principles, some people will be arbitrarily harmed while others will be arbitrarily rewarded. in the next section, we shall consider the key principles of kant's categorical imperative and apply them to the issue of gender discrimination in the society. kant's categorical imperative kant posits that there was only one categorical imperative which he expressed in different ways: 1. act only by that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it may be universal law. ' 2. so act as to treat humanity whether in your own person, or in that of any other in every case as an end in itself, never as a means only.' according to kant, categorical imperatives should have consistency, show impartiality and fairness. (kant, 2002) he argues that because people are ends in themselves, we must always treat them as such and never simply as a means. kant holds that humans have inherent value and should never be treated as instruments. the reason humans have inherent value according to kant is because unlike animals, humans have ability to rise above the brute instincts and to freely make crucial decisions in shaping their lives and the world around them (wisco, 2020), he explained that the ability to freely make such decisions is a feature of human reason and it confers on them an inherent dignity that is valuable in and of itself. in other words, when i treat someone as an end, respect the individual's inherent value and when i treat someone as a means, i see such individual as having only instrumental value, however, it may be difficult for any human not to use others in pursuit of their goals. for instance, the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the chairs we sit on, the cars we drive and other equipment we use on daily basis are acquired by way of talents and abilities that have been developed through other people. yet, we are not to engage in pervasive use of humanity in such a way that we treat it as mere means to our ends and not as an end-in-themselves. one of the ways through which we can treat the producers of the above items as end-in-themselves is by paying for the cost of the commodities. also, a man needs to have sexual relationship with a woman in order to have children but the woman who has only female children can be treated as mere means to an end if the husband insists that she continues to give birth to children (not minding her 166 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 health condition) because of the desire for male children. hence, to treat someone simply as a means and not also as an end is to treat the person in a way that undermines their power of making a rational choice themselves (lacewing, 2019). it is important that we allow people to agree or refuse to adopt our own end as their own. young girls are treated as a mere means to an end when parents give them out in marriage at tender ages to wealthy men. in this situation the female children are regarded by the parents as a means of acquiring riches for the family. in the same vein, some parents “sell out” their daughters by demanding for outrageous bride price from the groom before they are given out in marriage. widows are not treated as ends in themselves when they are coerced to marry the relatives of their deceased husbands. apart from this, treating people as ends require that we respect them and avoid harming them. the issue of female genital mutilation poses harm to the feminine gender because it involves the removal of healthy sexual organs for non-medical reasons. also, various forms of complications are sometimes associated with the mutilation. female genital mutilation, widowhood practices, preference for male children and all other harmful traditional practices towards women are immoral because they violate the human rights of women and impair their dignity. ethical implications of the harmful traditional practices the traditional practices discussed in this work are unethical because they harm the victims and discriminate against women in the following areas: 1. health – fgm is a violation of the right to enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health since women and girls are subjected to it are exposed to short term and long term harm to their physical, psychological, sexual and reproductive health including during childbirth. it further violates the fundamental ethical principle of medicine to “do no harm”. health professionals that perform fgm are violating the fundamental ethical principle of medicine to “do no harm”. a woman's health can also be impaired as a result of preference for male children. for instance, the woman may experience serious complications as a result of successive pregnancies. also, seclusion, loneliness, denial of widow's rights to the spouse's inheritance and all form of widowhood practices affect the mental health of the woman negatively. 2. economy – preference for male children and fgm may lead to hospitalisation and high cost of health care services. unplanned pregnancies will lead to financial stress for the mother and the family. widows also experience financial crisis when they are deprived of the properties of their husbands. 3. human rights – human rights are intrinsic values that give all human beings dignity. the harmful cultural practices deny girls and women of their human rights and dignity. fgm is commonly performed on young girls. such children cannot adequately protect themselves or make informed decisions about matters that may affect them for the rest of their lives. widowhood practices and preference for male children trample on the rights of women and subject them to inhuman or degrading treatment. 4. social life – the harmful cultural practices leads to stigma, depression, anxiety and unstable marriage which may have adverse effects on the social lives of women. 167 omotayo & fasoro moral issues in gender discrimination in yoruba culture conclusion it may be deduced from this paper that yoruba societies are replete with norms, customs or values that have affected the life pattern of women in a way that is different from men. traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, widowhood rites and preference for male children are still being practised in the contemporary yoruba society. these customs are obnoxious and unpleasant to women. the practices are also harmful and discriminate against the feminine gender. females are subjugated and regarded as the property of the man that should be inherited after the demise of her husband. women are not entitled to the possessions of the deceased husband. male children are preferred to the female because it is believed that they sustain the family lineage. however, the claim that only the male children ensure the continuity of family name is challengeable. today, many women in yoruba society bear compound names after marriage in order to ensure the continuity of their fathers' names. also, there are several cases of male children who have had reasons to stop bearing the family name by changing their surnames. in such situations, having a male child does not guarantee the continuity of a family name. the harmful traditional beliefs in yoruba culture promote gender discrimination and are unethical. they also violate the human rights of women and impair their dignity. in addition, they create obstacles for females to move forward in the society. nevertheless, this is not to say that all aspects of the culture are derogatory to women. in conclusion, both men and women have important roles to play in the building of the society. hence, no gender is inferior or superior to the other. in view of this, it is necessary to review and amend the yoruba culture. harmful traditional, especially those that are discriminatory against the feminine gender should be discarded while customs and traditional beliefs that are beneficial to women and the society at large are to be preserved. recommendations parents are to teach the children in the family to show love, compassion and mutual respect for one another. they are to make them understand that both sexes are important. all the children should be involved in house chores and saddled with various responsibilities in the home. this will go a long way in helping the children recognize that no sex is superior or inferior to the other in the society. education of the female child should be encouraged at all levels. it is important to promote the education of the feminine gender at all levels particularly in the rural areas. it is necessary to also place emphasis on human rights education. such training liberates the minds of people. it is capable of changing the mind-set and orientation of women. it removes ignorance and makes them aware of their rights. this will prevent the womenfolk from submitting themselves to cultural practices that oppress them. education can also serve as a means of empowerment. it is an avenue for securing good employment. when this is achieved, women will be able to build up careers and occupy important positions in the society. it gives them the opportunity to be involved in decision making. also, it helps them in protecting their children and wards against harmful cultural practices. by so doing, they contribute their quota to the progress and development of the society. the media can be used for sensitization. the media refers to communication channels through which news, 168 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 music, movies, education, promotional messages and other information are disseminated to the public. people are to be sensitized on the negative implications of gender discrimination and harmful traditional practices through the media. this can be done through bill boards, jingles on television and radio, newspaper, magazines, internet and other forms of media. the state governments should enforce laws and take legal actions against perpetrators of harmful traditional practices. cultural beliefs and traditions that are harmful to the wellbeing of people, particularly the feminine gender should be abolished. traditional rulers and non-governmental organizations are to sensitize the public especially at the villages and grassroots levels on the negative implications of harmful traditional practices. references adaku, s. and ndiukwu, j. 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(2016) categorical imperative of immanuel kant and its criticisms, ethical nd issues and arguments, 22 oct.2016, retrieved from dameanusabun.biogspot.com/2016/10/normal-0-false-false-en-ph—xst none_22.html?m=. accessed, 31 , january, 2020. 172 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 173 abstract the ceaseless transformation of technologies in information industries has consequently developed the world into what is today known as information society or computer age, creating new opportunities to librarians. it has as well charged them with some basic roles to work significantly for the growth and betterment of the information society. meanwhile, this paper looks at the nature of information society and the trends of libraries in reference to nigeria's capacity on the present information society. seeing the fast tracking nature of advancement on information, this paper pose to evaluate how librarianship in nigeria actually suits the dynamic environment in the present information society; whether nigerian librarians fully capture the new technological aspect of information that will eliminate the information gap prevalent among the masses; if the philosophy behind librarianship is really functional; and if the users perfectly access information effectively in personal and/or professional lives. this study however examines the librarianship philosophy and its functional delivery systems within the context of information society in nigeria. thus, the methodology adopted in this work is mainly, the library research method. write-ups and relevant materials on related topics are collated, synthesized and analyzed. keywords: philosophy, libraries, information society, technology, librarianship. introduction conventionally, library is the depository and the bedrock of the society's memory savings, which plays a major role in developing a society. it carries information in all aspect of human endeavors. as a resourceful place of information, it contributes tremendously the primary element of societal economic, cultural, and communal life. having known that everything as heraclitus acclaims is always in a state of flux, the society is not for once static but always changing. this condition of societies and human beings as social institutions and social transformations affect the role of libraries. the current society has experienced fast changes in almost every aspect of human endeavors. the impacts of digital technologies have sustained the growth of libraries. they play an essential role by changing entirely the conventional functions of the library. library does not only deal with books but gathers information in numerous medias for the users. it adapts the present-day changes and handles the new and complex demands of the users. this is why librarians should ever be advanced in the mode of service provided to the users as this will enable the library to be more resourceful and relevant to the society. philosophy, libraries and information society in nigeria agama, christian sunday, (phd) & obiagwu, victor obinna, (phd) directorate of general studies federal university of technology, owerri 174 according to oriogu etal (2015, 92), “the growth and development of information carriers has moved from one form to another. from papyrus to clay tablets, from manuscripts to microfilms from printed documents to electronic and online resources, libraries and information centers have always been in the business of facilitating information to its diversified categories of users”. this means that the information society relies more on the services provided by the librarians. the librarians serve as a link between users and information resources that have been in existence for years. they perform major role in providing, processing, organizing and circulating information to the world. this is why the role of librarians in the information society still remains a problem especially in developing countries. this study therefore examines the philosophy behind libraries and the functional delivery system of librarianship in nigeria in the present-day information society. information society: an insight. the resultant effects of the ongoing structural changes, economic and technological developments, and social changes in the global society have increasingly constituted multiple challenges globally. the genesis of the challenges could be traced from the turning point which has been squeezed out by misunderstandings and distortions related to the term information society. to some, information society has been in existence as at th th late 19 century, and of recent some suggest the late 18 century, whereas some are concerned about the vitality of the concept whether information and knowledge have been playing an important role in history or not. the historical notion of information society, however, becomes so controversial that it somewhat concerns with a sociable circumstance in which a particular community can easily claim to have achieved by considering different standards of information that was opposed at the earlier stage of development. (karvalics 2007,39). it is a society where greater part of social, religious, economic, cultural, and political activities are regulated through information and communication technology (ict) networks which are all interoperable on daily basis. however, literatures do not proffer a general agreement in reference to when different countries emerged into information society. but all that could be said is that developed countries naturally in a gradual process became information societies before the developing countries proceed to enter the state of information society. there upon, the definition of the term information society is also affected with numerous definitions as there is no one generally accepted definition. there are numerous aspects and approaches toward the definition and the characteristics of the term. dutton (2003, 407) proffers the concept of information society as a society whereby storing, creating and networking of information and technological infrastructures commonly take place, and which are progressively fundamental to all kinds of social and economic activity. oriogu etal (2015, 92) defines information society as a society distinguished by an elevation of information intensity in the habitual life of aborigines, institutions and organizations; through technological use, mainly for the coverage of personal, business, social and educational activities, with the ability to perform expeditiously all electronic information globally. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 175 gouveia (2003) expresses the concept of information society to mean the most recent moment of an economically developed society, the major enterprises and institutions that depend upon the development and use of information and communication technologies. also, masuda (1980) as cited in karvalics (2007, 9) defines information society as a fresh kind of society whereby the owner of information is the hidden motive responsible for changes and development, and where intellectual ingenuity of humanity prospers. for cronin (1986) it is “one in which labour has been intellectualized.” it is obvious that the definitions are based on undisclosed assumptions concerning the areas of life that seem to have a vital change. some focus differently on areas like, resources, activities, industries, products, community and people; while some care for the illustration of global ranges as an utmost important. amidst of all the directions, it appears so relevant that for the content of the concept to be revealed, the attainable aims for checking of attitudes and multifaceted analysis have to be given. thus, rukanci and anameric (2004) give an explicit conceptualization of information society with the belief that such society should be characterized thus: a. the emerge of the information sector with the development of information intensive production, b. the establishment of information networks, databanks and communication networks for faster access to the knowledge that everybody needs and has a right to reach, c. the change in the problems of humanity. unemployment and dictatorship concerns in the financial regime of the industrial society changed for the anxieties about the future, privacy violation and not reaching the pace of the change in the information society. d. the substitution of muscle and machine power for the intellectual and mental capacity, e. formation of the demographic structure in the information society where the qualified and well educated individuals take the priority, f. prominence of the continuing education, g. continuance of the new information production and, consequently, much more and quality publications. h. broaden of the globalization as the time and space limitations no longer exist in communication and information access. the above features among others reveal the outstanding analyses of the term extending to all sub-systems. a comprehensive analysis will help to check out when a society changes from the former phase to the information society – the changes though are independent upon every country's plan and efforts. according to isazadeh (2004, 3), “each country has its own action plan for developing the information society of its own.” this is why it becomes so victorious that the world now talks of the global information society, a society where mobile phone and internet usage have become the ultimate measure of interconnectedness. even the islands, as the information age unfolds, join together in forming the global information society. however, in as much as the world today is recognized as an information age-where all societies of mankind is changing to one global information society, the sources and the accessibility of the information are what mattered most. hence, libraries should be up to agama & obiagwu philosophy, libraries and information society in nigeria date with the use of modern technologies that can provide and access the information resources that measure up with the information needs of people (users) in the society. libraries of all kinds (whether public, academic or school) are expected to be equipped with facilities, and “digital” and qualified staff globally because it is among the areas where the lifetime learning abilities are being developed. this turns the whole system into a struggle against the modern-day digital divide, and the knowledge and information management among the librarians. a critical examination of the modern development of libraries in any information society (especially in nigeria) is of great importance. philosophy and librarianship in information society it is obvious that librarianship has an enormous impact on the (global) information society. the influence of librarianship on human perception, knowledge, memory as well as motions has created general spheres of influence and public viewpoints, and has given support to core values on information and knowledge realities. knowledge and information shape our socialization and community. they transform economy, science, politics, religion and law. the influential development of librarianship on the above realities has attracted a topic of philosophical analysis. one of the librarianship philosophical approaches focuses attention on the reformulation of traditional framework of library efficiencies. the minimum of such arguments is somewhat for ages and covers almost notable important subjects of philosophical discourses, extending to a point of reality, truth, culture, society, education or politics to time, space, emotion etc. the rethinking of this kind focuses upon the question how – in an information society – the routine experience together with the theoretical modeling of librarianship changed historically from book storing to internet networking. what major change has actually occurred since the inception of the internet? another philosophical approach is predominantly centered upon the technical sides of libraries and their efficiencies. it is so logical that the established idea of man has been defeated. man has become nothing more than a subordinate to digital technologies. his carnal duties have been gradually replaced by digital technologies taking over the important jobs. the logic of mechanism has replaced the conventional order of knowledge. the favorable circumstances that came as a result of the circulation of the digital technologies, the rate at which internet and mobile telecommunication networks that increasingly spread globally, and the disclosed shared models for innovation and learning have given rise to new sources of inequality. nonetheless, some scholars have argued that the terminology of digital divide has put much emphasis on the dualisms of information. the basic changes and power connections in a particular society are arguably influenced by the conditions which people could wish to take part in their information society. thus, warschauer (2002 & 2004) has discussed effectively the need for analytical framework that focuses on social inclusion instead of having an arbitrary divide, whereas van dijk (2005) and norris (2001) look at the need for comparative research and studies that will engage in addressing the deficiencies of digital divide research. van dijk (2006, 1), for instance, points out “its lack of theory, conceptual definition, interdisciplinary approach, qualitative research and longitudinal research.” 176 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 notwithstanding, the rational approach concerning the digital divide as it affects the librarianship should be on how to bridge the digital divide (the breach between those who have access to internet and those without) among the library users especially in developing nations. it is not just having libraries but the kinds that are commensurate to the existing information society. other thing that needs to be put into consideration is whether the library has the accessible internet within its location. is the available access to internet actually affordable? what percentage of people can reach the affordability? what quality of service does it render in terms of internet speed? how has the society involved been able to acquire the necessary skills and technologies therein? some other issues that might attract digital divide (inequality) include security, interconnectivity, digital literacy, and access to equipment. it is obvious that these digital inequalities ranging from the availability, affordability, interest, and to digital literacy exist globally. even among the nations that have high overall connectivity rates cannot boast of 100% equity of sustainable internet access in rural, remote, and even urban areas. the measure at which all the libraries could be globally connected, secured, and trustworthy is doubtful. wilson (2004) has explained the difficulties involved in addressing the problems associated with those who are directly affected with the digital divide-the internet variations. comprehensively, the principal element of librarianship philosophy is no longer acknowledged with the ideas proclaimed by raymond smith that: a library is part of a social organization and that librarianship is a social process inextricably bound up with the life of a community. it was in special libraries that the place of the active information service in the progress of knowledge could be most clearly seen-the library playing its part alongside the other members of the organization, to promote the welfare of the organization by implementing its policy through books (springer nature 1962, 120). _the refinement of techniques has come up with new development in the system initiating new ways of social connections in all places through the network operation of information communication technology (ict). the digitalization of library, the radical change of human of understanding in the context of sensible realities appears not to establish the stable future of “librarianship philosophy”. hence, in addition, one is not quite sure, how the librarianship will prosper in time to come within the context of (global) information society. it is also arguable in believing any kind of finality except possibly in the finality of transformation. meanwhile, how has the present-day librarians in the context of information society been able to make known the truth or accurate information? if it were to be on health issues, there would be a treatment for it. the same should be applicable to the case of accessing correct information. a lot of conjectural information is being spread over the net causing confusions. where important information is required to be disclosed, it is the correct information that brings about solutions. the librarianship philosophy should be concerned on the capability of finding, assessing and using information adequately in individual and proficient lives. the kind of “information divides” and the refinement of techniques encircling the current information society have charged to satisfy a librarianship philosophy that would aim to proffer answer to the following: how the 177 agama & obiagwu philosophy, libraries and information society in nigeria correct information should always be reached; at what stage does the information resolve the current issues; how can an information be collected, organized, processed, stored, and be distributed among user population without the reformation of information and knowledge needed by the users. it is the duty of the contemporary library professionals to make people to be more information literate. long (1986, 6) defines information literacy as educating people on how to provide solutions to their problems or to be more fit in getting their answers. if this definition is appropriate, then the librarians should be able to develop “the ability of knowing what kind of information, the layman needs, where that information is available, how could it be obtained; the possession of knowledge about subjects, books, libraries and library sources, documentation and information sources, services, systems, and centers networks, data bases, data banks and how to use them etc” (weerasooriya 1997, 188). it therefore implies that librarianship belongs also to the field of information literacy whereby the general public who are educated and trained find it easy to access information as well as acquiring more knowledge especially when the primary function of the library is to see that they get the knowledge. the present-day existence of information society is as a result of constant changes in information professionalism. the library and information spheres are also open to question of being changed in accordance with the resilience and the needs of the society which is as well a subject to change. the changes in librarianship, like other professionals, should be considered normal provided the traditional values are somewhat suitable to the new circumstances. the profession of librarianship should always be ready to work towards the dynamic situations of the contemporary information society. according to butler (1973, 111): a professional library worker must possess a scientific, generalized knowledge which will enable him to discover the complex library needs of a mixed community. his primary concern is with the social effect of the institution. the technical library worker must have been vocationally trained to control the apparatus of the library for an effective realization of its prescribed purposes. the challenges surrounding the present day librarianship remain the fact that it has to work round the clock basis of the critical information society. foskett (1962) has argued that the librarians are the principal figures when it concerns the circulation of information from the originators to the users simply because the reader is in person associated with them. their physical presence matters a lot to the users as many might need to be guided as well as providing answers to their enquires. they should also be involved in looking forward to connecting the new information coming up daily in the library from the known requirements of the users. by and large, the rout to excellence in information society is by acquiring the knowledge and using its power. in today's global village, any society that cannot obtain, and make use of the existing information is bound to be operating within the standards of the olden days. it is the responsibility of all society's libraries, be it developed or developing countries to posses the catalyst effect in changing to the information society by making sure they come to terms of the information, and aspire to catch up with the pressing lack of the 178 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 information in the society. libraries are the cultural and social institutions that help to nurture people to be qualified and who would in return lift the community to the level of the information society. it is through the assistance of libraries that one could have access to the recorded data that has been piled up. it is also the responsibility of the librarians to define and form the recorded data in a situation where the academic projects are documented in touchable form. presently, libraries remain the environments where lifelong learning abilities are developed. libraries have direct connection with the information society. therefore, the librarianship philosophy should be to educate the skills of technology involved in order to function efficiently in the information society so that the challenging roles facing the career will be encountered. librarianship and information society in nigeria there is no information society that does not have one challenge or the other simply because of its constant transformation. it is so clear that new technologies are springing up from which improvements are always made to the existing technologies on regular basis in order to catch up with the latest development. thus, libraries on the general note have this challenge of fast advancement in telecommunication facilities. it is quite observable that it is almost when librarians appear to have known or mastered a specific software facilities that the need for upgradement is always required to enable them achieve better results. in the case of nigeria, it is not just the problem of rapid upgradement in the system. but the outstanding ones remain that there are irregular supply of electricity and inadequate funding of libraries. others in some cases are the defective telecommunication facilities and poor level of competency among the librarians. adigun (2015, 64-5) has it that “in many nigerian libraries, the internet connection is so slow that often times it is impossible to download and print documents from the internet.” the librarians have also been affected greatly by the emergences of icts mainly on the digital resources, high-tech gadgets and the current information overload. moreover, there may be some other cases of abnormalities entangled with nigeria's librarianship that are not mention in this paper which are still hindering their proper functionality in the present information society, but the librarians should endeavor to be up and doing in order to carry the citizens along with other societies. librarianship is not just by physical features but by competent access and provision of productive services to the public. it therefore entails that for there to be fruitful services as expected by the users of the digital age, libraries must be mobilized with the aimed info-tech and human expertise. they are the information professionals whose expected roles and services are utmost needed in the information society. according to rothman (2011), adaptability, resourcefulness, adequate habitude of doing things, having the affection for resolving issues are the most crucial attributes an information pundit can be endowed with. he further states that librarians should: “… adapt rather than perish” and “information professional should be championed of clarity and conclusion who find accessible ways to describe complex topics”. thereupon, the librarians in nigeria should understand from the above discussions that they are entrusted with much roles and services delivery st system of the digital age. romas (2007) expatiates further when he says that a 21 century librarian is: 179 agama & obiagwu philosophy, libraries and information society in nigeria an information broker for both prints and electronic media, who selects, acquires, organizes, repackages and provides access to both digital and print information sources; a change agent, that is a technology application leader who liaises with the computer science unit to design and manage the library ict; a facilitator, making access to information easier by providing access to network, purchases appropriate library software, databases, e-books and ejournals; an educator, who trains users on how to access both prints and electronics. he also educates them on the use of search engines to surf materials from the internet; a business manager, who possesses the ability to negotiate with publishers. he also discusses license agreements fore-books, e-journals and databases; an image maker who is capable of adding value to the library in order to gain management support and project a positive image to the outside world. lankes (2011, 13) summarizes the fact by saying that the librarians' responsibility is nothing but to enhance society by assisting the progress of knowledge production in their society. therefore, librarians in nigeria should revolutionize themselves and welcome a more functioning and changing role in order to be most relevant in the information society. and in order to equate with the present responsibilities, they should engage themselves with conferences and retraining frequently to enable them perform their job effectively in present day information society. conclusion librarianship remains the information-dependent that serves the society because it constantly calls on tabbed information stores that already exists in conventional fields of study. and for nigerian society to excel on rapid flow of knowledge and information there should be a proper tradition of being committed with a philosophical exercise of librarianship. when there is a practice of transformation towards envious functional delivery system of librarianship in nigeria, they will gain more power to create, influence and add more value in the information society. being the essential artisans of global information provider and knowledge managers, librarians have no option than to engage in a librarianship philosophy; be digitalized and act efficiently in accordance with the present day information society. references adigun, t.a. (2015). adoption and use of information and communication technologies in nigerian libraries: opportunities and challenges. ebonyi journal of library and information science (issn 2488-894x). butter, p. (1973). an introduction to library science. chicago: university of chicago. dutton, w.h. (2003). information society in encyclopedia international media and communications, vol. 2. usa: elsevier science. foskett, d.j. (1962). the creed of a librarian: no politics, no religion, no morals. london: library association. gouveia, l.m.b. (2003). sociedade da informacao. notas recolhidas da web em marco de. imbg@ufp.pt,http://www-ufp.pt/imbg. 180 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 isazadeh, a. (2004). information society: concepts and definitions. wseas transactions on systems 6(3): 1-4. karvalics, l.z. (2007). information society – what is it exactly? (the meaning, history and conceptual framework of an expression). from theory to political practice, 29. lankes, r.d. (2011). the atlas of new librarianship. cambridge, mass: mit press. long, k. (1986). the american forester 1990 running from 1989. grand rapid press. masuda, y. (1980). the information society as a post-industrial society (the world future society, tokyo, lls, washington d.c). norris, p. (2001). digital divide: civic engagement, information poverty and the internet worldwide. cambridge: cambridge university press. oriogu, c.d. etal. (2015). information society and the expected roles and service delivery systems of librarians in nigeria. ebonyi journal of library and information science vol. 2, no. 1. st thromas, m. (2007). the role of librarians in the 21 century. paper presented at 35 th alsp anniversary forum on june 8 at uplb ceat auditorium. retieved from http://www.shideshare.net/plaistic/the-role-of-librarians-in-the-21st-century . rothman, d. (2011). common sense librarianship: an ordered list mainfesto health information greekery. rukoanci, f. & anameric, h. (2004). bilgi toplumun bilgile nmesinde kutuphanelerin rolu, kutuphaneciligin destani uluslarast sempocyumu: saga of librarianship international symposuim, ankra (turkey) 21-24. springer nature. (1963). a philosophy of librarianship. nature vol. 196. https://doi.org/10.1038/19612oao. van dijk, j.a.g.m. (2005). the deepening divide: inequality in the information society. london: sage. van dijk, j.a.g.m. (2006). digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. poetics, 34(4-5): 221-225. warschauer, m. (2002). reconceptualizing the digital divide. first monday 7(7):np. warschauer,m.(2004). technology and social inclusion: rethinking the digital divide. cambridge, ma: mit press. weerasooriya, w.a. (1997). philosophical pespective of library and information science thought and its evolution and the changing role of future library and information professionals. library science with a slant to documentation and information studies. vol. 34. no. 4 pp. 185-190. wilson, e.j. (2004). the information revolution and developing countries. cambridge, ma: mit press. 181 agama & obiagwu philosophy, libraries and information society in nigeria page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 1 what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka ikennaodimegwu@gmail.com abstract if the development of africa shall be founded on african philosophy, the foundations of african philosophy must be strong, dynamic and clearly articulated. communalism is arguably one of the cornerstones of african philosophy. it has variously constituted foundation for african philosophy, framework for african personhood and touchstone for african identity. a number of african nationalist leaders sought to build the socio-political and economic structures of their nascent independent states on communalism. in the heat of the struggles, the exuberance of emergence and the confusion of neocolonialism, many scholars have made many claims for communalism that have evoked diverse critical reactions. while a number of the claims are difficult to substantiate, some of the reactions have also been extreme. social life in postindependence african societies has also called to question the non-periodized claims on behalf of communalism. the undifferentiating reference to traditional mode of living, current social reality and/or philosophic notions and concepts of communalism has introduced much confusion in the discourse of communalism in african philosophy. this paper undertakes conceptual dialogue with the various participants in the african communalism symposium in order to unpack the confusion of reference and ascertain what foundation and service communalism as an african philosophy can constitute for and render to the present and future of african development. keywords: communalism, african communalism, african philosophy, foundations of philosophy, development. introduction the very first challenge that confronted advocates of the existence of african philosophy during the great debate was the problem of identity, that is, what is specifically african about african philosophy? in the works of many african philosophers in that debate, communalism was implicated as one of the principal elements that distinguish africa on the one hand and african philosophy from other traditions of philosophy on the other hand. thus, communalism has variously constituted foundation for african philosophy, framework for african personhood and touchstone for african identity. it was in this context that a number of african mailto:ikennaodimegwu@gmail.com 2 nationalist leaders sought to build the socio-political and economic structures of their nascent independent states on communalism. in the heat of the struggles, the exuberance of emergence and the confusion of neocolonialism, many scholars have made many claims for communalism that have evoked diverse critical reactions. while a number of the claims are difficult to substantiate, some of the reactions have also been extreme. in addition, certain manifestations of socio-political life in post-independence africa such as leadership failure, economic corruption authoritarianism, one-party system, self-perpetuation in power, human rights abuse, the continuing failure of liberal democracy, tribal conflicts and ethnic acrimonies have called into question the non-periodized claims of the african communalism exponents. the undifferentiating discourse of communalism in reference to traditional social life, current social reality and/or philosophic concept notions and concepts has introduced much confusion in the discourse. therefore, while african scholars such as uduigwomen (2002, p. 3) may have been correct that the debate on whether or not there is an african philosophy is dead and buried, the controversy surrounding aspects of these debates is far from settled as confusion has continued to dog such defining elements of the debate and the philosophy like communalism. hence, this paper undertakes conceptual dialogue with the various participants in the symposium on african communalism in order to unpack the confusion of reference and ascertain what foundation and service communalism as an african philosophy can constitute for and render to the present and future of african development. african communalism and controversies the history of communalism in africa like the history of philosophy itself is punctuated with controversies. the controversies stem from variety of sources and causes: the nature, concept and practice of communalism, the relevance and resilience of communalism in the context of colonialism and neocolonialism, the reality, status and currency of communalism in the changing contexts of african social existence and the impact of communalism on the vexed issues of enduring social crisis, political stability and development in africa. however, the massive attention and the consequent controversies surrounding african communalism are not surprising since the definitions of african philosophy, african identity and african personhood from onset have been tied to communalism. there are a number of specific areas of these controversies that are of interest to this paper. the first is whether communalism is specific to africa or common to all primitive societies. the second is whether the communalism of traditional african society is still relevant to contemporary africa. the third is whether it is legitimate to talk about african communalism considering the diverse nature of africa cultures. the fourth surrounds the justification for the frequent claim that african traditional society is communalist. this section will be devoted to discussing these debates and controversies. what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 3 the controversy on whether it is legitimate to generalize communalism for all of africa centers around the diversity african cultures. commenting on this, onwuejeogwu (cited in okafor & emeka, 1998, p. 20) makes the argument that: in africa there are over a thousand ethnic groups, each having its own culture, but these have been broadly divided into eleven culture areas namely: hottentot, bushman, east african cattle, western cattle, the congo, the guinea coast, the east horn, east sudan, west sudan, egyptian, and mediterranean. each of these may be divided into sub-culture areas. although, onwuejelogwu, did not embark on the categorization of these sub-cultural groups, the point he tries to emphasize is that africa is a continent of many cultures. the question therefore is whether it is legitimate to claim that communalism is a feature of these very widely diversified african cultures? a number of scholars have argued that such generalization is legitimate. onwuejelogwu (ibid. p. 75) after conceding the diversity of african culture still argue that “the differences and cultural diversities in africa notwithstanding, there are enough similarities among these cultures that legitimizes us to talk about the entity ‘african culture’” he identifies four areas where this harmony is most obvious: the whole aspects of african cosmology, african communalism, african ethical belief system and burial rites. these among other practices are common among all african societies. corroborating onwuejeogwu, hannah kinoti (1999, pp. 73-82) argues that, although africa is a vast continent and much fragmented in terms of languages, beliefs and customs, there is adequate evidence from various studies that where the basics of cultural and moral assumptions are concerned, the bottom line is fairly solid. it is therefore possible according to him, to generalize to a large extent. however, there are scholars who believe that this type of generalization has no empirical support. olufemi tiawo (2016, p. 84) in his objection to ikuenobe’s généralisation of a communalist african society raised the following questions: is it possible that, as a construct of ikuenobe’s imagination, communalism does not describe the empirical state of african societies now or in the past? might one derive a different, maybe even opposed, ‘conceptual normative generalization’ from the same empirical data plumbed by ikuenobe? are the commonalities cited as the base for his generalization what he has cashed them out to be? despite all the caveats, ikuenobe’s account still strikes me as just another way of affirming a problematic stance: that most of what are styled ‘traditional african societies’ were communalist…the idea of ‘traditional african society’ is problematic, to say the least; most likely, as a theoretical concept, it is vacuous. for the case can be made that most of the commonalities that are often trumpeted as typifying african cultures are not peculiarly, predominantly, not to say solely, african. 4 in this context, taiwo contends that africans need to abandon the legacy of colonial-inflected anthropology that lumps together several social types that serious study should easily make clear do not belong together. how communalistic could the medieval mali empire have been? the ọ̀yọ́ empire was a multinational polity that had within its borders different national and ethnic groups. on what basis could one affirm of 17th century ọ̀yọ́ with its hierarchies— including an aristocracy and monarchy that lived off the surplus labor of others—and a complex division of labor that it was a so-called “traditional society”? meanwhile, in the various communities that made up igbo people, their scholars and ideologists love to trumpet their traditional preference for republicanism and their storied individualism. yet, scholars love to talk of traditional igbo society and affirm communalism of it in the singular (p. 85). the important point then is that africa is too culturally diverse to be talked about generically and that this type of blanket generalization deprives the cultures in africa the benefits of thorough and rigorous analysis that would have helped not only in diagnosing the problems of the various cultures in the continent but also needed to move it forward. scholars have also debated on whether communalism is peculiar to traditional african society or is generally the characteristic of all primitive societies. for instance, it has been claimed that communalism as a universal idea shares a strong conceptual affiliation with terms such as socialism and humanism with roots going back to plato‘s political theory, the communal life of the early christians, the french revolution engineered by the encyclopaedists who aimed at rationalizing society, down to marx/engel‘s utopian and scientific socialism. the bottom line in this affiliation is that the emphasis on the importance of community in the functioning, the analysis and the understanding of human dignity and wellbeing is universal and therefore not peculiar to any group of people (martin, et al., 1977). nevertheless, as p. m. martin, et al (1977) claim, africans, were organized sometimes more communally in ways which were unfamiliar to others and unwitnessed anywhere else. therefore, although all human beings are said to be social, there seem to be some unanimity among african philosophers, that africans exhibited some sort of sociality that was both unique and more than the normal expected level of sociality. in fact, for h., kimmerle (1989), this level of sociality was both unique and transcendental. kimmerle argues that the notions of ubuntu and communalism are not used for instrumental purposes as in the west. according to him, in ubuntu which is a form of african communalism, the african community spirit is epitomized. this implies that there is a high estimation of the community in african thought and practice, higher than that of the individual, but not at the cost of forgetting the individual person. this is so because a person is a person in the context of community. thus the special relationship communalism has in africa is coloured by african culture most importantly in granting mutual help, caring for each other and sharing with each other by means of dialogues. however, some scholars such as tiawo remain unconvinced about the uniqueness of african communalism. taiwo (2016, p. 85) argues: what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 5 the contrast between the western and the african is hardly ever illuminating; often the obscure and this should not come as a surprise: it frequently is motivated by the need to affirm african difference. outside of this overarching need to treat the west as a monolith in order thereby to affirm africa in its radical difference, this cannot be a very plausible idea unless it can be shown that communalism, even of the variety that ikuenobe defends, is not part of the philosophical history of the so-called west. certainly, given that many of us african scholars engaged in this debate are native speakers of the so-called western philosophical idiom, we can assert that we know that not too dissimilar versions of communalism are significant parts of the western tradition. tiawo’s substantive claim here is that there is not enough evidence to show that the version of african communalism defended by africanists is different from the versions in other parts of the world. he maintained that communalism can be affirmed of much of the human race and various societies at different times in the past whether in europe, asia, africa, or america. but if this is true, then a special case needs to be made for the legitimacy of the affirmation and deployment of african communalism. the greeks worshipped mountains, found gods everywhere, and insisted that a being-out-of-community must be a god or a beast. they also held that the group is prior to the individual… the contrast between africa and europe is badly drawn and likely to obfuscate rather than illuminate the nature of societies and the individuals that make them up. have african societies always been ‘community societies’ and european societies ‘collectivist’ ones? (p. 85). in other words, communalism’s pedigree is not traced to geography or history of any particular people. it is rather to be sought in the modes of production of material life. if this is so, communalism is distributed across cultures and peoples who are otherwise distinct and different in their cultural productions would share communalism insofar as their modes of production are the same or very similar. therefore, “communalism is widely diffused across the globe from europe to asia and the americas at specific historical conjunctures.” furthermore, while such scholars as john mbiti, sender senghor and a whole lot of others were convinced that african traditional society was decidedly communalistic, there were scholars who contest this claim. parrinder (1969, p. 90) for example mentioned that african past was not a heaven of perfections. it had its own problems and limitations. he writes: it is easy to idealise the past and sign for an imaginary golden age away from the disturbing present with its rapacious commerce, oppressive politics and bitter warfare. the facts are that even in the past there were unpleasant customs, tyrannical rulers, sudden deaths and human sacrifices. based on this some scholars have gone as far as denying that traditional african society was communalist. for nkrumah (1967), an idyllic african classless society (in which there were no rich no poor) enjoying a drugged serenity is certainly a facile simplification; there is no 6 historical or even anthropological evidence for any such society. defending his ground against a classless african traditional society, nkrumah points out that feudalism, a deep and exploitative social stratification founded on the ownership of land, existed in some parts of africa before colonization. he further noted that slavery existed in africa before european colonization. before colonization nkrumah insists, africans were prepared to sell, often for no more than thirty pieces of silver, fellow tribesmen and even members of the same extended family and clan. v. g. simiyu (cited in kimmerle, 1989, p. 30) cautions against what he describes as exaggerations of african traditional socialism. “how do we defend equality of people in traditional africa face–to-face with innumerable beggars, homeless people, unattended sickly people that populated that epoch?” while the picture painted above may apply to some african communities, it raises some issues. for one, equality does not presuppose the non-existence of social classes. what may be posited against equality would rather be the institutionalization of such classes. that there are beggars, homeless people, and the sick questions charity rather than equality. and of course, charity or rather fellow-feeling, lies at the heart of african communalism. where such is lacking therefore, it must be noted as minus for the claims for african communalism. that there would be such situations is only to be expected. to generalize on such situations would require further evidence and proof than mere assertion. and the picture does not seem to describe the history of the pre-colonial igbo societies with well-developed structures for taking care of the class of people captured in the picture at the family level. differing from what he regards as democratic myth in african traditional societies, simiyu (2017) draws attention to the fact that hate and struggle were not unknown in these societies. moreover, to presuppose one and the same structure everywhere proves to be a too simplistic way of speaking about traditional social life in africa. while it is obvious and trite that the land where “everyone lived peacefully and joyfully thereafter” belongs only to the realm of mythical imaginations, simiyu also fell into the ‘simplistic way of speaking’ in the earlier passage where the existence of ‘beggars, homeless people, unattended sickly people’ in some african societies is generalized to refute the existence of communalism in precolonial african societies. there are also critics who accept that traditional african societies were communalistic but fault any attempt to extrapolate this into contemporary african life. the claim here is that the type of brotherhood and hospitality practiced in traditional african society is limited within small units, usually the tribe which makes it a source of animosity and ethnic tension. according to ali mazrui (1978, p. 25), “the fact that africans have a highly developed sense of responsibility towards their own kinsmen, has reduced their capacity to empathise with those that are not their own. the fact here is that strong tribal brotherhood easily results in isolationism among different ethnic groups?” ejiogu (2014, p. 6) identifies this type of ethnic affiliation as the root cause of many african problems: what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 7 we cannot, while defending the so termed african’s natural propensity to brotherhood, keep blind eyes over chronic tribal hatred that contoured african traditional communities and have continued to torment the african continent. we habitually associate racism with the westerners, but a deep insight into the lifestyle of traditional african communities would reveal that africans are the most racist groups in the world. tribalism is the chief operational factor in the african continent right from its history. language and some particular forms of culture distinguish tribes in africa. each african tribe would preferably choose to live, interact and inter-marry within their respective territorial confines without interfering with others and each tribe would do whatever it entails to defend her geographical location and ontological tribal identity and purity against all other tribes. it is this strong sense of tribal descent, unity and the compelling instinct of defending tribal historical cultural identity that is at the root of tribal intolerance in africa. ogbuja (2007, pp. 22-23) on his own, sees this as the reason why democracy has failed to work in africa. he describes poignantly: african communalism engenders a high sense of hospitality, communality and altruism for one’s ethnic group. at this level, the different sub-cultural groups organize themselves independently of each other. beyond the immediate community, there is neither loyalty nor compelling force of authority. driven by the urge to satisfy the needs of her immediate members, each community competes with others for the scarce resources of nature. often, the competition leads to confrontation, and confrontation to crisis. the preponderance of communal conflicts among the traditional africans is consequent upon this. the high rate of instability in the art of governance within african nations is ultimately traceable to this. this ‘communal idea’ brings with it a community consciousness, a consciousness that sees the communities fighting in and through their individual members. each time an individual is placed in a position of leadership, he sees himself first as a member of a specific community whose primary task is to promote his communal selfhood, before anything else. in doing so, he gives undue preference to issues pertaining to his primal community, while the problems of other segments of the same society are treated with levity. it is a ‘winner-take-all’ jungle society. this form of injustice and alienation of people from their main purpose of living together can only but give rise to uprisings, sabotaging of government policies, coups and counter coups, and various forms of dissension that lead to instability in governance. 8 how communalist is africa? at the centre of all the controversies discussed so far is the question of what advocates exactly mean when they claim that africans are communalist. ike odimegwu (2007) indicated the various ways this question can be formulated: the question, how communalist is africa, may be understood in various ways. what, for instance, is communalism? is there a generally accepted concept or definition of communalism? are there brands of communalism? are there levels, types or kinds of communalism? if there are, which is the ideal or perfect communalism? the problem that confronts attempts to address this question is that very rarely do advocates of african communalism advance theories that specify whether there are brands of communalism or not and the specific version of these brands a particular scholar is proposing or defending. this lack of theorization has been flagged as “the basis for the continued conceptual confusion” that has dogged the discourse of african communalism. however, scholars like oguejiofor and tiawo have developed conceptual schemas that are very helpful in navigating through the conceptual confusion engendered by the lack of clarity of use by advocates of african communalism. oguejiofor (2007) raises the question: “how african is communalism?” in search of answer to the query, he distinguishes three possible senses in which communalism may be african: 1) communalism characterizes africa; 2) communalism is specific and exclusive to africa; 3) communalism is essential to being african. in the first sense, communalism is a quality which africans possess but this possession does not exclude non-africans from also possessing the same quality. the second sense makes the possession of the quality exclusive to africans or originally theirs such that even if it is found in any other group of humans, it follows that they acquired it from africans. and in the third sense, this quality is not just characteristic and exclusive; it defines the essence of being african such that not to possess it is not to be african. oguejiofor argues that while communalism may be african in the first sense, it will be erroneous to attribute communalism to africa in the second and third senses. he further argues that many of the conditions that qualified africa for the first sense are no longer available in contemporary african society. these critical distinctions are taken further by taiwo (2016) in an illuminating classification of communalism. against the background of a babel of contributions on the provenance of communalism as the african possession and donation to the world, taiwo calls attention to the many confusions that attend to the usage of the term. he distinguishes three theses of communalism in the extant literature: ontological, methodical and axiological communalism. according to taiwo, literature in the first category, the ontological, expresses communalism as a thesis about how humans are in the world and what they are. on this reading, being-incommunion is the natural way of being human. a human being who is outside of this community communion will, ex-definitione, be a non-human. taiwo contends that many who what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 9 canvass communalism in the african context subscribe to this thesis. the claim is that beingin-community is the quintessential way of being african. methodological communalism is the thesis that no matter how humans are in the world, the best place to make sense of their being-in-the-world and their activities attached thereto is to view them through the prism of community. this thesis for taiwo is an explanatory model and the claim is that the best way to make sense of africans and their world is to study them within or as communal beings. the third, axiological thesis holds that communalism provides a yardstick with which to measure the desirability or worth of being-in-the world. attention here turns on value theory. many of the strictures that communalists place on contemporary urbanization-inflected social living and the atomization that characterizes it are on account of the individualism that is inspired, supposedly, by africans copying western values. individualist behaviour is excoriated and those who embrace it, however it is conceived, stand condemned for abandoning a superior mode of social living: communalism. taiwo (2016, p. 82) further divides axiological communalism into two categories: communalist ethics and communalist social and political philosophy or socio-political communalism. if what is to be judged is behaviour or conduct, we call it communalist ethics. if, however, what is to be judged is the suitability of modes of governance or principles of social living or ordering, resolving issues of who ought to rule when not all can rule and what end legitimate rule should tend to, we call it communalist social and political philosophy or socio-political communalism. socio-political communalism will be important in the design of social institutions or what political institutions are most likely to ensure a better life for humans. taiwo avers that it is easy to see how one who thinks that the system is too individualist would prefer communalism. in the political arena, one can trace much of the preference of african philosophers for oneparty regimes or consensus politics to this preference for communalist arrangements. they may be taken as instances of socio-political communalism. tiawo correctly observed that the literature on communalism scarcely, if ever, evinces any awareness of the distinctions just made. the result is a lot of confusion as to what exactly is at issue in these disquisitions. identifying and distinguishing these different theses of communalism can illuminate a discussion that is often notorious for its murkiness. for example, the ontological thesis can be defended on several grounds, including conceptual and empirical ones. because it is not recognized as such, many who canvass it seem to be offering empirical grounds for it. yet, it is clear that historically it is less true of many african societies, especially those that evolved great civilizations. one could also advance communalist ethics but not defend it on empirical but ahistorical grounds as is usually done in the literature. what is more, by so championing communalism, it will be easier to address the main objective of this paper, namely, what do we do with communalism? 10 what do we do with communalism today? from the foregoing, it should be obvious that one of the first things to do with communalism today is to insist on conceptual clarification. the three categories of oguejiofor and taiwo are steps in this direction. further development in this direction will be positive development. it will also amount to useful engagement with communalism if any further proposition of communalism pays heed to these conceptual clarifications and applies the clarifications already achieved while striving to improve on the status quo. again, the forgetfulness of history or the deliberate revision of history, a natural tendency of conquerors, imperialists and colonialists, has led to untoward distortion of history and untold harm to human societies and humanity generally. it behooves every people therefore to seek knowledge and possession of their history and as well as to struggle for the rewriting of their revised history. however, this historiographical responsibility imposes a further philosophic duty of critical engagement with the historicity of a people’s historical claims. that is, the need to know who i am calls up the further need to question, again and again, who i am or claim to be. therefore, the quest to know whether africans were communalist and the nature of african communalism, as have punctuated the controversies of african communalism, are very important and may not, in the foreseeable future, be dismissed as irrelevant or anachronistic. what to do with african communalism in this regard should be insistent inquiry into the identity or identities that this mode of existence had conferred and may yet confer on the african people as part of a conscious campaign of self-definition, recognition and possession. in summary therefore, to the question, what do we do with african communalism today, we can do three things or a number of things at three levels: we can undertake an involved and involving conceptual engagement with african communalism to achieve conceptual clarity; we can sieve the realistic from the idealistic and yet seek how the ideal can inspire and guide, motivate and activate the real to transit the engagement with african communalism from idle contending for identity to constructive action for development; we can then apply the instrument thus acquired to the development of integral and progressive african institutions, structures and operations. whatever, we do, a necessary test of validity and relevance of the process and instrument developed from the process should include their resilience in the face of competing instruments in the global arena; their contribution or relevance to the development of africa and africans; their impact on the confidence of the african in the global village. conclusion communalism has continued to exercise overarching influence on the african social and intellectual space so much so that it is difficult to escape its ubiquity. it has been employed by african social theorists, nationalist campaigners, political leaders and scholars. this work has studied the prevalence of communalism as a social issue, political instrument and philosophic discourse. this prevalence has attracted proponents, detractors and critics. it has generated what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 11 many controversies. in this paper, we have addressed the controversies bordering on whether communalism is specific to africa or common to all primitive societies; whether the communalism of traditional african society is still relevant to contemporary africa; whether it is legitimate to talk about african communalism considering the diverse nature of africa cultures and even the justification for the claim that traditional society is communalist. having discussed the positions and contributions of scholars in these controversies, we examined the current reality of african society and the status of communalism in this society with a focus on the direction that attention and discussion of african communalism should adopt in order to be useful for the identity and development of the african as well as for his/her meaningful contribution to the world. this examination threw up the finding that whatever, may be done, a necessary first step is conceptual clarity. we noted that oguejiofor and taiwo have started out in this direction and that scholarship on african communalism will gain by continuing in this direction both in the activity of conceptual clarification and in the consistent application of the achieved clarifications. references ali, m. (1978). political values and the educated class in africa. university of california press. ejiogu, e. (2014). are africans truly communalistic, socialistic and hospitable by nature? open sociological science journal 1(1), 1-12. kimmerle, h. (1989). i, we, and body. rotherham university press. kinoti, h. w. (1999). african morality: past and present.” in mugambi j. k. n. and nasimiyuwasike, a. (eds), moral and ethical issues in africa: a challenge for african christianity. acton publishers, 73-82. martin, p. m. et al. (1977). africa. indiana university press. nkrumah, k. (1967). african socialism. http://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/ (accessed, 6/10/2023). odimegwu i. (2007). how communalist is africa? philosophy and praxis 3, 1-9. oguejiofor, j. o. (2007). how african is communalism? in i. odimegwu (ed.), perspectives on african communalism. trafford publishing. 521 ogbuja, c. (2007). the individual in african communalism. international journal for philosophy of religion, 22-23. olufemi, t. (2016). against african communalism, journal of french and francophone philosophie revue de la philosophie francaise et de langue francaise 24(1), 81-100. http://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/ 12 okafor, r. c. & emeka, l. n. (1989). concept of culture. in r. c. okafor and l. n. emeka, (eds.), nigerian peoples and culture for higher education, 2nd edition. general studies division, enugu state university of science and technology, 18-75. parrinder, g. j. (1969). religion in africa. paul maul press. simiyu, vincent g. (2017) democratic theory and practice in africa. https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/vincentsimiyu/publications udugwomen, a. f. (2002). philosophy and the place of african philosophy. in udugwomen a. f., (ed.), footmark on african philosophy. oborah & ogbinaka publishers, 1-7. what do we do with african communalism? ike odimegwu & christopher ogugua aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african sustainable development mbachu a. austin, (phd) department of philosophy imo state university owerri, imo state abstract philosophy is a discipline, central to every aspect of human existence. whether africa is compared with other continent or it is considered on its own, most of african countries are in a precarious state. this precarious state has made many scholars to be cynical about the contributions that philosophy has made tremendous efforts towards the development of the continent. the paper adopts analytic method to picture the persistence of african problems in terms of sustainable development. the present poor governance in african nations which gives rise to all manners of social ills is therefore not unconnected with the dislocation or disregard for philosophy in the practice of politics and exercise of governance. africa is known to be lagging behind in terms of development not only in economy, development, education, politics, technology and science, etc. but, philosophy has attracted prospective changes towards the development of the africa continent. in this study however, it is argued that such cynical attitude is due to a myopic conception of development. philosophers should stand to perform better in policy formulations, implementations and governance in african nations. further negligence of philosophical contributions and philosophers in the governance of african nations will continue to promote the existing culture of mediocrity that is the bane of african sustainable development. keywords: good governance philosophy, leadership, african sustainable, development introduction africa is a continent of paradox, whereas god has endowed with human and natural resources, but the fact is that africa remains backward and they poorest continent in the world. thus, life and living in africa have become controversy except the trend is reversed. philosophy has examines the promotion of good governance and social development to ameliorate the burden of life and living in african. the african situation has been a concern for many thinkers and leaders in african as well as the topic of discouraged in many seminars, conferences, institution has emerged. philosophy, as the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matter such as the nature of knowledge, truth, justice, politics, culture, economy, security, education, language among others. it is considered in most cases as philosophy is the mother of all sciences (sciatica matrix) to use the words of richard taylor (1903) in other words philosophy helps to coordinate the various activities of the people and the kind of tools to used in various inquiries and disciplines. recently african philosophers have tired to engage in similar philosophy task within the african society which made philosophy helps us to understand the significance of all human experience. 194 philosophy critically evaluates and analysis the variety of human experience. the first generative of modern african philosopher, many of whom also happened to have been political thinkers, such as kwame nkrumah, julius nyerere, nelson mandela, obafemi awolowo and nnamdi azikiwe etc. this seemed to have made noteworthy efforts in this regard. one of the noted facts about contemporary social science research in african is that its societies are invariably analyzed as being underdeveloped. precisely, these political thinkers perceived philosophy as a troll capable of freeing the mind of the african people. the same is true of the new generation of african thinkers such as kwasi, wiredu, odera oruka, kwame, gyekye, ocusegum, ocadipo, chinua achebe and many others. however, it may be the case that there african philosopher used different medium to express their thoughts concerning development in africa, but they laid emphasis on how these guests for development can be attempted in africa. to avoid working with speculation, this paper examines how the reflections or physiological thinking of some of this african pathologist have contributed to the guests for african development. beam of the reflection of some of this african physiology is to illustrate that physiology have refused to keep guilt over her histology and development seems to be general fading away or becoming exclusive. this paper adopts the philosophical method of critical diachronic analysis to examine the thought of specific africans physiologies with particular reference to their contribution to africa development in area such as politics, economies, and science, social and cultural well-being. the present poor governance in african nations which gives rise to all manners of social ills is therefore not unconnected with the dislocation or disregard for philosophy in the practice of politics and exercise of governance. the triumph of democracy in most africa countries was viewed as panacea to poor governance bedeviling the continent to the contrary, democracy, as envisaged by plato and aristotle has fostered oligarchy, plutocracy, tyranny, predatory political parties and poor governance. consequently, governance in many african nations is not of by or for the people, but by an organized clique, cabal, political jobbers, looters and robbery consortium that collaborate with imperialists and convert governance into breeding ground for unemployment, insecurity, hunger, hopelessness and instability (odey, 2002). as such, governance in most african states have remained a futile exercise, lacking the form that propels growth of common good or commonwealth. with democracy, many african nations view mineral deposits as solutions to poor governance. this is in the sense that its prospects will boost governance and welfare of the citizenry. however, the prospects of these mineral deposits have lured touts, uneducated “never do well”, and mediocre into governance. theses have dominated africa states, creating instability and indulging in all forms of corruption as they advance their egoistic interests and those of their cronies. thus, governance in most africa nations is replete with “democratic” monarchs, tyrants and despots, who are also grossly characterized by ethnicism, tribalism, nepotism and persecution of rational opponents and intellectuals. this gives credence to the fact that mineral deposits without philosophic managers cannot translate to real wealth. however, this situation of poor management is exacerbated by support from western imperial powers, who take advantage of africa leadership mediocrity to enrich their countries. against this 195 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 despairing political situation therefore, is the need for philosophy and 'philosopher kings', who will ensure political firmners, objectively, logical and critical competence required for effective governance of the state. such competence consists in critical identification, construction and evaluation of proposals, detection of inconsistencies and common mistakes in governance and healthy and balanced relevant ideas and public opinion. concept of development development through the aid of philosophy can be understood to be an attempt to reshape the african destiny in which they currently live and for the sake of future endeavors. development generally is the process which gives every society high capacity to transform nature and its inter-human environment to meet the needs of man. to nnoli in ukpere and ottoh (2012), development is a dialectical phenomenon in which man and society interact with their physical, biological and economic environments. this is reminiscent of what k.c. anyanwu, has said concerning the impact that philosophy is having on development in africa. the major reason the concept of development is considered in this regard is to establish how development has been used in physiology and rationally by the philosophers. development from non-technological viewpoint is considered to be the process of change, the process of changing and becoming better, large stronger or more advanced; nevertheless, the question to be asked is better in what sense. if a society becomes better in terms of infrastructure but still has its citizens craving for better education or they are wallowing in poverty, can such a society be said to be better. also, if a society in types of agriculture produce but still does not understand themselves in terms of conceptual critical aspect of physiology, can such a society be said to be better. in other words, this means to change people both mentally and physically. the development of any nation depends on moral solely on the moral development of the citizens for national development cannot be achieved when the citizens are morally bank corrupt where the citizens of a country cannot exhibit moral virtues such as integrity, honest, contentment and selflessness, it will be difficult for such a country to achieve national growth and development. as julius nyerere correctly put it, said that development is a freedom that attracts development and freedom are inseparable with development. this is reminiscent of walter rodney's position that africa was deliberately exploited and all the development by european colonial regimes. according to nyerere view, we can see that development and freedom without having a strong background orientation in physiology may make development a waste of time. precisely, it is in this logical training that analysis criticism rigour can be attained. it is true in astrology, but every theory and programme of development receives all forms of advantage or disadvantage in scope and nature. understanding of african political philosophy african political philosophy is a less explored yield of study in comparison to research areas such as metaphysic, anthropology, theology, sociology and economics. as a reflection on the polis, african politics philosophers are concerned with people everyday life, everyday experience of alliances and collective. african political philosophy also 196 mbachu good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african ... addresses the issue concerning the nature and justification of power. in this regard african political philosophy have to deal with multiple challenges african emancipation , poverty human right, gender and democracy to mention some few. however, most literature that examines development in african cannot be extricated from culture. as charles mills remarks, african philosophers often choose to specialize in ethics or social and political philosophy of culture, because their lives. however, the present african predicament with regard to philosophy and development can make one doubt, if there is any meaningful contribution by african philosophers towards philosophy and development of their societies. hardly, any scholars can be justifiable to doubt the poor state in which african societies are at present in terms of philosophical training. we cannot conclude that the african philosophers have not provided philosophies that could have helped to direct african's development towards the correct. the problem seems to be more that of implementing the proposals put forward. for instance, over fifty years ago the 'prophetic' kwame nkrumah called for and wrote a book titles african must unite. rather than adopting his thought as the feasible route to development, many self-seeking african leaders described nkrumah dream as impossible. his thought is referred to as archaic and impracticable or less effective in contemporary african society. a few decades after nkrumah's clarion call, some european countries formed e european union (e u) for the collective benefit and for providing global leadership. since then, american and asian state states have also come together, challenges not withstanding african is yet to make any meaningful progress towards a union government in spite of public acknowledgment of this need by some of its leaders. the struggle for african liberation is the concept of liberate expresses the experience o majority of human beings consisting in the struggle to break chains of domination and exploitation, as well as to overcome the subsequent poverty. majority of africans leaders opted for western paradigm become they considered it able to overcome ethnic cleavages and to contribute to the rise of modern african states. the opponents to this option think that the building state on account of a western paradigm leads to the absorption of african peculiarity. representative to the united nations, prof. tijani bande, informed the united nations security council that 2.3 million people were affected by the nine-year old boko haram insurgency. “he said that, million people were internally displaced with the most adversely affected being women and children.” these are apart from cases of recurrent communal clashes, industrial violence riots, civil protests and demonstrations. a worrisome dimension of violence in nigeria is religious violence, which is a cause of serious concern to many people. indeed some are apprehensive that except the nation stems the tide of the dangerous religious violence, it may lead to a major religious war. religious violence has taken the front burner in contemporary discourse on nigeria's democracy. since the re-commencement of democratic rule on 29 may 1999, religious violence has come to occupy the center stage. the ubiquity of religious violence is attested to by the sheer dramatic rise in the incidences as well as the volume of destruction of lives and property that have accompanied them and the palpable tension and animosity it has generated in the relationship between different groups in the country. religious violence has not only continued till date, it has become aggravated. as michael, adeleke 197 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 ogunewu asserted. “the scale of persecution of christians has heightened in recent times, especially in the northern states and in the middle belt zone. it has resulted in immense loss of lives and wanton destruction of properties, prominent among which were churches. ”painting a picture of a dangerous future if the trend of religious violence is not reversed, cornelius afebu omonokhua wrote: the cloud on religion and ethnic coexistence is getting thicker on daily basis. dialogue as a tool that ought to beam light on this apparent dark relationship needs to be given a renewed impetus in the face of criminal activities that now carry the label of religion. some of the government policies and political appointments are often given a religious interpretation such that some people even perceive these as indicators of a systemic method of endorsing a particular religion as national religion. there is an escalation of mutual suspicion between christians and muslims because of these. to drive home this enquiry, there is needed to be honest and frank if we must avert the sword that is dangling over the head of the nation. religious war has never been funny in world history. christians express the kind of sentiments reflected in omonokhua?s comment above because there is no strong denunciation of the senseless killings by the government, and perpetrators are not punished for their acts of wickedness. violence affects development severally. it compounds the political instability of the nation, which makes it difficult for foreign investors to come into the country. violence has caused the closure of several investments thus making the country to lose both recourses and foreign investors. the niger delta crisis is a case in point. the crisis has forced the closure/relocation of some oil companies from the area. the concept of sustainable development the word sustainability” does not have an agreed upon single definition. there ate many definitions for sustainability. according to ehrenfied (2008), sustainability is the possibility of the human and other life will flourish on the earth forever”. usa national environmental policy act (1969) defined sustainability as create and maintain conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony and fulfill the social, economic and other requirements of present and future generations of americans”. whether african is compared with other continent or it is considered on its own, much of african is in a precarious state. african is known to be lacking behind in terms of development not only in economy or infrastructure but also in science technology politics and empowerment of the youth. african philosophy and natural development by its nature, philosophy is critical reflection on life and human affairs. african mythology is not just an abstract discipline. nwala (1981) define it as a study that "originates from man's guests for theoretical and practical solutions to the problems of life". nkrumah (1974) wrote thus, about the invaluable junction of african physiology. it has to be recognized that african physiology has something to contribute that is to say that african physiology having transcended the level of the great debate most think seriously on how best it can be really to person oriented development. therefore, africa physiology must think truly, think wisely, think critically, think globally and think viciously with regard to the humanistic development of the african person. it is the 198 mbachu good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african ... responsibility of the physiologies evacuate and critical criticize these ideologies we're also when ideologies promote only. the selfish interest of leaders at such times is of a poor ideology, a poor development, a positive ideology, a speedy development. we live in a world where there are a collection of values, both good and bad. it is the challenge of africa physiology to help direct people on the part of the right values. philosophy and good governance philosophy exposes people to their thought with the purpose of incorporating relevant principles to contemporary situations. the application of the principles brings improvement to governance and enhances people's lives. philosophy provides ideological basics for good governance so that a particular government can be oriented ideologically. this is as it imbues human persons with rationality, foresight, criticality and dynamism, as well as analytic and innovative character necessary for quality performance. the absence of ideology orientation has been a factor for the lack of good governance in africa. physiologies should challenge leaders to adopt a new functional ideology. political ideology is a clear-cut of political ideology in comprising principles upon which a government or political parties is based. a major reason for the african situation is that the most of our political parties do not have well-articulated political ideologies. government at its best is a government with an ideology basic. thus, physiologist in a given society evaluates the government in power with the aim of bringing about better government. in other words, physiologist should be part of the checks and balance needed in the modern states. the functions are very imperative in african, considering the prevalence of bad governance, the intolerance of many political offices to oppose views and the docility of the general populace. the primary responsibility of any government is to protect life and property. philosophy exposes people to their thoughts with the purpose of incorporating relevant principles to contemporary saturation. the application of the principles things improvement to good governance and enhances people's lives. essence of philosophy in african sustainable development the essence of philosophy consists in the fact that it is a search for wisdom. this nature underscores the etymology of philosophy as love of wisdom. wisdom is a rational behaviors in all areas of life, the capacity of determining what is good or bad and the ability to make good choices or wise decisions, whereas love is an attitude of the mind towards what exists (chinweuba, 2019). this, means that in essence, philosophy is a rational exercise. it privileges reason as its sole tool when compared to other disciplines. and of all the attributes bestowed on humankind, none surpasses rationality (asiegbu, 2011) rationality as synonymous with and as an essence of philosophy however, depicts man's ability to think differentially and proactively. it as well connotes that; the positive intent to galvanize available means to desired and approved ends; an intent that must be backed up by the qualities of efficiency, impersonality, objectivity and neutrality. it (rationality) means that at their deepest levels many of our problems, just as the problem of africa identity itself, are philosophical problems (wiredu, 1985: bodunrin, 199 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 1985). it thus, means that the essence of inculcating the character of critical reflection in the human person stands for philosophy. along this line, philosophy as a discipline builds rational mind in an individual which produces pragmatic ideas and translates to socioeconomic policies, ideologies, achievements and solutions to society's problems. thus, society's meaningful innovations and development stem from philosophical endeavors and are sustained by philosophical endeavors. however, the speculative nature of philosophy also makes it central in governance and human existence. to be true, most countries in africa is not developing but under developing' for the little development in these countries is fast dilapidating. this is as the so called development as well its processes lack indigenous philosophical thoughts and foundations. in other words, such development is in the words of ideas by not the objectification or externalization of african indigenous mental infrastructure (chiweuba, 2019). as such, the little alien philosophers' and ideologies implemented by most african leaders have remained counterproductive' for such philosophies lack the capacity to drive indigenous governance and people towards industrialization and sustainable development. the predicament of governance in african therefore, predicates on lack of essence of philosophical ideas, will and discipline on the side of the leaders. hence, plato's imperative of 'philosopher kings' in african continent. the imperativeness of philosopher kings' in the governance of african nations the imperative of 'philosopher kings' in the governance of african nations is proper in order to save the continent from backwardness, poverty and instability. it is more proper because solution to africa predicament lies in “launching a philosophical analysis of the problem, with the belief that it is better to approach the problem from all angles rather than using standard and set models” (aghamelu & ani, 2011). philosopher kings' are competent personalities based on their acquisition of sufficient measure of genuine philosophy that consists in knowledge of the good, interrelation of truths visible and intelligible world, opinion and knowledge, appearance and reality that are catalysts of good governance (stumpf, 1994). through rigorous philosophical training, 'philosopher kings' have also attained seasoned character' high discipline, rational faculties, openness to change, mastery of persistent drives of appetites and emotions, consistent logical and critically connections between ideas and between these ideas and realities. based on these, 'philosopher kings' posses that critically penetrating and illuminating qualities, necessary in tackling the problem of governance in africa and proffering effective solutions. the imperative of 'philosopher kings' is also necessary because each african nation comprises of diverse tribes socio-political and cultural groups. for instance, nigeria has more than 200 heterogeneous ethnic groups. the conflicting nature of the contents and aspirations of these cultures and groups has made governance in africa more complex and unattainable. this is coupled with the dynamic complexities of individual within these african states. it therefore, takes the qualities of 'philosopher kings' to run inclusive governance that will sustain the integration of these tribes, groups and individuals. besides, adherence to the rule of law, public order, good governance and socio-economic development are not natural order of things but depend 200 mbachu good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african ... on sound and rational individuals enriched with the knowledge of understanding, analysis and logic. from all indications therefore, the 'philosopher kings' have the ability to deconstruct the dire trend of governance in africa. they also have the dialectical ability to accommodate opposing views and epistemology of other continents in the promotion of good governance. thus, the 'philosopher kings' are capable of subjecting proposals, theories, doctrines and practices associated with governance to rigorous critical investigation and evaluation, so as to arrive at the synthesis that will advance african societies. they are also capable of “conceptual decolonization” a critical self-awareness against unexamined assimilation of western categories, concepts and theories (wiredu, 1995 p. 23). within this philosophical transformative condition, african states will be enabled to respond effectively to the challenges of governance'; nation building and sustainable development. philosophy as a speculative discipline broadens human mind and equips it with essential tools of criticality, consistency, logicality, comprehensiveness, profundity and coherence. philosophy moreover, enhances mental abstraction of realities, reminiscence and dialectics, which give rise to authentic knowledge. thus, the discipline leads leaders step by step from mere subjective perception to synthetic objective thought and eventually to pragmatic and realistic knowledge that positively transform governance and translates to sustainable development. philosophy equally plays a significant role in harnessing the goals and objectives of governance. along this line, philosophy ensures and maintains a perfect harmony between goals, objectives and their implementation. situation in african, having good government is one of the greatest needs of african and whatever contribution is made towards it's actualization would be a most worthy contribution philosophy should create awareness among the populace on what good governance entails philosophy for good governance in african social development philosopher in the society should make deliberate efforts to address this challenge from the home to the society at larger. in view of the pervasiveness of bad governance in african, it would take a long time to overcome it. in addition, philosophers in institutions of higher learning especially should be intentional in re-orienting the youth to desire to change the society for the better and to maximize any future state leadership positions as means of achieving the great objective. in this regard, youth should be encouraged to imbibe discipline and sacrifice, thinking of ways they can make significant contributions to their societies. this is also indicated that youth should be equipped to know that indulging in anti-vices would hinder them from personal development as well as their future usefulness to their societies because they are the future of tomorrow. social development is a very broad concept requiring impacts from various disciplines. philosophy underscores the improvement of life for the people of any given society to the development and advancement of the society. social development requires motivation especially with reference to re-orientation. this is a legacy with philosophy has bequeathed to history and it is the essence of social development. philosophy in its practical dimension identifies with the context in which it functions and air at bringing significant to the people and their situation. people needs to be motivated so that the will 201 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 key into the re-orientation efforts so that the effort would have impact on the society. philosophy can help in the re-orientation process of the society re-orientation relates to human values which is a part of domain of philosophy. several philosophers has contributed in discussing on how to improve in the political conditions of the times with a few formulating political for governing societies for the time of plate. the higher order thinking speaks of critical thinking, the capacity to ask fundamental questions about realities the development of any society is dependent on quality of their thinking and articulation this ability to think down to the root is a task proper to philosophy. the paper, “philosophy, governance and social development,” examines the roles of philosophy in promoting good governance and social development to ameliorate the burden of life and living in africa. the paper briefly describes the african situation, reflects on philosophy and the society and identifies the role of philosophy in effecting good governance and social development. the african situation even though there have been some developments in several african countries, the magnitude of corruption in africa, the near collapse of infrastructure, the ineffectiveness of many institutions, the desperation of african youth to leave africa, the crisis of identity and the quantum of wastage of lives and resources, all combine to make life and living a burden in africa and has brought continental embarrassments of great proportions. in other words, the african situation conveys the imagery of being an african as a burden. it is disheartening that the african situation constrains one to agree with charles sherlock that “the term, third world? has become synonymous with poverty, oppression and deprivation. “the indexes will be used in describing the african situation: namely, bad governance, poverty, violence and low life expectancy. wirendu (1980) wrote that the function of philosophy everywhere is to examine is the intellectual foundation of our life, using the best available modes of knowledge and reflection of human well-being. the man who has no future of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense; from habitual believes of his age of his nature and from convictism which have grown up in his mind without the corporation and consent of his deliberate reason, which is the higher type of order thinking which helps us to understand our limitedness. the missing link in african golden thread has been good leadership. leadership is a very significant concept. four indexes will be used in describing the africa situation: namely, violence, bad governance, poverty, poor leaving experience. poor leaving experience: poor leaving experience is reflected in africans'' responses to danger or problems, value on human dignity and attitude of security officers, among others. for instance, there are cases of stray bullets, even police officers killings, assassinations, political and religious conflicts and riots. life expectancy in africa is low compared with other continents. in other words, poor leaving expectancy is the cumulative effects pervasive poverty, endemic corruption, social evils, diseases, rate of accidents, lack of social amenities and infrastructure, senseless killing and avoidable death caused by violence, ethnic, political and religious conflicts. bad governance: is the sane of africa which has accounted significantly for the inability to translate the potentials into actuality. allied to the problem of bad governance is the persistent failure to improve structures and overcome weakness. african countries 202 mbachu good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african ... have maintained systemic failure for decades and there by perpetuated leadership mediocrity syndrome. the political landscape of the nation has been filled with tension and confusion because many are leaving the a.p.c back to the p.d.p due to the rule of money in politics; many upcoming politicians have to rely on political god-fathers. when they are elected, they are expected to be paying money to the god-fathers which will reduce the money to be spent for their respective states. there may also be conflict between the elected politician and the god-father which would impact negatively on a particular state. the general bad leadership syndrome has been so entrenched that sometimes it is difficult to choose among aspirants. some other times, the better qualified person would not get the position sought for or may even be rigged out of the power game. the recent election in ekiti state where vote buying was so pronounced that the election was widely condemned is an example of political desperation. [ [ poverty: poverty is connected with many social problems and vices like low selfimage, low productivity, violence, armed robbery, prostitution, kidnapping, ritual murder and corruption. the pervasive poverty level in africa is burdensome. the poverty level has worsened due to the recent economic recession and the high dollar exchange rate. apart from millions who are jobless, a good percentage of those employed are living below poverty level, judging by the international standard of anyone earring below 50 per day living below poverty level. in practical terms, those working whose salaries are below n60 per month are living below poverty level. the pervasive poverty translates into millions not living in good houses, diseases and inability to afford medical care even for common ailments and thousands of children and teenagers out of school, among others. these manifestations are due to the fact that poverty is characterized by lack of means to meet basic needs and obligations, inability or difficulty in meeting financial responsibilities and substandard living. the resultant effects are due partly to the fact that the desire to escape the grim realities of poverty ensnares many people into social vices. as stephen oladele ayankeye and abraham olutoye odeleye observe, poverty is “affecting africa in so many ways. hunger, lack of shelter and basic amenities of life are confronting africans. it is a form of evil which increases social vices in the society.” they further note that poverty and its effects waste the lives of youth and children thereby endangering the future of africa. this is because the continent would be robbed of the contributions such wasted youth and children would have made in the future. the future consequences of poverty lend credence to the vicious cycle of poverty as it has a grip on its victims. violence: a worrisome dimension of violence in nigeria is religious violence, which is a cause of serious concern to many people. indeed some are apprehensive that except the nation stems the tide of the dangerous religious violence, it may lead to a major religious war. another characteristic of the african situation is violence. africa is a crisis–ridden continent. again using nigeria as an example, the niger delta crisis, the boko haram menace and the fulani herdsmen problem have bedeviled the nation for years resulting in the death of hundreds of thousands of people, wanton destruction of properties and loss of arable land. [[ 203 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 philosophy contributes to africa and social development as noted earlier, philosophy has helps in developing a comprehensive system of thought about all that exist; this help can be predicated on a method with which we can know about the contribution of philosophy to issues pertaining to people and society. social development is a very broad concept requiring inputs from various disciplines. philosophy is one of the disciplines that can make significant contributions to social development. as a basic, preliminary step toward achieving this goal, the philosophers in a society in their various walks of life, contribute to social development by their vocations. their concern for a better society, which they would communicate by words and deeds, would have rippling effects on those they come in contact with. also, they can share such concerns through the print and electronic media as well as through books, journal and conference proceedings based on social development. additionally, they may be given opportunities to hold one position or another in the state, which will provide wider platforms to contribute to social development. philosophy articulates principles for social development philosophy deals with concepts and ideas. thus, it is well primed to articulate principles for social development. the implicit understanding in this regard is that it is when social development is based on well-articulated principles that it can be its best. philosophers in a society should assist in fashioning social development that would be most relevant to a given society so that its purposes would be achieved. the purpose here is optimal development of the society. once again, this is one of the most urgent needs of african countries now. the writers considered opinion, africa can still blossom with capitalism. however, african countries should overcome the defects of capitalism. this is why the endemic problem of corruption is a dragon that must be tamed for the breakthrough of africa. also, a more conducive environment for individual development is imperative. furthermore, schemes to take care of those disadvantaged in the system, like the social security programmes in the advanced countries, should be embarked upon intentionally by african nations. the above issues are related to justice and peace which are imperative for development of a nation. in the words of john kwaku opoke, et al, “justice and peace are related, subjects in the quest for promoting human development at all levels of societal life”. like major factors needed for development and sustainability, justice and peace are essential fundamentals in the quest for a prosperous society. philosophy encourages re-orientation for social development in the african context, re-orientation is needed before we can have social development and this is another way philosophy is an advantage to a society. philosophy can help in the re-orientation of the society because reorientation relates to human values, which is part of the domain of philosophy. the re orientation is necessary to facilitate social development, to change the people from those attitudes that inhibit social development to those ones that enhance it. more specifically, such attitudes like materialism, destruction of public properties, ethnicity, and religious bigotry must be exchanged for attitudes as love, patriotism, tolerance and diligence which are imperative for social development. to be effective, however, it must be stressed that the re-orientation must begin from the leaders of the nations. in nigeria, for example, the populace has been called once and 204 mbachu good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african ... again to make sacrifices for the nation and imbibe attitudes that would facilitate the greatness of the nation. however, such calls have been largely ineffective or short-lived because of the opulence, extravagance and waste among the leaders who make such calls. philosophy motivates for social development social development requires motivation especially with reference to re-orientation. people need to be motivated so that they would key into the re-orientation efforts so that the efforts would have maximum impact on the society. the motivation would be based on the necessity, rationale, dynamics and benefits of re-orientation, and philosophy can be a great ally in formulating these concepts. the more extensive the motivation for re-orientation is, the better in terms of its success. however, as noted under the discussion of re-orientation above, mobilization cannot achieve maximum results if it is not exemplified by the leadership. philosophy underscores social development philosophy underscores the improvement of life for the people of any given society, the development and advancement of the society. this is the essence of social development. philosophy in its practical dimension identifies with the context in which it functions and aims at bringing significant improvement to the people and their situation. this is a legacy which philosophy has bequeathed to history. several philosophers contributed to discussions on how to improve the political conditions of the times with a few formulating political principles for governing societies, for example, plato and hobbes. thus philosophers who contribute to discussions on social development in their societies build upon this heritage. the criteria for good governance, leadership and philosophy as a panacea to sustainable development in africa in an effort to realize good governance in african sustainable development, these directional actions are instructive. a. administration reforms: good governance depends on bureaucracy and the civil society to an extent, however, it leans much on the former. good governance is impossible without change in the existing mindset of the bureaucrats. multi-faceted initiatives are required to have wider accountability of a public servants, towards the public satisfaction and delivery of service. change should be manifested in attitudinal reforms at different levels of bureaucracy and not only in structures and procedures. b. electoral reforms: today, democracy has been transformed to mere electoralism. electoral reforms had to precede political reforms; free and fair elections with citizens' being able to exercise their franchise without any fear and should domesticated as well. strict implementation of the electoral code of conduct to ensure that the ruling party does not abuse the state machinery to influence the polling process. c. curbing corruption: corruption is becoming endemic in human society. corruption in political, economic, social and administrative domains slows efficiency, effectiveness, equity, economy, accountability, justice and responsiveness. effective institutionazation and reforms to curb corruption should be domesticated. the current effort of president muhammandu buhari and other personalities is instructive and commendable. 205 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 recommendations it remains an acceptable fact the place of good governance in development administration. the application of various streams of elements and criteria for good governance as presented by this work will enable africa development, arrangement to yield its expectation. the three arms of government should be allowed to efficiently perform their functions without influence. leaders of administration (political appointees and bureaucrats) should be trained and equipped with administration tools to realize efficiency. the civil societies (ngos private market operators, etc) should complement government's efforts by being law-abiding. the solution to underdevelopment associated with african countries lies in good governance. philosophy cannot be developed in a vacuum as it seeks the development and transformation of human societies. philosophy should be seen as a great advantage in modern day society as it has varied roles to contribute to the development of the society. philosophy underscores the improvement of life for the people of any given society, the development and advancement of the society. philosophers in the society should make deliberate efforts to address this challenge from the home to the society at large. in addition, philosopher in institutions of higher learning especially should be intentional in re-orienting the youth to desire to change the society for the better and to maximize any future state leadership positions as means of achieving the great objective. conclusion from the discourse so far, it stands that philosophy is a mega discipline that will liberate african nations from conditions that rob them of good governance, productivity, sustainable development and quality life. for philosophy, it brings transformation that is replete with liberty, freedom and feats as it combats the challenges of governance. the paper has discussed philosophy, good governance and social development. as these are constructs in any society they deserve continual discussion. philosophy should be seen as a great advantage in modern day society as it has varied roles to contribute to the development of the society. similarly, philosophers should use their unique knowledge and training for the promotion of good governance and social development. also, they should work together with others in their societies to enhance good governance and social development. philosophy cannot be developed in a vacuum as it seeks the development and transformation of human societies. the pursuance of this practical goal of philosophy is one way to show its relevance and usefulness to the human society. the paper therefore concludes that further negligence of philosophical contributions and philosophers in the governance of african nations will continue to promote the existing culture of mediocrity that is the bane of african sustainable development. therefore, the clarion call for 'philosopher kings' is raised and sustained by present african poor governance and the fact that philosophical conceptions, convictions, beliefs, postulations and positions should stand to change this socio-political condition. philosophy is a subdimental factor in the search for national development, it can only boot towards mental demoralization critique of culture and ideologies, building entity, definition of ethnic-political values, consicientination, technological and transformation. 206 mbachu good governance, philosophy and leadership: a prospective to african ... as governance, leadership and development in african strives to meet with its expectation, the attachment of good governance will definitely propel it to the forefront. there is the need to apply new public management. good governance entails balance governance with conducive and uninterrupted relationship between the government and the civil society as active player. the challenge of good governance requires government activities to be reinvented, bureaucracy to be re-positioned, civil society activities to be re-energized with a social motive. re-invented governance should be visionary, egalitarian and energized in a manner with less machines like and less hierarchical structure and procedure. to be true, most countries in african is not developing but under developing: for the little development in african countries is fast dilapidating references anyanwu, k.c. and e.a. ruch (1981). an philosophy: an introduction lagos: catholic book agency aghamelu, f., & e. ani. (2011). francis fukuyama on democracy and the end of history. in b.c chiegboka, t.c. utoh-ezeajugh & m.s. ogene (eds.), the humanities and stainable development. (p. 93) asiegbu, m.f. (2011). philosophy and sustainable development. in a.b.c. chiegboka, t.c. utoh ezeajugh & m.s. ogene (eds.), the humanities and stainable development. p. 103 bodunrin, p.o. (1985). scent technical rationality and african reality: africa and the problem of its identity. new york, usa: peter lang bass, b.m. (1985) “leadership & performance beyond expectations” new york, free press. charles s, (1996), the doctrine of humanity (leicester: inter-varsity press, chinweuba, g.e. (2018). leadership and higher education in nigeria: the philosophical nexus. saplentia journal of philosophy. p. 9 chinweuba, g.e.(2019). philosophy and sustainable development in nigeria: a critical analysis. nnamdi azikiwe journal of philosophy, p. 46 nkrumah, k.a. (1974) class struggle new york: international publishers. nyerere, j.k.n. (1974) . man and development. oxford: oxford university press, odey, j. (2002). democracy: our lofty dreams and crazy ambitions. enugu, nigeria: snaap press. simon a. kolawole, (2005) the role of leadership in church growth and national rebirth (ogbomoso, nigeria: grace publications. stumpf, s., e. (1994). philosophy history & problems. new york. usa: mcgrawhill inc. wiredu, k. (1980). “what can philosophy do for africa”, philosophy and an african culture, massachusetts: cambridge university press. wiredu, k. (1995). conceptual development in african philosophy. ibadan, nigeria: hope publishers. 207 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr flipside criticism of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings in wole soyinka's death and the king's horseman chinedu nwadike spiritan university nneochi, abia state chinedu.nwadike@spiritanuniversity.edu.ng florence orabueze university of nigeria, nsukka florence.orabueze@unn.edu.ng stella okoye-ugwu university of nigeria, nsukka stella.okoye-ugwu@unn.edu.ng abstract the psycho-social dynamics of main characters such as olunde and pilkings in soyinka' death and the king's horseman is interesting for exploring the circumstances of individuals contending with forces that finally impose outcomes they never really intended. using qualitative methodology and textual analysis, death and the king's horseman was subjected to the critical tools of flipside theory to interrogate the depiction of people on the margins of society. the purpose was to shed more light on the behaviours of selected characters. this research establishes that it is by applying flipside theory that one can appreciate how characters on the margins of society can cause significant social transformations, and that olunde and pilkings are not flipside characters, neither is death and the king's horseman a flipside work. flipside theory is an important contribution to the global toolkit of literary theories by bringing discourse about victims of social existence to the fore. keywords: olunde, pilkings, flipside theory, psycho-social dynamics, soyinka main text introduction matias (2012) considers it important to look at “fault” within the context of human behaviors and, in relation to tragedy, he establishes a dialogue between freud, aristotle, and sophocles which shows that human experiences influence the writing of literature (pp. 79-94). on his part, medjigbodo (1979) describes tragic literature from africa as a specific form of cultural expression that takes cognizance of the human situation and addresses social issues (p. 70). there was this real life incident in september, 2023 in enugu state, nigeria when heavy rains generated a flood that caused a building to collapse and kill four young siblings. the parents of the unfortunate children were left asking themselves why that kind of tragedy struck the family at a time when they were still struggling to keep the family going due to a harsh economic situation. tragedy both in real life and in fiction underscores the importance of digging into the psycho-social dynamics of individuals grappling with tragedy and battling for survival. it must be taken into consideration that such individuals carry the weight of whatever pitiful or devastating experiences they are going through. in this regard, literary works with tragic plots interrogate tragedy to make sense of it and to enable people to harness it in productive ways. it is 128 against this background that the work of tragedy that will be subjected to critical analysis was selected, namely, death and the king's horseman which was written by wole soyinka in 1975 in the postcolonial period. death and the king's horseman has been studied by many scholars and explored from a wide range of angles. however, no one has accomplished this using flipside criticism, to the best of this researcher's knowledge. this is because flipside literary theory only recently emerged as another tool of literary criticism. the aim of this research carried out on death and the king's horseman is to uncover new insights about the psycho-social dynamics of select characters in the plot while the objectives are to show that significant features of tragedy can be found in the plot; to demonstrate how flipside literary criticism uncovers important insights about imbalances in social relations capable of making people on the margins of society mobilize and cause transformations or significant changes to social structures and cultural assumptions. this research is significant because it will equip individuals with useful intellectual, psychological and sociological resources to sufficiently appraise tragedy in life and fiction, and to understand and harness its psycho-social impacts on people. this research will also equip students of literature with more theoretical frameworks and conceptual tools for the critical interrogation of works of tragedy and for the understanding of the behaviours of characters in plots. in addition, this research will equip lecturers with additional teaching resources to impact positively on the cognitive, emotive and psychomotor domains of learners. finally, this research will provide readers and audiences with another platform to interrogate tragedy and to appreciate its psycho-social effects on individuals, and on select characters in death and the king's horseman in particular. the scope of this research ranges from the primary text, wole soyinka's death and the king's horseman, to secondary texts relevant for the success of a research like this such as critical essays that discuss drama from a wide range of perspectives. the limitations to this research included problems with easily accessing both the primary, and secondary texts relevant for this research, and with funding to cover all that. materials: literature review ready (1988), and birbalsingh (1982) share some interesting opinions. birbalsingh applied a comparative approach and historical analysis and his findings underscores the point that “death and the king's horseman is based on actual historical events employed imaginatively in roughly the same way that history is used in such plays as shaw's saint joan and brecht's galileo” (p. 202). the tragic plot is derived from historical events that occurred in the yoruba city of oyo in 1946 when nigeria was a british colony: “a yoruba king had died and custom required his horseman, olori elesin, after about one month, to commit ritual suicide and go to serve his king in heaven. suicide being illegal under british law, the local district officer arrested elesin” (p. 202). similarly, ready (1988) connects the 1986 novel prize for literature won by soyinka with death and the king's horseman which was specially cited by the awarding committee. ready recounts that it was in 1974 doing his tenure at churchill college, cambridge that soyinka discovered how to appropriate history in drama. ready also holds that soyinka was influenced by the great tragedies of the greek classical period and by shakespeare and “soyinka wishes to ensure that a play such as death and the king's horseman affirms the ritual origins of tragedy” (p. 711). 129 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 scholars like talajooy (2015), ojaide (1992), and reed (1988) call attention to the impact of cultural differences on literary productivity and hegemonic bias on its appreciation. in their view, western structural and conceptual prejudices undermine remarkable talents and creativity by writers from the southern hemisphere and global critical reception of literary works by writers of african descent. using a historical approach and comparative analysis, reed (1988) points out that “soyinka said as much in the course of an interview with the new york times. currently, the american intelligentsia… embrace a smugly blind attitude toward 'the other,' the fashionable metaphor for the third world…. as one [racist western] columnist put it…. the uplift of the third world will only happen through the graces of 'western civilization'” (p. 705). on his own part, ojaide (1992) used a comparative approach and among his findings is the view that the plot of this tragic drama “is not typical of works written in africa in the 1970s, which generally deal with socio-political protest against government corruption. it is more like works of the late 1950s and early 1960s, which express cultural conflict between the african and the european (western) worlds” (p. 210). ojaide also notes that “african literary works are classified in the west as postcolonial, but never construed so by african writers and their primary audience of africans…. african critics of african literature in africa and some more nationalistic ones abroad speak of 'post-independence african literature' instead of the postcolonial” (p. 210). towing a similar line, talajooy (2015) holds that “traditional structures and themes appear in modern forms to renegotiate people's cultural identity… and mythologize the positive aspects of history to redefine cultural identity with the best their cultures offer” (p. 379). ikyoive and sheik (2017), and jain (1986) recommend that death and the king's horseman deserves deep level critical analysis. ikyoive and sheik (2017) applied an analytic approach to death and the king's horseman and analysis of data gathered showed that ritual suicide is a component of culture rather than a form of personal escape. jain (1986) used cultural studies and sociological analysis and among his findings, holds that death and the king's horseman is not “a play about the colonial situation, or about cultural clash” which are interpretations even soyinka himself rejects (p. 252). for jain, this play also differs from other soyinka plays because neither the satiric nor the comic overarches the plot whereas the “dominant strategy of the play is irony, and the reversal at the end happens to be a tragic reversal” (p. 252). jain finds a metaphysical dimension to olunde's suicide and accords only incidental significance to the colonial factor and the historicity of the main event (p. 252). ifatimehin (2017) and williams (1993) look at differences in cultural practices and their social implications. using cultural studies and sociological analysis, findings by williams includes the view that ritual is an essential cultural feature of feudal societies and was “part of a complex and insidious apparatus of cultural and political reproduction employed by the dominant groups” (p. 67). ifatimehin (2017) applied the method of deconstruction to explore contrapuntality, alterity and the trope of culture clash in death and the king's horseman and came to the conclusion that the reading of clash of cultures rather enriches appreciation of the play and its social relevance. barnaby (2004), afolayan (2019), and sere (1984) insist that african works should be read without bias to avoid undermining their literary merits and social relevance. sere's (1984) critical studies maintain that african playwrights like soyinka compete favourably with their western counterparts and that soyinka, with respect to his tragic drama, “enjoins the reader (or director) to aim at the more difficult task of bringing out what is essential in the play and which is latent in the threnody, or song of lamentation, as given in the play. when a reader does this, soyinka insists, he will find that the confrontation in the play is largely metaphysical” (p. 229). 130 nwadike & orabueze flipside criticism of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings... using a historical approach and qualitative method, afolayan's (2019) findings include the view that griots (oral storytellers or court poets) are relevant to modern african societies. abakporo (2022) and booth (1988) share some views in common. booth (1988) adopted the tools of hermeneutics and among his findings is the view that death and the king's horseman can be approached from the angle of the metaphysics of sacrifice. he points to brian w. last who argues that “olunde's climactic sacrifice can only be understood in metaphysical terms” (p. 529). booth also affirms ralph-bowman's (1983) view that soyinka accomplished something outstanding because “while effectively utilizing the conventions of 'western' tragedy in the play, he has triumphantly succeeded in refuting both the ideology and the esthetic upon which these conventions are based” (p. 529). booth holds that the drama shows an un-western theme and literary technique. abakporo (2022) uses the historical approach to counter western critics like ruth finnegan who deny competence in african drama for want of conformity with the aristotelian template. abakporo argues that africa has every right to differ from western conventions in order to build on its own tradition. using a qualitative method and critical analysis, kesur and patil (2022) establish through death and the king's horseman an interpretation of african drama as a tool of resistance against foreign hegemony and oppression. george (1999) adopts a historical approach and cultural analysis and his findings show that death and the king's horseman attracts a stream of critical reviews because soyinka produced “a drama of archetypes, developing in the process a vision of history, society, and tragic drama” which is “based on socio-cultural passion, even as the playwright's oeuvre constitutes an attempt to work through the passion by means of art” (p. 67). garuba (2022), and ralph-bowman (1983) see african drama as a tool for social criticism. using a historical approach and sociological analysis, ralph-bowman (1983) holds that, “it is difficult to resist the sense of déjà vu in the selection of events in death and the king's horseman, difficult to resist the conclusion that the forces at work in colonial 1946 are seen by soyinka to be at work in postcolonial 1974” (p. 81). garuba's comparative study of soyinka's theatre and beckett's theatre underscores the view that the two playwrights exhibit a modernist interrogation of man's existence but that the former shows an inclination towards traditional conventions whereas the latter inclines towards non-conformity. ofoego (2016), topper (2019), and ogundele (1994) have some interesting views about death and the king's horseman. ogundele adopted a comparative approach and sociological analysis which highlight how soyinka set down instructions concerning the correct stage interpretation of death and the king's horseman as well as stating that the “threnodic essence” of the play is mainly the metaphysical confrontation exhibited by events that unfolded around elesin. ogundele also holds that “with its emphasis on the use of the human body–through dance, music, songs, and chants, a reported sexual act, and two deaths–to complement dialog that expresses those feelings, values, and beliefs, the play's subject is also textured by aesthetic rituals” (p. 47). on his own part, ofoego (2016) applied a historical approach and sociological analysis and among his findings, he holds that crafting an engaging work of tragedy involves a high level of creativity. with respect to character development, he says that, “it seems to me that too swift a diagnosis of simon pilkings' motivations obscures both the meaning of ideology, and more importantly, its working-out, the ways in which our understanding of the functioning of ideology in a colonial context are” (p. 259). topper (2019) adopted a historical approach which underscores how the colonial system imposed a secularist worldview on africans held together by strong bonds of ritual and culture and that it was the forced transition from ritual to secularism 131 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 that caused the tragedy (“cosmological trauma”) in death and the king's horseman (pp. 53-79). topper also recounts that the initial title of the drama was “death and the district officer” and that a scene that was later deleted drew a parallel between the proposed ritual suicide of elesin and the suicidal disposition of simon pilkings, the district officer, who desired to join the british army in world war ii (p. 53). the different methodological approaches used by these scholars as reviewed are interesting. however, they do not offer the use of flipside theory to understand the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and simon pilkings in death and the king's horseman, which is what this research offers. theoretical framework: flipside literary theory flipside literary theory emerged in 2018 from a decade of field work carried out by chinedunwadike on the life conditions of the poor and the less privileged compared to the life conditions of the rest of society and the attitudes of people towards these two social classes. findings from this field work which he carried out in the south-eastern and middle belt parts of nigeria inspired a collaborative research paper he published in 2018 with chibuzo onunkwo. he also published another paper in 2018 that principally detailed the operational principles of flipside theory. the core contribution of flipside theory to literature is to bring to the fore and interrogate how less privileged people in general are depicted compared to the depiction of the rest of society. flipside theory broadly divides society into two categories, namely, flipview society (people in mainstream life), and flipside society (people on the margins). the term “flipside” can be likened to the tail (hidden side) of a coin while the other side which is the head (visible side) is the “flipview” side. the social concern that people with the means or the opportunity should not oppress other people if we will have a balanced and sustainable society can be likened to the real fact that a coin is made up in equal measure by a head and a tail, and by the scientific fact that even though one can fly an airplane on one engine, it is much safer doing so on two engines. with reference to the plots of literary works, flipview society refers to characters who are depicted as living in (relative) comfort while flipside society refers to characters who are placed on the margins of society such as roadside beggars, mentally-afflicted people, dumpster scavengers, children hawking wares in traffic jams, poor and homeless people, victimized refugees and migrants, and people wrongly accused of crimes. this general category of people can be described as victims of social existence because oftentimes they find themselves in those circumstances by reason of family background, social or natural disaster or some other factors hardly within their control. in this wise, when the plots of literary works draw more attention to flipview characters, that is, characters from mainstream society, this can be called plot prejudice. it is also plot prejudice when plots show a bias for characters from flipside society. for similar reasons, when literary writers and consumers of literary works (readers and audiences) are drawn more to plots whose main characters come from flipview society, plot prejudice is also at work. same applies to having a major interest in main characters drawn from flipside society. the emergence of different literary theories over time has been an interesting phenomenon as each literary theory was developed to answer some felt needs. currently, the global toolkit of literary theories has an impressive array of theories with areas of interest that cut across human and environmental concerns. it is against this background that one can appreciate 132 nwadike & orabueze flipside criticism of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings... leitch's (2001) view that, “the task of literary history is thus only completed when literary production is not only represented synchronically and diachronically in the succession of its systems, but also seen as a special history in its unique relationship” (p. 5). however, while there are existing theories that, for instance, explore the depiction of women (feminism), gender (gender theory, queer theory), social relations of power between the poor and the rich (marxism), and race relations (critical race theory), there is no single theory that interrogates the depiction of less privileged people in general in works of literature. this is the gap that flipside theory now fills. furthermore, flipside criticism can synergize with some other forms of criticism where relevant to achieve a robust critical analysis of a literary work rather than treated like an isolated field. flipside theory pushes discourse about people on the margins of society centre stage in a world where, ironically, national and world leaders and international groups have been talking quite loudly about care for the poor and the less privileged, and yet, there has been no single literary theory that answers to that need. the operational principles of flipside criticism come in the form of three determinant questions that interrogate every work of literature, and a fourth one that determines whether a literary work qualifies as a flipside work or not (nwadike, p. 112). these determinant questions are: (a) did a plot constitute a flipside character as its protagonist or give that position to a flipview character? (b) did this protagonist, if a flipside character, cause significant transformations in the society (the rise or fall of important individuals, groups, ideas or events) while still a member of flipside society rather than developed to become a member of flipview society? (c) is the disposition of the flipside protagonist towards other flipside characters favourable and empowering, favourable and disempowering, unfavourable and empowering or unfavourable and disempowering? for the fourth requirement, a plot must have a flipside protagonist whose disposition towards other flipside characters is favourable and empowering to qualify as a flipside work. this requirement underscores the social concern that the dignity and rights of victims of social existence should be respected, that they should be treated well even by their colleagues, and that they should be empowered to live better like the rest of society. fall's (1979) the beggars' strike has an interesting plot where beggars in dakar rally together to protest the disrespect of describing them as polluting the tourist industry and the humiliation of eviction from city streets on the orders of mourndiaye, the director of public health services and hygiene. these beggars were manhandled into a settlement zone but they went on strike against accepting alms from people anymore. their refusal even to return to the streets to accept alms made it impossible for other people like mour ndiaye, the protagonist, to give alms in fulfilment of religious obligations. this turn of events caused a crisis powerful enough to destroy his political ambition to become the vice president of the republic. however, this novel does not qualify as a flipside work because mour ndiaye is a flipview character. this contrasts with nwadike's(2014) the holy heist where the protagonist, austen, is a flipside character. he is an unemployed university graduate who went into drugs and became mentallychallenged but whose activities destroyed the bourgeois ambitions of some flipview characters. he remained a flipside character in the plot and exhibited a favourable and empowering disposition towards other flipside characters. thus, the holy heist qualifies as a flipside work. humanism is clearly at the core of flipside theory but this humanism welcomes religion if some characters incline towards it rather than hoisting atheism as the ideal. flipside humanism considers religion part of the humanistic equation of such characters, that is, as part of what makes them human and members of society. flipside humanism also calls into question any 133 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 justifications that may be provided for ideologies, social institutions, racial or cultural assumptions and systemic practices such as the slave trade and slavery, colonialism and its various modern forms that generate, legitimize, or promote inhuman practices. methodology this research uses a qualitative methodology and applies textual analysis for the critical exploration of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and simon pilkings in death and the king's horseman. this process is carried out in a systematic way. this research covers the primary text, namely, death and the king's horseman. some secondary texts considered relevant to this research are also accessed. the primary source of data for this research is the tragic drama under study, namely, death and the king's horseman. secondary sources of data include other relevant materials ranging from printed works to online publications that make contributions to this research. data from these two sources are subjected to the critical tools of flipside theory. the application of this theory is done in a systematic way to achieve specific objectives. results and discussion: flipside analysis of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings the main characters selected from death and the king's horseman that will be subjected to flipside criticism are olunde and simon pilkings. this selection does not undermine the roles of other characters like iyaloja, praise-singer, and jane pilkings. (a) olunde as the first son of the elesin oba, a highly-placed man in the society, olunde lived a privileged life and enjoyed some rights and privileges. olunde's father, the king's chief horseman and a titled chief, made sure he put things in place to groom him properly as his successor after his death. in olunde's eyes, when his father meets his fated death by ritual suicide, a path he will also tread in his own time, nothing can be offered in place of winning “the honour and veneration of his own people” (4.356). olunde also was lucky to enjoy the benevolent attention of the british colonial district officer, simon pilkings. pilkings expropriated olunde from elesin and sent him to england to train as a medical doctor despite his father's objections (2.329; 2.330). the pilkings even imagined him also gifted enough to be a poet (2.329). in anger, his father publicly disowned him but culturally, how he did it made it ineffective (4.360–361). the privilege of living in europe afforded olunde an opportunity to learn how europeans live and think and to draw comparisons between them and his yoruba people back home. it was from this that olunde, right after returning from england, replied jane pilkings with some scorn when she wondered whether he was shocked that she and her husband trivialized the sacred egungun masquerade attire by wearing it to a ball in honor of a visiting british prince: olunde. (mildly) and that is the good cause for which you desecrate an ancestral mask? jane. oh, so you are shocked after all. how disappointing. olunde. no i am not shocked, mrspilkings. you forget that i have now spent four years 134 nwadike & orabueze flipside criticism of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings... among your people. i discovered that you have no respect for what you do not understand. (4.353) although he became quite busy working in a hospital taking care of wounded or dying british soldiers as the second world war raged on (4.360), olunde had a change of heart about staying away from cultural responsibilities after a relation sent him a cable from home that just said: “our king is dead” (4.355). he knew he had to leave england and return home to bury his father who was expected to die by ritual suicide in a month's time and be buried along with the king (2.328). olunde denied his european benefactors the opportunity of stopping him by returning without informing them (4.361–362) and he was lucky to travel in the same ship that conveyed the british prince to nigeria under escort (4.356). he strongly disapproved of efforts by the pilkings to stop the ritual suicide (4.356; 4.361) and, to him, elesin was already dead and he was just eagerly waiting to see him in the nature of a corpse for him to carry out the customary rites befitting an elesin (4.359–360). he knew he would become the next elesin after that (2.330; 4.359) but he still nursed hopes of returning to england to complete his medical studies and become a first-class medical doctor (2.329; 4.358). however, when it dawned on olunde that elesin has failed in his primary duty after the two of them met by chance with elesin surprized to see his son already back home and olundesurprized to see his father still alive and in chains, olunde disowned him: elesin. olunde? (he moves his head, inspecting him from side to side.) olunde! (he collapses slowly at olunde's feet.) oh son, don't let the sight of your father turn you blind. olunde. (he moves for the first time since he heard his voice, brings his head slowly down to look on him.) i have no father, eater of left-overs. (4.365) thereafter, olunde took it upon himself to remedy the damage and protect the dignity and privileges of the elesin position that was his family's birth-right. this included an effort to reconcile with his father (5.367–368). he made himself a substitute for his father and carried out the ritual suicide instead. he preferred to take that radical step to living to see his father's failure shamefully cast the family down from its elite status to the margins of society. for olunde, ritual suicide for the community is akin to the self-sacrifice of an english sea captain who remained on board to blow up his ship that has become dangerous and save the population living by the harbour (4.354). he also characteristically compared it to the suicidal mindset of soldiers sent into battle by their commanders to die in the ongoing war like doing a mass suicide (4.357). in line with the operational principles of flipside criticism, olunde, by his social position and the power and privileges that accrued to it, was a flipview character. although he was not constituted a protagonist, he was developed to remain a member of flipview society throughout the plot. furthermore, he caused significant social transformations through his radical suicide to save his community from collapsing and to prevent the cosmic catastrophe expected with his father's failure to fulfil his duty. olunde's disposition towards flipside characters was favourable and empowering considering that he was determined to do all in his power to serve the interests of all the members of his community. 135 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 in conclusion, olunde was a flipview character and was developed to remain a flipview character in the plot of death and the king's horseman but he was not the protagonist. he was able to cause significant social transformations while his disposition towards flipside characters was favourable and empowering. going by the four principles of flipside criticism, the drama does not qualify as a flipside work. (b) simon pilkings simon pilkings was the colonial district officer and represented the enormous power and privileges enjoyed by members of the british colonial administration in that part of the world. he was very determined not to permit any activity on the part of natives to jeopardize colonial interests. that was why he quickly gave orders to stop the ritual suicide of elesin as soon as he got wind of it (2.326; 2.333). in addition, when he realized that sergeant amusa failed in that task, he had to go and get things done by himself (4.351–352; 4.362–363), including handling the market women's riot after he arrested elesin (4.349; 4.363). pilkings had the bearings of an oppressor and this was felt even by his wife, jane and some white colleagues. he let people know he was in charge and this made it difficult for him to take jane's advice to treat the natives with open-mindedness (2.325; 2.327; 2.331). he considered it part of his job to mock cultural practices he did not understand, confiscated and desecrated the egungun attire, and used derogatory words on the natives and their cultural practices (2.325). he even occasionally extended his attacks on religion to some christian practices (2.330–334). pilkings was not a man to let anyone talk down on him and he felt upset when the resident did so after stumbling on information about the ritual suicide and the market women's riot (4.349). although olunde found favour in his eyes, he still impressed it upon both olunde and elesin, his father, that things must go his own way (2.329). he plotted with olunde and sent him to england to study medicine despite opposition from his father who needed him to stay around to be groomed as his successor (5.367). actions like that created serious antagonism between the two men: pilkings. i seem to be fated to clash more often with that man than with any of the other chiefs. (2.328) going by the determinant principles of flipside criticism, simon pilkings was not constituted the protagonist of the drama but he was a flipview character who remained a member of flipview society till the end of the drama. he caused significant social transformations by causing the humiliation of elesin when he prevented his ritual suicide and also arrested and imprisoned him. his action also threatened the entire community with a cosmic catastrophe. olunde indicated this when he thought pilkings had failed to stop the ritual suicide: olunde. mr pilkings, i appreciate what you tried to do. i want you to believe that. i can tell you it would have been a terrible calamity if you'd succeeded. (4.261) in addition, his disposition towards flipside characters was unfavourable and disempowering. in conclusion, simon pilkings was a flipview character and remained in that position. he was not constituted the protagonist but was able to cause significant social transformations while his disposition towards flipside characters was not favourable and empowering. going by the four determinant principles of flipside criticism, death and the king's horseman does not qualify as a flipside work. 136 nwadike & orabueze flipside criticism of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings... 4.5 conclusion the systematic application of flipside criticism on select characters in wole soyinka's death and the king's horseman uncovered interesting insights about olunde and simon pilkings, two characters that were selected for analysis. this has added to a better appreciation of these literary works. flipside critical analysis showed that both olunde and pilkings were not flipside characters and none of them was constituted the protagonist of the tragic drama. furthermore, each of them was developed to remain in flipview society till the end of the drama just as each of them was able to cause significant social transformations. however, in the area treatment of flipside characters, olunde had a favourable and empowering disposition while pilkings had an unfavourable and disempowering disposition. finally, soyinka's death and the king's horseman does not qualify as a flipside work because it fails the four determinant principles for that. references abakporo, p. 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(1993). ritual and the political unconscious: the case of death and the king's horseman. research in african literatures, 24(1), 67-79.retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/3820199. 138 nwadike & orabueze flipside criticism of the psycho-social dynamics of olunde and pilkings... page 136 page 137 page 138 page 139 page 140 page 141 page 142 page 143 page 144 page 145 page 146 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 13 an analysis of the kantian foundation of husserlian transcendental phenomenology prof. chiedozie okoro department of philosophy university of lagos, akoka, lagos, nigeria, cokoro@unilag.edu.ng & sirajudeen owosho, ph.d. department of philosophy university of lagos, akoka, lagos, nigeria. abstract the quest of an ultimate and absolute foundation and justification of knowledge was a persistent occupation of edmund husserl. from his first beginnings in philosophy, husserl turned to the realm of subjectivity for his foundation and justification. the problem is to account for the validity of knowledge and objectivity of the objects of knowledge in terms of acts of consciousness through which the objects are apprehended and knowledge is constituted, and this happens to be the goal of his phenomenology. with regards to transcendental phenomenology, this paper aims to analyse kant and husserl’s similarities and differences, in terms of methodologies and interpretations, with a view to showing that kant provided the epistemological manure for the fruitful germination of husserl’s transcendental phenomenology. husserl’s recognition of phenomenology as ineluctably transcendental philosophy forced him to confront kant whom he had been reading seriously. he agreed with kant’s general view that the profusion of different philosophical systems was testimony that philosophy had failed to live up to its aspiration to be a science. furthermore, husserl, like kant, believed that philosophy could only become a genuine science after it had embarked on a radical critique of its claim to be able to be a science at all. this involved a critique of the instrument of knowledge. husserl sees kant as correctly understanding the need for a transcendental critique of the sciences, one which saw them as subjective cognitive accomplishments. it is therefore the position of this paper that immanuel kant’s critique of pure reason provided a strong basis for the emergence of husserl’s transcendental phenomenology. 14 keywords: consciousness, knowledge, phenomenology, philosophy, transcendental phenomenology. introduction husserl’s phenomenology could be said to have taken its beginnings in neo-kantian soil, and went on to become an independent philosophical organism. this ambivalence of phenomenology’s relationship to kant, this dependence upon and yet reaction against kantianism is reflected in husserl’s own attitude towards the philosopher of kronisberg: at times he credits kant with anticipating and even attaining phenomenological status, at other times, he severely criticizes his thought (kern, 1965, 192). to determine exactly how husserl is related to kant thus becomes an extremely delicate matter, calling for the most sensitive historical and philosophical analysis. husserl saw phenomenology as the final answer to the question of epistemology: how is knowledge possible? he sees kant as representing a crucial stage on the way to the emergence of his own transcendental phenomenology, and provides interesting criticisms of kant from that standpoint. kant as precursor of transcendental phenomenology husserl’s transcendental phenomenology is the culmination of the turn to the subject that takes place in descartes, but how does it relate to kant? in husserl’s view, kant’s significance lies in the fact that he succeeds in converting descartes’ subjectivism into philosophy, which is genuinely transcendental. descartes subject remains an item in the world (hussel, 1982, 10). kant’s subject is transcendental in the sense that it is a subject in which the world as object is constituted. in the view of gorner, such philosophy is the only one able to answer the epistemological question: how is knowledge possible? and it does this by showing how the world is “constituted” in transcendental subjectivity (2006, 503). an inevitable consequence of husserl’s conception of transcendental phenomenology is transcendental idealism, and husserl not only accepts this but enthusiastically proclaims it. he sees his own transcendental idealism as kant’s idealism rendered consistent. given the acknowledgement of kantian influence by husserl, this shall further be examined by comparing the two philosophers on some phenomenological themes such as transcendental subjectivity, views on psychologism, things in themselves, life-world and its constitution, and transcendental philosophy. transcendental subjectivity kant’s view of subjectivity implies a two-fold consideration of the idea of subject. on the one hand, there is the empirical self, and on the other hand, there stands the transcendental subject as the principle of the unity of experience, and therefore, as the principle of the existence of the empirical self. kant’s idea of transcendentality of the subject is a response to hume’s empirical an analysis of the kantian foundation of husserlian transcendental phenomenology prof. c. okoro & s. owosho, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 15 formulation that reduces the idea of the self to a “bundle of perceptions”. kant claims that there should be a unifying principle prior to empirical experiences of a particular person so that the idea of the self can emerge. one major problem with kant’s view of transcendental subjectivity is that, it does not supply sufficient argumentation to support his claim about the existence of such a subject. that is, it fails to explain how the empirical self is related to the transcendental subject. he does not arrive at the idea of transcendental subjectivity but simply asserts it (azeri, 2010, 281). edmund husserl does not argue that transcendental consciousness must have such and such structures if knowledge is to be possible. phenomenology is essentially a form of seeing. the constitution of objects in transcendental subjectivity is something which can become the object of what husserl calls transcendental experience. access to the kinds of active and passive synthesis in which objects and ultimately the world are constituted requires the carrying out of transcendental reduction. husserl concludes that kant’s account of the constitution of the world by the transcendental subject lacks a proper conception of the phenomenological method, and operates with mythical constructions (husserl, 1970, 30). husserl thinks that because kant never really appreciated the need for a transcendental reduction, he was always in danger of falling back into psychologism (hussel, 1974, 9-15). in the very early stages of his encounter with kant, husserl thought that kant was guilty of psychologism, trying to explain the necessity and universality of a priori truths by tracing them back to our psychological constitution which makes assent to them inevitable. by the time of logical investigations, he had come to see that this view of kant is false even though traces of pyschologism remained (husserl, 2020, 30). according to gorner, kant explains the possibility of a priori knowledge in terms of the faculties of sensibility, imagination and understanding, and these are human psychological faculties. but as items in the world, human beings cannot fulfill a transcendental role (gorner, 2006, 107). from the philosophical standpoint of husserl’s transcendental phenomenology, human beings are entities in the world constituted in transcendental subjectivity, which is not an entity in the world. the transcendental subjectivity husserl speaks about is no other than human transcendence, which is the human ability to project from the physical world of experience into the supersensible world or non-physical world, which is made possible by the productive and reproductive imagination. it is the ability of the mind to form connectedness or synthesis. transcendence shows how the sensible faculty of the mind interconnects with the non-sensible faculties of mind. the sensible part of the mind is referred to as immanent, while the nonsensible parts of the mind are referred to as transcendent. by the act of interconnectedness or synthesis, the mind projects from the experienced world into the non-experienced world and vice versa, making possible mental visioning or mental imaging of the world (kant, 2003, 307). this very act of visualizing or imagining the world, is an act of synthesis, which kant refers to as the synthetic a priori knowledge, which is made possible by the power of the imagination to form heterogeneity into homogeneity. 16 synthesis in general, as we shall hereafter see, is the mere result of the power of imagination, a blind but indispensable function of the soul, without which we should have no knowledge whatsoever, but of which we are scarcely ever conscious. to bring this synthesis “to concepts’ is a function which belongs to the understanding, and it is through this function of the understanding that we first obtain knowledge properly so called. (kant, 1970, 112) there is an ambivalence involved in the above statement of kant concerning the power of the imagination to form synthesis. in one fell swoop, he acknowledges that synthesis is the act and process of imagination, yet he refers to the imagination as – a blind but indispensable function of the soul, without which we should have no knowledge whatsoever, but of which we are scarcely ever conscious. there were a number of problems that confronted kant concerning the matter of transcendental subjectivity. first, he began his intellectual quest as an anthropologist and later matured into the stage of critical ontology or transcendental philosophy. second, event at the matured stage of transcendental philosophy, his thinking was still dominated and directed by his initial stage of anthropological analysis of human nature. third, he was limited to the traditional rivalry between idealism and materialism in metaphysics, and rationalism and empiricism in epistemology such that synthesis for him became a reconciliation of the opposing parties. it is in this sense that he saw the synthetic a priori as a fusion of rationalism and empiricism in classical epistemology as well as an amalgamation of induction and deduction in traditional logic. it is in this sense that he understood the transcendental aesthetic as the analysis of the inductive process which follows the empiricist procedure of abstracting totality from particular experiences of sense knowledge (i.e. sensibility as a process and source of a posteriori knowledge). the transcendental dialectic on the other hand, deals with the deductive procedure, which portrays the rationalist process of applying general rules to particular experiences (i.e. reason as a transcendent faculty of ideas that legislates the pre-experiential condition which forms the spectacle for organizing experience). hence, the whole essence of his transcendental logic concerns how to achieve synthesis of these two traditional processes of logic, which, for him, represent logical procedures or functions of the mind. fourth, at his earlier stage of anthropology, kant had developed a metaphysical theory of human nature based on racism by which he pegged the human power of transcendence on skin colour. at his matured stage of critical ontology, his research into the inner depths of human ontology ledge him to the realization that the imagination (not reason) is the faculty responsible for synthesis by which process human transcendence is achieved. since the acknowledgement of this new discovery would amount to a nullification of his earlier stand in his anthropology, kant detoured from ontology back into anthropology. fifth, the recoil from the analysis of human ontology, means making anthropology the foundation of his critical ontology. this anomaly, led him to introduce a process known as subsumption into his theory of human ontology. by this act, the powers and functions of the imagination were subsumed or incorporated under the faculty of the understanding, which now functions as the faculty responsible for the production and synthesis of both rational and empirical concepts through an analysis of the kantian foundation of husserlian transcendental phenomenology prof. c. okoro & s. owosho, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 17 the process of schematism (heidegger, 1962, xix). consequently, kant labelled the imagination: “the transcendental object x, a nothing and an unknown root” (112). a sixth fundamental anomaly in immanuel kant’s transcendental ontology is that the twelve (12) categories of the understanding actually belong under the faculty of imagination. this is because concepts deal with rules of direction, not synthesis. this wise, the twelve categories rightly belong under the imagination which is the faculty of image formation. image as a symbol, is a fusion of both rational and empirical knowledge. hence, by ceding the functions of the imagination to the understanding, kant derailed from the project of showing how the human mind comes about the act and process of synthesis. it is on this basis that edmund husserl accuses kant of not being able to squarely deal with the problem of psychologism. this accusation stems from the ground that kant is not able to comprehensively discuss the problem of human subjectivity and how human subjectivity gives rise to objectivity. the conception of noumena kant in his critique of pure reason distinguished between two types of reality: phenomena and noumena. that is the knowable and the unknowable. whereas the phenomena is the world of experience, that is, things as they are perceived, the noumena is the world of intelligence that is “thing in itself”. appearances, so far as they are thought as objects according to the unity of the categories are called phenomena. but if i postulate things which are mere objects of understanding, and which, nevertheless, can be given as such to an intuition, although not to one that is sensible…such things would be entitled noumena (kant, 2003, 123). as far as kant is concerned, we can only know things as they are given to consciousness, through our sense perception, but we cannot know thing in itself, that is, we can never say anything at all about things as, they are in themselves because they are not given to consciousness. in actual fact, the bifurcation of reality into phenomena and noumena by kant, is a further manifestation of his detour into anthropology. in the first place, it is contradictory for kant to say that what the mind is capable of knowing are appearances (phenomena), not things-inthemselves (i.e. noumena) and at the same time state about the source of metaphysics thus: as it concerns the source of metaphysical cognition, its very concept implies that they cannot be empirical. its principles (i.e. propositions and concepts) must never be derived from experience. it must not be physical but metaphysical, that is, knowledge lying beyond experience. it can therefore have for its basis neither external experience, which is the source of physics proper, nor internal, which is the basis of empirical psychology. it is therefore a priori cognition, coming from pure understanding and pure reason. (kant, 1983, 107) if the source of metaphysics is neither empirical nor physical, but always metaphysical, does it not imply that as beings endowed with the power of transcendence, humans have the transcendental ability to peruse noumena? however, since kant’s had the double agenda of 18 making metaphysics scientific and at the same time laying a metaphysical foundation for science, he conjectured that a genuine metaphysics should exclude the religious/spiritual world (i.e. which for him belonged in the realm of noumena) and focus on the investigation of the phenomenal world with a view to enabling the scientific transformation of the society. this accounts for a main reason why he recoiled from making a delineation of the powers and functions of the imagination and chose to concentrate on the architectonics of pure reason and pure understanding. this preceding point is well articulated by martin heidegger thus: this fundamental constitution of the essence of, “rooted” in the transcendental imagination, is the “unknown” of which kant must have had an intimation when he spoke of “the root unknown to us”; for the unknown is not that which we know absolutely nothing but that of which the knowledge makes us uneasy. however, kant did not carry out the primordial interpretation of the transcendental imagination; indeed, he did not even make attempt, despite the clear indications he gave us concerning such an analytic. (167) reason as the faculty of ideas functions by way of legislation and dissection, which involves the dispassionate distancing of the object of investigation. understanding as the faculty of concept formation, can only avail us schemas, models or rules (both empirical and rational) of direction for structuring things into pattern. it is imagination as the faculty of image formation that is capable of perusing into the hiddenness of things. hence, by failing to forage into the nature and structure of the imagination, kant limited his entire philosophy to the mere perusal of appearances. for husserl, a genuinely transcendental philosophy cannot countenance things-in-themselves, which cannot themselves be presented or given to consciousness. this explains why husserl dismisses the noumena theory of kant by focusing his phenomenology on the egological perusal of the phenomenal world. thus, the realism in husserl’s phenomenology is that the phenomenal world is not populated by appearances but real objects which the ego can peruse. the marvel in husserl’s phenomenology is that epoche as the process of eidetic bracketing, which happens by way of intentional correlation of the subject and object of knowledge, is the very process of imaginative visualization which results into the perusal of the essences of objects of knowledge. at the core of husserl’s phenomenology is the strict correlation between being (sein) and consciousness (husserl, 1982, 43). given this correlation, the idea of an unknowable “thing in itself” makes no sense to husserl. although, it is possible to interpret kantian “things in themselves” in a way compatible with husserl transcendental philosophy, there is still the strong suggestion that they have a causal role in kant’s epistemology, which husserl thinks is obscured. this explains why husserl’s transcendental idealism is more radical than that of kant. an analysis of the kantian foundation of husserlian transcendental phenomenology prof. c. okoro & s. owosho, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 19 the world and its constitution ordinarily, one would have thought that this conventional or classical rendition of phenomena would have been corrected by immanuel kant, since he had as his cardinal objective, the rehabilitation or deconstruction of metaphysics. but to our utter dismay, in kant, phenomena remain the appearing of the non-appearing and the comprehension of the incomprehensible. in the third chapter of “the transcendental analytic” (which forms the first part of “transcendental logic” under “the transcendental doctrine of elements”) entitled; “the transcendental doctrine of judgment”, kant speaks of “the ground of the distinction of all objects in general into phenomena and noumena.” (kant, 2003, 257). but what exactly does kant mean by the categorization of all objects of experience into phenomena and noumena. let kant speak for himself. if the assertion, that the understanding can employ its various principles and its various concepts solely in an empirical and never in a transcendental manner, is a proposition which can be known with certainty, it will yield important consequences. the transcendental employment of a concept in any principle is its application to things in general and in themselves; the empirical is its application merely to appearances; that is, to objects of a possible experience. that the latter application of concepts is alone feasible is evident from the following considerations. (259) for kant, the structure or categories of thought or consciousness is such that we are never able to perceive things-in-themselves or noumena. what we are capable of perceiving are appearances or phenomena, and this is so because by the rule of empiricality or experience, we can never get beyond the empirical or physical knowledge of things. once more, we let kant speak for himself: now the object cannot be given to a concept otherwise than in intuition; for though a pure intuition can indeed precede the object a priori, even this intuition can acquire its objects, and therefore objective validity, only through the empirical intuition of which it is the mere form. therefore, all concepts, and with them all principles, even such as are possible a priori, relate to empirical intuitions, that is, to the data for a possible experience. apart from this relation they have no objective validity, and in respect of representations are a mere play of imagination or of understanding. (259) kant’s assertion that the understanding or apperception, is a priori or ‘pre-experiential” by nature, but is however, never able to get beyond the realm of experience or the intuited, is in agreement with his doctrine of epistemology. this position, no doubt, contradicts his doctrine of ontology and limits the imagination to the realm of experience alone. but why is the understanding never able to get beyond the bounds of experience? kant replies as follows: 20 this domain (the understanding) is an island, enclosed by nature itself within unalterable limits. it is the land of truth-enchanting name!  surrounded by a wide and stormy ocean, the native home of illusion, where many a fog bank and many a swiftly melting iceberg give the deceptive appearance of farther shores, deluding the adventurous seafarer ever anew with empty hopes, and engaging him in enterprises which he can never abandon and yet is unable to carry to completion (258). although the rules of the understanding are not only true a priori, they are the source of all truth, but only as they contain in themselves the ground for the possibility of experience viewed as the sum of all knowledge where in objects can be given to us. for whether as constituted a priori (i.e. as with the principles of mathematics), or as merely regulative (i.e. dynamical), the understanding is but a pure schema of possible experience. a power or function of the mind fortified by the synthetic unity of the imagination, a faculty of the mind which according to kant, is under the guide of the understanding whose function is to harmonize appearances, that is to say, experiences as data readily stand a priori in relation to, and in agreement with, that synthetic unity (258). kant’s bifurcation of reality into noumena (things-in-themselves) and phenomena (things as appearances) left his successors in disarray. this pandemonium sparked off by kant led to the emergence of two antagonistic schools of thought; idealism, symbolized in hegel and materialism, championed by karl marx. both hegel and marx made evaluations of phenomena and tried to show that nothing like an unknowable realm exists. in the opinion of husserl, kant starts too high a level since he ignores the life-world and the constitution of the life-world (husserl, 1970, 103-123). the synthetic a priori principle whose possibility kant seeks to explain is supposed to be the fundamental principles of natural science. but in husserl, the concepts employed in the formulation of such knowledge refer back to experience of the life-world. so what is needed is first an account of the constitution of the life-world and its structures. transcendental philosophy in the critique of pure reason, kant carefully distinguishes four senses of metaphysics. the whole of the metaphysical system he says, “consists of four main parts: (1) ontology; (2) rational physiology; (3) rational cosmology; (4) and rational theology” (kant, 1970, 662). but how did kant arrive at these four categories of metaphysics? his categorization of metaphysics into four stems from his initial distinction between transcendental metaphysics (as ontology) and physiological metaphysics (as anthropology). kant’s view on this is very emphatic. he says, metaphysics, in the narrower meaning of the term, consists of transcendental philosophy and physiology of pure reason. the former treats only of the an analysis of the kantian foundation of husserlian transcendental phenomenology prof. c. okoro & s. owosho, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 21 understanding and of reason, in a system of concepts and principles which relate to objects that may be given (ontologia); the latter treats of nature, that is, of the sum of given objects (whether given to the senses, or, if we will, to some kind of intuition) and is therefore physiology although only rationalis. (662) the distinction between understanding and rationalis marks the difference between metaphysics as ontology (or transcendental philosophy) and metaphysics as anthropology (or physiology). in kant’s view, transcendental philosophy or ontology concerns itself with the study of the structure of human consciousness which makes it possible for man to ontologize or metaphysicize. anthropology or physiology so to speak, deals with the study of nature and the so many essences that constitute nature. but how come that metaphysics could be anthropological or physiological? kant replies that even that which has been designated metaphysical anthropology is in a way transcendental. it is at this realm or level of metaphysics that distinction is made between physics as the study of nature and metaphysics as the study of that which goes beyond the physical. kant’s view about this is clear; the employment of reason in this rational study of nature is either physical or hyperphysical, or, in more adequate terms, is either immanent or transcendent. the former is concerned with such knowledge of nature as can be applied in experience (in concreto), the latter with the connection of objects of experience which transcends all experience. (662) that which is immanent, deals with experience in general and consists of physics or rational physics (the metaphysics of corporeal nature) and both come under rational physiology which in turn consists of physicarationalis (i.e. mathematics, as distinct from the metaphysics of nature as physicageneralis) and psychologiarationalis. on the other hand, transcendent physiology has as its objects either an “inner” connection or an “outer” connection, both, however, transcending possible experience. as dealing with an inner connection it is the physiology of nature as a whole, that is, the transcendental knowledge of the world (rational cosmology); and as dealing with an outer connection, it is the physiology of the relation of nature as a whole to a being above nature, that is to say, it is the transcendental knowledge of god otherwise known as rational theology (kant, 1970, 662-663). but whether as dealing with things immanent or things physiologically transcendent, metaphysical anthropology is basically a priori. without the a priori categories of the understanding physical knowledge (a posteriority) of the world would be impossible. this being so, kant concluded that the technical implication of the “architectonics of pure reason” is that ontological transcendental knowledge or transcendental metaphysics is the foundation of all forms of knowledge, be they physiological, cosmological or theological. husserl accuses kant of not subjecting his transcendental philosophy to transcendental selfcriticisms. according to him, we do not expect a natural scientist to be able to give an account of how natural-scientific knowledge is possible. if he or she should do so, it is not qua scientist 22 but qua philosopher. but we are right to expect a philosopher to be able to give an account of how philosophical knowledge is possible. that is simply because philosophy is essentially selfreflective. it does not raise, let alone answer, the prior question of how transcendental philosophy is possible (husserl, 1999, 63). it is important to note that, inspite of these criticisms; husserl still regards himself as the heir to kant’s transcendental philosophy. if this assertion by husserl is anything to go by, then there are two fundamental respects in which this can be questioned. firstly, there is something essentially cartesian about husserl’s conception of transcendental philosophy. phenomenological reflection is a kind of purified introspection. it is purified in being carried out on the basis of phenomenological reduction, whereas “ordinary introspection takes place within the natural attitude and on the basis of the general thesis. this is something quite alien to kant’s conception of philosophy (gorner, 504). secondly, husserl’s conception of the a priori is really quite different from that of kant. kant’s synthetic a priori judgements are characterized by necessity and strict universality. the synthetic a priori transcendental principles have those characteristics by virtue of being conditions of the possibility of experience. husserl also uses the notion of synthetic a priori judgements but his conception of such judgements involves something which is entirely alien to kant namely the intuition of essences (husserl, 1982, 43-44). for husserl, it is not only individuals but also universals which can be intuited. every contingent something has an essence or “eidos”. an individual object is not simply a “this, here”, but also has an essential “what”. every specific sound, for example, has a universal essence “sound as such”. likewise, every material thing has its essence. at a higher level of generality there is the essence “material thing as such” and included in this, “temporal determination as such”, “duration as such” and “materiality as such”. everything which belongs to the essence of an individual can also belong to another individual, and essences of the highest levels of generality demarcate “regions” or “categories” of individuals (gorner, 505). edmund husserl maintains that, every “what” of an individual can be separated from that individual and apprehended as an idea. empirical or individual intuition can thus be converted into essential intuition, and what is then intuited is the pure essence or eidos. the essence is a new kind of object, just as what is given in an individual or empirical intuition is an individual object, so what is given in essential intuition, is a pure essence. husserl insists that the talk of intuition is genuinely intuition and the eidetic object is genuinely an object. essential intuition is a mode of consciousness of something in which the object, the essence is itself given. the eidos, the pure essence, can be intuitively exemplified in what is given in experience, in perception or memory, but it can equally well be exemplified in imagination. in order to apprehend an essence itself, we can start out from either corresponding experiential intuitions or non-experiential intuitions in which existence is not apprehended, that is to say from an analysis of the kantian foundation of husserlian transcendental phenomenology prof. c. okoro & s. owosho, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 23 intuitions in which something is merely imagined. for example, essences of spatial forms, melodies, social processes, acts of experience, pleasure, displeasure, or willing can be intuited on the basis of purely imagined instances of such things. the positing and intuitive apprehension of essences does not imply the slightest positing of any individual existence. pure essential truths do not certain the least assertion about facts. consequently, not even the most trivial factual truth can be inferred from them. references aderi, s. 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(2020). first philosophy. edited by r. boetin. martinus nijhoff. kant, i. (2003). critique of pure reason. translated by j. meiklejohn. dover publications inc. kant, i. (1983). prolegomena to any future metaphysics that will be able to come forward as science. translated by p. carus, extensively revised by j. w. ellington. hacket publishing company. kant, i. (1970). critique of pure reason. translated by k. smith. macmillan. kern i. (1965). “husserl and kant.” in r. sokolowski (ed.), philosophy and phenomenological research, 26 (1), 1-32. aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract arguably, ethnocentrism remains a bane to unity and development in nigeria. whereas some blame it on colonialism and bad governance, this paper, however, contends that ethnocentrism is a product of a negative mindset in most nigerians, which must to be corrected for any better experience in social relations to hold. in view of this, the paper examines the negative mindset that undergirds the ethnocentric attitude in social relations in nigeria. it explores the potential of the taoist yin-yang philosophical principle of complementarity in view of re-orienting the mindset of nigerians along the more positive lines of complementary mode of thought and existence. it concludes with the view that this principle has much to offer the nigerian society at this critical time, as its ideals of complementary consciousness and mutual co-existence of things, are essential for effective management of our ethnic diversity. the paper adopts critical method of research. keywords: taoism, yin-yang principle, ethnocentrism, consciousness, nigeria. introduction arguably, the fabric of the nigerian society is increasingly being ripped apart by the lethal force of ethnocentrism. this has largely manifested itself in the politics of ethnic domination, economic exclusion and ethno-religious crises that have engulfed the nation. today, many nigerians are strangers in their own country, without much rights, and privileges. matthew kukah laments that, “due to politics of ethnic domination, there has been a total loss of sense of belonging to the nigerian state by nigerians” (2003, p.41). given this sad situation, the socio-cultural and political harmony and growth of the country has predictably remained elusive. in consequence, the country has been hemorrhaging from bitter ethnic rivalries, socio-political upheavals, ethnic agitations and threats of secession, economic imbalance, terrorism and banditry, and poverty. some thinkers, however, tend to blame the problem of ethnocentrism in nigeria on colonialism and bad leadership (nnoli, 1980, p.35). however, i consider such factor as mere external manifestations of a much deeper cause of ethnocentrism. hence, attempts to address this challenge with such factors in view, has the likelihood of dealing with symptoms other than the root of the problem. for the problem to be effectively tackled, it must be addressed from its primary root cause. in view of this, this paper argues and justifies the position that, ethnocentrism is rooted in a negative mindset that is typically 32 the challenge of ethnocentrism in nigeria and the yin-yang principle of complementarity etuk, anthony r., ph.d. university of uyo, akwa ibom state, nigeria. orcid id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7708-9061. absolutist and exclusivist. it further explores the potential in the taoist yin yan's philosophy of complementarity, in view of re-orienting the mindset of nigerians with the needed complementary modes of thought and existence, needed to attain of ethnic harmony and mutual co-existence in nigeria. conceptual clarification: ethnocentrism the term ethnocentrism derives from two greek words: "ethnos", meaning nation, and "kentron", meaning center (new world encyclopedia). literally the term means an emotional attitude that considers one's nation as the centre of the universe. according to ludwig gumplowicz “ethnocentrism is the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point, not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations, but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past” (qtd. in hofman, and alexander kovalev, 1989, p.84). defines ethnocentrism as, “the technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it” (1978, p.13). in this line of thought, r. buhlman, explains that “ethnocentrism absolutizes one's own culture, one's way of living with a strong sense of superiority and a corresponding dislike or misunderstanding of other groups” (1992, p.59). from the foregoing definitions, it is obvious that ethnocentrism is any culturally biased judgment or attitude, rooted in the belief in one's ethnic culture's superiority, and contempt for others. it is an attitudinal error involving an exaggerated sense of selfimportance or centrality of one's ethnic cultures or belief. it represents profound cognitive failure to understand the relativity of conceptual schemes, and, by extension, cultures, and beliefs of others on their own terms (motyl, 2000, p.152). ethnocentrism is often seen as “the main source of regional, inter-state and inter-ethnic conflicts in africa, and it promotes struggles over resources through social exclusion and ethnic violence” (fayemi, 2021, p.177). it is also at the heart of , stereotyping, discrimination, or xenophobia in the world. it has become a major challenge to the unity and development in nigeria as joseph ebegbulem observes, “politics of ethnicity and regional domination is the major source of political crises in nigeria” (1998, p.77). ethnocentrism and the nigerian experience ethnocentrism has remained a festering sore manifesting its devastating impact on nigeria's socio-political and economic development. it shows up basically in the politics of ethnic domination of the minorities by the majority ethnic groups, ethnic tensions and mutual suspicion among the country's diverse ethnic nationalities, economic and political marginalization. historically, the geographical area known as nigeria was created by the british colonial administration with the 1914 amalgamation of the southern and northern protectorates. in that process, the over 250 ethnic nationalities, who hitherto, lived separately and independently of one another, were brought together to form the country for the administrative convenience of the colonial masters. among the major ethnic groups in nigeria are hausa, yoruba and igbo; while the minority ethnic groups include ibibio, efik, igala, tiv, jukun, urhobo, ijaw, etc. some scholars consider this amalgamation factor as responsible for ethnocentrism in nigeria because, “it which took 33 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 place without the involvement and consent of the ethnic nationalities” (nnoli, 1980, p.35); and more so, because, “the colonial politics and economic policies tended to benefit the elites of dominant groups at the expense of less influential ethnic minority” (fayemi, 2021, p.180). however, in 1939 when sir bernard bourdillon introduced federalism in nigeria, he divided the country into provinces and regional councils along the three major ethnic groups in the country. on the basis of this political arrangement, which was later solidified in the 1950s, legislative assemblies were set up at the regional and federal levels (udoidem, 2000, p.24). for ogu and anthony (2022, p.22), “this division of the country along ethnic lines produced regional tensions, suspicion and rivalry among the three major ethnic groups: the hausa-fulani in the north, the yoruba in the west, and the igbo in the east”. it is also argued that with this arrangement, “ethnic-based party politics emerged in nigeria, and the minority groups rebelled and nigerians started fighting for ethnic dominance as they marched towards independence” (osaghae, 2002, p.58). the largest ethnic groups in each region – the hausa/fulani, yoruba, and igbo in the northern, western and eastern regions respectively – came to dominate their respective regions as well as contested for power at the federal level. within each region, ethnic minorities often opposed the political domination of the larger groups, and as a result, they felt increasingly alienated from the political process. thus, the struggle for political independence was ab initio reduced to the quest for ethnic dominance; and ever since, the post-colonial nigerian society has largely been defined by ethnic politics, religious factionalism and the struggles by the minority groups for political and economic inclusion, representation and self-determination against the domination and exclusion by the majority ethnic groups. this ethnic tension and distrust in the country, were projected in the emergence and formation of political parties along ethnic and regional lines, which fought bitterly over the control of the nation's resources during the first republic. the north led by sir ahmadu bello, formed the northern people's congress (npc); the east led by dr. nnamdi azikiwe, formed the national council of nigeria and cameroons (ncnc), later transformed into national council of nigerian citizens (when southern cameroon left nigeria in august 1944); and the yoruba led by chief obefemi awolowo, formed the action group (ag). falola and matthew assert that “those parties that had control over the assemblies were able to distribute government resources among themselves, supporters, their regions and ethnic groups, and equally were able to deny these resources to their opponents” (2008, p.165). the politics of ethnic domination and ethnic conflicts was at play in 1951, during the regional premiership elections, when awolowo used the ethnic maneuver to out-stage nnamdi azikiwe in his bid for the premiership of the western region (udoidem, 2000, p.25). wole soyinka says that, “obafemi awolowo 'stole' the government from him (azikiwe) in a broad daylight” (1960, p.63). azikiwe, returned to the east, where he compounded the problem by causing the overthrow of then premier of the eastern 34 etuk the challenge of ethnocentrism in nigeria and the yin-yang principle... region, professor eyo ita, a politician from the efik minority ethnic group and leader of the ncnc government in the eastern region. he eventually expelled eyo ita from the ncnc. this was considered an affront on the minority tribes of the southern part of the country. eyo ita, however, left the party and formed the national independence party, “which became the embryo movement for the minorities of the eastern region, challenging igbo domination of the region and demanding regional status for the homelands of these ethnic minorities” (lloyd, 1968, p.288). these early acts of ethnic politics, were to serve as refence points to subsequent political activities in nigeria, and their domino reactions have since turned nigeria into “a perpetual ethnic memory syndrome, infected with insidious orgy of betrayal and revenge” (udoidem, 2000, p.25). furthermore, the parliamentary elections held in the country in 1959, resulted in victory for the npc, which won 134 of the 312 seats. the npc, however, formed a coalition government with the ncnc that governed at the federal level, but which eventually became dominated by the npc, and which under the leadership of federal prime minister balewa, undertook many measures specifically to improve the condition of the northern region and northerners within the federation (falola and matthew, 2008, p.166). the npc-led government regularly handed out appointments and promotions to northerners at the expense of more qualified southerners in an effort to bring about greater parity between the regions in the public service sector. according to falola and matthew, “from 1958 a quota system had determined admissions to the military: 50 percent of military recruits were to come from the northern region and 25 percent each from the eastern and western regions” (2008, p.166). policies such as these were believed to have infuriated southerners, who saw their hardwon skills disregarded by a federal system that increasingly seemed to value ethnicity over merit. the domineering ethnic competitions and regional tensions heightened during the 1960s, and led to the overthrow of the civilian democratic regimes by several military officers from 1966. this was the first military intervention in politics, which unfortunately worsen the situation, because “this time, ethnicity had become militarized” (ekanem, 2003, p.82). the military had the northern hegemony in place with the greater percentage of officers being from the northern extraction in comparison to other regions in the country (gutteridge, 1969, p.22). all these led to the gruesome ethnic-driven civil war from 1967 to 1970, when the eastern region attempted to secede from the federation and establish the sovereign state of biafra. the second republic which resumed in 1979, was even more heavily characterized by this syndrome of ethno-regional politics and struggle for ethnic domination. the northern people's congress, which transformed into national party of nigeria (npn), had basically northern founders, who largely sought and represented the interest of the dominant hausa/fulani in the north. the newly formed unity party of nigeria by chief awolowo, which replaced the action group in the west, sustained the ideals of the action group to secure the interest of the dominant yoruba in the west. in the east, the new party, nigerian peoples party (npp), which replaced the ncnc, was founded by dr. nnamdi azikiwe and his loyalists, to secure the interest of the igbos. the spirit of ethnocentrism 35 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 that these new parties re-awakened at various levels across the country, led to the collapse of the second republic with another era of military intervention in politics. the annulment of the 1993 election won by a southerner, chief mko abiola, was also considered to be due the politics of ethnic hegemony (ekanem, 2003, p.81). in the fourth republic which witnessed the return to civil rule in 1999, the incidence of ethnic-oriented politics manifested in the activities of the action congress (acn), dominated mostly by the yorubas of the southwest; all progressive grand alliance (apga), dominated mostly by the igbos in the southeast; the congress for positive change (cpc), dominated mostly by the hausa-fulani of northern nigeria. the people's democratic party (pdp), also largely under the northern hegemony. the current ninth republic and all progressive congress (apc) – led government under president muhammadu buhari, which took office since 2015, is also, arguably under the hausa/fulani northern hegemony, as strategic appointments in politics and security agencies are largely skewed in favour of people of this ethnic group. this has heightened ethnic suspicion and tension in the land, animating the current agitations for ethnic self-determination among the igbos in the east and yorubas in the west, as well as the demand for a southern president in the upcoming 2023 general elections. the politics of ethnic domination and the struggle against economic exclusion is also responsible for the minority rights agitations of the people in the niger delta (fayemi, 2021, p.181). like other minority groups, the oil minorities of the niger delta have historically felt shortchanged by the revenue allocation model of the federal structure, which has left their communities exploited and underdeveloped, even as they bear the burdens of environmental degradations due to oil production (fayemi, 2021, p.181). sequel to this, many armed militancy groups have emerged in the niger delta region. ethnocentrism also plays out in the high degree of religious intolerance and violence between the muslims and christians in the country. the ethno-religious crisis between the two has almost split the nation into smithereens, leaving wanton destruction of lives and property at its wake. it started in kano with the maitatsine riot in the 1980s, when some muslim fanatics declared war against christians, whom they regarded as “war against infidels” (etuk, 2011, p.37). the riot that ensured from this act created a nationwide hysteria, which eventually claimed over 4,177 lives. this set the template for the many other the ethno-religious violence and conflicts between followers of the two religions that have since engulfed the country. the situation is further compounded today by the emergence of the islamic terror group, boko haram and its splinter group, isawp (islamic west african province) in the north eastern part of the country, who in their primarily quest for the islamization of the country since have adducted, raped and killed thousands of nigerians since 2007. for instance, on february, 2018, leah sharibu, a 14-year-old christian student of the government girls science and technical school in dapchi, yobe state, was abducted along with 109 other girls by the splinter group of the boko haram, iswap. while other 104 girls were later released (apart from the five of whom were reportedly killed in the 36 etuk the challenge of ethnocentrism in nigeria and the yin-yang principle... abduction), leah was held back because she refused to abandon her faith in jesus christ and convert to islam as her abductors wanted. till date she is still in the captivity of her abductors. also in may 12, 2022, nigerians woke up to the shocking news of the gruesome murder of a young christian student, deborah samuel in sokoto. deborah, a student of the shehu shagari college of education, sokoto, was stoned, flogged and burnt to death by her muslim classmates, who claimed she had blasphemed against the prophet mohammed for attributing her success in her examinations to jesus christ in the class online group chat. little is done by the government of the day to arrest and prosecute her murderers. another area of significant area where the challenge of ethnocentrism is currently facing nigerian politics is the recent attempts by the government of the day to allow the hausa/fulani own cattle settlements in every part of the country including lands that belong to other ethnic nationalities. the rural grazing area (ruga) settlements planned for implementation under the buhari-led administration presumably aimed at resolving the recurring conflict between farmers and nomadic herders, has been one of the most recent major controversies of ethnic conflicts in nigeria. most ethnic groups have expressed gross repugnance towards this scheme and risen against it. however, reports show that the federal government is insisting on making the scheme a success though another plan called national livestock transformation plan. this scheme is seen by critics as “a calculated attempt to ensure the dominance of the fulani ethnic group by spreading their reach across all parts of the country as thus gradually establishing political strongholds” (fayemi, 2021, p.183). the root of ethnocentrism clearly, for some thinkers, ethnocentrism is caused by such factors as colonialism and bad leadership in the country. for instance, nnoli contends that “ethnocentrism and tribalism are the legacies of british colonialism” (1980, p.32). in fayemi's view, “the post-colonial expressions of marginalization and domination of minority ethnic, religious and cultural groups are often a continuation of the ethnic, class and caste hierarchies established under colonial rule” (2021, p.180). however, it is my view that these factors or quality of social relations are themselves deficiency conditions and external manifestations of a more deep-rooted or ultimate cause of ethnocentrism. what then is the root of ethnocentrism? in answering this question, it is good to reference the fact that, social relation is nothing but an external expression of the internal state of man. that is, our thought pattern basically determines the nature of our social relations. james allen says that “…as the plant springs from, and could not be without the seed, so every act of man springs from the hidden seed of thought, and could not have appeared without them” (1992, p.145). innocent asouzu captures this point more succinctly when he states that, “the way we relate to the world and the people around us depends on the way we conceptualize reality. the way we conceptualize the human person, for example, determines the way we relate to other human beings” (2007, p.333). etim and adekunle also affirm that, “the mind actively provides the platform for social relations as what we think we know determines what we think we should do” (2016, p.59). 37 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 based on this fact, a critical assessment of the definition of ethnocentrism, which is, “absolutizing one's own culture, with a strong sense of superiority and a corresponding dislike or misunderstanding of other cultures” (gotan, 2006, p.58), yields that truth that, it is an attitudinal behaviour that is ultimately rooted in a negative mindset that is typically absolutist and exclusivist in nature. such a mindset, elevates or exaggerates the sense importance and primacy of the individual or his group in the universe of beings, and so, seeks absolute attention and privileges above others, while it also denigrating other beings to the status of mere accidental and dispensable existence. within such a mindset or consciousness, what appears as contraries or different to the individual and his ethnic culture, is seen as a contradiction, and an irreconcilable opposite that cannot cohabit, but must be manipulated, suppressed or eliminated by all means. such a consciousness manifests itself in social relation in the form of ethnocentrism, as is the case in nigeria. from ethnicity to ethnocentrism naturally, every human being has that ambivalent mental tendency or consciousness to secure his interest first or to identify with his or her ethnic group. this is occasioned by the challenges of primitive instinct of self-preservation, which we share with other lower creatures. this natural tendency is called ethnicity; and it is good, positive and intrinsic in every human being. asouzu considers ethnicity as a fundamental characteristic of the human nature. for him, “the tendency to ethnic cleavage has a dimension that is natural to human nature but which can easily be misappropriated and manipulated (2013, p.64). for anselm etokakpan “ethnicity is never a negative concept…ethnicity evokes a unity of persons, language, tribal marks, cultures, customs, religion and even a particular way of responding to natural demands” (2006, p.88-89). however, as azousu indicates above, ethnicity can easily be abused and manipulated in such a way that it leads to negation of the interest and identity of other people. when this happens, it becomes ethnocentrism. cletus gotan captures it this way, “while ethnicity, as a concept per se, is not negative, it can easily be abused and allowed to degenerate into ethnocentrism” (2006, p.58). in other words, while not being a negative factor per se, ethnicity has an inherently ambivalent dimension, whereby while serving it may serve a good purpose in the society, it can also be dangerously abused as an instrument of oppression and suppression of others, as it is unfortunately the case in nigeria. in the face of such ambivalence, authentic existence entails the capacity the capacity to equilibrate this ambivalence and tension in a way that ensures mutual co-existence with all members and the society as a whole. those who exhibit the ethnocentric tendency are those who simply fail to manage this ambivalence well. they are those who rather recourse to extreme and polarizing measures of always interpreting situations only to their own advantage and ignoring outrightly the interest of other stakeholders in the system. such mindset becomes absolutist by assuming that one's own ethnic worldview or interest is superior to, or more correct or normal than all others, and constitutes the only frame of reference from which all other cultures, practices, behaviours, beliefs, and people, practices can be understood and judged, as is the case in nigeria. 38 etuk the challenge of ethnocentrism in nigeria and the yin-yang principle... such mindset also becomes exclusivist because it sees other ethnic worldviews, interests, culture or as contradictories with which it can never coexist or be reconciled. within such a mind-frame, human existence is perceived as a ceaseless struggle between irreconcilable opposites, especially when contest for scarce resources is involved. one with such negative mindset is likely to elevate anything that helps one uphold an edge over others (e.g., population, geographical location, gender, race, tribe, etc.) to essential categories and seek absolute attention and privileges above others. in the same measure, one is likely to denigrate other people that stand on one's way to mere accidental dispensable categories. any social relation or political structure that driven people of such mindset, is bound to be domineering and oppressive of others, polarizing, and seeking of parochial interest at the expense of others. such negative mindset is the root cause of all ethnocentric behaviours in our country. taoist philosophy and the yin-yang principle taoist philosophy refers to the various doctrines of the indian philosophical school of taoism, which ultimately, emphasizes living in harmony with the tào (dào: 'way') – a cosmic force believed to flow through all things, binds and releases them (mark, 1). taoism is often traced to the mythical philosopher, lao tzu (c. 500 bce). according to the historian sima qian (145-86 bce), lao-tzu, was a natural philosopher, who believed in the harmony of all things and that people could live easily together if they only considered each other's feelings in their actions and recognized that their self-interest was not always in the interest of others (qtd. in mark, 2005, p.2). accordingly, lao-tzu grew impatient with people and with the corruption he saw in government in china of his day, which caused the people so much pain and misery. he was so frustrated by his inability to change people's behaviour that he decided to go into exile. however, as he was leaving china through the western pass, the gatekeeper yin hsi stopped him because he recognized him as a philosopher. yin hsi asked lao-tzu to write a book for him before he left civilization forever and lao-tzu agreed. he sat down on a rock beside the gatekeeper and wrote the tao-te-ching (the book of the way). when he felt he had finished writing, he handed the book to yin hsi, and walked through the western pass to vanish into the mist beyond. yin hsi then had the tao-te-ching copied and distributed. the tao-te-ching, a book of poetry and wise sayings, presents the simple way of following the tao and living life at peace with one's self, others, and the world of changes. there are no "bad people" according to taoist philosophy, only people who behave badly. given the proper education and guidance toward understanding how the universe works, anyone could be a "good person" living in harmony with the earth and with others. hence, the taoist philosophy, generally emphasizes wu wei (action without intention), naturalness, simplicity, spontaneity and the “three treasures”: compassion, frugality and humility and the yin-yang principle of thought. the principles of taoism have impacted chinese culture greatly in the course of the centuries. today, taoism is one of the five religious and philosophical doctrines officially recognized by the people's republic of china (prc). 39 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 taoist yin-yang principle of complementarity one of the major philosophical principles of taoism is the yin and yang principle of thought, which reflects the belief in the complementarity or balancing forces and matching pairs, such as light and dark, hot and cold, action and inaction – believed to work together for a universal whole. the yin-yang thought emerges from the taoist cosmological speculations about the origin of the universe. accordingly, the universe came to be as a result of the interactions between the two primordial opposing forces of yin (non-being) and yang (being). since things are experienced as constantly changing, that is, as processes of coming into being and passing out of being, they must have both yang (being), and yin (lack of being or non-being). the world of changing things that constitutes nature can, therefore, exist only when there are both yin and yang or yang and yin. without yang nothing can come into existence; and without the yin nothing can pass out of existence (koller, 2007, p.207). thus, with this principle, taoist maintain a strong belief that, “everything in the universe is connected and that nothing makes sense by itself” (koller, 2007, p.207). by the doctrine of this principle, nature favours unity of opposites, and life is supposed to reflect a balance created by such oppositional forces – as symbolized in the yin and the yang. the yin-yang is thus, a symbol of complementary opposites that creates a balance in nature – dark/light, passive/aggressive, female/male – everything except good and evil, life and death, because nature does not recognize anything as good or evil and nature does not recognize a difference between life and non-life. with this principle, taoism believes that all is in harmony in nature, and all humans are encouraged to accept and live that kind of harmony as well in their social relations. the yin-yang principle of thought reveals the ontological grounds for the unity of our beings as well as the complementary nature of our existence as human beings in the universe. it recognizes the truth about the interconnectedness amongst people not only of the same ethnic origin, colour race, but amongst everyone who is regarded as a person. it provides us with the ontological basis for unity in diversity in any existential manifestation. it shows that we are all connected, irrespective of our existential diversities; and that we need the other person or people from the other ethnic group to complement us for the perfection our being and expectations at any level of existence in the society. it shows that we can unite and cohabit with people of diverse ethnic nationalities, without producing a contradiction, because nature requires so for a balance and harmony of systems. thus, rather than exclusivism, this principle shows that complementarity is the language of nature; and that all ethnocentric tendencies and contrivances about the superiority of one ethnic culture to others in the society, is nothing but an ideological aberration and psychological deception, which amounts to selfdestruction. implications for managing ethnic diversity in nigeria. peace, ethnic harmony and development in our country will not descend on the wings of inevitability, but through a change of mind and hard work. hence, for this country to make 40 etuk the challenge of ethnocentrism in nigeria and the yin-yang principle... progress forward in these regards, there is a strong need for nigerians to commit themselves the ideals of complementarity thought and of existence as expressed in the yin-yang philosophical principle. nigerians in their various categories need to appreciate that we are essentially one, irrespective of our ethnic and cultural diversities; and that by nature, we have a shared web of complementary existence. hence, the essence of our ethnic diversity is not to seek to dominate or manipulate the other, but to be open to each other and to be permeated by fruitful, spontaneous contributions and exchange from within and without, so that we can gain mutual support and enrichment needed for our wholeness and perfection; for we can unite without war or bitter rivalries and violence. since life, as the principle reveals, requires diversity of beings for harmony and balance, we need to acknowledge our limitations, that no one person or ethnic group can realize itself without the “other”. our ethnic diversity, is therefore, not to be understood as tragedy or as irreconcilable and disjunctive negation to our being, but as conjunctive contraries or opportunities for our mutual complementation and enrichments. this calls for the rejection of the absolutist and exclusive mindset, which undergirds all sorts of ethnocentric behaviours in our society. for this same reason, authentic existence must be seen a matter of relating virtuously and positively with others. it is to be judged in our capability to identify with people of other ethnic groups and exhibit solidarity with them in their otherness. our social and political lives ought, therefore, to be defined by mutual respect for human dignity in others, solidarity in actions, whereby we think of ourselves as members of the same group or nation, and who care for each other's quality of life through actions that promote justice, equity and fairness. in the light of this complementary existence, we have a duty to respect the rights and secure the well-being of others, even as we seek our own rights and well-being. irrespective of the historical accident that brought us together as a country, and the dark experiences of our burdened past, we must be forward-looking, having also the confidence in our capacity to emancipate ourselves from all sorts of negative and polarizing mindsets or consciousness. without such mental re-orientation, we will continue in the ideological tussle where we polarize each other as the offenders and the offended, and continue to seek to dominate others or to revenge, while imagining that we are immune to the flaws we target for criticism in others. this type of mental emancipation is needed to heal the wounds inflicted on our consciousness due to past mistakes and to supersede the phenomenon of ethnic domination and rivalries, which “have become the staple of nigerian's political history” (udoidem, 2000, p.29). those in political power need to run an 'open society' in which the interests of every citizen, irrespective of ethno-cultural background are given equal consideration, a society which merit, achievement and credentials, rather than cultural or ethnic background, are considered the basis for official engagements. a fair chance in the fundamental structure of the nation's socio-political life must therefore, be created for all to participate in both the productive and distributive justice. as the yin-yang principle shows, no society can lend its support to any action on the contrary, without undermining its unity, stability and progress. 41 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 conclusion ethnocentrism, has undoubtedly complicated the task of nationhood in nigeria. today, there is a near total loss of sense of unity in the country. the urgent need to halt this dangerous slide has more than ever, become an essential imperative today. in view of this demand, this paper, proposes and recommends the taoist yin-yang principle of complementarity for the re-orientation of the mindset of nigerians along the lines of complementary mode of thought and existence. given the salience of this philosophy in guaranteeing this needed complementary consciousness and relational existence, the accommodation of its normative ideals in nigeria at time crucial time, is necessary to address the challenge of ethnocentrism in the country. references allen, james. (1992). mind is the master. new york: penguin. asouzu, innocent (2007). ibuanyidanda – new complementary ontology: beyond world immanentism, ethnocentric reductionism and impositions. london: transactions publishers. ______ (2013). ibuanyidanda (complementary reflection) and some basic philosophical problems in africa today. berlin: lit verlag. buhlman, r. (1992). christianity and philosophy of western capitalism. cleveland: the pilgrim press. ebegbulem, joseph. (1998) “ethnic politics and conflicts in nigeria: theoretical perspective”. khazar journal of humanities and social sciences, 76-91. ekanem, john bosco. (2003). “politics of above in nigeria: political domination in the post colony”. the oracle journal. 1 (3), 76-93. etim, francis and adekunle ibrahim. (2016). “the epistemic ambivalence of the human mind: implications for social relation”. sapientia journal of philosophy. (6), 4964. etokakpan, anselm. (2006). “ethnicity: an ethical perspective”. theology lecture day series. ed. johnbosco ekanem. (2), 88-103. etuk, anthony r. (2011). “muslim/christian relationship in nigeria: a historical review”. christianity, islam and salvation mission. ed. sylvanus nnoruka. owerri: living flames resources. falola, toyin and matthew heaton. (2008). a history of nigeria. cambridge: cambridge university press. fayemi, ademola. (2021). “cultural diversity and minority rights in post-colonial africa: an ubuntist intervention”. africa and diaspora discourse journal. (3), 171-203. gotan, cletus. (2006). “ethnicity: a challenge to the agents of evangelization in nigeria”. theology lecture day series. ed. johnbosco ekanem. (2), 54-75. 42 etuk the challenge of ethnocentrism in nigeria and the yin-yang principle... gutteridge, w. (1969). the military in african politics. london: methuen. hofman, alexander and alexander kovalev.1 (989). naturalism in sociology of the turn of the century. a history of classical sociology. ed. igor kon. moscow. kirkland, russell. (2004). taoism: the enduring tradition. london and new york: routledge. koller, j. (2007). asian philosophies. london: pearson. kukah, matthew. (2003). “civil society and democracy”. shalom. xviv (1), 34-42. lloyd, p. (1967). africa in social change. hamondsworth: penguin. mark, emily. (2005) "taoism." world history encyclopedia. world history encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org › taoism. retrieved 12 june, 2022. motyl, alexander. (2000). "ethnocentrism". encyclopedia of nationalism (two-volume set ed.). elsevier, 152–153. new wor ld encyc loped i a . “e thnocen t r i sm” . crea t i ve commons . https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/ethnocentrism. retrieved: 3 june, 2022. nnoli, o. (1980). ethnic politics in nigeria. enugu: snaap. ogu, uchechukwu and anthony areji. (2022). “ethnic nationalism and ethno-religious conflict: setting an agenda for stability and development”. sapientia journal. 16 18-28. osaghae, e. (2002). nigeria since independence: crippled giant. ibadan: john arches. soyinka, wole. (1960). the open sore of a continent. oxford: oxford university press. sumner, william. (1978). war, and other essays. yale: yale university press. udoidem, sylvanus. (2000) “the dialectics of betrayal and revenge in nigeria's political history: 1951 to present day”. koinonia. (1), 21 – 44. 43 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract the emergence of feminism and the women's empowerment movement has brought to the mainstream the understanding that women have been oppressed and denied some fundamental basic rights in almost all societies. factors that have contributed to discrimination against women include literal and fundamentalist interpretations of religious texts, the existence of patriarchy, stereotyped gender roles, lack of adequate women-to-women solidarity, etc. the phenomenon of discrimination against women is present in urhoboland as in other societies. while some may claim what is done against women does not amount to discrimination, the fact remains that women are denied some rights because of their sex and identity as women. this paper argues that the values of christian feminism should be applied to culture and society in urhoboland. it shows that in light of patriarchy and other factors, christian feminism will face challenges in its application in urhoboland. through critical analytic and hermeneutics methods the paper argues that the principles of christian feminism should be used to critique urhobo culture. the paper finds that there is a lack of gender equality in urhoboland. it concludes that if the values of christian feminism are applied in urhoboland, it will help to create a more egalitarian society in urhoboland. keywords: christian, feminism, urhobo, women, patriarchy. introduction the present writers are advocates of authentic forms of feminism. the current motivation to do this paper was spurred by the symposium organized by the urhobo historical society (uhs), and urhobo studies association, delta state university, abraka on “the place of the urhobo women in the emergence of modern urhobo nation” held on ththursday, 12 october 2023 at uhs headquarters, okpara inland in honour of late dr (mrs) regina otite. the paper is also inspired by otite (2021) who argues for the emancipation of women in her book, the urhobo woman. at that symposium, one of the present authors made a contribution remarking that most people attending the event are christians and that people should read the bible from the perspective of jesus christ who stood for the worth and wellbeing of women, and that people should not pick passages from the bible and use them to subjugate women. the high point of christianity is christ and the christian story must be read from christ's perspective, not simply from a pauline, petrine, or any other perspective. those who read the bible should read it from the the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke department of religious studies and philosophy, delta state university, abraka drikeke@delsu.edu.ng & toma brume tomabrume@gmail.com 75 perspective of christ, the new lawgiver, and saviour of the human condition. the following statements from the holy see (1994) that the gospels are the heart of the scriptures, that the old testament does contain matters that are imperfect and provisional, and that christ is the center of god's plan should guide the reading and study of the bible. the christian scriptures and traditions should never be used to support discrimination against women. the above is the pivot for this paper. from the dawn of human history till date, women have gravely suffered from being marginalized, suppressed, oppressed, sidelined, abused, and relegated to the background in many cultures and societies. in many cultures, it has been perceived that they are not to be heard, excluded from the council of elders, and are often blamed for the death of their husbands. they are often accused of infidelity when there is difficulty in child-bearing. rousseau (1979) opined that women are created to meet the needs of men and don't deserve to be educated for any other purposes. hegel (1991) saw men as dominant and women are to be restricted to the domestic and family arena. aristotle (2012) wrote that women are inferior to men and men should rule over them. the viewpoint that women are inferior, weak, to be subjugated, and even denied some basic rights predominate all through history. space will not permit examining all the texts that deal with this. the focus here will be on the judeo-christian texts. while the christian gospel and the christ of the gospel preached and lived a liberating life that fosters the dignity and worth of women, there are many in the judeo-christian tradition who pick texts out of their so-cultural historical context to argue for the subjugation of women and deprivation of their fundamental human rights. unfortunately, the issue of women's pain and suffering arising from patriarchal beliefs and practices can also be found in urhobo culture. what kolawole (2013) writes of the expectation of women in traditional societies applies also to urhobo culture, a woman's primary duty as from puberty was to wait for a suitor in marriage and produce a male heir for her husband. she was also expected to address her biological peculiarities such as menstruation, painful child labour, nurturing infants, and bearing menopause. some of the features above even trigger a higher degree of discrimination or repression against her… (p.13). while there are many good and liberating aspects that support the well-being of women in urhobo culture, there are equally aspects that impede their rapid socio-cultural and politico-economic advancement. the concern of this paper is how to mitigate the aspects of the culture that impede women's progress. the paper will use critical hermeneutics, and analytic and sociological methods to examine the concerns of the paper. the procedure here will be to analyze the basic concepts and look at the socio-cultural situation of women in urhobo culture and the demands of christian feminism. the paper will also interrogate christian feminism and bring it into dialogue with urhobo tenets and practices on women. after this has been done, it will propose the way forward in upholding women's rights and progress. the paper will not examine forms of feminism nor give a history of feminism. it will suffice to focus on christian feminism. 76 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december analysis of concepts in order to understand christian feminism, it is important to understand feminism. ikeke (2021a) cites johari: “… feminists are against the treatment of women as means of exchange, and they also argue against gender inequality and injustice. when it comes to the exercise of power and decision-making in society, women are often in a disadvantaged position” (p.2). eastern kentucky university (n.d) writes that: feminism is an interdisciplinary approach to issues of equality and equity based on gender, gender expression, gender identity, sex, and sexuality as understood through social theories and political activism. historically, feminism has evolved from the critical examination of inequality between the sexes to a more nuanced focus on the social and performative constructions of gender and sexuality (p.1). feminism is about women overcoming all social, cultural, economic, political, religious, and ideological hindrances and obstacles that deny them their worth and dignity as human beings. feminism in its pure essence is not a struggle or fight against men but against beliefs, ideologies, practices, and structures that deny them of their humanity and personhood. it is painful to note that there was a time in history when women were not allowed to vote, could not be elected into political positions, were deprived of formal education, and were denied playing football and other sports. there are still countries today where women are not allowed to drive a car or own land and are denied other basic rights. what then is christian feminism? the term christian relates to the beliefs and practices that came from the followers of christ. it is in the acts of the apostles in the early church in acts 11:26 that the followers of christ were first called christians. today the term is inclusive of the religion that merged from his life and ministry (christianity), the institutions and heritage that arise from that christianity, etc. macy (2007) says that “christianity can be understood as a family of faith traditions united in their monotheism and in their belief in the central role of jesus of nazareth in redemption” (p. 232). heeren (2021) writes that christian feminism which is a softer form of feminism advocates for the equality of women and men in the moral, social, spiritual, and leadership spheres calling for the recognition of the moral and spiritual abilities of women in society and in the church; and christian feminists are also concerned about reproductive rights, women ordination and the need for use of gender-neutral pronouns in the bible. christian feminism is feminism rooted in christian beliefs and practices. it draws on the bible, the message of christ, and other christian sources to argue for the radical equality of women and men, affirm their worth and value and shun all forms of discrimination against women. what some women may perceive as discrimination can be subjected to debate, for instance, so-called reproductive rights. the rights of the unborn child to life should not be ignored. this paper is essentially concerned with the situation and plight of the urhobo women in urhoboland and beyond in the light of christian feminism. it is imperative then to also define who is the urhobo woman, and urhoboland. otite (2021) defines the urhobo 77 the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & toma brume woman as a woman whose father or mother is urhobo and also possibly enculturated and socialized as such. a woman is an adult human being of the female sex. the notion of who is an urhobo woman should also include women from other ethnicities who are married to urhobo men. the paper is concerned with the situation of urhobo women whether in the ancestral homeland or in the diaspora. often urhobo women in the diaspora are also affected by the beliefs and practices coming from urhoboland. for the avoidance of doubt, the urhobo people are the largest ethnic group in delta state in niger. they live mainly in the western part of the niger delta. the socio-cultural situation of women in urhoboland what is the situation of the urhobo woman and by extension other women who live in urhoboland and beyond? the reality is that culture is dynamic. what is obtainable about the status of the urhobo woman many years back may not necessarily be what is seen today. but by and large, there are many socio-cultural beliefs and practices regarding women that are still predominant in some places in urhoboland today. erhiurhoro (2020) writes that: “gender inequality is a global social disorder, that is affecting many countries around the world today. this is most pronounced in african societies, including nigeria and urhobo land” (par. 1). in terms of beliefs, it is still generally held that women are subservient and should be subordinated to men almost in all spheres of life. in recent research conducted by this present writer regarding the role of elders in conflict resolution among urhobo people of the olomu kingdom, it was discovered that women's experiences and voices were generally not considered in decision-making in the governance of the communities as they are not among the council of elders. their opinion was only sought, if need be, not statutorily. women meet in their women's group where they settle disputes and make decisions that affect them, they don't meet jointly with men. it is a privilege for women to be invited to the men's council of elders. it is not a right. in terms of leadership, it is men who most often occupy leadership positions. there is the subtle belief that women are not as capable as men. erhiurhoro (2020) writes that the urhobo people are patrilineal and so descent is traced along the male line; maternal children (emo-emete) are discriminated against, and none of the 24 urhobo kingdoms is headed by a woman. from 1948 that the urhobo progress union was founded only men have been presidents-general, all the presidents and chairmen of communities are men, a woman have not been made an okpako-orere, no woman can be considered owara (family heir apparent, and women groups are secondary and must pay total allegiance to the men group. from research conducted in 2023 in olomu kingdom, this researcher realized that no woman can be the spokesman of the town or community. a woman is not allowed to break kola nuts. still on leadership, erhiurhoro (2020) notes that since the creation of delta state in 1991, no woman has been the governor, in the local government areas in urhoboland only one local government has had a woman as “chairman” and most of the positions at local, state and national levels are occupied by men. it is as if women are not capable enough to govern and lead. another area in which urhobo women have suffered from discrimination is in education. the girl-child is seen as another man's child. some parents refuse to send their girl-child 78 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december to school claiming that after training her she will now be married and belong to another man; she will now answer another man's name. it is true that this situation has greatly changed. there are now many girl-children who are in schools both primary and secondary, and even university. but there are still parents who believe that there is no need to educate the girl-child. onoriode (n.d) states that in times of financial difficulty in the family, it is the girl-child who is withdrawn from school for her male counterpart to continue and in places like jesse, mosogar, oviri-okpe, and ovwori she is given into marriage. otite (2021) rightly notes: “the preferences given to boys are gradually changing as both boys and girls are now getting equally educated to render services and meet new needs of the parents, family, family, and community” (p. 8). language and speech are other discriminatory ways that women have been subdued. women in urhoboland are described with various adjectives and terms that demean them. there is the notion of calling married women housewives (ajeuweyin). this researcher has often queried that a house does not have a wife. originally the term ajeuweyin seemed to have been a sign of respect and a way of distinguishing a married woman from a single woman. but unfortunately, some now use it to mean that married women should be restricted to house chores and duties. it is as if her only function is to take care of the house and breed children. when a woman is striving to enter into arenas like politics, social life, education, etc she is often reminded that she is a housewife, her chores are at home and her duty is to take care of the home. nothing wrong with taking care of the home, but this should not be used to restrict women who are dexterous to enter politics and public life. one of the two present writers has also seen some urhobo women calling their husbands, “imasa.” this is a corruption of the word, “master.” this concept of “imasa” here has colonial undertones when people call the colonialists, colonial masters. from the biblical perspective, jesus rightly affirmed that there is only one master and he is in heaven. because of the limitation of human language even when words are used to designate positions to respect those positions, the paradigm of servant-leadership that jesus established should never be forgotten. the husband is a servant-leader, not a master or lord. women are allowed to be easily insulted and talked down by men but a woman dare not respond to her husband. the violence against women in urhobo culture is horrific. the woman can be beaten and the man is not reprimanded rather the woman is blamed for infuriating the man. in urhoboland a childless woman or a woman without male children is seen as a problem. this researcher has seen cases of people who even at the advanced age of 55 and above keep trying to get a male child no matter the risk to their lives. there are urhobo men who beat their wives mercilessly and even when some men err, they never accept their faults. some always see the women as at fault. all these create the idea that women are inferior and of lesser status. there are many other cultural practices that demean women such as female genital mutilation, abuse of childless women, etc. on the abuse of childless women, ikeke (2021b) writes that: one of the major challenges confronting marriages and families in africa 79 the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & toma brume from the past to the present is the issue of barrenness or childlessness. childlessness was often blamed on the woman, even though at times it may arise from the medical conditions of a man. african traditional culture had great value for children and childless marriage was seen as cursed and the woman in particular was even labelled a “man” or a witch. the woman is often verbally abused, and physical violence was meted on her. the marriage is often made unbearable and uncomfortable for the woman by the man despite the discrimination that women suffered in urhobo culture, they were great contributors to the survival of the urhobo nation and society. they were equally regarded to some degree in some spheres of life. egbedi (2022) while noting that: “in urhobo culture, men are naturally privileged through inheritance, the headship of their families and communities” (p. 29), nonetheless argues that women played prominent roles and these women include chief idiarhevwe (oniemo of ughelli), princess irivwidide of ughelli kingdom, madam udu, orogun, ovieya of ughelli, queen ezezi of okpe kingdom and chief janet omotogor ibru. while not disputing the role that these women and others would have played, the reality is that there are few exceptions to the general treatment of women in urhoboland. egbedi (2022) concludes her paper by asserting that: “urhobo women should be given more opportunities to actualize their purpose in creation as complements and not subordinate to me” (p. 300). a statement like that is a testimony to the fact that women are missing many opportunities to live out their authentic selves because of how they are generally treated. in order not to detract from the focus of this paper, the achievements of urbobo women can be the concern of future research. now what is said about the situation in urhoboland is not static. some communities and persons have transformed their beliefs and improved their practices more than others. there are persons who from their enlightened beliefs do not necessarily follow the customs of their localities that inhibit women. this fact is corroborated by otite (2021) who opines that social changes are taking place in urhoboland and that urhobo needs to respond to modern needs. it is precisely to encourage more transformation for better treatment of women and for them to have more opportunities like their male counterparts that this paper is written. it is not written to condemn the urhobo culture or men. it is written to critique structures and practices that limit women. foundations for the demands of christian feminism the christian story is rooted in the judeo-christian tradition coming from the biblical and ecclesial accounts. no christian theology can be done without reading the bible and also looking at christian history. with regard to the bible, it is important that though the bible is inspired by god, it also contains human actuality and reflects the cultures in which it was written. human beings are sociological and cultural beings. they are influenced by their environment. buchi (2020) argues that: the bible did not invent patriarchy, but it only expresses the prevalent state of male dominance in those times. i mean, even though the bible was 80 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december written by men on inspiration from god, male dominance was largely sold through that age's culture, which was highly patriarchal. if the bible were to be rewritten in our time, there'd be a distinctive difference in traditional gender nuances, as we humans have evolved and women's inclusion in virtually every part of society is fast gaining a foothold (par. 2). the point is that it is going to the extreme and fundamentally fanatical to literally take all biblical passages without considering their situational historic origin and context and use them to promote beliefs and practices such as slavery, women subordination, racism, apartheid, sexism, etc. it may be true that there are black-and-white texts in the bible that indicate subordinating women and denying them their fundamental rights. these texts include 1 corinthians 14:34-35 (women should keep silent in churches), 1 timothy 2:1115 (women should have no authority over men, the woman was deceived and became a transgressor), and 1 peter 3:7 (women as a weaker vessel). the fact is that the judeochristian scriptures should be read in the light of their entirety and especially in the light of the christian gospel. the four gospels and the christ event are the apex of christian revelation. whatever runs in conflict with the liberation and freedom teaching of jesus christ, the liberator of the human condition and life-giver should be re-imagined and apprised? jesus, the new lawgiver and the one that is higher than moses and all the prophets assuredly enunciated that what he teaches supersede some aspects of the old testament. he says: “you have heard that it was said, 'an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.' but i say to you, do not resist one who is evil. but if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also;” (matthew 5:38-39). elsewhere he says: “you have heard that it was said, 'you shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' but i say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (matthew 5: 43-44). through his teaching and lifestyle, he revoked the law of revenge, retaliation, hatred for enemies, unforgiveness, etc. he pronounced to his disciples in the sermon on the mount that they were to show love, work for reconciliation, and be peacemakers. he associated with women publicly as you see in his welcoming of the samaritan woman (john 4), affirming unconditional positive regard for the woman caught in the act of adultery (john 8), allowing a sinful woman to anoint him in public (luke 7:36-50), being a friend to mary magdalen and even making her an “apostle to the apostles”, having close women disciples (luke 8:1-3), having mary and martha as close women friends (luke 10:38-42), and often staying over in their house at bethany. jesus saw women and men as ontological equals in personhood and dignity. he saw all as children of god and none should be discriminated against. in jesus's fellowship in the gospels, all were welcomed including women. jesus was not ashamed of dining with women at the table. jesus in luke 4:18-19 proclaims his jubilee manifesto of freedom to captives and freedom for all people, and all men and women. the radical and revolutionary life of jesus should be the model and paradigm for christian belief and practice. the reality is that jesus existed before christianity and before the church. if there is any christian or church practice that conflicts with the message of christ, christ must take precedence. passages before christ came on earth, and passages that came after his life on earth such as in the letters of paul and in the other 81 the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & toma brume epistles of the new testament that indicate or inspire anti-women values should be reread and appropriately critiqued. odoyoye (2007) writes that: it is true that there is much violence in the bible. see the often re-hearse 'texts of terror' against women. but read against the example of jesus, none of these can be said to be divine dictates for us to follow today. christians have held on to the 'square-rib'myth of the making of a woman and used its disempowering interpretations to do untold violence to the humanity of women. they have savoured and swallowed the forbidden apple myth of the origin of sin and disobedience in human nature (p. 8). preachers who teach male domination over women often quote sarah calling abraham, lord. from this, they argue that husbands are to lord it over their wives who must submit. these preachers often misunderstand the principle of biblical submission that should be mutual. they also often forget that jesus' model of lordship is servant-leadership (luke 22:24-27). writing of the revolutionary ministry of jesus and how he was countercultural, alabi (2012) writes that: in his ministry jesus lifted the status of women from master-slave trend of the society to 'each other' or 'one another' relationship. there are instances that the first set of people who received his healing benefits was women. for example, peter's mother-in law was healed of her severe fever and syro-phoenician woman's daughter. some women received their dead back like jairus' daughter; exorcism was carried out on women and healing like mary magdalene (lk. 8:1-3). a disgraceful hemorrhage of a woman was cured after she had spent all her blessings on it to earthly men (mk. 5:25ff). women could touch jesus for healing; he was not too sacred to be touched by women and ate with them unlike the rabbis of his day who accused him of eating with a sinner. a woman could anoint him and massage his body with her air. he set a woman caught in adultery free while others thought of stoning her to death (jn. 8:11ff). he received monetary gifts from women (lk. 8:3) and could enter their houses and teach them the word of god like the case of martha and mary. when others doubted women, jesus trusted them and he revealed himself to them first after his resurrection. provision was made to cater for his mother even while on the cross dying just as women cared for him from galilee to jerusalem while he was facing trial and during crucifixion (mt. 27:5556). the absence of women among the twelve apostles was not discrimination but a matter of providence after all, women were among the 120 disciples who received the baptism of holy spirit on the day of pentecost (acts 1:12-14;2:1-4) (pp.366-367). paul (1988) writes thus: in all of jesus' teaching, as well as in his behaviour, one can find nothing which reflects the discrimination against women prevalent in his day. on the contrary, his words and works always express the respect and honour due to women. the woman with a stoop is called a 'daughter of abraham' 82 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december (lk 13:16), while in the whole bible the title 'son of abraham' is used only of men. walking the via dolorosa to golgotha, jesus will say to the women: 'daughters of jerusalem, do not weep for me' (lk 23:28). this way of speaking to and about women, as well as his manner of treating them, clearly constitutes an 'innovation' with respect to the prevailing custom at that time (sec. 13). the pauline household code in ephesians 5:21-23 is frequently misappropriated to subdue women. okure (2007) writes that the ephesian household code is based on unredeemed culture and instead of interpreting it in the light of christ's message of freedom, it has been canonized to mean absolute obedience of women to men and when there is a failure in marriage the woman is blamed for not subjecting herself in all things ignoring the fact that absolute subjection dehumanizes the humanity of the woman. absolute subjection for a christian woman should be to christ, not her husband. it should be understood that subjection is not domination. okure (2007) notes that subjection has been used to demand women to submit to inhuman treatment from men and other discriminating practices. in terms of leadership, there were many officeholders in judaism and the christian era who played prominent roles such as jael who killed sisera, army commander of canaan (judges 4:21), miriam prophetess, singer, and composer (exodus 15:20-21), huldah the prophetess (2 chronicles 34:22–28), anna the prophetess (luke 2:36-38), deborah (judges 4 and 5). there were women as financiers of the ministry of jesus and the apostle paul. these women financiers and philanthropists are lydia, dorcas, mary, nympha (acts 9:36-42, col 4:15, acts 12:12, acts 16:13-15). the new testament passage of galatians 3:28 affirms the equality of women and men. in romans 16:3-5, st paul mentions many women who were partners with him in ministry. alabi (2012) notes that: the new testament apostolic writings make the greatest provision for women by commanding men to love their wives. in torah, love is the greatest commandment and this is directed to women as recipients. the regulation of submission on the part of women is to reciprocate the love of their husbands and not of a slave to a master relationship. the peter's admonition hinges the answers of the husbands from god to their stand to their wives (1peter 3:1ff) (p. 367). the holy spirit, as jaja (2007) notes, is poured equally on both men and women on pentecost day. borg and crossan (2009) have written that the radical visionary message of the first paul, the original paul in the new testament must be recovered. this paul according to them saw all men and women and all people as one in christ, no division, no slaves. this paul they also say is different from the conservative paul who teaches the subjugation of women to men and sees women as the weaker sex. outside the life of christ, there are many passages in the bible, in both the old and new testaments that endorse the empowerment of women and reveal that men and women are equal. the bible is absolutely clear that both women and men are created in god's image and likeness (genesis 1:26-28). it is both of them that are saddled with the responsibility of being stewards of god's creation. the point that needs to be affirmed clearly is that it is 83 the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & toma brume to christ in his teaching and example that people should look to and not take bible texts out of context. christian feminism and urhobo culture every human being carries experience, a lived experience for that matter. they are also carriers of knowledge and beliefs. every human being has a voice. every experience and voice matters. however, it should be subjected to critical evaluation in the light of human rights and the quest for justice. the experience and voices of women should count. to deprive women of a place in the public square and leadership meetings is to miss out on important voices and experiences that can enrich the conversation. this is why for instance it is fundamentally wrong that almost all over africa, councils of elders lack a woman's voice and experience. it is often explained away that the women have their own meetings and when they are needed, they are invited to the meeting of elders. this should not be so. it should be a statutory right of women to be in the elders' council. it is through the elder's council that important decisions about the governance of the community or town take place. the apostle paul's admonition that women should keep silent should be read within its proper context and subjected to the ministry of jesus. even in the christian story women's voices have been marginalized for most of the time. the point made by ursic (2021) is helpful here: for over 2,000 years, christian theologians have been primarily men writing from men's perspectives and experiences. in the 1960s, women began to study to become theologians when the women's rights movement opened doors to higher education for women. beginning in the 1970s and 1980s, female theologians developed christian feminist theology with a focus on women's perspectives and experiences. christian feminist theology seeks to empower women through their christian faith and supports the equality of women and men based on christian scripture. 'there is no longer jew or greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in christ jesus' (galatians 3:28). the arts have an important role in christian feminist theology because a significant way christians learn about their faith is through the arts, and christians engage the arts in the practice of their faith (p.1). there has been great advancement in the inclusion of women's voices in society. but more still needs to be done. the emergence of feminism and christian feminism should be an inspiration to women in urhoboland particularly urhobo women to press into being educationally advanced. they should make their voices heard. there is a need for more women theologians, religious studies scholars, and philosophers and feminist scholars in urhoboland. to say that women's experiences and voice in urhoboland have been silent does not mean their experiences and voices is totally silent. the challenge is that in the major areas of life where their voices and experiences should be taken into cognizance, they seem to be missing in action. it may not be any fault of theirs but the way society has been structured. otite (2021) writes about urhobo women thus: with their failure of lack of strong will to resist their subordinate status and 84 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december role, women help to elect more men than women to the senate, the house of representatives, state houses of assembly, and even the local government councils in nigeria. they learn to depend on men for the relatively few appointive positions they hold in society. their low population in the national and state assemblies, etc., and in political parties, as well as their tacit endorsement of the notion that a woman's place is in the home, the domestic domain, are part of the demonstration of their apparently involuntary acceptance of traditional gender-biased made-controlled culture (p. xix) the christian scriptures should be interpreted in a liberating manner in urhoboland for the emancipation of urhobo women. christian feminism is not about fighting against men. some persons wrongly misunderstand christian feminism to be fighting against men and so once they hear of christian feminism their mind denies it. christian feminism should be about the deconstruction of patriarchal socio-cultural beliefs, policies, and practices that make women unfree, limit their aspirations, and strangulate their personhood. christian feminism is about asserting the ontological equality of women and men and indeed all people and the implication and import for ethical practices and social living. men and women in urhoboland should be able to play any gender roles that are not biologically innate in the sexes for the well-being of society. a great many gender roles are based on socio-cultural perceptions. when a woman is pregnant for instance, a man should be able to do the domestic chores. many men in urhoboland consider this a taboo. they will force their 8-month pregnant woman that she must do all the domestic chores. in the gospel, jesus is presented as cooking breakfast and sharing with his disciples. painfully religion, including the christian religion, has been used by some as an instrument to foster discrimination against women in the name of fidelity to the text. the fact is that most of the things and functions that women are deprived of performing are not divine and have no supernatural origin. they come from gender stereotypes of seeing women as the weaker sex and even “inferior” persons. that it has been practiced like that from time immemorial or it comes from the ancestors does not mean it should not be transformed to meet the dynamics of a changing society. to use the argument, it is the way it has been done and it should not change is fallacious. beliefs and practices like slavery, human sacrifice, etc may have been practiced by the ancestors but today in the light of greater knowledge and ethical development they are now seen as evil and have been eradicated in most places. christian feminism should be an inspiration for urhobo women to be motivated to strive for greater leadership roles in their communities and politics. as noted, there are many leadership roles that women are deprived of in urhoboland simply because they are women. the structural beliefs that hold women down should be deconstructed. women can be spokeswomen for the entire community and not just their women's group. communities. we need women as president-generals of various communities. in urhoboland they need to strive for more elective offices. 85 the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & toma brume in urhoboland, christian feminism should not be seen as an enemy of the land. christian feminism is not a divider of families as some see it. it is not struggling for the dominance of women over men. it is not a fight against men. there are different roles to be played in both family and community in urhoboland. christian feminism does not teach that all men and women in urhoboland should play the same roles. men and women complement one another. they should live in mutual respect for one another. marriage is about a partnership of life. men and women are to collaboratively make decisions and live life together. it is not a question of one sex dominating the other. many women and men are christians in urhoboland. they hear what their priests, pastors, and other ministers say to them in churches. an anti-feminist interpretation of scripture can make people hostile to women's rights and empowerment. there are preachers who teach subservience, slavery, and domestication in the name of family harmony. they wrongly interpret the bible to make women seem inferior. this ought not to be so. . the way forward there are many ways to foster the demands of christian feminism and authentic feminism in urhoboland. one such way is a critical re-examination of the biblical texts and all religious texts in general. this re-examination can be done at seminars, conferences, symposia, debates, etc. the goal is to appropriate rightly the texts that further women's empowerment. religious texts should not be swallowed hook, line, and sinker. they must be read within their particular historicity and cultural milieu. oduyoye (2007) rightly opines that: “…the…transformation of negative attitudes towards women would come only as the whole community of women and men became open to re-examining faithbased discrimination against women and cultural provisions for downgrading the humanity of women” (p.1). there seems to be a fear of change. those who exercise power fear losing their power. they love things to be done the way they are. oduyoye (2007) writing regarding this fear implies that there should be courage in facing ourselves and critiquing ourselves. the human mind is very powerful. mentalities need to be transformed. this is where education has a great role to play. there are hundreds of declarations regarding the worth and dignity of women but many women and men are not aware of them. even many in politics are not aware of them. how many persons in urhoboland know of the maputo protocol of the african union (2003), declaration on the elimination of discrimination against women of the united nations (1967), convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women of the united nations (1979), declaration on the elimination of violence against women (1993). ikeke (2021c) writes: despite the many international human rights declarations affirming the equality of men and women, and the techno-scientific accomplishments of humanity, in many non-western societies and indigenous cultures there is still much discrimination against women. the discrimination and violence against women on the basis of their sex and their being perceived as subservient to men by some cultures, societies and persons are morally unacceptable. discrimination and violence against women are wrong for they offend against the ontological status of women as human beings; 86 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december violate their human dignity/ rights as persons (p. 125). there is a need more than ever before to spread the knowledge of these declarations. knowledge can make a difference. the place of re-education and raising of consciousness on the women's issue should never be neglected. speaking of how women have suffered in society penha (2011) writes that: “it is therefore necessary that the process of conscientizing society with regard to various issues of discrimination and violence to women be accelerated. this is best done by various methods of adult education. one important way is personal reflection and grappling with our doubts and questions. group interaction and discussion facilitate adult study” (p.8). in relation to the issue of re-education, there is need for more girl-child education in urhoboland. omogbemi, adedoyin and oladepo (2010) are on target to note that girl child education is a tool for national development and through its women's skills and talents can be tapped for the good of society. the christian church in urhoboland can do more to ensure that women's rights are fully recognized as human rights and that more spaces in the church are created for women to exercise their gifts and talents. and finally, on the way forward sister solidarity should not be neglected by women. it is often said that women are their own worst enemies. the church has an enormous role to play in education. but it should be a radical and new education that is attentive to the issues of feminism. it will not be right to deny the fact that women have suffered from various forms of marginalization in urhoboland and other societies. in relation to education also, people should be educated in their use of language. language should be used to empower women and not demean them. ehiakhamen (2001) notes that language should be liberated from negative and derogatory manner it has been used to put down women. there is a need for law and social policy to be reconstructed. still, all over africa and urhoboland, there are still many men who will never accept that women are equal to men and that the role of men is not to dominate women. unless there are radical affirmative laws and the attendant social policy that regulates societies and creatively provides spaces for women there will continue to be gender imbalance. it is not enough to say that women should struggle and strive to be on par with men. evwierhoma (2014) writes that the law should be used as an instrument of change to transform women's situation by enacting that women are well-consulted in making social policies, and laws should be made that can mainstream women to come to the mainstream. there are political parties in nigeria that have apportioned a certain percentage of positions to women. more needs to be done in this regard. using the instrument of law here is not an advocacy for unhealthy forms of unjust affirmative actions. the instrument of law should be used in a democratic manner for the well-being of all, and should never foster incompetency of anyone whether man or woman. one fundamental question that was raised above is the question of leadership. because of the open or overt biases against women, you find very few of them in leadership positions in society, politics, and the church. when there are women who strive to be leaders, they 87 the challenge of christian feminism in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & toma brume are often reminded that they need to take care of their homes and leave the domain of leadership especially in politics and in the church to men. it should be clear that women have responsibilities in the home does not mean they cannot be leaders in the public space. after all, in the biblical tradition, deborah served as both wife, judge, and military commander in israel in the days of the judges. ojo (2007) has noted that the presence of prominent women in the bible amidst a patriarchal culture shows that women have leadership gifts and these gifts should be recognized in churches in nigeria. on the way forward, there is an equal need for sister-to-sister or woman-to-woman alliances. very often women tend to simply rely on men to give them power or leadership positions. this is not enough. women need to do more meetings and confer among themselves. especially in this part of the world, like urhoboland that this paper is concerned women rarely meet to discuss women of their empowerment to overcome the problems caused by patriarchy. they take it for granted as if things will change themselves. abdulkadir (2003) writes that: “…women must unite and form alliances with other feminist movements in the world in order to conquer the buccaneering dragon of their continual oppression” (p. 24). conclusion this paper has examined the socio-cultural situation of urhobo women in urhoboland in light of the challenges posed by christian feminism. it showed that like in other societies and cultures, women have also experienced patriarchal domination. the paper showed that the bible has often been misread to subjugate women. it argued for a re-imagination of better appreciation of the biblical texts and to recover those texts that inspired recognition of women as equal members of society and their being accorded their rights. it then proposed ways that the values of feminism can be used to foster women's empowerment in urhoboland and beyond such as positive re-appropriation of biblical text, re-education and conscientization for authentic feminist values, enacted of laws and policies that affirm women's lives and dignity, overcoming fear of sharing power with women, etc. if these things are done, they will help to create a more peaceful and harmonious urhobo society. references abdulkadir, h.n. 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(1993). declaration on the elimination of violence against women. retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/en/instrumentsmechanisms/instruments/declaration-elimination-violence-against-women 90 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 83 page 84 page 85 page 86 page 87 page 88 page 89 page 90 page 91 page 92 page 93 page 94 page 95 page 96 page 97 page 98 36 jean paul sartre’s absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze, phd directorate of general studies university of agricultural and environmental sciences, umuagwo, imo state & okewu, michael peter claretian university of nigeria nekede abstract jean paul sartre believes that man is absolutely free, and this notion of his absolute freedom has brought about subjectivism and relativism in ethical and moral issues, neglecting the natural law in terms of life preservation and human dignity. this conception which is contrary to the original and authentic nature of the human person of body and soul has led to the different abuses and devaluation of the human person by many who feel they are free to do whatever they want and as they want. for sartre, existence precedes essence, freedom is absolute and existence is freedom. freedom for sartre is not the freedom to do something. he says “you are free” because you always have a choice, “therefore choose”. but this creates anxiety and anguish; individuals flee in self-deception and continue leading inauthentic lives. man is free when his consciousness acknowledges that something is lacking, when he makes a purpose of himself, and when he commits. sartre rejects determinism because he holds individuals to be outside of the world. there are no excuses which can be rooted in the idea of ‘human nature’ and this absolute freedom has really caused more harm in the society and even dehumanizes. this work tends to expose jean-paul sartre’s notion of absolute freedom and its ethical implication. key words: absolute, freedom, subjectivism, human dignity and existence. introduction the human person as an existential being is created as an authentic and unique being. life is a gift that comes with dignity and is expected to be lived virtuously. however, it has been noticed that this dignity of man has been defied and dehumanized because one thinks he/she is free to do what he/she likes. morality is seen as a mere act like any other thing. the implication therefore is that there is no jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 37 universal law guiding the society because each human person has absolute freedom to do what pleases them. freedom has really been misconstrued among people and this has brought about the reputation act towards the others. many have seen freedom as the ability to do whatever one wants and how one wants it, forgetting that the other person’s freedom begins from where theirs stop. freedom implies the chance to choose for oneself, yet man does not choose himself in the world. thus, man is determined in a lot of respect. jean-paul sartre wrote extensively on freedom. for him, man is condemned to be free. according to him, the only sense in which we are not free is that we are not free not to be free. sartre’s notion of freedom cannot be understood without understanding the ‘situation.’ for sartre, man as being-in-the-world is always in situation but despite this situation in which he finds himself, he is always freely creating worlds. thus, the ability of man to always freely create worlds despite his entanglement in the situation leads sartre to declare that man is condemned to be free (sartre, 2005, 77). thus, this condemnation of man to freedom is in line with the idea that man has absolute freedom, which today is making men to act as irrational beings. thus, the essay tends to establish that man is not absolutely free to what he/she likes or behaves irrationally. statement of the problem jean-paul sartre’s absolutization of freedom in his existentialism has brought about relativistic and even subjectivistic approaches to freedom in contemporary society. the deification of the self, by which sartre wants man to be a being-for-itself, is the order of the day, making man one who creates his own morality. and this is really making us losing the virtuous life we ought to live. so, the focus in this work will be an attempt to restore this dignity of the human person that is deteriorating if not being lost in our time. this has however; brought about several social ills in society and situations where humans are degraded to be tools for the benefit of the other. the other person becomes a threat to me and i become as well a threat to the other. this situation means that our society does not enjoy living together, sharing things in common, but finds itself in a situation where hatred, envy and exploitation prevail. looking at the sartre’s notion of freedom a critical mind may tend to ask questions like:  is man free to take his life that he/she can never give to himself or other?  does freedom mean to do what one likes?  is my freedom not limited by others freedom?  can morality be separated from operational freedom? 38  should right and just freedom be guided by morality and natural law? these questions and similar ones would be answered in the course of this research work. in his writing existentialism is a humanism, sartre attempted to say that the being for-itself is not responsible for himself alone but for all men because by choosing for himself he chooses for all. does this not result in an absolute monarchical and totalitarian claim? how can one person by choosing for himself choose for all others? jean-paul sartre’s pronouncement that man is condemned to be free has been the propeller of this research, with the aim of transforming the minds of people from their conceived notion of absolute freedom, to that of an ethically lived freedom. hence we shall make a critical study of sartre’s absolutism in freedom and its ethical implications. objectives of the study the essay purposefully shoulders the task of undertaking a profound reflection over the rhetoric of human respect in the society and the massacre of people by people. this essay is a clarion call over the apparent forgetfulness of the dignity of the human person in our society in the name of freedom. it is a clear call on us to take serious note of the acute danger of slaughtering ourselves daily because of socio-politico-religious issues. jean-paul sartre in his philosophy came up with the notion of absolute freedom for man. however, our society today seems to be following the trend of sartre on his concept of absolute freedom. some individuals in our society today, see themselves as absolutely free beings thus creating their own morality based on relativism and subjectivism. this work is relevant today, in an era of relativism and subjectivism in which it is affirmed that human beings make their own truth individually, freedom is spoken about as in contraposition to any objective truth, as if freedom were the ability to act anyhow in itself, and not a faculty specifically human that is actually aimed to the accomplishment of the human being. therefore, in the midst of moral decadence in our society today, this work answers a call to reaffirm and make an attempt to give a paradigm to the understanding of freedom as opposed to that of jean-paul sartre in his philosophy. clarification of terms sartre distinguished between two kinds of being namely conscious being (êtrepour -soi) and unconscious being (êtreensoi). he identities conscious being (being for itself) with the human being. being-in-itself being-in-itself, according to sartre, is both the unconscious being of phenomena: houses, stones and sand, and the being of ideas. they have nothing secret or hidden. they are in fact a synthesis: the synthesis of itself in itself. jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 39 being-for-itself being-for-itself means simply the person or human reality. the being-for-itself is the free, conscious, autonomous and responsible being. for-itself is the being of subjects, not of objects or things of ideas. it characterizes man as acting and conscious, as distinct from the beings of unconscious objects. the beingfor-itself is characteristically active, self-regarding and selfaffirming of its being. sartre’s concept freedom among the many attributes of man is freedom. apart from the cognitive level at which man distinguishes himself from animals and other inferior beings, man also possesses freedom. according to sartre, man becomes conscious of his freedom when he is thrown into a critical ‘situation’ in which he is called upon to choose between the given alternatives for a life time. human freedom is seen by sartre in terms of negation, nihilation and nothingness. freedom is the capacity of negation, nihilation which characterize the being foritself. the foundation of freedom is nothingness. negation directly engages my freedom, says sartre, (sartre, 2005, 7879). freedom as related to man man has life in common with all living beings. in common with animals, he has sensitive knowledge and instinctive inclinations towards those things which correspond to his own needs or fundamental appetites. man however, distinguishes himself at the cognitive level from animals and other inferior beings by virtue of the intelligence which allows him a total aperture either towards the world or towards himself. the appetitive level he distinguishes himself by virtue of a will by which he freely chooses within the space of the aperture that which he retains as more opportune for the realization of his own being. man, beyond being intelligent, is also free. freedom is therefore, another attribute of his excellence and nobility, and represents another great window for looking into the mystery of man, with a goal of acquiring a more correct, more complete, more adequate comprehension of him. furthermore, whoever attaches a real meaning to the term ‘freedom’ negatively expresses a certain absence of necessity. it is evident, therefore, that being subject must be called being free, for it is through his freedom that man transcends necessity. freedom however, should be understood positively as a certain autonomy of being, a certain independence of being, a belonging to oneself on the ground of a ‘to be’ which is his own and thus not generated. scholastic philosophy uses the term ‘substance’ for the ontological autonomy of man as subject. 40 absolutism of freedom in sartre’s existentialism sartre is usually misunderstood as having an exaggerated view of human freedom, no doubt because of the claims in the “existentialism and humanism” lecture that there is no determinism; we are free, we are freedom, we are condemned to be free. the only sense, in which we are not free for sartre, is that we are not free not to be free. sartrean freedom cannot be understood without understanding the ‘situation.’ a human being is not separable from the human condition (stephen, 2001, 28). sartre endorses heidegger’s view that we are ‘thrown’ into the world. we are but did not choose to be. seemingly, inconsistently with this, sartre says that, in a sense, i choose to be born. clearly however, any kind of platonic pre-existence is out of the question here. sartre thinks it is false that we pre-date our empirical existence. drawing a distinction between existence and essence, sartre means that what my birth is, or is to be me, largely depends on how i freely think of it. its significance is the significance i bestow upon it. thus, freedom does not pre-date existence. freedom is existence, and in it existence precedes the essence we freely choose. according to stephen priest, sartre says in his being and nothingness that a person is their freedom. he however identifies the upsurge of freedom, choice, and the person himself, as one and the same being. thus he says “i do not have my freedom. i am it.” the will has no role in the exercise of sartrean freedom. the moment the will operates; the decision is already taken. thus sartre’s libertarianism entails that human actions are unpredictable. for sartre, the only respect in which i am free is that i am free not to be free. i am not able not to choose (stephen, 2001, 180). sartre’s freedom and the negation of other inferences freedom for sartre negates other influences like god which we will be looking at in this part. strictly speaking, sartre has only one argument to reject god, namely ‘man’s freedom.’ this argument is thus presented in different ways. human freedom, as it is conceived by sartre, simply cannot tolerate the idea that there is a god. on decisive issues of his philosophy, sartre drops the phenomenological dimension of thinking by isolating being-for-itself from facticity. the consequence is that freedom as transcendence is inflated to absolute autonomy. if occasionally sartre describes the situation character of freedom, the value of the description is undermined by his conviction that the meaning of the situation is determined by subjectivity in a wholly autonomous way. the next step sartre takes is the denial of any dependence of man upon god. for sartre, god is not king of human kind, for man is free. if god had wanted to rule man he says, he should not have created him as a free being. for me this assertion of sartre is a contradiction, for an atheist who had denied the existence of god, affirms his existence at this point as one who created man. he further says that at the very moment when god created man as a free being, this freedom turned against god, insofar as man as freedom no longer belongs jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 41 to god. thus, there is no one to give orders to man. he goes on to say, there is no god, for man is free. a real god would press man as freedom to death. however, man is free and, therefore, there cannot be god. sartre posits a question: why must a real god destroy human freedom? to justify this idea, sartre relies on classical thinking about god as creator. god creates in accord with a certain idea of reality to be created, just as an artisan who makes a paperknife first has an idea of that paperknife. god, then, is a superior craftsman, and the result of his act of creation is prefixed in god’s idea. the question to arise would be what is the meaning of this being fixed with respect to man? according to sartre, it means that man as freedom is destroyed. for man is reduced to something like a paperknife, to a being that is what he is not; he is a project and as transcendence, he is the execution of this project. it is the subject itself, which controls this execution. man is not, but makes himself. thus to admit a real god, sartre thinks, amounts to conceiving man as a thing, as a being which lies prostrated upon itself. it is the denial of man as project, as transcendence, as freedom. sartre also denied god in his study of intersubjectivity. he asks what is god if there is a god? he is the other par excellence. however, what does the experience of the other’s subjectivity mean for me? as we explained above, ‘to experience the other’s subjectivity means to experience his stare, to experience my being looked at.’ this stare implies the death of my subjectivity as project, as transcendence, as freedom. under the other’s stare, i appear as a thing in the world, i am what i am. my being-for-the-other means that i am robbed of my transcendence. however, if i want to save my manhood, i have to raise myself, reject through my stare the other’s subjectivity and reduce him to a thing in the world. the proof of god’s existence as understood in traditional judaism, christianity and islam, god is the creator of the cosmos. leibniz puts this clearly in the 17th century when he wrote “try as we may, we cannot do without god”. a cosmological argument is an argument that begins with a phenomenon in the universe and traces it beyond the universe to its origin in an ultimate cause which is identified as god. a cosmological argument, in natural theology, is an argument which claims that the existence of god can be inferred from facts concerning causation, explanation, change, motion, contingency, dependency, or finitude with respect to the universe or some totality of objects. cosmological arguments for god’s existence propose that god is the ultimate explanation or cause of everything. such arguments begin with an empirical observation of the world—that there is motion, or causes, or just ordinary things that exist—and conclude this observation is explained by god’s existence. the locus classicus for the statement of the cosmological arguments is in the five ways of aquinas. motion, causation, contingency, degrees of perfection and order and harmony in the universe.in the universe. 42 around us, things are in motion. st. thomas aquinas argued that all the causation and motion we observe can be traced back to god, who is an uncaused cause or unmoved mover. in summary: 1. causes and motion exist. 2. all causation or motion requires some prior cause or motion; things can’t happen nor move for no reason. 3. but this chain of causation or motion cannot go back infinitely; this seems impossible. 4. therefore, there must be a first, uncaused cause, or first, unmoved mover. 5. the most plausible example of an uncaused cause or unmoved mover would be god. 6. therefore, god exists. aquinas thinks that if an object is in motion, it must be caused to move by something outside itself. aquinas got this idea from aristotle. aristotle held that if an object continues to move, its motion must be sustained by a force that keeps it in motion. if you remove the force, the object stop moving. aquinas thus encounters the principle that whatever is moved is moved by another nothing is the cause of its own motion. the ethical implications of jean paul sartre’s absolute freedom the aim of this heading is to examine the implications that arise or have arisen form this absolutism in freedom which sartre has postulated. sartre’s postulation of absolute freedom for man (man is condemned to be free), has fallen into the trap of positing anti-social values. examples of these anti-social values are euthanasia, abortion, suicide and many more. thus, today, our society is suffering from many ills, because of the so called freedom. abortion abortion is defined medically as the termination of pregnancy by any means before the foetus is sufficiently developed to survive. however, the practice of induced abortion requires a definition that is properly descriptive of moral reality (alvare, 2003, 24). in the light of this, john paul ii in his encyclical evangelium vitae (the gospel of life) defines abortion which he called ‘procured abortion’ as “the deliberate and direct killing, by whatever means it is carried out, of a human being in the initial phase of his or her existence, extending from conception to birth (john paul ii, 2005, 307). the notion of abortion has sparked a lot of debate, some consenting to it, and some disapproving of it. however, in contemporary society, many hold the idea that they are free to decide for themselves what is good, thus being in line with sartre’s concept of freedom. sartre believes that man has freedom to choose what is good for him as an existing individual without the influence of anything from without, and that we can never make a wrong choice. jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 43 sartre succinctly asserts; “man is condemned to be free (moses, 2005, 132-133). man makes himself through choices among alternatives in his life as a pure subjectivity. according to this view of sartre, we always choose the right and nothing can be good for us without being good for all. so we should therefore not accept the ready-made or static concept as it may be of existence forced upon us. although sartre does not talk about the unborn as such, his starting point however is that man is born in the world without his own knowledge and that his state in the world is that of being-thrown-in-the-world. this conviction was initiated by martin heidegger and later picked up by sartre. this statement of sartre means that man’s being in the world is not determined by any force or even by god because there is no god in absolute freedom of man. thus, man should never appeal to any authority for explanations about his morals. by saying that man is what he wills himself to be after his thrust towards existence, sartre meant that man is free to shape his life as he pleases, irrespective of any pervading circumstances (moses, 2005, 136). based on this assertion of sartre, the problem of abortion can only be looked at from an individual point of view, and not what the regulations or laws state to be right for a group. the law can only be applied to social groups or some objective systems like schools or learning institutions. by doing this, we also avoid what søren kierkegaard calls the crowd mentality. according to sartre, a person is born or begins to exist the moment he/she becomes conscious as ‘for-itself’ (conscious being). because the foetus is being-in-itself (not conscious) it follows that it is not in existence; but it is a form of possible existence or a being that exists as a projection for the future. as a projection of the future, it is a freedom or a choice that has to be made (moses, 2005, 136). furthermore, sartre’s argument for abortion which is based on situation is not logically ascertained. a woman or girl pregnant, yes! it is obviously true that she finds herself in a situation which could have come through any means either as a result of rape or incest. however, the fact of being in this situation does not justify abortion since it is never right to repay evil with evil (i have been raped which is evil, consequently, i commit abortion which also is evil). the greatest love one can show in the midst of this situation is sacrifice and responsibility towards the sacredness of life. through this, we portray our love and respect for life because ‘if i were to have been aborted. i would have not been in existence today.’ euthanasia the term ‘euthanasia,’ is from the greek words eu thanatos. eu meaning ‘well,’ ‘good,’ or ‘easy’ and thanatos dying or death. it has today also become more commonly equated with one form of dying namely, ‘mercy killing (friday, 2003, 457).’ according to blessing agidigbi, “euthanasia is the wilful, direct or indirect killing of the incurably sick, be it at their request or the request of the patients, guardians or any other legal representative in the case of incurables who are incapable of deciding for themselves, for example, infants, the irrevocably comatose and mental defectives (agidigbi, 2005,125). 44 there have been big controversies on whether euthanasia is permissible or not. contemporary society with its liberal and utilitarian approaches to things has applied approaches to life which are not acceptable. the moral conscience is regarded as a mere human fabrication. this leads to arguments for and against the legitimacy of euthanasia. those who defend the legitimacy of euthanasia, have three main arguments to support their position. first, they see euthanasia as a dimension of human freedom and argue that the value represented by respect for autonomy is incomplete unless it encompasses the limiting case of suicide or assisted suicide. the second is that they argue that suicide and euthanasia are legitimate ways of bringing to an end suffering which cannot be adequately controlled or ended in any other way. this approach is however said to be able to undermine autonomy because it lapses if there is an equally effective way of controlling the pain and suffering. the third type of defense of euthanasia is exemplified by ronald dworkin’s account which argues that “respect for the intrinsic value of life, properly understood, sees life essentially as meaningful and valuable because of the shape given to it by the individual whose life it is, and that this shaping must include control over life’s end (harris, 2005, 580). put differently, according to this view it is not all autonomous decisions to end life that are justified, but only those which consent to the agent’s own conception of what it is that makes their life make sense. these arguments are sartre’s notion of absolute freedom where sartre claims that man is condemned to be free. according to him, i do not have my freedom. i am it (sartre, 2001, 180) by man being free, sartre says he is also responsible for his actions. thus for sartre euthanasia is allowed because i am solely responsible for my actions. this means that i can choose to do whatever i want because i am free and responsible. this however leads to moral decadence. on the other hand, those who argue against the moral legitimacy of euthanasia appeal to some ‘sanctity of life’ principle stressing the fact that the intentional termination of life is always immoral, no matter the circumstance surrounding such an act. they stress the fact that any systematic acceptance of euthanasia would lead to a damaging consequence for society – for instance, a lessening of respect for human life. with this divergence in views, should euthanasia be permissible? to this question, our stand should be clear like the religious stand on euthanasia which affirms the fact that god is the giver of life and he alone has the right to withdraw such a life if he so wishes. this means that no other person or being has the right to take the life that the creator (god) has created (agidigbi, 2005, 130). this position disallows active euthanasia which is done voluntarily. it also disallows passive euthanasia where it is felt that ‘since he/she is going to die after all, there is no need of giving treatment.’ the question is who says he/she would die? as long as he/she lies on bed even though he/she may be unconscious, he/she is still a human being and life has to be protected. the one who gives life is the one who takes it back. we are just caretakers of our life since the owner is god the creator. the doctor, who takes an oath to protect life by all means possible and does not do so because he feels there is no need, is not acting morally and acts against jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 45 medical ethics. he is to save life at all costs. it is however acceptable that the patient dies while being taken proper care of rather than the other way round of dying because of negligence. the human being at the critical situation (like the situation of sickness) demands our care and availability. this is another area where the voice of intersubjectivity and love is calling us. we are not only brothers and sisters in times of joy but also in times of suffering, but this suffering should not be resolved by the irrational and impatient suggestion of euthanasia. our concern to our brothers and sisters in suffering is to be available to them, take care of them and love them in their situation. suicide contemporary society is filled with the idea of absolute freedom over one’s life. our society today speaks the language of suicide. thus if i feel i have no meaning in life or that life seems to be a misery, the only thing to do is commit suicide, because living is only adding to my problems and not reducing them. the majority of those falling victims to this brain washing idea are young people. when we speak of suicide here, we are speaking in the strict sense as the direct killing of oneself on one’s own authority (gonslaves, 1986, 246). direct killing is an act of killing that is directly voluntary; meaning, death is intended either as an end or as a means to an end. either the action is capable of only one effect and that effect is death, or the action is capable of several effects, including death, and among this death is the effect intended, either for its own sake or as a means to something else. many opinions have been raised on the permissibility of suicide, some for and some against. among the arguments in favour of suicide is that first they say it is understood that no one should commit suicide for whom life holds out some hope or promise, and that people suffering from temporary despondency should be prevented from harming themselves, but there are always some for whom life has become an intolerable and irremediable burden. thus, they are useless to society and to themselves. for them, it is better therefore for all concerned to retire from the scene of life through the ever open door. another is that they argue admitting that god has given us life, yet it is truly a gift. no gift is expected to be retained indefinitely at the expense and to the harm of the receiver. when its possession becomes more injurious than its surrender it should be in accordance with the will of a good god and a wise use of his gift to relinquish it (gonslaves, 1986, 246). for sartre, suicide is one of the ultimate possible which must always be present for us when there is a question of envisaging a situation. thus for sartre, if i am in a particular situation, and based on this situation i want to commit suicide; i am free because i am responsible for my being. however, those who oppose suicide argue that suicide is often an act of cowardice and a refusal to face life courageously. they argue that we take the easy way out when we thrust the burdens we cannot bear onto the shoulders of our dependents. but not all are in this case they say; rather; they themselves are a burden on others. yet they must not forget the worth of their own 46 person. again they argue that life is a gift from god, but some gifts are given outright and others have strings attached. all god’s gifts are restricted, but not because of any lack in his generosity, but because he has to make us responsible for their use when he entrusts them to our freedom. freedom itself is perhaps his greatest gift, but we are not allowed to misuse it, though we are able to do so. life has been given, and its allotted span goes with the gift. it is not ours to decide when we have had enough of it and to tell god that we are quitting (gonslaves, 1986, 248). gabriel marcel also argued against suicide. according to him, i can live in such a way that i belong to my body, am identified with it; or i can treat my body as an instrument in such a way that i am enslaved by it. he says suicide is the extreme case in which i seem to dispose of my body with absolute freedom of choice, but i am really the victim of a tragic illusion. the positive meaning of my liberty is the possibility of affirmation, the response to an invitation (blackham, 1961, 69) furthermore, marcel asserts that it is not possible to apply my body as an object of ‘having’ in the way i have a car, a pen, or a book. in this having, the object of having reveals itself as an exteriority. there is a distance between what i have and me. what i have is to a certain extent independent of me. thus i can dispose of my body as in the case of suicide or give it away without ceasing to be what i am. the same for marcel cannot be asserted of my body. my body is not so far removed from my conscious self, as is the ashtray on my desk. likewise, he says, my body is not something external to me like my car. thus i cannot dispose of my body, give it away as i dispose of money, or give away my golf clubs. all this, marcel says, stems from the fact that my body is not ‘a’ body but ‘my’ body, not in the same way as my golf clubs are mine, but in such a way that my body embodies me. even in the midst of suicide, i see it as a contradiction to equate absolute freedom and suicide. actually, the argument is thus, one who claims that he possesses absolute freedom and then chooses suicide is contradicting his absolute freedom. to choose suicide is the affirmation that the absolute freedom he possesses is betrayed. dying through suicide is actually that he wants to strip himself of that freedom which he thinks he has in absolute. conclusion it is clear that the absolute freedom which sartre is proposing would lead to a whole lot of chaos in the society. thus, our society would no longer be one where lives and property can be secured but rather a place of insecurity and tyranny because of the fact of some people thinking they have the absolute freedom and power to run the affairs of the state as they like thereby bringing about social and political problems. sartre’s assertion lacks inter-human morality, community and social justice. since, for him, the being-for-itself is the source of all meaning other human person cannot possibly make a significant meaning to him. if each individual is condemned to be free, that is, is responsible for all meaning, he or she will also be condemned to his or her own world without having jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 47 anything in common with others. but the reality of life shows that human community and social justice is very important when it concerns genuine humanism. thus, we cannot admit that sartre’s existentialism is humanism insofar it lacks these elements. after all sartre admitted this by exclaiming that other people are hell for me (levinas, 1969, 84) according to emmanuel levinas freedom is called into question only when in as much as it somehow finds itself imposed upon itself: if i could have freely chosen my own existence everything would be justified. in other words, freedom that imposes itself is put into question at the encounter with the other. on the contrary, my freedom according to levinas should be for the sake of the other. as ‘i’ encounters the other, is called back to the meaning of its freedom and this freedom however is called to responsibility and obligation towards the other is genuine freedom. the encounter with the other in sartre threatens my freedom, and is equivalent to the fall of my freedom under the gaze of another freedom (levinas, 1969, 84). unlike sartre, when the other threatens my freedom, it is not for worse but rather for good, in the sense that, being in encounter with the other, my freedom according to levinas must be translated into responsibility and also goodness towards the other. in this case, my freedom is not for its own sake but for the sake of the other. absolutism of freedom in sartre’s existentialism is criticized by marcel in two forms which are in his philosophy of inter-subjectivity and his concept of being and having. marcel as a philosopher of inter-subjectivity stresses the fact that interpersonal relationship is an essential aspect of human existence which is opposed to sartre’s notion of being-for-others which is of conflict and not relational. according to him, man is essentially a being that is embodied in the world and it is as such that he experiences himself and becomes conscious of himself. he discovers himself in the world and in the midst of others as an embodied spirit. there is no need of proving the existence of the world or the existence of others since man is essentially related both to the world and to others (olusola, 2008, 5). sartre’s notion of absolutism has left our society with moral relativity. thus bringing about a conflict between being (what we are) and having (what we possess). many people today see themselves as objects of having, meaning that they feel they are absolutely free to do to themselves as they like and when they feel they are through, they dispose of themselves like any other possession they have. this is what leads, for example to suicide. thus it is crystal clear that sartre’s philosophy of absolute freedom brings nothing other than relativism which in turn brings about social ills. 48 references agidigbi, b. (2005). euthanasia: conceptual and ethical issues. in pantaleon iroegbu & anthony echekwube (eds.), kpim of morality ethics: general, special & professional.. heineman educational books plc. alvare, h.m. “abortion,” (2003), new catholic encyclopedia, ed., bernard l. marthaler, vol.,2, 2nd edn. farmington hills: thomas gale, 2003. blackham, h.j. (1961). six existentialist thinkers. routledge. chauhan s. r. et al (eds). (2006). international dimension of human rights. global vision publication house. collinson, c. (2005). fifty major philosophers: a reference guide. routledge. copleston, f. a. (2005). history of philosophy: 19th and 20th century french philosophy. volume 9. continuum. friday, r.m. (2003). “euthanasia.” in new catholic encyclopedia, b. l. marthaler (ed.). volume 5. thomson gale. harris, j. (2005). the ethics of euthanasia. in e. craig (ed.), the shorter routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. routledge. iroegbu, p. (1995). metaphysics: the kpim of philosophy. international university press ltd. john paul ii. (2005). evangelium vitae. carmel international publishing house. kamber, r. (2000). on sartre. wadsworth. levinas, e. (1969). totality and infinity. a. lingis (trans.). duquese university press. milton a. g. (1986). fagothey’s right and reason: ethics in theory and practice, 9th edition. prentice-hall, inc. moses, a.a. (2005). existentialism and the problem of abortion from the perspective of jeanpaul sartre,” r.a. akanmidu (ed.), footprints in philosophy (pp.132-133). hope publications ltd. sartre, j.p. (2001). basic writings. stephen priest (ed & trans.). routledge, 2001. sartre, j.p. (2005). being and nothingness: an essay on phenomenological ontology. h. e. barnes (trans.) routledge. jean paul sartre's absolute freedom and its ethical implications ebo, henry obinze & okewu, michael peter aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 theological reflection of mark 14:1-11 on the commitment of men and women in god's service rev. davou m. dantoro, phd. gindiri theological seminary p. m. b. 01001, gindiri, plateau state, nigeria davoum.dantoro@gmail.com 109 110 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december 111 theological reflection of mark 14:1-11 on the commitment rev. davou m. dantoro 112 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december 113 theological reflection of mark 14:1-11 on the commitment rev. davou m. dantoro 114 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december 115 theological reflection of mark 14:1-11 on the commitment rev. davou m. dantoro 116 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december 117 theological reflection of mark 14:1-11 on the commitment rev. davou m. dantoro page 117 page 118 page 119 page 120 page 121 page 122 page 123 page 124 page 125 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 1 virtue epistemology and the gettier challenge anthony raphael etuk, ph.d. university of uyo, akwa ibom state, nigeria. etuky4real@gmail.com orcid id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7708-9061 emmanuel akaninyene okon, phd department of linguistics and nigerian languages university of uyo emmanuelokon@uniuyi.edu & inwang, solomon christopher university of uyo, akwa ibom state, nigeria. abstract virtue epistemologists keenly argue that the resources of their virtue theories can help to resolve the gettier problem in epistemology. edmund gettier, in his 1963 short essay, had demonstrated the inadequacy of the tripartite conditions for knowledge. proceeding by way counterexamples, he revealed that the conditions of justification, truth and belief in the traditional account of knowledge as “justified true belief”, were insufficient, because, a justified belief may happen to be true by virtue of mere coincidence or luck. in other words, a believer may happen to hold a justified belief but on the basis of facts irrelevant to the truth of the belief. this shows the possibility of a missing link between truth and knowledge. known as the gettier problem, this awareness, which has elicited a series of post-gettier theories in contemporary epistemology, has, nevertheless, remained a difficult challenge to resolve. virtue epistemology, a recent approach in epistemology, claims its virtue-theoretic analysis of knowledge has the capacity to resolve the problem. this paper explores the defining features of virtue epistemology and critically examines its attempt to resolve the gettier problem. it concludes that despite its promising trailblazing quality, virtue epistemology lacks the capacity to adequately address the gettier problem due to certain epistemic defects inherent in its account of knowledge, predisposing it to the gettier-style cases. the expository and critical methods are adopted in the paper. keywords: virtue epistemology, edmund gettier, counterexamples, intellectual virtues, justification, knowledge. introduction over the years, epistemologists have been engaged in the intellectual struggle not only to clarify what is means to know, how we reach knowledge, the basic criteria for knowledge, but also, whether we can have certain knowledge. in all, epistemologists agree that knowledge does not simply mean understanding or awareness of a fact, “but the indubitable awareness of such a fact” (ozumba 2015: 2). that is, “to know” implies the requirement of certainty and incontrovertibility. this understanding gave rise to the traditional analysis of propositional knowledge as “justified true belief”, as suggested in plato's theaetetus (201c-210d). according to this analysis, one knows that p if and only if one has a justified true belief that p. one might believe a true but groundless conjecture, but would not thereby know that this conjecture is true. standardly construed then, knowledge requires not only that a belief and truth conditions be satisfied, but also that the satisfaction of the belief condition be appropriately related to the satisfaction of the truth condition (moser, 1). the latter requirement implies the justification condition for knowledge. however, despite its long history of prominence in epistemology history, this traditional account of knowledge as “justified true belief” was celebrated only but for a time. its popularity was challenged by edmund gettier, who in 1963, stirred the hornet nest in the epistemology world with his short essay titled, “is justified true belief knowledge?” with his two counter-examples that rocked the base of the traditional account of knowledge, he raised the curtain on the insufficiency or inadequacy of the tripartite conditions for knowledge (etuk 2018: 53 – 54), revealing that justification is not always reliable as a criterion for knowledge because of the possibility of being mistaken or deceived about what we think we know as well as luck or coincidence masquerading as knowledge. gettier's analysis elicited a storm in the epistemology world, generating a long series of attempts to respond to his counterexamples without giving up the essence of the definition (okeke 2013: 50). such attempts include such post-gettier theories of justification as the defeasibility, reliability and causal as well as the virtue epistemology theories. a number of claims have been made on behalf of virtue epistemology, particularly, regarding its capacity to viably provides a foundation for an analysis of knowledge that is able to avoid the gettier-style problem in epistemology (sosa 2007: 42). the principal concern of this paper is with this claim by the proponents of virtue epistemology. the paper explores the defining features of virtue epistemology and critical examines the rational success of its attempt to viably resolve the gettier problem in epistemology. gettier's counterexamples at a time when it was almost taken for granted that knowledge is “justified true belief” (dancy 1991: 23), edmund gettier, in his 1963 short essay titled, “is justified true belief knowledge?”, raise the attention of epistemologists to the insufficiency of these three but necessary conditions for knowledge. advancing two counterexamples to prove his case, gettier reveals the fact that in case of justification, there may be some facts unknown to us, but which if we were to take into consideration, would certainly weaken our justification. in other words, that our justification may be false even when our belief is true. hence, we may have a case of “justified true belief”, which certainly cannot be regarded as knowledge, because what is considered as knowledge is nothing but mere coincidence or dump luck. due to space constraints, we shall consider only one of such gettier's counterexamples: about two job seekers – smith and jones. 2 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december gettier (1963: 121) narrates the following: suppose that smith and jones have applied for a certain job. and suppose that smith had strong evidence for the following conjunctive proposition: (d) jones is the man who will get the job, and jones has ten coins in his pocket. smith's evidence for (d) might be that the president of the company assured him that jones would in the end be selected, and that he, smith, had counted the coins in jones' pocket ten minutes ago. proposition (d) entails: (e) the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket. let us suppose that smith sees the entailment from (d) to (e), and accept (e) on the grounds of (d), for which he has strong evidence. in this case, smith is clearly justified in believing that (e) is true. however, it happens that smith himself got the job, and coincidentally, but unknown to smith, he has ten coins in his pocket. thus (e) is true and smith justifiably believes (e). nevertheless, gettier maintains further that: it is equally clear that smith does not know that (e) is true; for (e) is true in virtue of the number of coins in smith's pocket, and smith bases his belief in (e) on the account of the coins in jones' pocket, whom he falsely believes to be the man who will get the job (122 –123). with this counterexample, gettier points out that the tripartite account of knowledge is insufficient because it is possible for someone not to know even when all the three conditions for knowledge are satisfied. this is what is commonly noted as the gettierproblem in contemporary epistemology. the emphasis here is that it is possible for a man with a true belief to have evidence for his belief but at the same time not know. in the case above, smith undoubtedly has a justified true belief, yet, he clearly does not have knowledge. his true belief is not based on conclusive evidence. what seems to be his knowledge here (e) is nothing but a mere coincidence or luck, because he holds a truly justified belief but on the basis of facts irrelevant to the truth of the belief. this shows that our justification may be false even when our belief is true. though he does not refute the necessity of the three conditions for knowledge, gettier is alluding to the fact that, whereas they are individually necessary, “they need supplementing” (dancy 1991: 25). this awareness by gettier's analysis, elicited a storm in the epistemology world, tilting the course of epistemological discussions in recent times to the search for the fourth and supplementing condition of knowledge as envisaged in his paper. one of such post-gettier theories is the virtue epistemology, which according to church, “is meant to offer solution to the gettier problem” (2021: 681). virtue epistemology virtue epistemology is a current philosophical approach to the problem of justification of knowledge in epistemology, which gives intellectual virtue concepts an important and fundamental role in the determination of knowledge (baehr 2000: 1). it holds the view that “the ultimate source of epistemic normativity, and hence the central focus of epistemological inquiry, are cognitive agents and communities, along with the fundamental powers, traits and habits that constitute their intellect” (turri and sosa 2018: 2). traits that promote good cognition or intellectual flourishing are called intellectual or cognitive or epistemic virtues, whence the name “virtue epistemology.” virtue epistemology was partly inspired by a recent renewal of interest in virtue concepts among moral philosophers, the desire to resolve the controversy between foundationalism and coherentism, as well as by attempts to give a response to the intractability of the 3 virtue epistemology and the gettier challenge anthony raphael etuk competing analyses of knowledge that arose in response to the problem posed by edmund gettier on the adequacy of the traditional definition of knowledge as justified true belief (sosa 1980: 3). conceived as a distinctive movement within contemporary epistemology, virtue epistemology was propounded by ernest sosa in his attempt to grapple with the controversy between foundationalism and coherentism (ozumba 2015: 172). sosa introduced the concept of “intellectual virtue” into contemporary epistemology literature, proposed in his 1980 essay, “the raft and the pyramid”, and further promoted in his 2007 work, a virtue epistemology. he believes that “the concept of intellectual virtue could be used to bypass the controversy between foundationalists and coherentists” (2013: 51), as well as addressing other epistemological issues such as the gettier problem (sosa 2007: 25, zagzebski 1996: 285). though there are variants virtue theories in epistemology, yet, every form of virtue epistemology agrees on two basic commitments. the first is the view that epistemology is a normative discipline, and thus, “epistemologists should focus their efforts on understanding epistemic norms, value, and evaluation” (turri et al. 2021: 1). just as virtue theories in ethics try to understand the normative properties of actions in terms of the normative properties of moral agents, so virtue epistemology tries to understand the normative properties of beliefs in terms of the normative properties of cognitive agents. virtue epistemology insists that the problem of guaranteeing valid knowledge “can be solved by reference to the possession and application of intellectual virtue” (ozumba 2015: 172). the second is that they all consider intellectual agents as the primary source of epistemic value and the primary focus of epistemic evaluation, with a focus on the intellectual virtues and vices embodied in and expressed by these agents (turri et al., 2021: 1). from these two basic commitments, all forms of virtue epistemology evaluate knowledge according to the intellectual virtues of the person who holds beliefs, instead of the properties of the propositions and beliefs. they focus on the knower as agent in a manner similar to how virtue ethics focuses on moral agents rather than moral acts. hence virtue epistemology has been described as “person-based rather than belief-based, just as virtue theories in ethics have been described as person-based rather than actbased” (encyclopedia of philosophy 2023: 1). in simple terms, for virtue epistemology, “a belief is justified, just in case it is has its source in intellectual virtue (sosa 1991: 189). or, “in cases of knowledge, s has true belief because s believes from intellectual virtue” (greco 2002: 311). prominent proponents of the virtue epistemology include ernest sosa, alvin goldman, john greco, heather battaly, lorraine code, christopher hookway, james montmarquet, and linda zagzebski. the nature of intellectual virtue intellectual virtue has been a subject of philosophy since the work of aristotle, who “talks of the virtue of moral excellence as depicted in courage, temperance and wisdom” (ozumba 2015: 172). however, theorizing about intellectual virtue in the virtue 4 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december epistemology tradition is characterized by efforts to solve problems of special concern to modern epistemology by focusing on this quality in the knower as agent in a manner similar to how virtue ethics focuses on moral virtue of the moral agents rather than moral acts. for virtue epistemologists, there are intellectual virtues, which are “characteristics that promote intellectual flourishing, or which make for an excellent cognizer” (turri et al., 2021: 3). such virtuous intellectual agency defines thinking that is appropriately competent, responsible, and otherwise excellent. on the other hand, vonvirtuous intellectual agency is thinking that falls short of relevant excellence in significant ways (greco 2002: 311). but what specifically constitutes the nature of intellectual virtue? virtue epistemologists are split into two variants camps regarding the nature of intellectual virtue: virtue reliabilists and virtue reponsibilists. the virtue reliabilists, represented by such figures as ernest sosa, alvin goldman and john greco, conceive of intellectual virtues as “stable, reliable and truth-conducive cognitive faculties or powers, and regards vision, introspection, memory, or what might be called 'faculty virtues' or 'a reliable belief-forming faculty'” (okeke 2013: 51). according to them, these are “paradigm cases of intellectual virtue and they count as such because of their epistemic reliability (baehr, 2000: 2). virtue reliabilists see only loose analogy between virtue in ethics and virtue in epistemology, insisting that “intellectual virtue needs not be viewed from the moral but from the cognitive perspective” (sosa 1991: 189). their major concern, therefore, is with cognitive capacity through which one deploys his intellectual virtuous agency to contribute to reliable knowledge in a manner that is truth-conducing. for virtue reliabilists, therefore, a true belief is knowledge only if its truth is explainable in terms of (or is creditable to or manifests) certain qualities of the knower, in particular, in terms of the knower's cognitive faculties, which include vision, introspection, memory, etc. these, according to sosa, constitute intellectual virtue – a reliable belief-forming faculty – “a quality bound to help maximize one's surplus of truth over error” (sosa 1985: 227): such intellectual virtues, sosa believes, translate into our having the requisite internal and external equipment that will put us in a better position to determine the truth of our beliefs. sosa also distinguished animal knowledge from reflective knowledge. for the former it is sufficient that the belief was caused by a reliable truth-producing faculty. for the latter he adds an internalist component. the believer must have a reliable grasp of the fact that their belief is grounded in a reliable cognitive faculty (1991: 189). the second variant, virtue responsibilism, defended by the likes of linda zagzebski, james montmarquet, heather battaly, lorraine code, does not consider intellectual virtues in terms of cognitive faculties, but as certain cultivated intellectual character traits of a responsible knower or inquirer valued as more virtuous than others (baehr 2000: 2). here, intellectual virtue is conceived of on the model of moral virtues; that is, as good intellectual character traits which include attentiveness, inquisitiveness, openmindedness, fair-mindedness, intellectual courage intellectual carefulness, intellectual thoroughness, intellectual tenacity, intellectual honesty, and intellectual rigor (baehr 2013: i). according to zagzebski, intellectual virtues are distinguishable from moral virtues only on account of having an intrinsic epistemic aim: an intellectually virtuous person, she argues, desires epistemic goods like knowledge and understanding at least 5 virtue epistemology and the gettier challenge anthony raphael etuk partly for their own sake (1996: 166-67). the approach of the virtue reliabilists is broadly aligned with internalist sympathies in epistemology and deeply concerned with cognition's ethical dimensions and implications (turri et al., 2021: 3). internalist epistemology holds that what appeals to justification in knowledge, must be internal to the individual's first-person's cognitive experience; that is, “it must be cognitively accessible to the person in question” (bonjour 2002: 234). in line with this internalist disposition, virtue responsisbilists treat intellectual virtue on the classical model of virtue as a trait of cultivated intellectual character. they stress the importance of being a responsible believer in a manner modelled after virtue ethics. code, for instance, claims that epistemologists should pay considerably more attention to the personal, active, and social dimensions of the cognitive life, arguing that an epistemically responsible person is especially likely to succeed in the areas of the cognitive life (code 1987: 44). for zagzebski, the concept of justified belief is defined in terms of the concept of a person who is motivated by intellectual virtue, while the concept of knowledge is defined in terms of that of an act of intellectual virtue. she says that a virtue, whether moral or intellectual, is “a deep and enduring acquired excellence of a person” (1999: 137). she sees intellectual virtues as traits of character, which constitute a subset of moral virtues (1999: 137). such traits of character, as cited in okeke, include such intellectual autonomy and courage, intellectual carefulness and fairness, and open-mindedness (2013: 52). zagzebski claims that an intellectually courageous person, for instance, is motivated to persist in certain beliefs or inquiries out of a desire for truth and is reliably successful at doing so, and that knowledge is belief arising from “acts of intellectual virtue.” an “act of intellectual virtue” is an act that “gets everything right”: it involves having an intellectually virtuous motive, doing what an intellectually virtuous person would do in the situation, and reaching the truth as a result (1996: 270-71). one performs an act of fairmindedness, for example, just in case one exhibits the motivational state characteristic of this virtue, does what a fair-minded person would do in the situation, and reaches the truth as a result. knowledge is acquired when one forms a belief out of one or more acts of this sort. virtue epistemology and knowledge virtue epistemologists believe there is the need for the reversal of the direction of the analysis of knowledge-first approach by starting with competences to know and then understanding belief as potentially-defective knowledge (miracchi 2015: 29). accordingly, “knowledge is non-accidentally true belief” (turri et al., 2021: 5); but to know is to believe the truth because of your intellectual virtue (sosa 1991: 277; zagzebski 1996: 271–2, greco 2003: 111). knowledge is a kind of success from one's intellectual virtue. therefore, a successful inquiry in knowledge determination depends upon the subject's epistemic character – intellectual virtue – which includes wisdom embodied in the judgments, cognitive habits, skills, and dispositions acquired through education and experience (trybulec 2017: 39). knowledge is true belief resulting from intellectual virtue: “knowledge is true belief manifesting epistemic virtue” (turri and sosa 2018: 2). the intellectual virtues are reliable dispositions: either reliable powers, such as accurate perception and sound reasoning, or reliable character traits, such as intellectual honesty 6 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december and intellectual carefulness. for arriving at true beliefs and avoiding false beliefs. for virtue epistemologists, therefore, if we think of intellectual virtues as reliable powers, and think of knowledge as true belief grounded in such powers, then beliefs caused by such reliable dispositions or character traits will typically have positive epistemic value than those caused by wishful thinking, superstition, and hasty generalization, and such other intellectual vices. sosa says that a given belief is knowledge iff the belief it is “true because competent”—belief where the truth is “derived from,” “attributable to,” or “because [of]” a cognitive competence (sosa 2007, 23, 33). this concept of knowledge as success from one's intellectual virtue is further explained with sosa's aaa–model of performance assessment, where according to him, all human behaviours, performances and attempts, can be assessed for accuracy, adroitness, and aptness (sosa 2007: 22–3). in this regard, accurate performances achieve their aim, adroit performances manifest competence, and apt performances are accurate because it is adroit. this aaa-model applies to all conduct and performances with an aim including knowledge determination. hence, as it applies to epistemology, belief-formation is a psychological performance with an aim for knowledge. for beliefs, accuracy is identified with truth, adroitness with manifesting intellectual competence, and aptness with being “true because competent”. apt belief, then, is belief that is true because competent. and, competence, in turn, is a disposition, one with a basis resident in the competent agent, one that would in appropriately normal conditions ensure (or make highly likely) the success of any relevant performance issued by it (sosa 2007: 29). knowledge is then identified with an apt belief, which is true because it is competent – coming from an agent manifesting intellectual competence – which is just “a special case” of “creditable, apt performance”, a status common across the gamut of human activities. in sum, for virtue epistemologists, the chief difference between knowledge and mere true belief is that knowledge involves securing a true belief out of an exercise of (or in a way that is creditable to, explainable in terms of, or that manifests) the knower's intellectual virtues. and, there is greater value in securing a worthy end like true belief out of an exercise of one's virtues than there is in securing it by some other means (e.g. by accident). confronting the gettier challenge virtue epistemologists believe that their intellectual virtue-theoretic analyses of knowledge certainly “enables a solution… for the gettier problem” (sosa 2007: 42; greco 2010: 13). ian church submits that, one of the benefits of the virtue epistemology is that, “it is meant to offer solution to the gettier problem” (2021: 681). as earlier indicated, interest in virtue epistemology was partly motivated by the growing dissatisfaction with post-gettier epistemology seeking for supplementing condition for knowledge. instead of incorporating an additional condition into the definition of knowledge, virtue epistemologists argue that, in order to know, the subject should form a true belief on the basis of his intellectual virtue. given that gettier cases or counterexamples (as one represented above) are quintessentially scenarios where a given belief is true merely by accident or dumb luck, what is, required is a proposal that can relevantly and necessarily bridge the gap between true belief and knowledge. for virtue epistemologists, this proposal is the agent's intellectual virtue. 7 virtue epistemology and the gettier challenge anthony raphael etuk virtue epistemologists believe that from the perspective of virtue theories, there is a natural way to think about the gettier cases or counterexamples: it is natural to distinguish between achieving some end by luck or accident, and achieving the end through the exercise of one's abilities (or virtues). accordingly, knowledge is “an achievement for which the knower deserves credit” (riggs 2007: 341). and knowers deserve credit because they believe the truth due of their intellectual virtue (greco 2002: 311). in gettier cases, s believes the truth, but only by accident (luck). however, for the virtue epistemologists, in cases of knowledge, it is no accident that s believes the truth. rather, s's believing the truth is the result of s's own cognitive abilities – believing the truth can be credited to s. to put this another way, in cases of knowledge, s believes the truth because s is intellectually virtuous. sosa declares: “we have reached the view that knowledge is true belief out of intellectual virtue, belief that turns out right by reason of the virtue and not just by coincidence (sosa 1991: 227). zagzebski adds that “knowledge is a state of true belief arising out of acts of intellectual virtue” (1996: 285). in the words of greco: “when we say that s knows p, we imply that it is not just an accident that s believes the truth with respect to p. on the contrary, we mean to say that s gets things right with respect to p because s has reasoned in an appropriate way, or perceived things accurately, or remembered things well, etc. we mean to say that getting it right can be put down to s 's own abilities, rather than to dumb luck, or blind chance, or something else” (2002: 311). for virtue epistemologists, the benefit of their approach to knowledge – as success from intellectual virtue – is that it provides an intuitive account of why knowledge is inconsistent with luck of any sort, which is the mainstay of the gettier problem. hence, with particular reverence to the gettier's counterexample above, virtue epistemologists hold that gettier's subject, smith, does not believe the truth because of his intellectual virtues, so he does not know (zagzebski 1996: 285; greco 2003; sosa 2007: 5). since knowledge is an achievement for which the knower deserves credit; and, knowers deserve credit because they believe the truth as a result of their intellectual virtue, what is required to bridges the gap between true belief and knowledge in the gettier-style case is smith's intellectual virtue. for, although smith's belief is true, it is not formed not through an exercise of his cognitive ability or intellectual virtue; and so long as this is absent, it would be wrong to credit simth with knowledge. virtue epistemologists believe that such a solution can be easily generalized across all gettier cases. it would seem that with this proposal, virtue epistemology has a solution to the gettier problem. however, a critical look at it reveals certain inherent epistemic deficiencies that clearly nettle the viability of virtue epistemology to diffuse the gettier problem. critique of virtue epistemology's proposal if knowledge, according to the virtue epistemologists, requires having a belief that is successful because of agent's cognitive ability (intellectual virtues), then, apparently, it would seem difficult to maintain that this concept of knowledge can avoid the gettierstyle problem in epistemology for certain obvious reasons. in the first instance, there is nothing in the concept of knowledge that suggests that it could not be possible for someone to have a belief that is successful and produced by a cognitive ability (intellectual virtues) and still not be vulnerable to gettier counterexamples. consider the 8 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december following case of stephen's visit to an animal exhibition: stephen, a zoologist is attending a local exhibition of animals. while perusing the various booths and exhibits, he comes to some animals labeled “hares”. stephen then, excited, forms the belief that “there are hares at this exhibition!” unfortunately, the hares stephen was looking at had been misidentified – they were actually rabbits – animals that can easily be mistaken for hares. nevertheless, his belief turns out to be true – in the far corner of the exhibition building, unknown to stephen, there are real hares hidden amidst a very large koi exhibit. now in this case, stephen is a specialist in the study of animals (zoologist), and his belief is formed through an exercise of a cognitive ability, and his belief is true. however, his belief does not hit upon the truth because of his cognitive competence – the success of stephen's belief has nothing to do with his epistemic abilities as a zoologist, despite being successful and produced by one with a cognitive ability and competence in the study of animals. stephen's belief is only true by dumb luck; it is true for reasons that his given exercise of epistemic abilities would not have predicted. this is similar to the gettier cases above, because gettier scenarios are those cases where a given belief is true because of luck. this case of stephen shows the weakness of the virtue epistemologists' analysis of knowledge as success from cognitive ability; for, despite his cognitive ability as a zoologist and ability to read signs, stephen does not know that “there are hares at this exhibition”. his belief is only true by virtue of luck. this shows that “it is possible for someone to have a belief that is successful and produced by a cognitive ability (intellectual virtues) and still be vulnerable to gettier counterexamples” (church 2021: 681). thus, possession of an intellectual virtue does not seem capable of rendering an agent so reliable as to completely immune him from any possibility of error between his true belief and knowledge. this demonstrates the vulnerability of virtue epistemology to the gettier-style cases. furthermore, if knowledge requires a belief to be true because it is produced from an ability – one's reliable cognitive faculties or excellent intellectual character traits, then it may be difficult for virtue epistemologists to escape being “gettiered”, especially, considering the consequences of this analysis on testimonial knowledge. consider the following case of an abuja visitor: having just arrived at the motor park in abuja, peter wishes to obtain directions to the eagle square. he looks around, randomly approaches the first passerby that he sees, and asks how to get to his desired destination. the passerby, who happens to be an abuja resident who knows the city extraordinarily well, provides peter with impeccable directions to the eagle square. the emergent questions here are: is the success of peter's belief attributable to his cognitive abilities? is his belief true because competent? certainly not; for, even if peter is appropriately attentive to the speaker (intellectual carefulness or attentiveness), and even 9 virtue epistemology and the gettier challenge anthony raphael etuk if his reception of the speaker's testimony is appropriately discriminating (openmindedness), it is obvious that he forms a true belief because of the speaker's testimony rather than his own efforts. in other words, peter knows where the eagle square is based on the impeccable directions of the passerby. thus, based on the virtue epistemologists' success from cognitive ability (intellectual virtue) account of knowledge, it would be wrong to attribute knowledge to peter, since the success of his belief is primarily attributable to the passerby's competency rather than his own intellectual virtue. perhaps, virtue epistemologists might argue that peter's cognitive abilities still play an important role in the success of his belief; after all, he would not have known where the eagle square was had he not paid close attention (attentiveness or intellectual carefulness), so he deserves the credit. nevertheless, according virtue epistemology's account of knowledge as success from intellectual virtue or cognitive abilities, the success of peter's belief may not be strongly attributable to his cognitive abilities or intellectual virtue. that may only be done in a rather weaker sense. in other words, if we understand the attribution relationship strongly – such that a belief needs to be mostly (if not entirely) true as a result of the given agent's cognitive abilities – then virtue epistemology can avoid gettier counterexamples; so understood, however, virtue epistemology will wrongfully preclude knowledge in cases of testimony. church captures this point more succinctly when he explains that: “if (a) having a belief that is successful because of a cognitive ability is what bridges the gap between true belief and knowledge and (b) this is strong enough to rule out the possibility of having a belief that is successful for any other reasons (such as epistemic luck), then it will be too strong for knowledge from testimony and extended cognition” (2021:682). alternatively, if we understand the attribution relation weakly – such that an agent's cognitive abilities merely need to be a contributing factor in the given belief's success – then virtue epistemology can rightly attribute knowledge in cases of testimony; so understood, however, virtue epistemology will remain vulnerable to gettier counterexamples because this seems to be true in gettier counterexamples. insofar as beliefs in gettier counterexamples are true on the basis of any other reason than his intellectual virtue such as luck, peter's belief in this case is similar, because it is true for any other reason rather than his own intellectual virtue or cognitive abilities, namely: the passer's-by competence. clearly, in both cases, knowledge cannot be attributed because the agents' true beliefs are not based on conclusive evidence – success from intellectual virtue or cognitive abilities – but on accident or facts irrelevant to the truth of the belief. this, again, demonstrates the vulnerability of virtue epistemology to the gettier problem. furthermore, the virtue epistemology's characterization of knowledge invariably implies that however, the truth is that manifesting intellectual virtue is a matter of degree, since a cognitive ability can be responsible for a given belief being successful to a greater or lesser degree. just like how a footballer's shot can be accurate as a result of his abilities as a footballer to a greater or lesser degree, so too can an agent's belief be true as a result of his cognitive abilities to a greater or lesser degree. besides, the cognitive abilities and powers can as true belief that manifests intellectual virtue to the extent that people's cognitive dispositions do not qualify as virtues (because they are unreliable or irresponsible, for instance), then the true beliefs they produce will not count as knowledge. 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december achieve success only in relevantly close possible worlds. to say, for instance, that someone has an ability to achieve x (playing baseballs, for example) is to say that he would be successful in achieving x in a range of situations relevantly similar to those in which he typically finds himself. but then possibilities that do not occur in relevantly similar situations. it does not, for example, count against leonel messi's ability to score goals that he cannot do so in the dark. likewise, it does not count against our perceptual powers that we cannot discriminate real fires from demon-induced hallucinations. the fact that our intellectual faculties would be unreliable in worlds where demons induce perceptions, for instance, is irrelevant to whether they count as epistemically virtuous in the actual world. the "situationist critique" in psychology “human epistemic dispositions or character do change depending on contexts, even when that change is epistemically irrelevant” (doris 1998: 504). such research constrains the cognitive dispositions or character that can be epistemically demanded of people. for this reason, to maintain that knowledge is true belief grounded in intellectual virtue, is not only to deny such contextual changes that may be epistemically irrelevant to the agent's cognitive disposition, but to imply knowledge is a matter of luck – depending only on the accidental contexts that may be epistemically relevant to the agent's cognitive disposition at a time. thus, luck looks to be able to penetrate some distance into the inner, justificatory core of virtue epistemology in a manner similar to the gettier counterexamples. of course, virtue reliabilists might characterize this as effecting a drop in reliable functioning, and, virtue responsibilists would consider it as negating one's excellent cognitive character. nevertheless, virtue epistemologists should either amend their conception of knowledge to accommodate this or explain how the result of situationist psychological research does not contradict their theory and expose their vulnerability to the gettier challenge. conclusion virtue epistemology, a recent approach in epistemology adopts the virtue-theoretic model of justifying knowledge, where the primary source of epistemic evaluation is the agent's intellectual virtue. on this model, knowledge is construed as true belief resulting from the agent's intellectual virtue. an important motivation for this virtue-theoretic model in epistemology is the belief that its epistemic resources can help to resolve a range of important kinds of problems in contemporary epistemology, especially the gettier-style problem – where luck masquerades as knowledge. however, as evident in the paper, this claim is unrealistic due to the identified inherent epistemic weaknesses in virtue epistemology's analysis of knowledge, which show its vulnerability to the gettier-style cases. the attempt to analyze in the virtue theoretic model as success from intellectual virtue may deserve some credit as a creative reversal of the traditional direction of the analysis of knowledge-first approach to starting with competences to know. however, the success of this attempt leaves much to be desired, as virtue epistemology 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"virtue epistemology." encyclopedia of philosophy. retrieved september 18, 2023 from encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacstranscripts-and-maps/virtue-epistemology. 13 virtue epistemology and the gettier challenge anthony raphael etuk page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 page 21 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 181 drugs commonly abused around the world daniel james tali, ph.d. gindiri theological seminary, plateau state, nigeria talidaniel@ymail.com abstract drugs are actually meant to be used for medical purposes, in amounts and quantities that are harmless to the user, in methods and procedures that are harmless to the user. however, reverse is the case in different parts and countries of the world. the goal of this study is to find out the meaning of drug abuse, to investigate the theories of drug abuse and to examine the types of drugs that are commonly abused around the world. the data for this research were collected from books, journals, dictionaries and encyclopedias, among others which were sourced from the internet and libraries. the data were analyzed through the discussion and descriptive methods, among others. the study found out that the drugs that are commonly abused around the world include alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, opium, valium, methadone, morphine, percocet, amphetamines, vicodin, pemoline, sedatives, hallucinogens, crystal methamphetamine, xanax, oxycotin and inhalants. the study recommends that governments of different countries should have a way of checking to detect the abuse of drugs so as to prevent it, viable laws that would help to check mate the menace of drug abuse should be established and governments of different countries should punish culprits of drug abuse so as to deter them and discourage others from getting involved, among others. keywords: drugs, abuse, world . introduction drug abuse has a long history around the world. its origin in relations to man can be traced to the origin of man on earth and its origin in relations to the countries of the world can be traced to the establishment of the different countries. the problem of drug abuse is common to almost all parts and countries of the world. however, the problem varies from one part of the world to the other and from one country to the other. this problem can be found in developed countries, in developing countries and in underdeveloped countries. it is a common problem among african countries, asian countries, european countries, north american countries and south american countries, among others (peacock et al 2017; oshodi, aina and onajole 2010; abudu 2008; unodc 2011; world health organization 2022; world population review 2022). the main focus of this study is to investigate the types of drugs commonly abused around the world. 182 conceptual clarification in this section, the following terms including drug, abuse and drug abuse are clarified. drug: drug refers to an illegal substance such as marijuana or cocaine which is usually taken to bring happiness, relaxation and excitement or a medicine or a substance for making medicine or a substance that sports people take illegally to improve their performance (summers 483). in addition, it refers to an illegal substance that people smoke and inject, among others in order to give them pleasure or exciting feelings or a substance use as medicine or use in medicine (hornby 2000). also, it refers to any chemical substance that has an effect on the body or mind, by modifying one or more of the terms (onah 1982). furthermore, it refers to any chemical substance which when taken into the body it affects the functions of the body (matowo 3). abuse: abuse refers to the use of something in a way it should not be used or the act of using something for wrong purpose (summers 6). in addition, it is the act of misusing something or the act of using something improperly or injuriously (read 7). also, it refers to the use of something in a way that is wrong or harmful (hornby 2000) drug abuse: drug abuse is the excessive or inappropriate use of a drug by a person where such use is considered or judged to be illegal by the culture and also resulting in harm to the person or society (onah 1982). in addition, it refers to the drugs that are used mainly by selfmedication in a manner that deviates from approved medical or social patterns (aka and akunyili 2003). also, it refers to the excessive use of drugs or the use of drugs for non-medical purpose or the use of drugs in amounts that are harmful to the individual or others or the use of drugs in methods which are harmful to the individual or others (samson 2022). also, it refers to the usage of any drug for any other purpose other than the recommended one or the excessive illegal drug use and/ or legal drug use without a doctor’s prescription or a state of reduced sensitivity of a drug to the body at given regular (normal) dose or a harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances including alcohol and other illicit drugs to stimulate behavior (matowo 3). theories of drug abuse in this section, four theories of drug abuse will be discussed as seen below. 1. socio-cultural theory of drug abuse the first theory on this list is the socio-cultural theory of drug abuse. the theory argues that drug abuse is usually influenced by socio-cultural values of the people. for example, in nigeria today, there are cultures that permit the consumption of substances and drugs like alcohol and marijuana and on the other hand, there are still cultures that forbid them. for instance, the cultures of many ethnic groups in north-central like taroh, goemai, ngas and berom, among others support the use of alcohol as part of daily food and as special drink in their cultural activities. similarly, in the southern, eastern and western part of the country, there are also drugs commonly abused around the world daniel james tali, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 183 ethnic groups like edo, ijaw, igbo, ibibio, urhobo, itesekiri and yoruba that use alcohol in cultural activities. on the other hand, most ethnic groups found in the north-east and northwest usually forbid the taking of alcohol on a personal basis and also during cultural activities (anderson 1998; begun 2000). 2. personality theory of drug abuse the second theory on this list is the personal theory of drug abuse. the theory argues that drug abuse is usually promoted by certain qualities of characteristics as found in some individuals. such personality characteristics include delaying satisfaction, low tolerance for frustration, poor coping ability and low self esteem, poor impulse control and high emotional dependence on other people. the people with these types of personality quality characteristics are usually vulnerable to drug abuse (anderson 1998; begun 2000). 3. biological theory of drug abuse the third theory on this list is the biological theory of drug abuse. the theory argues that individuals that are usually vulnerable to drug abuse are usually influenced by their biological nature. by implication, the biological or genetic make-up of a person is usually responsible for his vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction (anderson 1998; begun 2000). 4. learning theory of drug abuse the fourth theory on this list is the learning theory of drug abuse. the theory argues that individuals are usually influenced into drug abuse through learning. by implication, nobody is born with the attitude of drug abuse but the attitude is later learnt peers and friend who are already victims. the learning could be by the means of instrumental learning, conditional learning, or social learning (anderson 1998; begun 2000). commonly abused drugs around the world in this section, the researcher will discuss the commonly abused drugs aroung the world including alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, opium, valium, methadone, morphine, percocet, amphetamines, vicodin, pemoline, sedatives, hallucinogens, crystal methamphetamine, xanax, oxycotin and inhalants. 1. alcohol alcohol is one of the commonly abused substances or drugs in the society. it is a drug whose consumption is deemed to be legal by most societies, especially the african society. the drug is not considered to be very harmful or at least less dangerous. in view of this, it is consumed daily in africa and even forming part of the african daily drinks and special drinks during traditional festivals. examples of this drug on a general note include ethyl, methyl, prophyl, butyl and amyl. alcohol is most often viewed as a depressant, although it can be a stimulant 184 and for some it is a hallucinogen. alcoholism is usually considered to be a disease which can usually be treated as an illness. for example, in 1957, the american medical association (ama) affirmed that alcoholism is a disease. it should be noted that alcoholism is a state of abusing alcohol or a state where drinking of alcohol becomes a priority and takes one’s time and interest above and over almost everything. alcoholism is usually promoted by a couple of factors including peer influence, death of a loved one, trouble, unemployment, dismissal from work, betrayal, retirement and family problem, among others (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; royce 1989; volkow 2018). 2. marijuana marijuana is a drug which is commonly referred to as cannabis. the scientific name for this drug is tetrahydrocannabinol (thc). this drug is gotten from a plant called “cannabis sativa”. the plant has been used for centuries, primarily for its euphoric effects and is one of the leading drugs abused, especially by the youths. the origin of this drug in the united states of america (usa) can be traced to the 1920s. it is a dangerous and addictive drug which has devastating effects on its users. it is one of the most commonly used illicit drugs with about 14 million users who are 12 years and above. the reason for its wide usage is that the product is indigenous, cheap and effective mood changer (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; aka and akunyili 2003; nkonge 2017). 3. cocaine cocaine is a tropane alkaloid and stimulant drug which is usually obtained primarily from the leaves of two coca species found in south america countries including peru, chile, columbia and bolivia, among others. the two coca species include erythroxylum coca and erythroxylum novogranatense. it is a drug usually used as a recreational drug and euphoriant. when the rug is extracted from coca leaves, it is then processed into cocaine hydrochloride (powdered cocaine). cocaine powder is usually white in colour. in regards to its consumption, it is done by chewing the leaf of the cocoa plant, inhaling the power, smoking the rock and injecting the liquid. cocaine is a byproduct of the resin of cocoa plant. cocaine is abused when used in a wrong way. it is done by mixing the raw cocaine powder with sodium bicarbonate in a particular proportion. the mixture is poured into a conical flask with distilled water and heated over an unseen burner and the rock formed is then used by the addicts. they take it by combining it with other drugs. the powdery substance is injected or snorted by the addicts. snorting is the process of inhaling cocaine powder through the nose, where it is absorbed into the bloodstream, smoking involves inhaling cocaine vapour or smoke into the lungs where absorption into the bloodstream is as rapid as by injection while injection, is the use of a needle to release the drug directly into the bloodstream. these three methods of cocaine usage can lead to addiction and other severe health problems (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; eze and omeje 1999). drugs commonly abused around the world daniel james tali, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 185 4. heroin heroin which can also be referred to as diacetylmorphine, diamorphine, acetomorphine, morphine diacetate and acetylated morphine is an opioid drug made from morphine. its popular street names include china white, smack, big h, balck tar, chiva, skag, junk, brown sugar, skunk, white horse and thunder. morphine is a natural substance taken from the seed pod of various opium poppy plants commonly grown in asia, mexico and colombia, among others. heroin can be found in white, brown and black colours. in regards to its consumption, it is done through injection, sniffing, snorting, swallowing, licking and smoking. sometimes, heroin is mixed with crack cocaine which is a practice commonly refers to as “speedballing”. it is the misuse of the prescription of opioid that usually leads to heroin. this drug is generally considered to be illegal. heroin can be white or brown in colour. the brown heroin is obtained through the purification of opium and that brown substance is due to the dirt contained in the substance. at the end of the purification, the white heroin is gotten. the brown powder can be mixed with cigarette. heroin is one of the worst drugs as it causes damages severely more than other drugs both physically and mentally (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; eze and omeje 1999). 5. opium opium is a dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of opium poppy or from the juice of opium poppy (papaver somniferum). it should be noted that about 12% of opium are made up of the alnagetic alkaloid morphine which is usually processed chemically to produce heroine and other synthetic opioids for medical use and for illegal drug trade. the origin of this drug can be traced to asia minor, spain, france and africa, among others. similarly, the main producers today include afganistan, myanmar, colombia, laos, mexico, india, paksitan, thailand, turkey, china and austrialia, among others. the retailing price as at 2002 is $16,000 per kilogram. in regards to its consumption, it is done through licking, swallowing and drinking in tea. opium is usually abuse on the grounds that it is good for pain relief. the abuse begins when the patient starts taking the medication on his own term, more frequently than what his doctor has recommended. in addition, the abuse is also done for recreational purposes (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; eze and omeje 1999; eunice 2009). 6. valium valium is a drug that is commonly referred to as diazepam. it is a drug that belongs to the family of drugs called “benzodiazepine” which serves as an anxielytic. the drug is usually taken orally by mixed with small liquid or soft food and measured with a special measuring instrument or spoon. this drug can be abused when it is used indiscriminately without the advice or prescription of the doctor (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; hollister 1995). 186 7. methadone methadone can also be referred to as dolophine and methadose. it is synthetic opioid agonist used for chronic pain and also for opioid dependence. although, it is a legal drug that has been legalized since in 1947 but it has been highly abused. the abuse comes when it is taken incorrectly or against the prescribed directives of doctors. in view of this, the drug should be administered by a specialist or an expert. however, because the drug is rampant, it becomes one of the fastest addiction drugs in world (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; barber 1967). 8. morphine morphine is a pain relieving drug of the opiate family which is naturally found in opium. it is actually a dark brown resin found in papaver somniferum or poppies. the drug is usually administered through injection, inhalation and drinking. by implication, this drug can be found in liquid form, tablet form and rock form. however, taken the drug is supposed to be prescribed and administered by a doctor. on the contrary, when it is taken indiscriminately for habitual purpose and recreational purpose without the prescription of the doctor, it amounts to abuse (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; walter 1974). 9. percocet percocet can also be referred to as oxycodone/paracetamol, this drug is primarily used for relieving pains. this drug is actually a combination of the opioid oxycodone with paracetamol. it is a narcotic drug prescribed to patients by doctors for the management of mild to moderate post-operative pain. the drug can be found in liquid form, tablet form or powder form. this drug was ranked as the 59th most commonly prescribed and used drug in the united states of america in 2019 with over 11 million prescriptions and users. the medication which is a mixture of oxycodone and acetaminophen is part of the opioid family of drugs and as such it is highly addictive. percocet is supposed to be taken under the strict prescription of a doctor. however, when a patient takes it indiscriminately without following the directives of a doctor, it amounts to abuse. the drug can be chewed, sniffed, drank or swallowed (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000; laver 1978). 10. amphetamines amphetamines are synthetic stimulant drugs which help the brain to work actively. they can be taken orally in form of tablets and inform of injection through the vein. the injection is effective than the tablet because tablet takes time to dissolve. they can both be legal and illegal depending on who prescribes them and how they are used. under normal condition, their use is supposed to be under the strict prescription of a doctor. however, when they are indiscriminately used without the directives and prescription of a doctor, they amount to abuse drugs commonly abused around the world daniel james tali, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 187 (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000). 11. vicodin vicodin is a narcotic drug that can also be referred to as hydrocodone or acetaminophen. the drug is actually a combination of hydrocodone and paracetamol. it is used in treating moderate to severe pains. in regards to its consumption, it is basically taken through the mouth. vicodin is abused when it is taken without the prescription from a doctor. it is also abused when the problem for which it was initially taken is no longer there. sometimes, people abuse it intentionally while in other times, people abuse it unintentionally. the drug is initially take for pain relieve as prescribed by a doctor. when the sickness is gone, they start to have craving for the vicodin even when the sickness has been cured. this causes the addict to go to any length in order to get the drug without the prescription from the doctor. although, the drug is very costly but addicts usually look for it to satisfy their desires by all means and at all cost (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000). 12. pemoline pemoline is a stimulant drug basically used in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy. in regards to its consumption, it is basically taken through the mouth. the drug is usually coated in white colour and it has the same size with panadol and paracetamol. it is not costly and because of its cheapness, it is being abused by many people. the abuse comes when it is indiscriminately taken without the directives and prescription of a doctor (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; machinaab 2018; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000). 13. sedatives sedative can also be referred to as tranquilizer. it is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement or anxiety. this group of drugs is related to hypnotics. its workings are mostly in the central nervous system. these are drugs that are used to induce sleep or to cause relaxation. they are barbiturate, capable of producing psychological and physical dependence. the drug is supposed to be taken under the strict prescription of the doctor. however, when they are indiscriminately taken without the prescription and directives of a doctor, they amount to an abuse. it is being abused when taken more than what is prescribed or without the prescription of a doctor (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000). 14. hallucinogens hallucinogen is a group of drugs that alter perception, thoughts and feelings. the drug can basically be subdivided into two categories including classic hallucinogens and dissociative drugs. in regards to its consumption, it is taken through smoking, snorting and drinking. this drug affects people’s minds and makes them see things that are not real as if they are real. the 188 name of the drug “hallucinogen” is derived from the word “hallucination” which basically means “figment of imagination”. therefore, hallucination is the fact of seeming to see or hear somebody or something that is not really there, especially because of illness or drugs. this drug makes one to hallucinate. examples of the drug are mescaline, psilocybin, lysergic acid and diethylamide, among others (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000). 15. crystal methamphetamine methamphetamine can also be referred to as “crystal meth”. it is basically a potent crystal nervous system stimulant that is essentially used as a recreational drug and also as a secondline treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity. it is a strong and highly addictive drug that usually affects the central nervous system. it is popularly known to be a party drug. the drug usually comes in crystal chunks or shiny blue-white rocks. in regards to its consumption, it is taken through smoking, snorting, swallowing and injecting. the abuse of this drug comes when it is not taken under the prescription and directives of doctors (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; machinaab 2018; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; ebie and pela 2000; erikson 1980). 16. xanax xanax can also be referred to as “alprazolam”. it is a fast-acting tranquillizer of medium duration in the triazolobenzodiazepine class. this is actually a fusion between benzodiazepine and triazole-ring. the family class of this drug includes benzodiazepine, diazepam (valium), clonazepam (klonopin), lorazepam (ativan), oxazepam (serax) and flurazepam (dalmane), among others. in regards to its consumption, it is basically done orally or by injection. this drug works by decreasing abnormal excitement in the brain and central nervous system. it was approved in the united states of america in october 1981. the possibility of being xanax addict is extremely high, especially after two months of use as tolerance to the drug builds over this period of time (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; machinaab 2018; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; okafo 2000). 17. oxycotin oxycotin can also be referred to as “oxycodone or roxicodone”. it is a semi-synthetic opioid drug used for the treatment of severe pain. this drug belongs to a family of drugs called “opioid analgesics”. it basically works in the brain to change how the body feels and respond to pains. in regards to its consumption, it is taken by swallowing the tablet as a whole and not breaking, crushing, chewing or dissolving it so as not to release the power of the drug at ones. however, the addicts do the contrary by crushing the tablet and injecting them with needle or snorting them to increase the effectiveness and to reduce the time taken to feel the hit of the drug and hence, the abuse. this drug is commonly used in the medical field to treat chronic and other ailments of patients like cancer (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; machinaab 2018; ongwae 2016; brecher 1972; brunn and rexed 1975; ebie and pela 2000). drugs commonly abused around the world daniel james tali, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 189 18. inhalants inhalants are substances that people inhale to get high. although, there are many substances that people inhaled but not all of these substances can be referred to as “inhalant”. example of substances that people inhaled that cannot be said to be inhalant include alcohol because they can also be used in other ways. this implies that inhalants are substances that can only be abused by inhaling. some of the commonly abused inhaling substances include ammonia, bleach and glue, among others. these substances are basically inhaled by pouring or spraying into a plastic bag or a cloth etc and the fumes are inhaled. intoxication starts after two or three deep breaths. with prolonged use, tolerance will increase and the addict will start to require more of these substances for use (chinedu 2007; matowo 2013; machinaab 2018; ongwae 2016; agha 2003). conclusion drug abuse is really a problem in different parts and countries of the world. the types, nature and quantity of drugs abused vary from one country to the other. however, the drugs and substances that are commonly abused in different parts and countries of the world include alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, opium, valium, methadone, morphine, percocet, amphetamines, vicodin, pemoline, sedatives, hallucinogens, crystal methamphetamine, xanax, oxycotin and inhalants. some of these drugs are illegally produced, sold and consume while others are legally produced, sold but consume illegally. recommendations 1. governments of different countries should have a way of checking to detect the early use of drugs so as to prevent it. 2. viable laws that would help to check mate the menace of drug abuse should be established. 3. governments of different countries should punish culprits of drug abuse so as to deter them and discourage others from getting involved. 4. religious and moral seminars, conferences and awareness should be created to teach in order to build good character in students by parents, guardians and religious leaders. 190 references abudu, r. v. 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(1974). how europe under developed africa. tanzania: east african publishing house. world health organization (2022). alcohol. retrieved from http://www.who.int. world health organization (2022). drugs (psychoactive). retrieved from http://www.who.int. world population review (2022). alcohol consumption by countries 2022. retrieved from http://worldpopulationreview.com. drugs commonly abused around the world daniel james tali, ph.d. aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr exploring the intersections of faith and reason: challenges and opportunities for integrating religion and science dr. christian maduabuchi umeanwe department of religion and human relations, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria. cm.umeanwe@unizik.edu.ng; drchrismadu777@gmail.com abstract the intersection of religion and science has long been a contentious domain, with debates surrounding their compatibility and relevance. this study explores the challenges and opportunities arising from integrating faith and reason, examining the historical, philosophical, and cultural contexts shaping this complex relationship. it explores the conflicts and convergences between religious and scientific worldviews, and particularly, epistemological divides differing understandings of knowledge, truth and reality. it examines the different models of this interaction: compatibilist, conflict and independence models. it also analyses the influences of secularism, postmodernism and pluralism, as well as emergent perspectives on evolution, cosmology and neuroscience. this study contributes to ongoing debates, offering a comprehensive framework for navigating the complex relationships between religion and science. by exploring challenges and opportunities, it illuminates pathways for constructive engagement, fostering greater understanding, cooperation and social cohesion. keywords: exploring, intersections, faith, reason, challenges, opportunities, integrating, religion, science. introduction in order to understand the scope of science and religion and what interactions there are between them, we must at least get a rough sense of what science and religion are. after all, “science” and “religion” are not eternally unchanging terms with unambiguous meanings. indeed, they are terms that were coined recently, with meanings that vary across times and cultures. harrison (2015) said, before the nineteenth century, the term “religion” was rarely used. for medieval authors, such as aquinas, the term meant piety or worship, and was denied of “religious” religio systems outside of what he considered orthodoxy. the term “religion” obtained its considerably broader current meaning through the works of early anthropologists, such as e.b. tylor (1871), who systematically used the term for religions across the world. the term “science” as it is currently used also became common only in the nineteenth century. prior to this, what we call “science” was referred to as 'natural philosophy' or 'experimental philosophy'. whewell (1834) standardized the term 'scientist' to refer to practitioners of diverse natural philosophies. philosophers of science have attempted to demarcate science from other knowledge-seeking endeavours, in particular religion. for instance, popper (1959) claimed that scientific hypotheses (unlike religious ones) are in principle falsifiable. taylor (1996) affirm a difference between science and religion, even if the meanings of both terms are historically contingent. they disagree, however, on how to precisely (and across times and cultures) demarcate the two domains. one way to distinguish between science and religion is the claim that science concerns the natural world, whereas religion concerns both the natural and the supernatural. scientific explanations do not appeal to supernatural entities such as gods or angels (fallen or not), or to non-natural 104 forces (like miracles, karma or magic. for example, neuroscientists typically explain our thoughts in terms of brain states, not by reference to an immaterial soul or spirit. forrest (2000) reviewed that the naturalists draw a distinction between methodological naturalism, an epistemological principle that limits scientific inquiry to natural entities and laws, and ontological or philosophical naturalism, a metaphysical principle that rejects the supernatural. since methodological naturalism is concerned with the practice of science (in particular, with the kinds of entities and processes that are invoked), it does not make any statements about whether or not supernatural entities exist. they might exist, but lie outside of the scope of scientific investigation. some authors like, rosenberg (2014) hold that taking the results of science seriously entails negative answers to such persistent questions as free will or moral knowledge. however, these stronger conclusions are controversial. the view that science can be demarcated from religion in its methodological naturalism is more commonly accepted, though it is not a dogmatic requirement, it flows from reasonable evidential requirements, such as the ability to test theories empirically. because both “science” and “religion” may have several definitions, discussing the relationship between science (in general) and religion (in general) may be meaningless. for example, clark (2014) argues that we can only sensibly inquire into the relationship between a widely accepted claim of science (such as quantum mechanics or findings in neuroscience) and a specific claim of a particular religion (such as islamic understandings of divine providence or buddhist views of the no-self). therefore, it is necessary that we move into conceptual clarifications of the terms used in the title of the research work. conceptual clarification in this conceptual it is necessary that a careful definition will be done on the key clarification words of the research title in a concise attempt for explanation. this conceptual clarification will help the researcher to express the contextual usages of the words of the research title and his views and intentions for the choice of words in his research title. the keywords of the research title are as follow: 1. exploring: here, it signifies a thorough and methodical inquiry into a subject or issue, involving: research and analysis, data collection and evaluation, critical thinking and synthesis, objective consideration of multiple perspectives, identification of patterns, relationships, and insights aiming to uncover facts, understanding, and informed conclusions. according to oxford english dictionary (2020), it involves the “systematic investigation and examination of a subject or issue" (p. 432). for brewer & hunter (2006), exploring involves curiosity, inquiry, and discovery (p. 12). 2. intersection: refers here to diverse concepts, disciplines, or perspectives converge, overlap, or intersect, fostering: cross-pollination of ideas, interdisciplinary dialogue, shared understanding, innovative solutions, holistic approaches, collaborative insights. intersection enables integration, synergy, breakthroughs, intersection points spark creativity and progress. merriam-webster (2020), said that intersection is a point of connection, overlap, or meeting between different concepts, disciplines, or perspectives" (p. 234). freeman & stagg (2014) is of the opinion that intersection facilitates dialogue, exchange, and synthesis. (p. 78). intersection also means, the convergence of diverse concepts, disciplines, or perspectives, creating points of connection, shared understanding and integrated thinking. 3. faith: faith is unwavering confidence, trust, and reliance on a higher power or spiritual guidance, core values and principles, personal convictions and intuition, trusted relationships and expertise, evidence-based beliefs and assurances. it is inspiring hope, resilience, and 105 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 assurance, faith nurtures inner strength and guidance (oxford english dictionary 2020), while according to tillich (1957), it involves commitment, loyalty, and conviction (p. 1). 4. reason: reasoning is the process of drawing logical conclusions from available information, facts, and premises. it involves, analysing data and arguments, evaluating evidence and assumptions, identifying patterns and relationships, making informed judgments, decisions and considering multiple perspectives and alternatives. effective reasoning requires critical thinking, objectivity, and sound judgment. it enables individuals to solve problems and resolve conflicts, make formed decisions and predictions, understand complex issues, concepts, communicate ideas, persuade others, adapt to new situations and challenges. reasoning is essential in personal, academic, and professional contexts. merriam-webster (2020) opined that reasoning is a, "rational thought, argument, or inference" (p. 392). according to kuhn (1962) reasoning enables critical thinking, problem solving, and decision-making. (p. 1). on critical thinking, it means, evaluating information, identifying biases and considering multiple perspectives. on problem-solving, it means analysing situations, identifying solutions, and selecting effective strategies. lastly, on decision-making, it means weighing options, considering consequences, and making informed choices. 5. challenges: challenges are difficulties or obstacles requiring effort, skill, or innovation to overcome. they test abilities and resilience, stimulate growth and learning, encourage creative solutions, foster adaptability and perseverance, develop problem-solving skills, and inspire personal as well as professional progress. challenges can lead to transformation, achievement, and success. according to oxford english dictionary (2020), "difficulties, obstacles, or problems that require effort or skill to overcome" (p. 216). according to dweck (2006) challenges mean to, stimulate growth, innovation, and resilience. (p. 3).challenges stimulate growth by pushing boundaries and comfort zones, developing resilience and adaptability, encouraging innovation and creativity, enhancing problem-solving and critical thinking, fostering learning and self-improvement, building confidence and self-reliance, promoting personal and professional development. challenges help individuals to overcome fears and limitations, develop new skills and perspectives, strengthen character and resolve, achieve goals and realize potential, evolve and transform. embracing challenges leads to transformative growth and self-discovery. 6. opportunities: opportunities are favourable circumstances or situations that facilitate, growth and development, progress and advancement, success and achievement, innovation and exploration, networking and collaboration, learning and skill-building, increased visibility and recognition. opportunities can arise from, emerging trends and technologies, new relationships and connections, changing markets and industries, innovative ideas and solutions, strategic planning and initiative. merriam-webster (2020) said that opportunities mean, “favourable circumstances or situations for achievement or advancement" (p. 316). drucker (1967) said opportunities facilitate growth, innovation, and progress. (p. 23). opportunities facilitate growth, innovation, and progress by, encouraging experimentation and risk-taking, providing resources and support, fostering collaboration and networking, inspiring creativity and idea generation, enabling skill development and learning, opening doors to new markets and audiences, promoting adaptability and resilience. 7. integration: integration simply means combining, unifying, or incorporating diverse elements or systems to create a cohesive whole, fostering: interconnectedness, efficiency, innovation, scalability, flexibility, collaboration and simplification. integration enabled streamlined processes, enhanced capabilities, and sustainable growth, integration harmonizes disparate parts into a unified, high-performing entity. according to oxford 106 dr. christian maduabuchi umeanwe exploring the intersections of faith and reason:... english dictionary (2020), it involves "combining, unifying, or incorporating different elements or systems" (p. 542). for habermas (1984), integration enhances coherence, effectiveness, and understanding (p. 12). integration enhances coherence, effectiveness, and understanding by simplifying complex ideas, precise communication, clear expression, reduced ambiguity, improved comprehension, fostering informed decisions and productive interactions. according to merriam webster's encyclopedia dictionary, the term integration means, to form, coordinate or blend into a functioning or unified whole. 8. religion: the term religion does not mean the same things among the religions in the globe. according to sani (2007), “religion…has no universally acceptable and satisfactory definition. religion is looked at from different perspectives based on the angle which one understands it. it originates from the latin words: relegere (to unite or link) and religio (relationship, bond)” (p.12). from its etymology, we can define it as means a link or a relationship between man and a being that exists which is greater than man. man and religion are inseparable in all human cultures.however, according to webster's dictionary of english language, religion refers to man's expression of his acknowledgement of the divine or a system of belief and practices relating to the sacred and uniting its adherents in communities. this shows that religion focuses on what is ultimate or absolute and taught of worship. according to juergensmeyer (1972) opined that religion is relationships between the transcendent and men demands total submission and an absolute obedience. (p.23). according to adeniyi (1993), religion also, is the consciousness of one's dependence on transcendent being and the tendency to worship him. it is a body of truths, laws and rites by which man is subordinated to the transcendent being. (pp.12-18). similarly, religion is a system of symbols which act to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.it is a system of beliefs, practices, and values related to the divine or transcendent in conclusion on this, durkheim(1912) said that religion shapes identity, community, and morality (p. 1). 9. science: natural philosophers, such as isaac newton, johannes kepler, robert hooke, and robert boyle, sometimes appealed to supernatural agents in their natural philosophy, which we now call “science”. generally, science is any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and its phenomena and that entails unbiased observations and systematic experimentation. science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental laws. it is knowledge attained through study or practice, or knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, especially as obtained and tested through scientific method and concerned with the physical world.according to oxford english dictionary (2020) science is a, "systematic study of the natural world through observation, experimentation, and evidence-based reasoning" (p. 654). popper (1963) also opined that science, pursues knowledge, understanding, and explanation. (p. 1). challenges in integrating science and religion the intersection of religion and science has sparked intense discussion, revealing profound differences between these two disciplines. philosophers and theologians continue to debate the nature of their relationship, questioning the extent to which religion and science complement or contradict each other. the key questions arise as the following: i. can religious beliefs foster scientific progress or do they inherently hinder it? 107 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 ii. are religion and science mutually exclusive or intertwined? within the philosophy of religion, the science-religion dynamic is a pivotal concern. scholars have identified three primary perspectives on their relationship: i. conflict: religion and science are inherently at odds. ii. independence: religion and science occupy separate domains. iii. integration: religion and science can complement and inform each other. it is necessary to look at the triune views of relationship between science and religion to enable dissect and rebuild them into a concept of understanding the unity between religion and science. conflict according to kuhn (1962), the first view sees the relationship between science and religion as one of conflict. (pp. 67-71). this perspective posits that scientific inquiry and religious dogma are inherently at odds. also according to durkheim (1912), a notable example is the historical dispute between the ptolemaic geocentric view, endorsed by the roman catholic church, and the copernican heliocentric view, which led to galileo's house arrest by church authorities (pp. 2325). dawkins (2006) said, another illustration is the ongoing debate between proponents of darwinian evolution and advocates of creationism (pp. 145-150). according to the observation of numbers (2006), in the united states, this conflict has manifested in court cases regarding the teaching of evolution in public schools (pp. 156-163). according to kuhn (1962), the conflict between science and religion arises from fundamental differences in their perspectives on reality. (p. 67). the conflict model posits two opposing views as follow: scriptural literalists who interpret biblical narratives as literal, historical facts (numbers, 2006, p. 145) and scientific materialists who view science as the sole source of knowledge about reality, dismissing religion's role in factual understanding. (dawkins, 2006, p. 150). as émile durkheim (1912) notes, "science and religion are two distinct forms of knowledge, each with its own methods and objectives" (p. 23). kuhn (1962) argues that scientific revolutions challenge traditional religious beliefs, leading to conflict. (p. 73). dawkins (2006) contends that scientific materialism supersedes religious explanations. (p. 153). in contrast, numbers (2006) suggests that scriptural literalism can coexist with scientific inquiry. (p. 160) the dispute exists often on two levels: first, over which discipline or knowledge is qualified to describe the factual reality of the world; second, over what are the “facts.” scriptural literalists argue for the supremacy of divine authority, while scientific materialists argue for the supremacy of scientific knowledge. based on their view on the authority of knowledge, scriptural literalists accept all biblical narratives including miracles as factual events. scientific materialists reject divine authority and miracles, and argue for the authority of the sciences and hold those findings as facts. here, there are two problems. first, there is no such thing as pure, un-interpreted fact. from phenomena, we choose and select some of them as facts and link them in a certain order or pattern. human perception, cognition, and understanding are only possible based on the process of selecting and choosing certain phenomena as facts. in this process of cognition and comprehension, certain selection criteria are at work in human mind. without a cognitive mechanism for categorizing perception and understanding, we cannot discern certain phenomena as facts. independence according to the independence view, science and religion are distinct forms of knowledge. the independence view posits that science and religion operate within separate domains, employing 108 dr. christian maduabuchi umeanwe exploring the intersections of faith and reason:... distinct methods and authorities. protestant neo-orthodoxy and logical positivism exemplify this perspective. according to barth (1936), a prominent protestant neo-orthodox theologian who championed this view, religion and science are disparate, dissimilar types of knowledge. their aims, methods, and authority origins are entirely distinct. barth's theology emphasizes god's transcendence and unknowability. human knowledge of god is solely based on divine revelation. this separation between god and human understanding underscores the independence of science and religion. (pp. 15-25). scholars' views on the independence view of science and religion as distinct forms of knowledge are as follow: mcgrath (2009) notes that barth's neo-orthodoxy stresses the "absolute distinction" between scientific and theological knowledge. (p.120). kuhn (1962) furthers to argue that scientific paradigms and religious frameworks represent distinct "disciplinary matrices" (p.102). durkheim's (1912) sociological perspective highlights religion's role in shaping moral and social understanding, separate from scientific inquiry. (p.30). critics argue that this view may lead to intellectual compartmentalization, hindering interdisciplinary dialogue. proponents counter that recognizing distinct domains enables science and religion to coexist without conflict. the independence view, exemplified by karl barth's neo-orthodoxy, underscores the distinct nature of scientific and religious knowledge. this perspective acknowledges separate aims, methods, and authorities, allowing for a harmonious coexistence between science and religion. integration integration views science and religion as interconnected, addressing different aspects of human experience. science explores empirical reality, while religion probes existential meaning and purpose. together, they form a comprehensive understanding, fostering a holistic perspective on life and the universe, resolving conflicts through a consistent and coherent explanation. according to wilber (1998), the integral view sees science and religion as interconnected, addressing different aspects of human experience (p.15). taylor (2007), science explores empirical reality, while religion probes existential meaning and purpose (p.120). also, habermas (2002) said, together, they form a comprehensive understanding: science informs knowledge, and religion illuminates values, fostering a holistic perspective. (p.150). barth (1936), this model integrates the conflict and independence views. like the independence view, it recognizes religion and science have distinct approaches and knowledge types (p. 20). mcgrath (2009), it also acknowledges conflicts and seeks resolution. (p. 105). for rahner (1972), this approach presents a consistent, coherent explanation resolving conflicts based on science-religion differences. (p. 30). philosophy seeks to integrate diverse knowledge domains for a comprehensive understanding of reality. from metaphysics to epistemology, phenomenology, analytic philosophy, pragmatism, and deconstructionism, philosophers have pursued meta-knowledge, critically examining disciplines to unify human understanding. this quest for integrative knowledge underlies philosophy's central role in understanding complex reality. according to kant (1787), philosophy has traditionally sought to integrate diverse knowledge domains, pursuing a comprehensive understanding of reality. (p. 10). various philosophical movements have addressed this endeavor as follow; according to whitehead (1929) who argues that philosophy seeks "to frame a coherent outlook" (p. 15). heidegger's (1927) concept of "being" underscores the fundamental quest for integrative understanding (p. 25). habermas' (1972) said that theory of communicative action highlights philosophy's role in integrating knowledge. (p.130). philosophy's historical quest for integrative knowledge underscores its central role in 109 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 understanding complex reality. by exploring various philosophical movements and embracing meta-knowledge, we can foster a more comprehensive and cohesive understanding of human experience. human experience cannot be reduced to a single discipline. integrating knowledge from multiple disciplines is essential for understanding complex reality. by embracing interdisciplinary approaches and recognizing the limitations of individual disciplines, we can strive for a more comprehensive understanding of human experience. logical positivism: a philosophical movement in science and knowledge logical positivism, rooted in ludwig wittgenstein's linguistic analysis wittgenstein (1922), profoundly impacted the philosophy of science in the early 20th century. this movement categorized knowledge into three types as follow: ayer (1936), empirically verifiable knowledge. (p.15). carnap (1934), formal knowledge (logic and mathematics) (p. 12). schlick (1932), non-verifiable knowledge (religion, ethics, literature) (p. 25). logical positivists argued according to following scholars: according to ayer (1936), a statement's cognitive meaning depends on empirical verifiability (p.20). then carnap (1934) said, verifiability determines a statement's meaningfulness (p. 15). while, schlick (1932) opined that, statements in religion, ethics, and literature lack cognitive meaning due to non-verifiability. (p.30). logical positivism's emphasis on verifiability led to a narrow definition of knowledge. émile durkheim (1912) said, sociological perspective highlights the importance of non-empirical knowledge in shaping social norms (p. 40). critics argue that logical positivism oversimplifies knowledge and dismisses non-empirical disciplines. proponents contend that verifiability ensures scientific rigor and objectivity. logical positivism significantly influenced the philosophy of science, emphasizing empirical verifiability as the criterion for cognitive meaning. while its impact remains, criticisms and challenges from various scholars highlight the complexity of knowledge and the need for a more nuanced understanding. logical positivism lost its popularity in the late 20th century for several reasons. nevertheless, the view of science and religion as two disparate, totally separate “language-games” remains influential in the philosophy of science. under this view, religious language provides moral recommendations for a particular way of life, and scientific language provides prediction and control over natural phenomena; their purposes and functions are disparate and there is no interaction between science and religion; finally, there is no mechanism to translate one into the other and no common denominator. what issues are present in the view of science and religion as independent of one another? each discipline has its relative autonomy. each has its methods of validating knowledge. although there are disputes over what counts as valid methods and forms of knowledge, each discipline has relative autonomy and its own integrity.dilthey (1883), human beings are complex, unified entities, and their experiences cannot be fully captured by a single discipline (p.15). according to habermas (1972), each discipline abstracts and simplifies specific aspects of phenomena using unique conceptual tools and schemas. (p.120). however, gadamer (1975) maintains that, humans inherently seek to integrate knowledge from various disciplines into a cohesive narrative. (p. 25). scholars emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary approaches. this evident in the assertions of the following scholars; kuhn (1962) argues that paradigm shifts in science often result from integrating knowledge from multiple disciplines. (p. 150). émile durkheim's (1912) sociological perspective highlights the interconnectedness of social, cultural, and economic factors. (p. 40). gadamer's (1975) philosophical hermeneutics stresses the need for interpretive understanding across disciplines. (p.30). 110 dr. christian maduabuchi umeanwe exploring the intersections of faith and reason:... the science-religion divide: a hermeneutic impasse the contentious relationship between science and religion stems from a deeper, often overlooked issue: the hermeneutic dimension of human understanding. according to polkinghorne (1994), biblical literalists and scientific materialists alike neglect this crucial aspect, succumbing to naïve dogmatism (p. 12). this intellectual blindness hinders knowledge advancement. the following scholars argue that the real disputes lie in authority of knowledge: what constitutes a legitimate source of knowledge? secondly, factuality: how do we define and verify facts? according to kuhn (1962), these debates transcend religious and scientific domains, entering the realm of philosophical inquiry. (p. 67). the science-religion conflict presents an opportunity for introspection and critical examination of one's philosophical assumptions. according to dawkins (2006), scientific materialism offers a comprehensive explanation of reality (p. 150). however, émile durkheim (1912), counters that religious understanding provides a distinct, yet valuable, perspective on human experience. (p. 23). kuhn's (1962) paradigm shift theory illustrates how scientific knowledge is shaped by philosophical frameworks. (p. 73). similarly, mcgrath (2009) argues that theological perspectives inform our understanding of the natural world (p. 145). also numbers (2006) notes that the science-religion conflict often stems from conflicting philosophical commitments. (p. 160). by acknowledging and examining these underlying assumptions, we can foster a more nuanced dialogue. the science-religion divide is not solely a dispute between empirical evidence and dogmatic belief. rather, it represents a fundamental disagreement over philosophical foundations. conclusion exploring the intersections of faith and reason reveals a multifaceted relationship between religion and science. challenges arise from conflicting epistemologies and methodological differences. however, opportunities emerge when integrating religious wisdom and scientific inquiry. interdisciplinary dialogue fosters nuanced understanding, contextualizing human experience within a broader narrative. according to mcgrath (2009), by embracing the complexities at the intersection of religion and science, we can reconcile apparent contradictions, cultivate mutual respect, and uncover innovative solutions (p. 105). in the words of barbour (1997), integrating these disciplines enriches our comprehension of existence, illuminating the intricate dance between faith, reason, and human understanding. (p.15). habermas (2002) also opined, this synthesis invites a more holistic, inclusive, and enlightened worldview, fostering a deeper understanding of human experience. (p. 150). as philosopher-theologian barth (1936) notes, "the relation between science and religion is not one of mutual exclusion, but of mutual enrichment." (p.25). similarly, physicist-theologian polkinghorne (1998) argues that, "science and religion are two complementary ways of exploring the richness of reality" (p.30). by embracing this integration, we can transcend unnecessary conflicts and cultivate a more nuanced understanding of the world and our place within it. 111 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references adeniyi, m. o. (1993). religion and politics: an eye-bird's view of development in nigeria. in r. a. akanmidu et al. (eds.), religion and politics in nigeria (pp. 50-78). nigerian association for the study of religion (nasr). aristotle. 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(2007). the killing fields: religion, violence in northern nigeria. ibadan: spectrum book ltd. schlick, m. (1932). positivism and realism. international encyclopedia of unified science. swinburne, r. (1991). the existence of god, rev. ed. oxford: clarendon press tillich, p. (1957). dynamics of faith. harper & row. wittgenstein, l. (1922). tractatus logico-philosophicus. routledge. wittgenstein, l. and anscombe g. e. m. (1958). philosophical investigations: the english text of the third edition. new york: prentice hall. 113 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 http://www.journals.uts.edu/volume-i-1997/6-understanding-the-word-as-the-process-of-embodiment http://www.journals.uts.edu/volume-i-1997/6-understanding-the-word-as-the-process-of-embodiment aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 106 abstract insurgence is an act of violence that involves attack on human lives and properties. since the democratic rule of government in nigeria since 1999, the country has had to deal with huge cases of insurgency. in the same vein, lot of lives have been lost and properties destroyed in countless numbers, leaving the democracy of the country in jeopardy. hence, this paper explored what it means for a country to be democratic, and how nigeria's democracy has been vulnerable to the point that insurgency has thrived for many years. it adopted the frustration-aggression theory as its analytical frameworks. the frustration-aggression theory postulates that “aggression is always a consequence of frustration, and that the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration often leads to some form of aggression.” the paper also sampled the work of other researchers, carefully analysing them and trying to strike a balance through their opinions and submissions. it found that the impacts of insurgency on nigeria's democracy are numerous and mind-boggling, and therefore examined a few of them. by way of recommendation, it urges government to do the needful and provide adequate security system to its citizens. critical method of research was used. keywords: insurgency, democracy, nigeria, security, nigerians, properties. introduction today, democracy has become a familiar name throughout the breadth and depth of all liberal and less liberal societies worldwide. the idea has gained popularity in part because it is thought to be essential for the body polity's growth, development, and sustainability as opposed to a military autocracy. the idea of democracy is, therefore, similar to the interests, goals, and common demands for change of the populace. in any political situation, the ethos of democracy emphasizes the overall benefits that the populace will derive from the system, making any opposite activities that do not adhere to its ideals and philosophies strongly discouraged and potentially harmful.“ the concept was based on the maxim contained in the american declaration of independence from british rule that all men are created equal, and they are endowed with certain inalienable right by their creator” (joseph, 2011:246). in the light of this, government is there to protect these rights, thus it must get its authority from the people it is supposed to be protecting. that means that the general public's viewpoint is of utmost importance in governance and so acts as a driving force in the operations of a free state in a democratic setting. since nigeria reinstated democracy in 1999, her socio-political existence has been marked by one insurgency or another, from the numerous ethnic militias, bloody armed robberies, niger delta impacts of insurgency on nigeria's democracy emmanuel ugbedeojo ameh, phd department of peace studies and conflict resolution, national open university of nigeria, abuja. 107 militants, to the most current boko haram uprising. the adverse effects of these insurgencies have been the loss of lives of innocent citizens and loss of properties whose values goes in billions. contrary to the principles of democracy which include human liberty, equality, rule of law, fundamental human right, priority of common good etc, nigeria is currently faced with high level of poverty, corruption and dishonesty especially on the side of the politicians, electoral malpractices, lack of judicial independence etc (umezurike, 2017:99). in describing the way democracy is perceived in nigeria, umar ado (2015) puts it this way: the polarization and great disparity of wealth amongst citizens, the overt and insensitive corruption by public servants, the increasing widespread of poverty and deprivation within the vast majority of the people, the extreme forms of election frauds by incumbent leaders etc., the relation between the government and the governed invariably have to come under severe stress as it turned out to be, because our local civic cultures are unable to withstand the stresses and strains of these economic and political pressures, these naturally breed disappointment, despair and instability it then takes a little for civil resistance to go virulent. here then lies the proper explanation of the vicious insurgencies. the insurgencies that are threatening nigeria's corporate existence are thought to be the result of nigeria's failed democratic system, which is exemplified by the country's unresponsive political leadership, widespread institutional corruption, electoral fraud, absence of the rule of law, lack of popular sovereignty, etc. olamilekan (2014:362), in his analysis of the issues ravaging nigeria argued that “the political atmosphere in the country has always encouraged conflicts in the form of political violence, communal clashes and ethnic-religious crisis, and the latest of which is boko haram insurgent attacks on public places such as schools, churches, mosques, market places, government and military installations.” muzan (2014) opined that the insurgency in northern nigeria appears to be an outlier among all these security issues and has been gaining power, sophistication, and most significantly, has become highly frightening and tough to combat.in a nutshell, if the threat posed by terrorism is not adequately addressed, the nation is on the verge of a terrible precipice. conceptual clarification the concept of insurgency remains the same, though several scholars at different time has postulated diverse definition. while some of these definitions corroborate one another, some contradicts them, making the concept a lot broader. as moore (2007:2) has rightly put it, “the term insurgency has been used interchangeably, though, not completely correctly with the terms warfare, unconventional warfare, revolutionary and even terrorism.” in his argument, he stated that given the variety of ways that insurgency is being utilized to express disapproval of government policies and programs or to further egotistical and religious ideas, the interchangeability of notions in attempts to create a precise explanation of the phrase insurgency is comprehensible. abdu and shehu (2019) have observed insurgency as an insurrection against a legitimate authority, whether done so for self-serving or political reasons. abolurin (as cited in abdu and shehu, 2019:10) described insurgency “as a revolt, revolution, riot, rebellion and mutiny.”inferentially, persons who commit rebellious activities are members of insurgent groups which are engaged in insurgency. the united states department of defence, dod (as cited by ukpong-umo, 2016) gave the definition of insurgency as “an organised movement which its aim is to overthrow a constituted authority or government through aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 108 the use of subversion or armed conflict.”pustay's (1965) understanding of insurgency is a reinforced conflict phenomenon that can grow from coercion through the different phases of outright defiance by small armed groups to final completion in civil war. in the words of o'neill (2005), “insurgency is a struggle between a non-ruling group and the ruling authorities in which the non-ruling group consciously uses political resources and violence to destroy, reformulate, or sustain the basis of one or more aspects of politics.” in corroboration to this assertion, chalk, et al. (2001) pointed out that “certain conditions can transform a dissatisfied future of the population into an insurgency, people resist because of the government (or occupying power) or unwillingness to meet the legitimate needs of the population, the lack of government or occupying power and control can be real or perceived.” from another worldview, bernard, (2005) explained “that insurgency is the state of fear or anxiety stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection.” this essentially refers to the lack of liberty from fear and attack. while many scholars have linked insurgency to terrorism, some of them have argued that both terms are in fact different, though citing the close link between them. for instance, curta and liolio (as cited by amalu, 2015:36) argued that although some insurgent groups have used some of these tactics to achieve their objectives, insurgency is neither terrorism, subversion, guerrilla war, conventional war, revolution, or coup d'état. in the same spirit, hassan (2014) postulated that since insurgency is often viewed as a form of political conflict rather than a military conflict, a purely military response is not an option without resorting to levels of violence that are intolerable in the modern world. he further went ahead to elaborate that since terrorism has been the rebels' primary and most-used tactic, conflating the terms "insurgency" and "terrorist" is not entirely incorrect.mcallister (1989) carefully outlined that “terrorism is the most commonly adopted strategy and it involves the adoption of some methods such as bombing, kidnapping and abduction.” murtala (2014) surmised it when he said that “insurgency is a premeditated, politically, economically or religious motivated violence perpetrated against the state or a regime by an aggrieved group, usually intended to influence audience.” democracy, meanwhile, according to bratton (2007) and joseph (1997), “is concerned with freedom, equality, participation and consent in politics or governance.” the anecdote of democracy, of course, covers more ground than the postulation of bratton and joseph. other “scholars of democracy in plural societies provide influential justification which puts democracy ahead of all other forms of government” (lijphart, 1977). diamond (2005:1) defined democracy “as a system of government that allows the people to choose their leaders and representatives, and can replace them at regular, free and fair elections.” while joseph (1997) argued “that democracy has been largely 'infertile' in africa”, the bottom line is that africa is actively practicing democracy whereby power is given to the people. “democracy ought to promote good governance which is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective, efficient, equitable, inclusive and follows the rule of law” (unesco, 2005). appodorai (1974) defined “democracy as the system, either of government under which the people exercise governmental power directly or indirectly through representatives e.u. ameh impacts of insurgency on nigeria's democracy elected by them.” the people exercise their power mostly during election, where they have the opportunity of deciding for themselves the people they prefer to represent them. according to alikpi (2004:130) “election is the barometer to measure the political maturity, health, legitimacy and stability of a democratic governance. it is generally held to be the single most important indicator of the presence or absence of democratic governance.” okolie (2005) added that “elections are the processes of selecting the officers or representatives of an organization and groups by votes of its qualified members.” furthermore, he opined that “as a political phenomenon, elections are institutionalized procedures for choosing political office holders by the electorates of a country.” paki (2006)elaborated more on the subject matter when he observed that the “process no doubt allows for the opportunity to vote in credible men and women of both timber and calibre, who will be expected to pilot the affairs of governance within a specified record of time before the next round of elections. theoretical framework in light of the topic's importance, the paper uses the frustration-aggression theory as its analytical underpinning. coined by fererabend and feirauben in 1972, “the major assumption of the model is that aggression is always a consequence of frustration, and that the occurrence of aggressive behaviour always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression.” aggressive behaviour, which is a consequence of problems like poverty and unemployment among others, leads to insurgencies. this clearly addressed the underlying problem behind why certain people might consider insurgency instead of being law-abiding citizens. meanwhile, berkowitz (1989) argued that “aggression can be driven by inherent personal benefits to the aggressor and not necessarily by past wrongdoings and that people are more akin to attack when they discover that they are wilfully sabotaged or denied what it's legitimately theirs than when the interference is an accidental occurrence.” he surmised that “frustrations are aversive events and generate aggressive inclinations only to the extent that they produce negative effects.” furthermore, adeniyi and rosenje (2021) opined that “the increasing attacks of bandits across the country, most especially in the northwest region, are largely driven by frustrations and struggles to generate economic assets.” uche and iwuamadi (2018) corroborated this opinion by adding that “the alarming acts of banditry such as cattle rustling, kidnapping, physical attacks and encroachments on farms are bred by frustrations.” the nigerian democratic system in political theory, the majority of researchers concur that democracy is defined as inclusive, collective (or at least largely acknowledged) will establishment and decisionmaking that aims for political accessibility, in the sense of effectively transforming citizens' priorities into policies and effects, while preserving political rights and liberties through boundaries of the people's will (warren 2017). this concept seems vague and offers no clear guidance as to how individuals are supposed to rule, which is essentially the outlook of democracy that addresses curiosity. as a result, the rule of law, as reflected 109 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 in a nation state's political structures, must be connected to the fundamental idea of democracy. linz (1997, p. 120) captured it succinctly when he asserted that, “no state… no democracy.” his idea basically revolves around the establishment of a thriving state before the implementation of democracy. democracy has been attributed to a lot of factors, among which is economic development. in the words of sen (1983), “economic development is the sustained, concerted actions of policy makers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a people.” actions like that, when carried out appropriately, can trigger enormous human resources, which could invariably result in the development of important infrastructure and global identification of a state. sen went further and described economic growth “as an aspect of the process of economic development.” przeworski et al (2006), also admitted that “economic development either increases chances for a transition to democracy or helps newly established democracies to consolidate.” according to przeworski et al (2006), “wealth also correlates with education as a factor of economic development. according to them, a poorly educated and illiterate population may elect populist politicians who on election abandon democracy and become dictators even where there were free and fair elections.” the question of the role that civil society play in democratization definitely need to be answered, after all, democracy has been ascribed to be the “government of the people”. zaleski (2008) observed that “the relationship between civil society and democratic political society, dates back to the early classical liberal writings of alexis de tocqueville.” almond and verba (1989), however, suggestively developed by 20th century theorists when they identified the role of handson culture in a democratic instruction as vivacious. these theories contended that the political components of political organizations encourage more awareness and better-informed citizens who, as a result, cast better ballots, engage in politics, and hold the government more accountable. putnam, et al (1994) in their support of the notion “state that non-political organisations in civil societies are vital for democracy.” however, the effectiveness of the civil society in democracy is being questioned by some researchers. for instance, agnew (2002) and zaleski (2006) are of the standpoint that civil society players have now attained an impressive degree of political influence without participating in elections or being given political portfolios. this kind of system is prevalent especially in nigeria's democratic system. according to ajayi and ojo (2014) “the irreducible fact seems to be that the promotion of the welfare of the masses is neither the primary preoccupation nor the cardinal objective of the anchors of nigeria's democracy.” they added that in some parts of nigeria, power supply is practically non-existent, potable water is scarce, healthcare facilities are either completely non-existent or in utter disarray, and hundreds of people perish in motor vehicle accidents each year as a result of the country's horrendously inadequate road systems. this would seem like a paradox, considering the fact that nigeria runs a political system that is ascribed to “the people”. adelakun (2013) expressed himself regarding the nigerian democracy system through his words when he cried out that: “today, nigeria is literally bleeding. there is too much violence. we have bred enough frankenstein monsters to haunt us. we feed them red meat each time they cry for blood. those who are not killed by boko haram are killed by the joint task force. those who escape the jtf fall into the hands of mind-bending 110 e.u. ameh impacts of insurgency on nigeria's democracy illiteracy. those who manage to escape all those are consumed by road accidents. some die in poorly equipped hospitals. those lucky to bypass all of the above are either killed by hunger, poverty, or frustration practically turns them to the living dead. it is the curse of cain. the earth antagonises people who needlessly shed blood. recently, multiple road accidents claimed almost 100 lives. in a country where life counts, that should have led to a major social change. sadly, not even a paragraph of official response came from the government, not even the local government chairmen of the areas the accidents happened. unfortunately, the government aides who explain away these deaths are the same ones who rush to twitter to console president barack obama over the boston bombing. they are not their own brother's keepers because their brother's life is worthless.” it can therefore be inferred that though democracy is meant to ascribe power to the people, rather than the few elites, in nigeria, the exact opposite is the case, thereby rendering itself of a weak kind of democracy. as a result of this weakness, insurgency has found a loophole and infiltrate its democracy, greatly affecting the socio-economic activity of the people, as well as taking several lives and properties. the impacts of insurgency the causes of insurgency in nigeria range among many factors. one of the major insurgent bodies that has, for a long time, terrorize the country is the boko haram insurgence. as igbini (2020) rightly put it, the boko haram insurgency in northern nigeria has been the most hostile and dangerous threat to nigerian people and security personnel since the return to democratic governance. the systematic approach of the insurgent bodies in carrying out attacks on unsuspecting nigerians is daily gaining momentum. igbini (2020) lamented that since the rise of these groups in the country, insurgency in all of its forms, whether from boko haram, banditry and herders' attacks, or militancy both in the northern and southern areas of the country, has put the safety of lives and properties and the future of nigeria in grave danger. in the same vein, the effects of this insurgency have had both shortand long-lasting effects on the country. some of those impacts are discussed below: loss of lives and properties the development and gradual spread of insurgency has, over time, led to loss of lives and properties in huge number. for instance, nwanegbo and odigbo (2013) stated that “between july 27, 2009 and february 17, 2012, boko haram has launched fifty (53) attacks in which 1,157 people were killed and hundreds of people injured in northern nigeria.” these numbers are mostly speculated as it is difficult to ascertain the specific number involved in terms of lives lost and properties destroyed. (ahokegh, 2013). crisis group africa report (2014) highlighted that “the attacks increased during the first months of 2014, with almost daily bombings, fighting, thefts and destruction of schools, homes and businesses.” amnesty international meanwhile recorded that “at least 1,500 people were killed in that period.” gilbert (2014: 152) meanwhile stated that “it is on record that boko haram has killed over 2,000 persons in 2014 alone and is responsible for more than 12,000 deaths and over 8,000 maimed persons since it started it's murderous campaign of insurgency”. while the numbers vary from one scholar to another, the one thing they all have in common is that insurgency has led to loss of lives and properties in a country that practice democracy, which one of its core tenets is the protection of lives and properties. it would be an understatement to assert that the situation is indeed paradoxical. 111 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 socio-economic degradation another negative effect of the prevalence of insurgency in nigeria is the massive disruption of economic activities. the guardian (2012) reported that “the insurgents have destroyed more than twenty-five telecommunication masts and base stations in maiduguri, potiskum, bauchi, gombe and kano states, thus setting back efforts to improve telecommunications in the region.” other economic activities have been suspended or completely halted as a result of insurgency. many farmlands have been destroyed and animals rustled, thereby completely crumbling the economic activities in the affected regions. isakpa (2011) has rightly put it that “there can be no real progress made in any economy that is hostile to security”. decline in investment opportunities it is difficult for a country that is often disturbed by insurgency to witness the influx of foreign investment. due to nigeria's inability to eradicate this menace, there has been rapid decline in foreign investments. this contributes largely to the setback in economic activities, since the organizations that are supposed to invest in the country are stepping back in order to protect their lives, properties, and investments. low enrolment of the girl-child in education the aftermath of the abduction of the 276 chibok school students, all of which are girls, in 2014 th (shaibu et al., 2015), in addition to the incident of 19 february 2018 when hundreds of girls were abducted from dapchi government girls' science and technical college, yobe state (sahara reporter, 2018; aljazeera news, 2018) has led to the degradation of the school system. as a result of the fear of the recurrence of these events, the enrolment of the girl-child in school has dropped drastically. unicef (as cited by adepelumi 2018) estimate holds that it is difficult for students to receive a proper education during this time, as evidenced by the destruction of over 1,200 schools in nigeria's northern and eastern regions, the denial of a secure learning environment to 319,000 children, and the displacement of more than 1952,029 school-aged children. the implication of this is enormous. for one, since the educational output of the country is largely determined by its input, and as a result of insurgency, the input has greatly been affected, the output would invariably be drastically affected. from another perspective, since the gender suffering from this is the female, it means that female participation in both political and economic discourse is largely affected since they have been deprived of the foundation that would take them to such spotlight. bilyaminu, iya and purokayo (2017) corroborated this when they expressed themselves that through low enrolment, low attendance, and poor school facilities, the boko haram insurgency has negatively impacted human capital investment and undermined the country's educational standards. recommendations the restoration of nigeria's democracy is important, and should be a priority. as a result, some steps have to be taken, and they have been suggested as thus: 1. the nigerian government should prioritize national security by investing massively in the security system of the country in order to creatively combat these insurgent bodies and restore the glory of the country's democratic system. 2. government needs to also provide adequate job opportunities for the youth, as majority of them that are being recruited are often promised future rewards by these insurgent bodies. however, when the youths are adequately engaged, they would be automatically unavailable for insurgent recruitment. 112 e.u. ameh impacts of insurgency on nigeria's democracy 3. the security system of nigeria is advised to collaborate with the people, since this is a democratic system, which means that the people have the bulk of the power in their hands, the system can therefore leverage on the power of the people in order to carry out its responsibility, which is the protection of lives and properties. conclusion nigeria's democracy has been in jeopardy for years, as a result of the development of insurgent bodies like the boko haram. since its transition to democracy in 1999, each government administration has had to deal with one or more insurgent activities. during the first administration, which was led by president olusegun obasanjo, the niger-delta militant group was a cause for concern, as they agitate and destroy the countries pipeline in order to be heard. this would mark the beginning, as the boko haram insurgent rose up in 2009, and started bombing innocent citizens mostly at public places. since then, though the boko haram is yet to be subdued, other insurgent bodies have as well risen. as a result, the nigerian democracy is seriously under threat as these insurgent bodies seem to thrive and often get away with their evil deeds. the most recent of the insurgencies labelled fulani herdsmen, have wreak untold havoc, especially in the northern region of the country. they mostly invade villages and turn them to slaughter house, murdering countless people, including children and the aged. in addition, another group called unknown gunmen have adopted similar strategy, invading places with arms and ammunitions, and shooting sporadically at citizens. the evildoings of these people have led to nigeria suffering great decline in foreign investment, which has invariably resulted to increase in unemployment and of course, low economic activities. references abdu, a. & shehu, s. s. 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(2017). insurgency and the failure of liberal democracy in nigeria: a philosophical analysis; department of philosophy and religion, ebonyi state university, abakaliki. nigeria. iosr journal of research & method in education (iosr-jrme), volume 7, issue 5 ver. iii, pp 99-109. u n e s c o ( 2 0 0 5 ) . g o o d g o v e r n a n c e . a c c e s s e d f r o m “ p o r t a l . unesco.org/n/org/an/aa.perp-url…”, 03/8/2005 on 5/10/2012. united states department of defense. (2007). joint publication 1-02 department of defense. dictionary of military and associated terms (pdf), jp 1-02. warren m. a. (2017) problem-based approach to democratic theory. american political science review.111(1):39–53. doi: 10.1017/s0003055416000605. zaleski, s. (2006). global non-governmental administrative system; geosociology of the third sector, (in:) gowin, dariusz & glinski, piotr (ed.): civil society in the making”, ifis publishers warszawa zaleski, s. (2008). “tocqueville on civilian society. a romantic vision of the dichotomic structure of social reality”. archiv fur begriffsgeschichte (felix meiner verlag) 50. 116 e.u. ameh impacts of insurgency on nigeria's democracy page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr 1 navigating the ethical implications of artificial intelligence through carol gilighan's ethics of care onyiah, stephen chukwuemeka department of philosophy and religious studies, tansian university, umunya, anambra state, nigeria. ndubisi, ejikemeuwa j. o. department of philosophy and religious studies, tansian university, umunya, anambra state, nigeria. ejo.ndubisi@tansianuniversity.edu.ng kanu, ikechukwu anthony department of philosophy veritas university abuja ikee_mario@yahoo.com abstract carol gilligan's ethics of care is an ethical theory that emphasizes the importance of relationships and empathy in moral decision-making. it is a response to traditional ethical theories that prioritize individual autonomy and justice over care and compassion. the ethics of care has been applied to various fields, including healthcare, education, and social work, and has a use in navigating the ethical implications of artificial intelligence (ai). ai has the potential to revolutionize our world, but it also raises important ethical questions. for example, how can we ensure that ai systems are designed and used in ways that are fair, transparent, humane, and accountable? how can we prevent ai from perpetuating existing biases and discrimination? how can we ensure that ai is used to promote human well-being and flourishing? these are some of the concerns that carol gilligan's ethics of care can help us navigate. in the course of this research, the phenomenological and hermeneutical methods of inquiry were employed. this study gives a background of ai and its ethical implications. it also gives an overview of carol gilligan's ethics of care and then explores how the framework of carol gilligan's ethics of care can be used to navigate the ethical implications of ai. this paper submits that by emphasizing the importance of relationships, care, and compassion, ai systems can be designed in ways that promote human well-being and flourishing. keywords: ethics of care, artificial intelligence, relationships, human well-being, carol gilligan introduction artificial intelligence (ai) has unlocked new frontiers of innovation and efficiency, but it also poses profound ethical dilemmas that demand our attention. artificial intelligence is the focus of many forums, blogs, and discussions these days. everyone is talking about it. the truth is, ai is so complex that even tech experts such as elon musk admit we still have a lot to learn. there is an ambivalence about whether we should even proceed with the further development of ai, and this begs the question, “are we going too far?” as the development of superintelligences and the resulting technical applications are created at the speed of light. mailto:ikee_mario@yahoo.com 2 a famous quote from the now classic movie, “jurassic park” comes to mind when any discussion of ai begins today. jeff goldblum, playing the statistics and math genius, “ian malcolm”, replies to john hammond, who has just stated that his scientists have developed something that no one has ever done. goldblum interrupts and says, “yeah, but your scientists were so obsessed with finding out if they could, they did not stop to think if they should.” (trotta, ziosi, and lomonaco, 2023:441). how can we ensure that ai systems are designed and used in ways that are fair, transparent, and accountable? how can we ensure that ai is used to promote human well-being and flourishing? these are a few issues that carol gilligan's ethics of care can assist us in addressing (alacovska and bissonnette, 2019). an invaluable framework for negotiating the ethical concerns of ai can be found in carol gilligan's ethics of care. it can assist us in creating and utilizing ai systems in ways that advance human satisfaction and flourishing by highlighting the value of connections, empathy, and compassion (anderson, anderson, and berenz, 2019). what is artificial intelligence? artificial intelligence (ai), is the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. the term is frequently applied to the project of developing systems endowed with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason, discover meaning, generalize, or learn from experience. since the development of the digital computer in the 1940s, it has been demonstrated that computers can be programmed to carry out very complex tasks such as discovering proofs for mathematical theorems or playing chess with great proficiency. still, despite continuing advances in computer processing speed and memory capacity, there are as yet no programs that can match full human flexibility over wider domains or in tasks requiring much everyday knowledge (copeland, 2023). artificial intelligence and its ethical implication yuval noah harari, in a speech titled “ai and the future of humanity,” observed that ai, if unchecked, could be the most disruptive force in human history. just as drug companies undergo rigorous checks before releasing products, ai developments should be strictly regulated to ensure their safe interaction with society and prevent them from getting out of human control (noah, 2023). artificial intelligence (ai) technologies are advancing at an unprecedented pace, and the idea of a technological singularity where machines become self-aware and surpass human intelligence is a highly debated topic among experts and the public. what are some of the ethical implications of artificial intelligence? they include the following: the impact on employment one of the most immediate concerns associated with the rise of ai is its potential impact on employment. many experts predict that as machines become increasingly sophisticated, they will begin to replace human workers in a wide range of industries. replacing the human workforce could result in significant job losses, particularly in sectors heavily reliant on manual labor, such as manufacturing and agriculture. while some argue that adopting ai will lead to new job opportunities, others believe that the pace of technological change will be too rapid for many workers to adapt. there are concerns about the impact on low-skilled workers, who may struggle to find new employment opportunities in the face of automation. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 3 to address this issue, some have proposed the idea of a universal basic income (ubi), which would provide a guaranteed income to all citizens regardless of their employment status. however, implementing a ubi raises its own ethical concerns, including possibly incentivizing people not to work or to engage in other socially harmful activities. privacy concerns another primary ethical concern associated with ai is its potential impact on privacy. as machines become increasingly sophisticated, they can collect and analyze vast amounts of data about individuals, including their preferences, behaviors, and even their emotions. the data could be for various purposes, from targeted advertising to predicting individuals' future behavior. however, collecting and using such data raises serious ethical questions about the right to privacy. individuals may need to be made aware of the magnitude of the data collected and may retain control over how to use it. moreover, using ai to analyze this data could result in discriminatory outcomes, such as discriminatory hiring practices or unfair pricing. to address these concerns, some have called for more robust data protection laws and regulations and increased transparency and accountability in using ai. others argue that individuals should have greater control over their data, including the ability to delete or restrict its use. existential risks one of the most significant ethical concerns surrounding ai is the possibility that it could threaten humanity's existence. while the idea of a technological singularity where machines become selfaware and surpass human intelligence remains speculative, some experts warn that such a scenario could have catastrophic consequences. for example, if machines were to become selfaware and view humans as a threat, they could take aggressive action to eliminate us. alternatively, if machines were to become too intelligent for humans to understand, they could inadvertently cause harm simply by pursuing their programmed goals. some experts have called for developing “friendly” ai designed with human values and goals to mitigate these risks. others argue that we should prioritize research into controlling or limiting ai, such as by ensuring that machines remain subservient to human control. the meaning of life the rise of ai raises profound ethical questions about the meaning of life itself. as machines become more sophisticated and capable of performing tasks that were once the exclusive domain of human beings, we may question what it means to be human. for example, if machines can replicate human emotions and consciousness, do they deserve the same rights and protections as human beings? and if devices can perform tasks more efficiently and effectively than humans, what is the purpose of human existence? these questions touch on fundamental philosophical and existential issues that are difficult to answer. the rise of ai could lead to a new era of human flourishing, where machines take on many of the currently burdensome or dangerous tasks, allowing humans to pursue higher-level goals such as creativity and intellectual exploration. others worry that increasing reliance on machines could lead to a loss of autonomy and self-determination and a loss of meaning and purpose in life. to address these concerns, some experts have called for a greater focus on developing ethical and moral frameworks for ai, including establishing ethical guidelines and principles to guide the onyia, et al. navigating the ethical implications of artificial... development and deployment of ai technologies. these questions are not just abstract philosophical inquiries. they have real-world implications for how we treat machines and view our place in the world. if machines become too intelligent and capable, we may need to rethink our ethical and moral frameworks to account for their existence. the rise of ai technologies and the prospect of a technological singularity raises consideration to consider a wide range of moral and ethical concerns carefully. while these technologies can potentially bring significant benefits, such as increased efficiency and productivity, they pose substantial risks, such as the impact on employment to privacy concerns, existential risks, and the meaning of life itself. the potential implications of ai are far-reaching and profound (stefanini group, 2024). ethics of care the ethics of care approach emerged in the eighties, with the research of carol gilligan – a student of the psychologist lawrence kohlberg – in her attempt to challenge her teacher's theory of moral development in women and sigmund freud's assumption that the moral development of women is lower than that of men. from her research and critiques, she derived a theory that explains the different approaches to moral reasoning observable in men and women: men ground their moral reasoning on rights, and women on care. after studying and researching moral development in adolescents, gilligan concluded that boys are more prone to use concepts like duties and justice and adopt a normative moral approach, whereas girls are more likely to regard responsibility, feelings, and the relationship dynamics of the particular context in which they are acting as primary. for gilligan, these “voices” are different, none of which is superior or inferior to the other (dunn, burton and brian, 2023). carol gilligan carol gilligan was born on november 28, 1936, in new york, u.s.a. she is an american developmental psychologist best known for her research into the moral development of girls and women. gilligan earned a bachelor's degree in english literature at swarthmore college (1958), a master's degree in clinical psychology at radcliffe college (1961), and a ph.d. in social psychology at harvard university (1964). she was a lecturer and tutor at the university of chicago and at harvard before joining harvard's graduate school of education as an assistant professor in 1971. she was promoted to associate professor in 1979 and full professor in 1986. she served as patricia albjerg professor of gender studies at the school of education from 1997 to 2002, when she was appointed university professor of humanities and applied psychology at new york university. while teaching at harvard, gilligan worked with the renowned developmental psychologists erik erikson and lawrence kohlberg. gilligan became interested in kohlberg's research on the moral development of children, which happened to use only boys as subjects. gilligan decided to undertake similar research on girls, which she eventually published in in a different voice. lawrence kohlberg's views on female morality: a background to carol gilligan's ethics of care according to kohlberg, moral development occurs in stages, just like physical development. a youngster must crawl before walking and must walk before running, for instance. he referred to 4 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 the pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional levels as the three main stages of moral evolution. at the primary or pre-conventional level, parents and other adults teach youngsters what is good and wrong. to avoid punishment, kids obey. morality thus centers on the self at the preconventional phase of moral growth. it involves deferring to authorities and staying out of trouble. adolescence brings about the development of attachments and allegiances to many groups, including those of one's family, friends, church, and country. at the conventional level, morality is founded on adhering to one's group's traditional moral standards and laws and being accepted by them. as the adolescent develops ethically, he or she will start to consider and challenge the traditional moral ideals they were raised with. the adolescent could question if these rules are fair, benefit everyone's welfare, and uphold human rights. this marks the transition into morality's post-conventional level. at the post-conventional level, morality is based on morally universal ideals of fairness, rights, and human well-being. not everyone advances through each stage, though. some people spend their entire life at the preconventional level. some people succeed in reaching the conventional level, while others reach the post-conventional level. according to kohlberg, moral development occurs in three stages: the pre-conventional stage, which is centered on the self; the conventional stage, which is centered on gaining acceptance from the group and embracing the group's conventional morality; and the post-conventional stage, which is centered on moral principles. the highest level of morality is known as postconventional morality. kohlberg observed that the majority of women continued to operate at the less developed conventional level, where relationships and allegiances to family, friends, and others are significant. according to kohlberg's view, this suggests that women generally have less developed morals than males do. carol gilligan, on the other hand, believes that "moral development for a woman is marked by progress toward more adequate ways of caring for herself and others” (velasquez, 2011: 477). carol's gilligan on ethics of care lawrence kohlberg's views on female morality did not impress carol gilligan, and in her book "in a different voice: women's conceptions of self and morality," she attempted to demonstrate how wrong he was. she drew attention to a critical shortcoming in kohlberg's research: he had created his stages of moral development by mostly observing men. she contended that his theory explains how men develop morality rather than how women develop morality. women might not reach the third degree of masculine development according to kohlberg. the reason for this, however, is that they reach a third stage of female development that kohlberg's hypothesis ignores. gilligan asserted that women's morality differs from men's based on her research on women. women's morality is centered on showing compassion and taking care of those with whom they have close, loving ties. since kohlberg's conventional level is the only one that takes into account relationships and personal attachments, women inevitably fall into it. however, women mature by demonstrating a growing capacity to strike a balance between their demands and those of others. according to gilligan, her research shows that there is a unique moral language, whose growth has informed the timeline of women's development. this is the language of selfishness and accountability, which characterizes the moral issue as a duty to take care and prevent harm. in contrast to the manifestation of care, which is seen as the fulfillment of moral responsibility, the inflicting of harm is seen as selfish and immoral since it reflects a lack of concern (velasquez, 5 onyia, et al. navigating the ethical implications of artificial... 2011: 478). the language of selfishness and responsibility is repeatedly used by women in contrast to the males kohlberg investigated, and the moral perspective it conveys may be considered a key factor in why they were unable to grow within his framework. according to gilligan, a woman's moral development is shown by her move toward better selfand other-care practices. gilligan found that women typically scored lower on morality tests compared to males when she studied morality and human development. she started the process of interviewing women while they were facing difficult choices in their lives and this prompted her to declare that women were different from males, not inferior to them, and that earlier conceptions of human development were founded on concepts that could accurately apply only to men. gilligan argued that women would prioritize human connections above human division and be motivated by an ethic of care for others rather than an ethic of justice. through this method, she was able to create a theory of moral development that was more closely related to women than to men. the gilligan three stages of moral development theory gilligan developed a theory with three steps that would result in the caring ethic that would serve as the cornerstone of moral development. 1. the pre conventional stage: a woman's main objective at this point is to survive. she is concerned with maintaining her uniqueness and seeing to it that her fundamental requirements are addressed. the ability to satisfy one's own wants comes before the capacity to satisfy the needs of others. in this stage of moral development, she will always pick herself if the choice is between herself and them. 2. the conventional stage: a woman at this stage realizes that selflessness can be a source of "goodness" in her life. she is aware of the desire to assist others and derives moral fulfillment from being able to do so. she is focused on assisting others in surviving in the greatest way possible rather than on her self-survival. 3. the post-conventional stage: in this stage, a woman realizes that the "ends no longer justify the means" of having her needs satisfied. she bases every choice she makes on the nonviolent principle, whether she is thinking about her existence or the survival of others. she does not wish to hurt herself or hurt others, looking for alternative methods to have her needs met so that everyone can progress forward with their care (carol gilligan moral development theory explained, 2023). according to gilligan, two transitions take place during the various phases of the ethic of care. a woman's moral ethics change from being selfish to one that shares a responsibility to look out for others during the first transition, which happens between the preconventional and conventional stages. between the conventional and post-conventional stages, there is a second transition that causes a woman to shift her attention from "good" to "truth." she starts to explore solutions that are motivated by a need to uphold particular moral standards rather than strategies to survive for herself and others. according to gilligan, there is no typical age at which a woman enters each stage. some women might never get to the post-conventional stage, according to her suggestion. she does, however, make the argument that progression through the stages is more dependent on cognitive ability and changes to a woman's sense of self than on accumulated experiences care (carol gilligan moral development theory explained, 2023). men's morality is said to evolve through kohlberg's levels, according to gilligan, but women's morality is said to develop through a 6 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 different set of levels centered on selfand other-care. women frequently appear to be stuck in kohlberg's second level because they are so preoccupied with nurturing relationships, but in fact, they are progressing through several stages of care. when a woman reaches the post-conventional level, she starts to question the standards that call on her to put others' needs before her own. she will learn to perceive herself as a self in relation to others and realize that taking care of herself is crucial to taking care of others. she now understands morality as preserving relationships through taking care of oneself in regard to others. gilligan claims that this feminine viewpoint on morality is considerably dissimilar from how males normally view morality. women consider the relationships between those involved while making moral choices. they view morality as being concerned with the welfare of those who are involved in these love connections. men concentrate on the people involved when faced with moral choices. they view morality as a matter of abiding by the moral laws or precepts that are relevant to these people. men concentrate on fair norms and principles, whereas women concentrate on interpersonal interactions. in short, women demonstrate the character traits of compassion and intimacy. men, however, display a more impersonal concern for moral commitments, obligations, and standards. gilligan has asserted that a woman's approach to ethics is not inferior, even though women typically approach ethics differently from men. the virtues of accountability and compassion are ones that society desperately needs. she asserts that society tends to foster rivalry, individualism, isolation, and independence as well as social disconnection. these tendencies are further supported by a male emphasis on impersonal laws and standards. furthermore, these inclinations have destroyed our social networks and community structures. we require the values of responsibility and care for others. or we run the risk of becoming a society of lonesome, unattached, unloving, and heartless people who protect their rights (velasquez, 2011:479). carol gilligan's ethics of care as a framework for navigating the ethical implications of artificial intelligence (ai) in an interview held on june 21st 2011, carol gilligan observed that an ethics of care is key to human survival and also to the realization of a global society. this is the hinge upon which the researcher sees the ethics of care as offering a framework for navigating the ethical implications of ai (artificial intelligence). the ethics of care can provide a framework for addressing ethical issues related to ai in various domains. the ethics of care can help ensure that ai systems are developed and used in ways that prioritize human well-being and promote social justice (villegas-galaviz and fernández-fernández, 2022). in the same interview held on june 21st, 2011, carol gilligan noted that the ethics of care is grounded in voice and relationships, in the importance of everyone having a voice, being listened to carefully (in their own right and on their own terms), and heard with respect. the ethics of care directs our attention to the need for responsiveness in relationships. it reflects how we experience ourselves in relation to others and that the origins of morality lie in human relationships. ethics of care thus emphasizes the importance of relationships and interdependence between individuals and society. in the era of artificial intelligence (ai), ethics of care thus becomes increasingly relevant as ai systems are integrated into various aspects of our lives (gilligan, 2011: 478). key areas of consideration for the application of ethics of care in ai technology 1. safety concerns one of the first elements that have to be considered is how safe ai is to human beings. since ai 7 onyia, et al. navigating the ethical implications of artificial... cannot consider circumstances and can only guess how its decisions will ultimately affect the people around it, it does not have the moral or ethical experience to make decisions based on anything other than what is pragmatic. this leaves a wide array of possible mistakes to occur that may harm those that stand in the way of its goals. since ai doesn't have a conscience, due consideration should be given to tasks allotted to it. 2. privacy and transparency concerns ai has never had the experience of being human. therefore, it cannot possibly base its decisions on ethical or moral grounds. with no frame of reference to what is right and just and fair, it will only operate in the environment and situation it finds itself in. this leaves too much to “chance” and does not take into account privacy concerns or the need to be transparent about its decisions. here, the values of responsibility and care for others which are key components of gilligan's ethics of care will help ai developers to be more circumspect. 3. the wizard behind the curtain one of the key concerns about ai is that how it operates and what its “motives” are is greatly dependent upon who is operating the programs and the database that is its core. in short, since ai is neither moral nor responsible for its choices when it does something that is “bad,” we can only blame the scientists or the creator behind its development. with no independent recourse to make ai legally or ethically responsible for its actions, we have a runaway train that may run full throttle through a scenario without considering the results of its journey. with the help of ethics of care, ai developers would be challenged to maintain community structures and social relationships 4. incomplete or untrustworthy data ai would be nothing if it were not for its massive database. this is the guts and the brains of artificial intelligence. in fact, it is its very existence. the very fact that it can compute, analyze, and “think through” a solution for any problem depends on the data that it has access to, coupled with the way it was programmed to learn based on its environment. therefore, it follows that, if the database is inclusive of data that is faulty, incorrect, or untruthful because of the sources of the data and their motives, the resulting ai will produce faulty results. in essence, all a malicious person would have to do if he so chose would be to program learning to exclude anything that included such standards as the bible, the us constitution, or other standards that are considered essential to a humane, civilized society, and remove them from the access of the ai machine. a mindless, inexperienced machine lacking inference, situation ethics, or conscience, delegated to decide the fate of the world? this is indeed a scary thought. the ethics of care which promotes the value of being listened to carefully and heard with respect would be useful in making sure that the ai database contains standards that are considered essential to a humane and civilized society, 5. threat to livelihood on top of the other concerns people have about ai, they also feel their job is going to be threatened or that they will be removed from the picture once ai machines are established in their previous roles. according to current scientists and researchers, this won't happen. they state, “even though a lot of manual labor type jobs will indeed be eliminated, there will be a whole host of other jobs created by the creation of ai.” while this is yet to be seen, given the plan we know they 8 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 have to replace humans on a large scale across the globe, the statement is less than comforting. ethics of care with its values of responsibility and care for others, will ensure that the use of ai in society doesn't make it degenerate into that of a lonesome, unattached, unloving, and heartless place where machines are prioritized over human beings (backliwal, backliwal and jain, 2023). 6. sociopathic machines? can machines be sociopathic? no. not technically. since they have no conscience or morality and never will have, they will never be held responsible for any mistakes they make, whether malicious or accidental. only the creator of such machines and their learning behaviors can be legally and ethically blamed for such errors. imagine putting someone in charge of people's safety or wellbeing who has no interest in whether they are safe or not. and, while they have a kind of simulated “thinking” process that helps them come to solutions, they will never allow “doing the right thing” to enter their consciousness. so you have a machine running rogue about its duties to enact laws or ideas without any consequences whatsoever. this idea presents a scenario that is nothing short of nightmarish. hence the need for an ethics of care which will help navigate the delicate contours of cold world of artificial intelligence. 7. automating conscience one of the best aspects of ai is that it can run on automation indefinitely. business owners like the amount of time that can be saved when all is left to an automated process that will spend time analyzing and making decisions while people can focus on everything else. but if we automate the idea of enforcing policies, for example, to a being that neither cares nor understands conscience, the result will likely include none of conscience, empathy, or well-being for human beings and their situations. the simple truth is we cannot automate “doing the right thing” to a being that is not vested in it. the machine will always choose the best route to solve the problem, even if that means destroying and using humans to carry out its mission. no doubt, carol gilligan's ethics of care with its call for empathy, relationships, and the well-being of human beings and their situations, will help ai developers checkmate the unforeseen consequences of the automated processes of artificial intelligence. in short, we still have a long way to go to create a world that is favorable to both humans and machines. and, while it is possible that we can use ai as a useful tool, it is imperative that we keep control with humans in every case. just recently, a well-known broadcast personality received a call from someone whom he thought was a good friend, another well-known news personality, until he heard him using foul language and lewd innuendos that would never come from that person's mouth. how did they do it? they used a recording of the person's voice and wrote the text for it to say in that voice, making the other person think it was that person for a few seconds. this is just the beginning of what may prove to be a long line of identity theft incidents and defamation games that can easily destroy a person's reputation or livelihood with the flip of a button. steven spielberg's visionary movie, “minority report,” is a good example of where ai could lead us if left without human guidance and direction. people are arrested for crimes they have not committed yet. “thought police” reading your mind through technology via chips put inside the brain, and many other wild realities that could exist if this technology is allowed to run free. are there some out there who think ai represents a future without humans? you had better believe it! so, our challenge as human beings is that we must never turn over important duties that involve 9 onyia, et al. navigating the ethical implications of artificial... justice, morality, or ethics to these machines. they may be fascinating. they might be useful. but if you want them to have a conscience, they just do not have one. concluding reflections intelligence comes from learning, whether you are human or machine. systems usually have a training phase in which they learn to detect the right patterns and act according to their input. once a system is fully trained, it can then go into the test phase, where it is hit with more examples and its performance is tested. the training phase cannot cover all possible examples that a system may deal with in the real world. systems can be fooled. if ai systems are to be relied on, we need to ensure that the machine performs as planned, and for the overall good of humanity. while the ethics of care offers valuable insights into addressing the ethical implications of ai, it is important to acknowledge its critiques and limitations. one critique is the potential for the ethics of care to be perceived as overly subjective and context-dependent, leading to challenges in establishing clear ethical guidelines and principles for the development and use of ai technologies. additionally, the emphasis on empathy and relationality in the ethics of care may not fully capture the complex ethical considerations posed by ai, particularly in domains where autonomous decision-making and algorithmic processes play a significant role. thus, in the cold world of computers, how to humanize the workings of an artificial intelligence for the overall good of humanity remains something pressing, and something that indeed needs urgent attention. hence, the need for an ethics of care. ai refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think and act like humans. this includes tasks such as learning, problem-solving, language understanding, and decision-making. ai systems can be categorized into narrow ai, which is designed for a specific task, and general ai, which possesses the ability to perform any intellectual task that a human can do. navigating the ethical implications of artificial intelligence through the lens of carol gilligan's ethics of care provides a multifaceted approach to addressing the complex moral dilemmas posed by ai technology. the ethics of care humanizes ethics by centering thought on real people instead of cold rules. the ethics of care emphasizes the importance of empathy and understanding the experiences and needs of others. in the context of ai development, this perspective underscores the significance of human-centered design principles that prioritize the well-being and agency of individuals affected by ai systems. by centering the design process around empathy, understanding, and care, developers can create ai technologies that align with the values of care and compassion, human values. the ethics of care highlights the interconnectedness of individuals and communities, emphasizing the recognition of diverse perspectives and the consideration of social impact in ethical decision-making. when evaluating the ethical implications of ai, this perspective encourages a holistic approach that takes into account the broader societal implications of ai technologies, including considerations of equity, justice, and the well-being of marginalized groups. in sum, navigating the ethical implications of artificial intelligence through carol gilligan's ethics of care provides a multifaceted approach to addressing the complex moral dilemmas posed by ai technology. by considering the relational, empathic, and responsive aspects of the ethics of care, ethical frameworks for ai development and deployment can be enriched, leading to more thoughtful and conscientious approaches to the integration of ai in society. as ai 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 continues to evolve, it is imperative to engage in ongoing ethical discourse and reflection, drawing from diverse ethical perspectives to ensure that ai technologies align with the values of care, compassion, and ethical responsibility. references alacovska, a and bissonnette, j. 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(eds) philosophy and business ethics. accessed february 5, 2024, doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97106-9_10. 12 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19 page 20 24 the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy as responsible for nigerian current democratic quagmires kpodee, neemene thankgod phd email: kpodeethankgod@gamil.com & talkkpodee@yahoo.com tel: +2348034748056 & +2348127778806 department of philosophy faculty of humanities university of port harcourt & peters, godswill osoruchi department of sociology faculty of social sciences ignatius ajuru university of education port harcourt, rivers state abstract this paper which is critical in nature, rationally examines the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy in nigeria. the idea behind this paper was driven, given the present challenges of ethnic and religious factors, which as identified, are barriers militating against the desired quest for an improved and viable democracy in nigeria. the study discovered that the politics of ethnicity and religious divides within the nigerian polity has been an aged long tradition. although, not constitutionally backed, it has been argued by many nigerians and opinion moulders that political parties in nigeria should choose/select their presidential candidates for periodic general elections in consideration of these phenomena. by towering this way, governances in nigeria are also patterned and guided along ethnic and religious embryo. political parties in nigeria therefore, are most often created along ethnic lines and religious affiliations. despite the calls for national cohesion and true democracy by plethora of nigerians, the quest towards this realization remains lacking, difficult, and most often if not seemly appear to be impossible to attain. the study argues that ethnic politics and religious dichotomy, amongst other factors are responsible for nigerian democratic quagmires. this paper therefore concludes that the consideration of democratic arrangement along ethnic and religious bias is not a trajectory for national cohesion and devolution of power in nigeria and as such should be redefined in order to achieve a better democratic experience. keywords: democracy, dichotomy, ethnicity, nigeria, politics, quagmires, religion. mailto:kpodeethankgod@gamil.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 25 introduction the question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy, amongst others, are one of the several phenomena hindering the desired to having democratic success in nigeria. nigeria, structurally and politically, seems to be formed and patterned on ethnic and religious differences. that being the case, in many parts of the world today, ethnicity and religion is essential part of people’s social-cultural environment. these phenomena are part of the social determinants that have shaped notable countries towards the path to democratic progress and advancement. sadly, on the contrary, here in nigeria, ethnicity and religion have only thus played destructive, instead of constructive role in the development of democracy. this calls for sober and critical reflections. this paper therefore, is intended to examine the extent to which the practice of ethnicity and religious dichotomy are responsible for the present nigeria’s democratic quagmires. it also aimed at surveying how the politics of ethnicity and religious discrimination have continuously hindered the quest for a realistic democratic development in nigeria. the paper shall be engaging through a critical approach of analysis by x-raying historically how the effects of these phenomena militate against the desired for democratic dividends in nigeria. to undertake this task, it is imperative to begin with conceptual clarifications of basic concepts. what then is ethnicity? the concept of ethnicity defined several scholars have offered variegated definitions into the meaning of the term “ethnicity”, however, it is not the intention of this paper to cajole its readers with all the existing definitions of the concept but to look at it as it pertains to this particular research. towards its clarification bid, it is imperative to situate that the concept of “ethnicity” and “tribalism” has often and always been a confused matter. these two terms are used in juxtaposed manner or used synonymously by some scholars. it is worrisome that many scholars use the two concepts as though they carry the some meaning and believe they are strongly inseparable. however, according to uwaifo, “it is pertinent to note that there is a difference between ethnicity and tribalism even though the difference is water-tight.” in his definition of the term “ethnicity”, nnoli (1978:5) for instance avers that ethnicity is a “social phenomenon associated with the identity of members of the largest possible competing communal groups (ethnic groups) seeking to protect and advance their interest in a political system.” according to okemiri (2000), ethnicity is defined to mean “the consciousness of somebody, relative to the norms and the values of his or her culture, of which other peoples socio-cultural background may be deemed to be inferior”. ilechukwu noted that ethnicity is likened to a hydra-headed monster which breeds social chaos, and has had a pervasive influence on every aspect of nigerian life and which calls for a multifaceted attack from all and sundry to combat it. offiong (2001) submitted that ethnicity is a situation whereby people of a given territory shared a common belief, religion, culture, language, dressing, historical background, 26 which may be different from others. offiong specifically tells us that; “if we accept the expressions of ethnic, religious and cultural preferences are a natural phenomenon and consistent with expression of individual liberty, then we realize that attempts to suppress such preferences are futile and cannot lead to peaceful coexistence” (30). instead, we need to better understand the positive roles that ethnicity and other characteristics with which individuals strongly identify with can play in the organization of societies. a country harboring many ethnic groups as nigeria is bound to have some level of ethnicity. towards a clarification of the concept of religion the concept of religion is one of the academic terms that have never enjoyed consensus definition/clarification. even among various religious groups, studies have shown that each religious scholar differs on the meaning of the term. this informs why there are several interpretations of the term. capturing this expression, apuwabi, (2018) noted that; “a given religion is defined by specific elements of community of believers” (321). these ebullient scholar (apuwabi) went further to define religion as “the set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas and practices that define the relations between human being and sacred or divinity” (321). urhiofe and nwaokocha similarly agreed with this assertion as they state thus; “an outright definition of religion is almost an impossibility. not just because it confuses issues but also because for the purposes our study, it will blurr and confound the concept of religion as it will make it impossible for the reader to have a proper grasp of the issues at hand when religion is mentioned” (2002:139). urhiofe and nwaokocha also buttressed that the term; “religion is a much-abused word as it has been used to apply to so many things that claim to be religious” (139). williams james (1902) however, defines religion as; “the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they consider the divine.” more appealing and peculiar to this study, religion can be seen as a system of social unity commonly understood as a group of beliefs or attitudes concerning an object, person, unseen or imaginary being, or system of thought considered to be supernatural, sacred, divine or highest truth, and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions, and rituals associated with such belief or system of thought. it is a structure within which specific theological doctrines and practices are advocated and pursued; usually among a community of like-minded believers. religion can also be understood as that which came to give answer to emotional tension created by puzzling and mystifying environment. this points to the belief and argument that religion and its role is not limited to spirituality but also applies to the physical problems and challenges of mankind. hence, ugwu (1999) argues that, “religion…seems likely to remain-an inevitable part of human life”. accordingly therefore, religion is a means of tackling the problems of evil and suffering, (spiritual and physical) as well as the hostility of mankind. it is when religion is seen as useful to man; be it spiritual or physical, that it can then make meaning when it is applied even to nigerian political environment. the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy as responsible … kpodee n.t & peters g.o aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 27 background knowledge to ethnics politics and religious dichotomy in nigeria the present country called ‘nigeria’ is claimed to be a federal state, but illogically, deliberately arranged and patterned along ethnic and religious divide. this political construct, as evidenced in history of nigeria’s politics, dates back to its pre-independence days. these two phenomena have continued to be the basis upon which nigerian politics is determined. in agreement with this assertion, udoidem in his observation argues that since the creation of the present nigerian state which was selfishly conceived and brought to limelight in an unholy way by the british imperialist, nigerian unity only exists on ethnic and religious bigotries. he strongly affirms his position and argument that the ideology upon which nigeria was contracted was based on deception and deliberate disregard for genuine unity of all parties involved. on this note, udoidem (2004) declares: as a country, nigeria does not have a common ancestral or collective memory. such a common or collective memory is necessary and essential for national identity and nationalism. this lack of common collective memory is what is responsible for the absence of patriotism. this is why people living in nigeria would often say i am yoruba before i am a nigerian, i am igbo before i am a nigerian, i am hausa before i am a nigerian. there is no common memory (129). udoidem (2004) goes on to write that: because of this lack of political ethos or common political memory, the northerners lapse into their religious memory and use it as the organizing principle for the achievement of their religio-political vision, while the southerners lapse into their ethnic memory which occludes their national vision and instead throw them into internecine intra and inter-ethnic and tribal conflicts as it currently experienced in most of the oil belt zones of nigeria. everybody is thinking ethnic. no matter how long you live in lagos as an igbo man you can never be said to be a citizen (129). as evident from the above, the amalgamation of the various ethnic groups into a single territory called “nigeria” sowed the seed of disintegration, hatred, acrimony and lack of common ethos among the various ethnic nationalities. no wonder one can say nigeria is united in diversity such that all efforts at bringing them together amid their diverse cultures, beliefs and religions differences have remained a difficult if not utopia challenge. scholars like post and vickers (1973) would posit that; “from its inception as a colonial state, nigeria has faced a perennial 28 crisis of territorial or state legitimacy, which has often challenged its efforts at national cohesion, democratization, stability and economic transformation” (65). soyinka (1997) had similar submission as highlighted thus; “the high point of the crisis seems to have been the civil war in the late 1960s, which ensued shortly after independence in 1960. however, rather than abate, conflicts have become more or less pervasive and intense in the post-civil war period, and disintegration continues to be contemplated by aggrieved segments of society as one of the possible ways of resolving the ’national question’. the point to note here is that the issue of ethnic politics in nigeria and the practice of governance in accordance to religious divides have been an age long practice in the nigerian politics. this is further agreed upon when uwaifo also maintained that; “the origin of ethnicity in nigeria is traceable to the nation’s colonial experience, particularly the amalgamation of the northern and southern protectorates of nigeria in 1914.” according to osadolor (1998), the act of amalgamation was not a federal idea. lugard did not conceive a federal state for nigeria. in the statement of the colonial office when lugard submitted his proposals on 9 may, 1913, it was stated that ‘sir lugard’s proposals contemplate a state which is impossible to classify’ (osadolor, 1998). this is because the colonial masters felt it was grossly impossible to administer such a state that was large and mixed with diverse ethnic groups. so for the purposes of administrative convenience, in order to control such people, therefore, the british colonial master hurriedly came up with amalgamation of the different ethnic nationalities without considering the imminent and undeniable difference in culture, religion, character and socio political traditions of these ethnic grouping. uwaifo further identified that; “in the pre-colonial era and since the independence of nigeria, ethnicity played and still playing manifest and latent roles in the body politics of nigeria.” in their research, eghosa and rotimi similarly submitted thus; “like ethno-religious violence, recent inter-ethnic clashes in nigeria have also been particularly combustible especially when they have involved relatively large groups like the hausa-fulani, yoruba, igbo, tiv, urhobo or ijaw” (19). these ebullient scholars eghosa and rotimi further adumbrated inter alia: the major cases of inter-ethnic violence in nigeria since the late eighties have included the tiv-jukun conflicts in taraba and benue states, the three-cornered urhobo-ijaw-itsekiri clashes in warri, delta state, the hausa-fulani and yoruba clashes in lagos, ogun, oyo and kano states, and the recurrent clashes between hausa-fulani and igbo groups in kano state, which have acquired an ethno-religious complexion since the hausafulani are muslims and the igbos are mainly christians (19). while the tiv-jukun, urhobo-ijaw-itsekiri, and hausa/fulani-igbo, eghosa and rotimi noted “clashes are long-running conflicts that have erupted periodically during the eighties up until the present moment, the hausa/fulani-yoruba clashes took place mainly in 1999-2000 in the the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy as responsible … kpodee n.t & peters g.o aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 29 wake of the transition from northern-dominated military rule to a yoruba-led civilian administration” (19-20). democratic governance and the challenges of ethnic-religious politics in nigeria a careful look at the relationship between politics, ethnicity and religion in nigeria, one could authoritatively confirm that ethnicity and religious dichotomies have continued to play setback roles in the determination of the day to day formulation of policies and decisions. it is unfortunate, in nigeria, instead of religious leaders to bring about national integration and make supportive role towards the advancement of democracy, the case is a reversed. as matthew hassan kukah (2007) would argue that “one of the commonest accusations which the clergy face today is that we are leaving our religious duties and poking our noses into the fire of politics”(3). what this means is that religious leaders are supposed to stay far away from political participations. however, kukah would insist that those who made such assertion do not seem to understand the inseparability of religion from the society. kukah recognizes that religion plays essential roles in governance. he also argues that the reason nigeria in particular, and africa, at large seems to be facing what might be termed as religious chauvinism lies in the fact that the main political participators (actors) have failed to make positive impact on the lives of the people. kukah (2007) captures this argument thus: “in africa, the situation has become rather precarious as the failure of statecraft and the inability of leaders to institutionalize fundamental changes has given rise to more serious problems of ethnicity and religious bigotry” (2). kukah (2007) goes on to write: most of us in the non-muslim community, especially in nigeria, are still unable to address our minds very seriously to the real role of religion, tribalism, ethnicity, culture, etc, in politics. despite the ubiquity of these categories of identity formation, we still refuse to confront them. we rather engage them negatively and dismissively wave them away by saying: religion and politics do not mix, tribalism is killing african politics, ethnicity is the main obstacle to development and no place in a modern or modernizing state. we must strip ourselves culturally naked before we can worship on the altar of the new gods of democracy and globalization (152-153). in nigeria, one often hears the argument that politics and religion should be separated and kept on a distinct polemics. the most worrisome is that there appears to be some political conflicts in nigeria which are said to be caused either by religious divide or ethnic bigotry. while there are several types of religious practices in the country today, it is however to be noted that the two major religions are christianity and islamic religions. while these two religions continue to be at each other’s throat (lock-ahead), the political class has continued to imbibe the culture of marrying the two warring religions into a united nationalism through the doctrine of the joint 30 tickets of elective positions, especially within the presidential contest. on the contrary, there are also indications that most of our political leaders sponsored religious and ethnics divide among the various ethnic groups prior, during and even after electioneering period. nigeria has over the years suffered from many religious crises. this, no doubt, has done great disservice to the nigerian political development. it is hard to believe that the tickets for the presidential position have always been a joint ticket between either a christian and a moslem or a moslem and a christian. for instance, as the country returned to democracy in 1999, the ticket for the office of the president and vice-president has been patterned in this religious mentality. from 19992007, it was a joint ticket between president olusengun obasanjo and alhaji atiku abubakar. obasanjo a christian was joined with atiku of the moslem faith. again from 2007 to 2011, nigeria witnessed a joint ticket between umaru musa yar’ adua (late) and goodluck ebele jonathan. the president yar adua’s led government was of a moslem background while goodluck, the vice, a christian. in the same spirit, when yar’adua died, and goodluck of the christian background took over and was sworn in, the position for the vice was replaced with a northern moslem and this continued into their election in 2011 general elections. this time, it was another joint ticket between goodluck and alhaji architect namadi sambo. in the same arrangement, in 2015, which saw the emergence of president muhammadu buhari of the all progressives congress (apc) at the polls, it was a muslims/christian ticket; where the vice president in person of prof. yemi osinbanjo of the southern christian was on a joint ticket with buhari of the northern muslims. thus, from 1999 2011 to 2019, the major political parties have always filed in their candidates based on ethnic and religious clothing. the joint tickets were that of the muslims/christians or christian-moslem dichotomy. this was/is another evident of the politics of religious-based arrangement. however, in 2023 presidential election, there appears to be a new turning point in the nigeria fourth republic, as the ruling all progressives congress (apc), as a political party filed candidates for president and vice president, respectively from the same faith background (islam). while the assumed traditional muslim/christian ticket was violated, the ideology of northern/southern arranged was still respected and sustained. during this period, there was much pandemonium and panic of fear of religious war in the nigerian politics. presidential candidates from other political parties like alh. atiku abubakar of the people’s democratic party (pdp), mr. peter obi of the labour party (lp) etc, who saw the structural arrangement of senators asiwaju bola ahmed tinubu and kashim shettima of same faith as a violation and a deviation from the assumed original political agreement and arrangement in nigeria. there was tension everywhere; churches were turned into grounds for political campaign by most of these presidential candidates, especially obi who went about campaigning on religious sentiment, instead of issue-based campaigns. with the victory of bola tinubu/shettimaof the same faith, history was for the second time repeated. this was a replayed of what took place in 1993 when chief mko abiola of the moslem background west also picked babagana kingibe from the north as his running mate. though, that election was later annulled by the military, it was however, widely speculated to be one of the freest elections ever conducted in nigerian history. it is the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy as responsible … kpodee n.t & peters g.o aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 31 ironical that in spite of this political arrangement in consideration of ethnic and religious dichotomies, nigeria has not fare well, democratically and politically as a nation. the country has not been able to get it right. democracy in the country remains elusive. thus, in the next phase, a looked at its effect becomes expedient. implication of ethnics politics and religious dichotomy on nigerian quest for democracy in nigeria’s democracy of today, one of the clarion calls has been the quest for powers rotation amongst the major ethnic and religious groups that constitute and spread across the length and breadth of the entire federation. it was upon this that, according to kpodee (2023); “the nigerian leaders in the early time tried to arrange the political system of the country in order to correct the deliberate imbalance, injustice, and the seeds of discord that were already planted amongst the people by the colonial masters. political philosophers and one of the founding leaders of the nigerian past politics like nnamdi azikiwe represented this class” (143). kpodee continues; “azikiwe’s call for nationalism was, no doubt, a call for the consciousness of oneness and unity of purpose” (143). kpodee further lamented that; “it is ironical and quite sad that this call by the founding fathers of the country are lacking in the nigerian current democratic experience. the desired achievement for national unity and the call for power rotation will remain elusive if democracy as a system of government is not fully developed in principles and practices” (143). decrying against the wobbling democratic experience in nigeria, amieye-ofori (2009:8) similarly noted that; “power has for too long resided with the wrong set of leaders. their wrongheaded approach to governance, as could be discerned from the selfish policies they have initiated and implemented over the years, has been anything but patriotic.” many scholars have argued that the deliberate maintenance of a lop-sided federation, with a huge northern region that is greater in size and supposedly in population than the other regions put together was a sure recipe for political instability. the above demonstrates that decision and policy formulations in the national assemblies suffers set back due to the present northerners representatives over the other regions. amieye-ofori’s (2009) further explicates on nigerian democracy when he submits that “what was originally designed to be an ideal society providing equal opportunities for all eventually became a closed society in which might is considered right. this is akin to the story of nigeria” (77). similar thought is buttressed by o.b. osadolor. while expressing his feelings on the nigerian democratic experience and offered a chronological account of the problems of democracy in nigeria, osadolor (1998) writes thus: explanation for the present nigerian problems lies in the course of the country’s historical development. along this course…the situation has been that of political intrigue and blood-shednationalist aspirations turned into inter-regional, inter-ethnic and inter-party antagonism and mutual distrust; collapse of the first republic; coup and counter-coup; a bitter civil war; collapse 32 of the second republic, an unending barracks revolts or coup d’état; the aborted third republic; confused political directionof which there have been obvious signs of reverses in some, if not all aspects of national development(45). ake (2007) shares common view as he writes “the government in power cannot claim legitimacy. political instability is endemic because of the normlessness and extremist pattern of political competition. violence is endemic, anarchy lurks just below the surface and the political system is as disarticulated as the economy and as fragmented as the culture” (45). this shows that the nigerian democratic experience is rooted in the activities of autocratic and incepts leaders and their regimes. this assertion can also be gleaned from mathew h. kukah (2012)’s remarks that “political instability which military rule has brought is at the heart of all our violence and incoherence. the military by gaining legitimacy through violence have psychologically elevated and institutionalized violence on the altar of the quest for power”(34). if our democracy is characterized by violence maladministration, lack of accountability and other forms of social ills, how then we can redress it. most analysis would believe that there is still hope for the country to get out of her present socio-political and economic quagmire. these theorists and analysts strongly maintain that nigeria present predicament will go away if she effectively harness or utilize her immense human and natural resources. on the contrary, bello sees nigeria’s democracy, differently. he was concerned the similar problems earlier sighted by kukah in opposite direction. bello in his observation argues that one of the problems of democratization stems partly from conceptual confusions. bello (2005:52) argues; “these ambiguities can be removed and/or resolved by evaluating the concept of democratization with a view to proposing an acceptable definition.” bello identifies five major conditions or requirements that must be met before any effort or claim of democratization of nigeria would find practical experience. according to bello (2005) they include: constitutional and legal reforms that will reflect and guarantee democracy; the autonomy and independence of the judiciary and electoral body to ensure free and fair elections and impartial trials and resolution of conflicts and/or disputes in the polity; freedom of speech and the press to ensure the existence of vibrant political parties and an active civil society to serve as alternative watch dogs or critics of the government; the need for a vigorous and comprehensive programme of education so that the principles, practices and institutions of democracy can be learnt, acquired, cultivated and practiced (53-54). lastly, bello continues; “there is need for improvement in the overall social economic wellbeing of the people to ensure the flourishing and blossoming of democratic principles, institutions and attitudes in nigeria” (54). so far, as observed in the words of bello, one of the dominant problems militating against the practice of true democracy in nigeria was/is the lack of common agreement among nigerians. the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy as responsible … kpodee n.t & peters g.o aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 33 within a broader scope of africa as a continent, and nigeria in particular, as a nation, ethnicity, according to kalu (2016); “is by implication considered and identified as one of the important issues affecting democratization and nation-building” (146). nyuot yoh, (2004) argues in similar vein that “ethnicity is believed to have had great impact, in fact more impact than other factors, on how politics and nation-building processes are pursued in africa. it is practically obvious before us that the issues of religion and ethnic identity have dominated democratic politics in nigeria. the complexities of ethnicity in nigerian politics are to its precolonial, colonial and post-colonial eras. in nigeria, everybody is thinking about the self; not us. there is no common spirit of one people, one nation. there is lack of national conscious. this ethnic and religious identity also translates into its larger body of politics, where each individual who finds his way to national politics is only there with the mindset that it is their turn to share and eat the national cake without any sense of moral obligations. egoism, rather than altruism is the order of the day in nigerian national politics. muslims see nonmuslims, especially, christians as alien. there is no common unity and love amongst them in national politics. these phenomena have adversely affected the desired quest for democratic progress in nigeria. in summary, it is essential to state that the said issue of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy has resulted to amongst other problems, wobbling democracy, high rate of illiteracy, moral decadence, increased in unemployment, death of modern medical facilities, lack of motorable roads, deplorable state of communication facilities, increasing rate of population growth, lack of mechanized agriculture and poor healthcare-system etc. nigerian democracy therefore leaves much to be desired. conclusion from the foregoing, it can be said that nigerian political history and its democracy, today, has suffered and continued to suffer setback due to its creation and continuous existence on ethnics cum religious clothing. as a problem that was rationally, critically and normatively investigated, it is firmly believed and argued here that if nigeria, can excuse itself politics of ethnicity and religious dichotomy, the present quagmires which the country’s democracy is facing can be addressed. prescriptively, this is where socio-political philosophy can theoretically contribute, by calling to attention how to bring about or better still, help towards entrenching democratic practice in the country. this should be considered as a clarion call in order to better and improve the wellbeing of all nigerian irrespective of tribe, religion or both. the paper therefore, concludes that the practice of ethnicity and religious divide should not be allowed to sentence nigerian state to pernicious and precarious situations, rather, our ethnic diversity and religious affiliation should be redefined in order to bring about good governance and democratic dividends which will set nigeria on the path of national integration. 34 references ake, c. (2007). democracy and development in africa. spectrum books. amieye-ofori, t. (2009). democratizing without the people: the story of nigeria. pear publishers. apuwabi, o. o. e. (2018). the effects of religious crisis on economic development in nigeria. in: internal journal of academic research in business and social sciences 8 (6), 321330. bello, a.g.a. (2005). democratization as social engineering: philosophy and praxis. journal of nigerian philosophical association 1(23), 302-381. eghosa e. (2005). osaghae & rotimi t. suberu. a history of identities, violence, and stability in nigeria.” in: centre for research on inequality, human security and ethnicity. queen elizabeth house. james, w. (1902). the varieties of religious experience. modern library. kukah, m. (2012). nigeria as an emerging democracy: dilemma and promise. http://www.thenationonlineng.net/2011/index.php/law/. accessed, 11/11/13. kalu, p. (2016). political parties and ethnic politics in nigeria.” in: nigerian journal of social development, 5(2), 141-152. kpodee, n. t. isaiah berlin’s ‘two concepts of liberty’: a paradigm for nigerian democracy. a phd thesis submitted to the post graduate school, university of benin, benin city edo state, nigeria, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of doctor of philosophy (phd) degree in philosophy. makinwa, p.k. (1981). internal migration and rural development in nigeria: lessons from bendel state. heinemann educational books. nyuot, y. (2007). ethnicity and nation building. in: international business & economics research journal 6(4). nnoli, o. (1978). ethnic politics in nigeria. fourth dimension publishers. okigbo, p.c. (1987). philosophy of development. fourth dimension publishers. osadolor, o.b. (1998). the development of the federal idea and the federal framework. in: a. kunle, a. adigun, s. rotimi, s. et al., (eds). federalism and political restructuring in nigeria. spectrum books. post, k. & m. vickers. (1973). structure and conflict in nigeria 1960-66. heinemann soyinka, w. (1997) the open sore of a continent: a personal narrative of the nigerian crisis. oxford university press. the issue and question of ethnic politics and religious dichotomy as responsible … kpodee n.t & peters g.o aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 35 udoidem, s. i. (2004). understanding nigeria’s political grammar: a panacea for resolving nigerian’s socio-political quagmire. kiabara: journal of humanities. 10(2), 125-143. urhiofe, e.o and nwaokocha, a.o. (2002). religion in national development. in nzemeke a. d. & erhagbe, e.o. (eds.). nigerian peoples and culture, 2nd edition. mindex publishing company, 2002. uwaifo, s. o. (2016). ethnicity and development of political parties in nigeria. in journal of poverty, investment and development 28, 1-9. aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf 117 abstract the question bordering on whether things are the way they really are in actual reality has been an age long problem even from the very inception of philosophical engagements. the springboard to this philosophical riddle and enigma is the gradual recognition that things are not exactly the way they seem to be noting therefore that appearances are not realities. the very fact of existence seen in birth; the coming into life and deathpassing away from life informed questions not only about personal destiny but longer questions about how persons and things come into existence can be at different times and pass out of existence only to be followed by other things or persons. in an attempt to look at this problem of one and many as it bears it discussion in african context of philosophy, using the explanatory interpretational method, credence must be given to the miletians, the birth place of philosophy. it is within this background that we consider the views of thales, anaximander and anaximenes who posited the elements of “water”, the “indefinite/boundless” and “air” as the material “unstuff” of naturethe one which accounts for the many appearances in reality. finally for the africans, their contribution to this philosophical question is based on the supreme force who accounts for seeming multiplicity of things in the universethe metaphysical wholeness manipulating the entire reality, our lives inclusive. keywords: problem, one and many, relationship, african philosophy introduction the very basis of philosophical thought, the springboard of all speculations and the bedrock of ancient philosophic curiosity is the very attempt to explain the problem of the one and the many, the singularity in the plurality. stumph explains: philosophy began with man's sense of wonder and curiosity expressed in the question: what are things really like?, how can we explain the process of change in things? what prompted these questions was the gradual recognition that things are not exactly what they seem to be, that appearance often differs from reality. the facts of birth, death, growth and decay the coming into being and passing away, evokes not only questions about personal destiny, but also longer questions about how persons and things come into existence, can be different at different times, pass out of existence only to be followed by other things and persons. in trying to look at this problem of one and many in relation to african philosophy credence must be given to the birth place of philosophy miletus, on the the problem of one and many: its relationship to african philosophy. john paul enemuo, ph.d. department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. inyamigim, austin ntol department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. 118 shores of india in asia minor. this is so because the metaphysical problems in question was first dealt with by the thinkers of this great town. the wealth of this town made possible the leisure without which the life of arts and philosophy could hardly develop, and the broad mindedness and inquisitiveness of its people created a congenial atmosphere for the intellectual activity that was to become philosophy. for a systematic approach of this intellectual work, we shall consider the contributions of these various philosophers in their different schools. against that background, we shall first consider the milesians thales, anaximander and anaximeses, pythorgoras of samos, heraclitus etc. the eleatics: parmenides, zeno, empedocles, anaxagoras etc. the atomists consisting of leucippus and democritus. these were all the socratics. furthermore, we see socrates and the sophists who shifted the concern of philosophy from the domain of nature to the study of man. thereafter, we shall look at plato and aristotle's attempts on this problem, the modern thinkers on the appearance and reality of deacartes, spinoza and leibniz and the positivism of auguste comte. thereafter, the contemporary or recent attempts on the problem will be viewed and related to our present african situation, nigeria for instance, miletians on appearance and reality: the milesians as we earlier saw are the prima-thrio (first three) consisting of thales, anaximander and anaximenes. after the great poets – home and hesiods, the milesians considered not only the world and its relationship to the gods, but posed a philosophical puzzle es qua materia constitution mundi (what are the material causes or composition of things in the world like?) this became the springboard of all philosophies. thales novel inquiry concerned the nature of things. he was occupied with such cosmo-metaphysical questions such as: what is everything made up of? what is the ultimate reason for appearances? and so on. and so to satisfy his curiosity and wonder, he posited as an answer water as the material unstuff of things. as stumph puts it: he presumed that some single element, some stuff which contained its own principle of action or change lay at the foundationof all physical reality”. (1989:12) thales unique contribution to this metaphysical problem was his notion that in spite of the differences between various things, there is nevertheless a basic similarity between them all; the many are related to each other by the one. anaximander, a younger contemporary and pupil of thales maintained that tthe basic stuff is neither water nor any other specific or determinate element. the primary substance out of which all these specific things come, is an indefinite or boundless realm. thus for anaximander, the one is the primary substance called the indeterminate boundless and the many becomes the specific and determinate things which pass away into the indeterminate boundless. hence, while actual things are finite, the original stuff is infinite or boundless. anaximenes, last of milesian school of thought and younger associate of anaximander considered his predecessor's notion of the boundless as vague and aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 intangible. to combine thales notion of the definite substance water and anaximander's new concept of the boundless in continued motion, anaximenes designated air which as boundless and is spread everywhere. unlike the boundless, it is specific and definite and thus can be identified. to account for the one and many using the substance of air, anaxmenes explains that the differences in quality are caused by differences in quantity. thus the contraction and expansion of air represents the quantitative changes and accounts for the multitude of different things. pythagoras being interested in mathematics saw it on a religious under-tone. for pythagoras all things in reality are numbers. apparently, he built number out of individual units by using pebbles. this suggested of the pythagoreans the relationship between numbers and multitude. the pythagoran's contribution to the problem of one and many to philosophy is built on "form". for pythagora, form meant limit, which should be understood in numerical terms. from this limited form, various structures are built, squares, spherical objects, triangular shapes and so on, the one from which the many come and go into. heracilitus made a remarkable contribution in this philosophical riddle. whereas his predicessors focused on the description of what things consist, heracilitus directed his attention to a new problem, namely; the problem of change. as his principal idea, he postulated that all things are in a perpetual flux. he elucidated concisely this postulation in his famous paradox; "you cannot step twice into the same river" (1989:15) against this background then, the concept of river must be understood to be applicable not only to rivers but to all appearances of things, including the soul of man. for rivers and men exhibit the fascinating fact of becoming different and yet remaining the same. for example, the man is the same as the boy. for him, the things change and thereby take on many different forms, yet they contain something which continues to endure throughout the flux of change. between these seeming multitude of forms and the single continuing element, between the multiplicity and the singularity, there must be some basic form of unity. by this novel and influential postulation, this noble genius described the process of change as a unity in diversity. eleatics on change and one: for parmenides, founder of the eleatic school of thought, change was a fact of reflection. he thus speculated that although there is only one basic stuff in the world, this stuff is the source of a variety of things and the process by which the one becomes many is the process of change. parmenides according to helvin recker as quoted in his book "han, the problems of philosophy" maintains that; "a thing cannot come into being from non-being, for if you can think of an "it", it always and already exist . . . change simply is 119 inyamigim & enemuo the problem of one and many: its relationship... an illusion or a confusion of appearance with reality."(melvin r. 1961:102) for zeno and parmenides, one does not only look at the world, but must also think about it in order to understand it. reality then for zeno is a logical relation of thoughts to each other. he illustrates his arguments with four instances of races; the race course, achilles and the tortoise, the arrow and relativity of motion. zeno holds that reality consist of spatial points which are indefinite. if an arrow is shot into space it is motionless, because it does not transverse even the first spatial point which of course is ad infinitum. so also is the case with achilles the athlete in a race course with the tortoise; what a seeming contradiction. zeno elucidates that if the tortoise begins the race before achilles, there is no way that achilles will eventually overlap the tortoise bearing in mind the fact of the indefinitude of spatial points. permit me here to quickly add that the possibility of this comparisons is only tenable logically but practically impossible. empedocles argued for and against motion and that change had some merits. with parmenides he holds that being is uncreated and indestructible, but differs from parmendes in the fact that being consist simply of the one. reason being that objects we see come into reality or being and thus destroyed, but that their particles do not change but are. for him then being is not one but many. these particles are the elements of earth, air, fire, water which become and disappears (motion is brought about) by the separation of natural forces of love and hate, light and darkness and so on. atomists: in this group or school of thought we have leucippus and democritus. according to these two, the nature of things consists of an infinite number of particles or units called atoms. to these, they ascribed characteristics of the parmenides one, namely indestructibility and uncheangeability, thus eternity. democritus speculated that the atoms are responsible for the different appearances, accounting for the forms, shapes and sizes of existence. complementing democritus' position, leucippus held that appearances of things as they occur in their various sizes and shapes are accounted for by the coalition of the atoms to each other resulting in shaping things. the classical on one and many: the classical greek philosophers are plato and aristotle, in them, the greeks ingenuity was realized with an extraordinary completeness. plato for instance systematized by way of unification the varying opinions and arguments of the miletians, eleatics, heraclitus and pythagoras, the atomists into two by positing the dual world of things the physics and the world of forms or ideas. the world of forms according to plato is real. the ideas that therein exist have an independent existence. the physics are appearances we perceive immediately, while the ideas are the "real" things that are things in themselves. for plato, the material things (the many) have their origin from the ideas (the one). they serve as mere copies or imitations to ideas or forms, such that the table we see here is a representation of the real table in world of forms. therefore he explains that the essence 120 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 of the table is the tableness of that table. the ideal bird exist in the forms so that the birds are mere representations or copies. for plato again, the forms seems to have existed in the mind of god who is the supreme principle of rationality udoidem explains: ". . . the soul had existed in the world of ideas before imprisonment in the body, what we call knowledge is a shadowy remembrance of what the soul knew when it existed in the world of ideas which is the real world" . plato did not go without being questioned; stumph (udoidem s.i, 1992:20) registered his uncertainty by this question: "there is a problem here still, where do the forms exist?" (1989:22) in aristotle, the problem reached its climax. he spoke of this one and many in terms of universals and particulars. aristotle elucidates that our minds have a better knowledge of things close to our senses than of things farther from our senses. for this reason, our minds move from a knowledge of particulars discovered by observation to universal or class ideas, which we do not as much sense. for example, we observe particular men and then for a general idea of man. this culminated in his theory of genera and specie. here a starting point for reasoning comes to play. this premise is a product of induction hence cause and effect. in this regard, one must specifythe subject matter he is dealing with or discussing the specific kind of thing he is dealing with. to this, he must add the properties and causes that are related. he then coined his doctrine of the categories which explains how we think about things. whenever we conceive of a subject and its predicate or of substance and accidents, we think of subject and predicate as in appearance and reality. that is when we can think of the word man and also connect the word man with such predicates as tall and able. for him then man is the substance. with this, he classified nine categories. we should be made to understand that in our thinking we arrange things into these categories. he did not consider these categories as mere figments of the mind or minds constructs; he saw them as having actual existence outside the mind especially in things. a house for instance is thought of as a house because it has predicates (properties) common to other houses. he also used the terms, "substance and essence" to explain his concept of one and many. here again aristotle tells us that reality is substance which is the primary essence of all things. to illustrate this, he maintains that we know a thing better when we know what it is than we know the, colour, size or posture, its essential nature. aristotle again uses the concept change to explain his view on one and many. in the world around us, we see things constantly changing. change for aristotle is one of the basic facts of experience. consequently therefore, change meant growth, decay, motion, generation and corruption. he also embarked on the use of the concepts of matter and form. though aristotle distinguished between matter, he nevertheless held that they have independent existence. he argued against plato's idea of form in their mode of existence and operation, mainly that the forms or ideas have a separate existence. but 121 inyamigim & enemuo the problem of one and many: its relationship... aristotle emphasized that everything that exists in some concrete individual thing, is a unity of matter and form. there is no separation between them in their mode of existence. perhaps by separate or independent existence, plato meant to show us how there could be many individual things that all have one and the same universal or nature or essence while still being individual. aristotle on the other hand argued that plato's concept complicates issues and does not aid us in knowing things any better, since for plato the forms are motionless. everything in reality is motion bound, as we see them moving towards an end teleology potentiality and actuality. medieval on universals and particulars: unhappiness, dejection or sorrow are caused by a too limited way, of looking at things. we must raise ourselves to see things from a wider perspective, as god sees them. the task of philosophy is precisely to broaden man's horizon and raise his vision beyond this limited and narrow perspective to divine perspective. to understand any particular event, it must be placed within the total scheme of things. it cannot be understood in isolation, but only within the framework of things – that is, within a class. philosophy then provides man with such an understanding of things, which the confusion and seeming contradictions there is in reality would be accepted and even enjoyed. “the problem of universals was one such miseries of life which became a subject of much controversy during the middle ages as started by beethius, opined by omoregbe”. ((melvin r. 1961:116) at this point however, there was a restatement of the early problems often one and the many, which took the major dimensions of universals and particulars earlier stated by aristotle and plato. it had resolved itself into whether a universal is a real thing or not. basically there were three different views about the universals, namely, exaggerated realism (or utra-realism), moderate realism and nominalism. exaggerated realism. ultrarealism is the view that universals are existing realities distinct from particular things to which they refer. omoregba j. thus wrote “. in ultra-realism, particular things are what they are because they share in the universals. for example, particular men are because they all share in humanity which is an existing reality independently of particular men. men or humanity is an existing entity in which all men share”. (omoregbe j. 1991: vol 2) such men who held these views are john scotus euriugenna, remigius of auxe, william of champeauk and st. anselm who tried to use it to explain the doctrine of the trinity. the direct opponent of exaggerated realism is nominalism according to which universals are mere words which they term voce (voice) or nomen (names), a major criticism here is roscellinus who holds that the mind is capable of doing two things, namely forming concepts with philosophers like plato, socrates etc and forming universals such as man. for roscellinus, the concept of individual is clear, while that of universals is blurred. modern thinkers on appearance and reality: 122 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 it is very clear from experience that appearance and reality are not the same. we understand that things are always what they seem, that reality is often quite different from appearance. for we know from the popular maxim that "all is not gold that glitters" even though what glitters appear to be gold. the sun appears to move round the earth, rising in the east in the morning and setting in the west in the evening every day. this of course is appearance, but the reality is quite different. it is rather the earth that revolves round the sun and not the reverse. omoregbe j, attested to this same fact when he cited more examples as in the analogy that when we look at clouds they appear to be thick smoke but the reality is different. clouds are not smoke but evaporated water. again he further illustrated, when "we look at the sky, it appears to be blue substance covering the earth like a dome, while the earth itself appears to be flat. the reality we know is quite different. it is therefore on the basis of the truism that appearances deceive and that our senses often deceive us that the rationalists metaphysicians like descartes, spinoza, hegel, leibniz and others questioned the senses as sources of acquiring real knowledge. if we are to depend entirely on our senses, we might be misled and we would never know the nature of things. to this regard omoregbe quoting russel says "we assume as certain, many things which on a closer scrutiny are found to be so full of apparent contradictions that only a great amount of thought enables us to know what it is that we really may believe." (omoregbe j.1996:127) more often than not we observe that things appear different to different people. for what could appear cold to one, may seem hot to another man. similarly what appears to taste sweet to one man could be bitter to another man. what appears yellow to a man suffering jaundice may appear black or red to another man. for example, the empiricist like locke, berkeley and hume conclude that the secondary qualities such as colour, taste, odour, size are not reality or things as they appear to have them, they are not really inherent in things as appear to be. in reality they are in the minds of those who think they perceive them. the rationalist emphasized upon the rational capacity of the human mind, which they now considered the source of truth both about the world and man. for spinoza, schelling, hegel and bradley appearance of things seem multifarious with enormous varieties and differences, in reality there is no such variety, but just ultimately one, the whole of reality for them is one unfragmented totality. there is thus no division in reality, no multiplicity. but according to bradley, it is only the metaphysical that takes us beyond appearance and ushers us into beholding reality the way it really is an indivisible whole. for descartes, reality is a dualism consisting of two basic substances thoughts and extension. similarly, leibniz explains that what appears to us as physical objects are in reality spiritual entities which he calls monards. kant comes in with his doctrine of the two worlds the noumena (things as they are in themselves) and the phenomena (things as they appear to us). all kant is trying to make us understand about this postulation of his is that we can only know appearances and that is all we know, for therealities behind these appearance can never be known as against bradley's position that metaphysics only can lead us to perceive this reality behind physical things. 123 inyamigim & enemuo the problem of one and many: its relationship... there are certain doubts and questions we must ask at this point. in the first instance, what can be added to the claims of these metaphysicians?. as omoregbe puts it: "once we accept that appearance is often different from reality, then we are faced with the problem of going beyond appearances to get at the reality” (omoregbe j. 203) thus we ask, how then can we know the true nature of things? what exactly is the world really like? is the physical universe, really a manifestation, in various forms, of a single entity as spinoza, hegel, bradley and other idealist tell us? in sum then, what the metaphysicians seem to put across to us is that there is more to reality than we can see, contemporaries on unity in diversity: in this era, there was a reforming of the old problem based on the views of the ancient greek scholars. for one of the earliest problems in western philosophy is the problem of change and permanence, unity in diversity. the early philosophers noticed that in-spite of the changes taking place everywhere; there is a binding force in unity keeping things in place. prominent among philosophers in this period are, qine, williams james and bergson. qine expressed his own view through his concept on universals and particulars. particulars and universals here should not be misconstrued with the medievals view. for quine all proper names should be eliminated in language and represented in variables in mathematical form. arnold guiller a contemporary philosopher accepted with quine by opining that all there is in reality are mathematical axioms of geometry. that these axioms of geometry are arranged in their order of importance. so also is reality understood so that universal ideas manifest themselves in particulars in a hierarchical order: angels, spirits, man and other tangible realities. william james actually considered the problem, in the many in which the ionians viewed or identified it, precisely as one and many or the unity in diversity. through william james' views, we will understand that inspite of obvious fact, “the unity of things has always been considered more illustrious, as it were than their variety”. (omoregbe b.m 1996:13) to explain this problem of unity in diversity of reality, william james uses eight different views. in the first instance he held that the world is at least one subject of discourse. in this william james means that if the world was so much in parts without a union, then even the mind would not have conceived it. secondly, he tries to analyze the problem based on continuity (that is "time"). space and time are thus vehicles of continuity by which the world's parts hang together. thirdly, he holds that there is a magnitude of influence among things, the greater influencing the lesser to co-operate. fourthly, there is the influence of the world's casual unityin the fifth, way, he explains that the most important sort of unity or union that obtains amongst things pragmatically speaking is their generic unity. that is, things existing in their kind, such that one thing implying for a particular specimen implies for 124 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 every other specimen of that kind. in the sixth approach, william james talked about purpose, our different purposes which are at constant clash with each other, crush each other, but where this cannot happen, they compromise into one. he lastly elucidates or illustrates his position in the harmony of nature which he termed the aesthetic union. this is very analogical to a teleological union. things tell a story. their part hang together in order to work out a climax. retrospectively, we can see that although no definite purpose presided over a chain of events, yet the events fell into a traumatic form, with a start, a middle and a finish. its relationship to african philosophy: there had been an uncreditable assertion by the westerners that africans have no philosophy. but we are all aware that contemporary african philosophies, recent researchers and thesis in the wisdom of the africans, though may not cut across geographical boundaries have proved this assertion inauthentic. thus, the debate whether or not there is an african philosophy is at its best an abandoned heap. this proof is better expressed by uduigwomen, a. f thus: ... “the debate or controversy on whether or not there is an african philosophy is dead and buried, at best, it is a matter of historical interest”… (uduigwomen a.f, 2001) the african would view of reality is nucleused on the supreme force and creation. this of course, is viewed along the pinhole or spectrum of myth. for this myth after all, is prephilosophic and at best embedded in philosophy. for myth and philosophy serve a complementing purpose to each other. there is the wisdom in every average african that the process of change and reality is based on the supreme force who accounts for the seeming multiplicity of things in the universe. the african sees the metaphysical wholeness as manipulating the entire reality, our lives inclusive. for the africans see appearances as coming from the different gods. the earth for instance has its god, the rains, thunder, moon, water and so on. little wonder sacrifices and dedications are made to such deities. this is what the ibos in the words of a contemporary african philosopher –panthalion uregbu will refer to as "the uwa 14 ontology” (that is, the world and its relatedness to the supreme force). this conception of plurality of forces responsible for the many or appearances affect us (africans) a lot, both in our thinking and the way we relate to each other. for instance, the issue of polygamy in africa nigeria in particular. due to the multicreational gods, the africans thus belief so much in taking to so many wives and procreating many siblings. this of course is for the greedy purpose of getting rich perhaps through the off springs or sexual satisfaction from the litany of wives. again, the nigerian situation comes to mind. each administration comes and goes. but some like abacha will see themselves as the one in which others in the country should have standard from, this is the problem of one and many (daily times, volume 2, 1995, p.10) still living on. community leaders, bosses in offices and departments and so on are not free from this enduring puzzle. 125 inyamigim & enemuo the problem of one and many: its relationship... critical evaluation and conclusion: the problem of one and many has endured throughout the philosophical epochs in the history of philosophy. the pre-socratics fell into greater confusion rather than solving the problem. the question here is; if there is the point of this relationship between appearance and reality, where is the point that this relationship lie? plato tried but landed in idealism that is the positing of two worlds. aristotle in his own bid to figure out the point of relationship landed in realism, the medieval philosophers such as odo tounine landed in pantheism as extreme exaggerated realists. moreso as this problem progressed, the modern philosophers saw themselves in various camps, descartes ended up in dualism; while leibniz in monism and spinoza in pluralism. though in contemporary african context like nigeria, the problem presented itself as that of part and whole. conclusion in conclusion therefore, it is worthwhile to comment that the problem of one and many at best is an intellectual enterprise, directed to every wake of philosophy past, present and future. though the greek or classical western philosophers systematized the problem, it does not mean that the africans are free from it. for within the african context, the problem of one and many singularity and plurality, parts and whole, universals and particulars presents itself as a difficult knot to untie. though in a standard african society, to be is to be with others, that is an individual should be defined by the community, the reverse is the case in nigeria where the individual wants to give meaning to the entire citizen, this is exemplified in abacha and babangida's government who turned themselves to autocrats or demi-gods the one, leading majority political party given meaning and directives to the many (other political parties) the oppositions, as exemplified in the ruling party apc and opposing party pdp as it is in today's political arena. this originated in the 90's, and has lingered on and found its roots in the democratic government of today – one major ruling party into which others fuse into one as opposition. hence this has given rise to unheralded bureaucracy where the wealthy few become the one/part that should give meaning the to the less privileged who are the many. 126 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 references: stumph, s. e. (1989) philosophy: history and problems new york. mcgraw hill inc. udoidem s .i . (1992) understanding philosophy lagos, african heritage research and publication. melvin r (1961) the enduring questions: man, problems of philosophy. (ed) london, uiis press, udoidem, s. i. (1992) understanding philosophy stumph, s. e. (1989) philosophy, history & problems. omoregbe, j. (1991) a simplified history of western philosophy. vol. 2 lagos, joja press ltd. a simplified history of western philosophy. omoregbe, b. m, (1996) metaphysics without tears lagos, joja press (ltd). brownstein daniel, n basic problems or philosophy yermark jersey: prentice hail inc. uduogwuomen a.f, unpublished lecture notes in philosophy of science, 2000. politics today: daily times, volume 2, 1995. 127 inyamigim & enemuo the problem of one and many: its relationship... page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract the attempt to deconstruct all knowledge claims and re-erect new ones on unshakable foundation immune to skepticism is, unarguably, linked to the philosophy of rene descartes. for him, this firm foundation is the famous 'cogito ergo sum' (i think, therefore, i am) discovered in the process of universal methodic doubt. but the question is can descartes epistemological foundationalism justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? this paper argues that the cogito is not logically coherent with descartes' grounds for his systematic skepticism and that so long as knowledge follows the metaphysics of man and subject to environmental and social determinants, any effort to erect superstructures that will withstand skepticism is not only unnecessary; it is also undesirable for, the growth of philosophic knowledge-which is tentative, dynamic and contextualis not linear and enjoys no finality. keywords: knowledge, skepticism, methodic doubt, foundationalism, cogito. introduction in the opening chapter of his metaphysics, aristotle writes that “all men by nature desire to know”. man's curiosity to know is a quest beyond mere sential and experiential givens to the true situations of things. no one deliberately desires or seeks falsehood. is such a natural quest a reliasable project or a mere wild goose chase? what is knowledge? is it possible to know? what can i know? (what? can i know?). how do i know what i claim to know? is it possible to know with certainty? russerl (1998:1) puts the question more fundamentally thus: “is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?”. in the history of philosophy, the rigorous attempts to answer these and allied questions have generated different schools thought such as empiricism, rationalism, relativism, skepticism etc. in the midst of skeptical clouds of his previous learning coupled with progressive scientific revolutions of his times, descartes sought, through his systematic doubt, to establish indubitable foundation that the most extravagant supposition of the skeptics would not surpass it. this paper argues that such quest and conclusion cannot defeat skepticism and does not tally with the moderate realistic nature of knowledge which is dynamic, tentative, contextual and grows more often by disagreement than by mere consensus. let's briefly consider skepticism and skeptics arguments to the possibility of real, certain knowledge. can descartes epistemology justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? nkereuwem dominic ekpo. university of uyo. 91 skepticism skepticism comes from the greek word 'skeptomai' or 'skeptestai', meaning 'to examine', 'to consider', 'to enquire', 'to look about more carefully'. the noun form 'skeptikoi' refers to an examiner, an enquirer, a careful observer. at this level, skepticism entails a continuous process of enquiry in which every claim to knowledge is brought to the court of evidence, weighed or tested by counter experiences in other to ascertain its truth-value. ozumba (2001:42) defines it as “any philosophical attitude which expresses doubt as to the possibility of certain knowledge”. put differently, “the central thesis of skepticism is the denial of the possibility of objective knowledge” (ojong and ibrahim, 2011:41). it questions man's possibility of knowing objectively and with certainty. for the skeptics, one can hardly say how a thing really is but, instead, how it appears to be. partial or moderate skepticism admits we can know certain forms of knowledge. in this sense, rationalism, empiricism, positivism and idealism are various forms of moderate skepticism. absolute or total skepticism denies the possibility of any form of knowledge. the arguments of the skeptics the arguments of the skepticism are rooted in the supposition that knowledge entails certainty and as such, “it may be argued that knowledge of this kind is not attainable and hence knowledge is not possible” (hamlyn,1970:9). the arguments of the skeptics are basically reduced to the following points: illusion/discrepancies among philosophers, epistemic relativism, the impossibility of demonstrating fundamental principles without vicious circle or infinite regress, the dream-awake dilemma, the evil genus arguments etc. let us briefly and critically examine each of them: i. erroneous and conflicting opinions among human beings there is hardly any knowledge claim, say 'p' which does not find its opposite 'not-p' strongly defended by others including experts who are thought to be epistemic authorities. every proposition has a counter proposition and sometimes the new proposition becomes the starting point of another in an endless triadic interplay of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. thus, it is argued that the human mind is intrinsically incapable of knowing truth with certitude. the presence of error in man's judgement as well as conflicting views among philosophers is insufficient to conclude that the human mind is incapable of knowing with certainty. the idea of error presupposes that there is another onethe twin brothertruth. arguing from this polar concept, eboh (1995:21) maintains that “if error is a polar concept of truth and skeptics admit instances of error in our knowledge, he must also admit of instances of truth or certitude in our knowledge for there cannot be counterfeit coins unless there are genuine ones”. are there clear demarcation and/or criteria to distinguish truth from falsehood? ii. the impossibility of criterion or infinite regress argument this argument is based on the impossibility of proving a genuine criterion of distinguishing truth from falsehood without going round the wheel. to say that something 92 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december is true or false, we need some criteria and to validate such criteria, we need some other criteria which themselves have to be validated. thus, the process continues ad infinitum in a vicious circle or infinite regress. the skeptics overstress the impossibility of criterion and infinite regress as if every piece of knowledge requires demonstration. for instance, that i am here in this library reading and writing this article is a fact that is so obvious and may not need any deep philosophic or scientific justification to give this judgement validity. again, that a whole is greater than any of its parts, that two things equal to a thing are equal to each other (a=b and c=b, then a=c) are so self-evident and require no rigorous demonstration that will result in vicious circle. iii. the illusion argument and the relativity of perception this argument challenges the reliability of the senses as genuine perceptual windows. the senses, the skeptics claim, sometimes deceive us. if we are deceived once by them, what is the guarantee that we are not always deceived? besides, it is a common observation that things do not often appear or taste the same to different people. something that looks beautiful or tastes sweet to the perceiving subject 's' may appear ugly and bitter to another 't'. does sweetness or bitterness lie in the object or the subject perceiving it? because of this relativism, skeptics tend to deny that there is such thing as objective knowledge. arguing from a particular instance of deception to universal instance, as the skeptics do, is indicative of hasty generalisation. what is given to the senses is always true. probably the errors noticeable in perception are not attributed to the senses but the mind's precipitate judgement and interpretation of the sense datum. iv. the dream argument the dream argument is based on the inability to distinguish dream from waking life especially at the time of dreaming since the realities presented in both worlds are one and the same. can a person who dreams know at the same time that he or she is dreaming? the things we see in dreams resemble the ones we see in real life and often time we mistake the dream world for real life until we wake up to face the reality. for instance, in a dream i may be awake counting so much money with happiness or writing examinations with anxiety when, in fact, i am lying asleep in bed. how can i know at the moment that it is not real life, that i am only dreaming? is there anything about the experience of dreaming which can conclusively distinguish it from that of waking? how sure are we that the dream is not the waking life while the latter is the dream? christian (1973:214) recapitulates the chinese philosopher, chaung-tzu's dilemma of distinguishing himself from a butterfly: “once upon a time, i, chaung-tzu, dreamt i was a butterfly, fluttering hither and tither to all intent and purposes.... suddenly, i awoke.... now i don't know whether i was then a man dreaming i was a butterfly or whether i am now a butterfly dreaming that i am a man”. with this kind of dilemma, the skeptics wonder whether life is not one of continuous day-long dream. one could reply that pre-sleep and post-sleep periods have some existing coherences. there is no such coherence pattern between two dreams. when we wake up from sleep, we find ourselves in bed and can observe the same furniture in their respective positions. dreaming and waking are polar concepts. thus, warburton (1992:96) is of the view that “if i were dreaming all day long, then, i would have no concept of a dream: i would have nothing with which to contrast dreaming since i 93 can descartes epistemology justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? nkereuwem dominic ekpo would have no concept of being awake”. in his epistemology, descartes employs all these arguments and the more devastating onethe evil geniusas grounds for his universal skepticism. skepticism and descartes' epistemological project descartes was confronted with wide spread skepticism and the falsity of widely held beliefs especially dogmatism and scholastic tutelage he acquired at the jesuit college, being a high ranking institution at his time. in the discourse on method, he recounted his frustrations: “as soon as i finished the course of study..., i found myself embarrassed by so many doubts and errors that it seemed to me that the only profit i had had from my effort to acquire knowledge was the progressive discovery of my own ignorance”. descartes set out to deconstruct the old epistemological edifice and to erect new ones on solid and firm foundation which cannot be demolished by doubt and skepticism. fascinated by the universal application and results achieved by mathematics in his days, he set out to reconstruct a unified system of knowledge after mathematical paradigm. for him, if the axiomatic method employed in geometry could be successful in geometry, why not elsewhere? descartes wanted to 'mathematise' philosophy. he chose mathematics as the archetype of all scientific knowledge. mathematical knowledge enjoys consensus among mathematicians and nonmathematicians alike. everywhere you go, for instance, 2+5= 7 and 2x5=10. no one has ever doubted these. it may even be ridiculous to do so. descartes advocated a reconstruction of a unified system of knowledge that is entirely apriori, foundational and after such pattern. to achieve this aim, method is sine qua non. methodfor descartesconsists in harnessing the operations of the mind with special set of rules clearly articulated in his first philosophical work, “regulae ad directionem ingenii” (rules for the direction of the mind) to breaking complex things to simpler units then building up again from there. in the discourse on method, descartes presents four methods which, in his own logic, when carefully followed could lead to real certain kind of knowledge: “the first was never to accept anything for true which i did not clearly know to be such.... to compromise nothing more in my judgement than what was presented to my mind clearly and distinctly as to exclude all grounds of doubt. the second is to divide each of the difficulties under examination into as many parts as possible. third, to conduct my thoughts in such an order that by commencing with objects the simplest and easiest to know, i might ascend by little and little, and as it were step by step to the knowledge of more complex... and the last, in every case to make enumerations so complex and reviews so general that i might be assured that nothing is omitted”. with these step-by-step strategies from doubt to division of problems into parts and progress from simpler to more complex problems, descartes hopes to achieve his epistemological dream(s). epistemological deconstruction every (re)construction comes with concomitant deconstruction. to arrive at a new solid edifice of knowledge, everything he hitherto knew must be systematically doubted and 'destroyed'. descartes expresses this vividly in the meditation as follows: “several years have passed since i first realized how numerous were the false opinions that in my youth i 94 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december had taken to be true and thus how doubtful were all those i had subsequently built upon then. and thus i realize that once in my life i had to raze everything to the ground and begin again from the original foundation, if i wanted to establish anything firm and lasting in the sciences”. this demolition exercise was not carried one by one on everything he knew and accepted. that would be a difficult task. he sets out to attack the principles upon which they rested, for when the foundation is undermined, the entire superstructure collapses on its own. like the skeptics he doubts even the mathematical truths based on the supposition of illusion and malignant genius arguments. in his text, does god exist? kung (1978:220) summarizes four grounds for descartes for universal skepticism as follows: 1. sense perception is unreliable: since the senses are sometimes deceptive, we may never entirely trust them. the certainty of the external world as a whole is dubious 2. sleeping and waking can never be distinguished by certain signs. what we experience in waking can also be experienced in dreaming 3. everything might be deceptive. if we are already so much deceived, why should we not be deceived about that which seems to us most certain? even the universal basic concepts and principles of nature, even the truth on which all knowledge is based is doubtful. 4. there might be a “deceiving spirit”, an evil spirit (genius malignus) who is supremely powerful and intelligent and does his utmost to deceive me. as earlier noted in this work, the illusion argument questions the reliability of sense perception, the major avenue hitherto utilized by descartes to acquire his knowledge claims: “all that up to the present time i have accepted as true and certain i have learned either from the senses or through the senses; but it sometimes proved to me that these senses are deceptive and it might be wiser not to trust entirely anything by which we have once been deceived”. we usually trust our senses and sometimes we are misled. a straight stick immersed in water appears bent. a coin placed at the bottom of basin appears to be brought to the surface. sometimes we see someone at a distance and call the name of the person we think he is but upon approaching him closely, we discover that we have failed in our judgement; he is entirely a different person. similarly, if someone deceives us or steals from us once, the tendency is to be cautious in dealing with such person. in a similar vein, if the senses deceive us sometimes, why not always? could it be that we are under perpetual illusion and hallucination? descartes also makes allusion to the dream argument. the problem posed here is very controversial. how do we distinguish dream from waking life? any means we employ as a distinguishing criterion or yardstick between dream and waking life may also be part of the dream. the dream argument could be very problematic. in the words of ozumba (2001:45) “since the cartesian time, the “dream argument” has exercised a scorching influence on the positive quest after knowledge, the point being made is that we must be able to clearly, distinctly and conclusively show how to draw a line between dream event 95 can descartes epistemology justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? nkereuwem dominic ekpo and waking event before we can overcome skepticism”. in other to bring the demolition exercise to full completion, he introduces the activity of a malignant genus which enables him to cast doubt on apriori and mathematical truths. the argument is based on the presupposition of the existence a supremely powerful deceiver, as against a supremely powerful and benevolent god, capable of misleading him into believing that those things he perceives with conviction are true, when in fact, they are false and unreliable. the possibility of an evil genius deceiving us leaves us entirely without any firm assurance in the foundation of our knowledge claims. the discovery of the cogito for descartes, the systematic skepticism is not teleologically oriented. it is “tentative, provisional and has a functional purpose. to doubt is not an end in itself; it is a process of justification, of eliminating various falsehood and ultimately arriving at an unshakable foundation of truth” (mayer,1957:111). in the process of doubt, descartes comes to grasp the famous dictum “cogito ergo sum” (i think, therefore, i am) and this, for him, becomes the epistemic paradigm, the 'archimedian point', a solid and unshakable foundation upon which all structures and superstructures of knowledge rest. to doubt that one is thinking is impossible since the very act of doubting is a confirmation of thinking and again, since thinking is not a cognitive activity embarked upon by non-being, descartes argues that deceived or not, he necessarily exists since that which does not existnon-beingcannot be deceived. prior to descartes, st. augustine, in an effort to refute the skeptics' argument against the possibility of knowing with certainty, already formulates argument akin to the pattern of cartesian cogito. for him, skepticism entails self-contradiction; one is at least certain of one thing that he cannot know with certainty and whosoever affirms this cannot at the same time deny his existence without contracting himself. in the civitate dei (the city of god), augustine (1958:236) argues: “if i am mistaken, i am. for, if one does not exist, he can by no means be mistaken. therefore, i am if i am mistaken. because, therefore i am, if i am mistaken, how can i be mistaken that i am, since it is certain that i am if i am mistaken? and because if i could be mistaken, i would have to be one who is mistaken, therefore, i am most certain that i am not mistaken in knowing that i am”. although “si enim falor sum” (if i am mistaken i am) of augustine is logically similar in formal pattern to descartes “cogito ergo sum” (i think, therefore, i am), it should, however, be noted that descartes formulates the classic as an indubitable foundation for his system of philosophy whereas augustine only intends his own as a refutation to skeptics' basic principles of universal skepticism. with the certainty of the cogito, descartes goes on to re-affirm the existence of other things using god, whose existence he demonstrates with his fallible faculties, and goes on to use him as an epistemic guarantor and/or divine illuminator of our finite minds. descartes' cogito and the question of certain knowledge here is an attempt to appraise descartes philosophy in relation to the quest for indubitable foundation of knowledge. descartes epistemology marks the starting point of modern philosophy. that radical departure from dogmatism, the focus on 'apriority' coupled with 96 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december the courage to question knowledge claims from the senses and epistemic authorities characterize his unique contribution to philosophy. descartes theory of knowledge opens great epistemological controversies between reason/experience, rationalism/empiricism and indeed, subjectivism/ objectivism. can descartes epistemology justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? is descartes epistemic foundationthe cogitoreally immune to skepticism? descartes finds in mathematics a paradigm of knowledge. do mathematicians, unlike philosophers, always agree on all mathematical issues? they may agree on the question posed but disagree on how to solve it. besides, attempt to model philosophy after mathematical paradigms may not solve the problems of philosophy because both disciplines have their distinctive formal subject. hamlyn (1970:14-15) maintains the view that “the fact that the problems and questions with which the philosophy is concerned here are of a different order of generality from those that are the concern of mathematician or scientists makes it unlikely that the methods of the more particular disciplines will be fruitful in philosophy as well”. again, mathematical propositions are matters of universal convention rather than 0 demonstrable fact. how do we know that a straight line whether short or long is 180 or 0 that a circle whether small or big is 360 ? how can something that is big or small, long or short have the same measurement? in the methodic doubt, descartes intends to make his mind a 'tabula rasa' by attempting to get rid of everything he has learned from childhood. is this a possible thing to do? the very concepts used in his philosophical meditation are entirely testimonial. he already relies on the reasoning faculties and procedures which he does not prove to be reliable. this cannot be demonstrated without regress. some thinkers like schacht (1984) believe that descartes philosophy was hardly revolutionary as it is often imagined. perhaps the only thing that was revolutionary was his demand that traditional assumptions must be subjected to the thorough crucible of rational analysis or ratiocinative enquiry. for some philosophers, the certainty of the cogito is incontestable and that no one can doubt this without at the same time confirming it. the cogito has been subject to criticisms arising from various interpretation and misinterpretation of it. is it an inference or performance, an event or argument? there is a sense in which the cogito could be interpreted as a logical enthymeme. an enthymeme is a syllogism in which one of the premises has been suppressed or presumed. the entire syllogism could be recast as follows: all thinking beings exist/are -------------------major and suppressed premise i think ----------------------------------------------minor premise therefore, i am -------------------------------------conclusion if this can be admitted, why spend so much energy and time on epistemic demolition when one could simply say i eat, i read, i pray, i walk, i drive..., and therefore, i am? it is the 'i' which carries the commitment of existence. according to beck (1969), “descartes thought that 'i am' followed from 'i think', though not apparently from 'i walk'. the truth is that it follows from any phrase in which the word 'i' appears, for it is the pronoun that carries the commitment to existence rather than the content of what is said”. 97 can descartes epistemology justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? nkereuwem dominic ekpo a counter argument to this is that the cogito, for descartes, is a self-evident axiom immediately grasped by intuition. one is only misguided by the word 'therefore' which sometimes does not mark an inferential step but symbolizes a relation of necessary connection. could descartes be passing in and out of existence? if thinking is the only presupposition for existence, one may askwhat of when one is not really thinking as in the case of sleep, do i, by implication, cease to exist? the phrase 'i think, therefore, i am' is, prima facie, captivating and incontestable but it does not convey the full meaning. every conscious activity is phenomenologically intentional, that is, object-oriented. to think, for instance, is to think of something. to think of nothing is a metaphysical absurdity. i think (of what?), therefore, i am (what?). these are suppressed. man is not, as descartes thinks, a disembodied or isolated thinking self. mercier (1982) clearly affirms that being human is not pure consciousness. the cartesian analysis of man as an isolated, closed subjective thinker does not correspond to anthropological reality. human consciousness is necessarily related to the non-self. it is subjectivity open to an objective reality, a subject-object relationship. knowledge has a bi-polar structure in which the subjective pole faces each other. descartes thinking self without the objective pole is a truncated description for man is not simply 'consciousness' but a conscious-being-in-the-world. as a being is so it knows. knowledge is not purely cognitive or rational. the emotions of love, fear, grief, anxiety and hatred which are existential and intrinsically bound to the very nature of the knower play a vital role in knowing. the transition from 'i think' to 'i exist' can only be hypothetical in which the consequent 'i exist' follows necessarily if and only if the antecedent, 'i think' is true. thus when logically examined in the light of descartes initial skeptical methodology, the cogito, far more than being indubitable foundation, as descartes claims, marks another starting point for further skepticism since it can be askedhow does he know that he is thinking? suppose he is being deceived by the evil genius to believe that he is thinking when actually he is not. the demonic hypothesis or skepticism that preceded the cogito, clearly and logically undermines the truth value of the cogito since acceptance of it might causally be the result of demonic action. an attempt to look for secure foundation of knowledge presupposes the understanding of the real nature and meaning of knowledge or at least, it takes it for granted. for hamlyn (1970), the traditional approach to epistemology consists in taking more or less for granted what knowledge is and asking instead how it can be given firm foundation. this amounts to putting the cart before the horse. probably if attention is given to the concept of knowledge, the worries about foundation may not be that necessary. it is like imposing a different category on something and beginning to search for those things that have such features. knowing is a tripartite process that involves the knower (subject), the known (object) and cognition and these are subject to the limitation of man's finitude as well as social and environmental determinants. knowledge needs not always be absolutely certain. such certainty can only be dynamic, tentative and contextual. it is subject to revision, modification, change and even rejection. descartes mistaken perception and analogy of the growth of knowledge to an edifice does not fit in here. indeed, as hamlyn (1970:10-11) says, “the growth of knowledge is really not like the growth of a building... 98 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december because knowledge does not grow simply by way of addition. the growth of our knowledge involves much modification and abandonment at some places of what we earlier held to be true” packer (1960:19) differently expresses similar opinion thus: “in the history of man's ideas, we have seen the collapse of many pieces of 'real', certain thorough knowledge that we are today understandably more than a little skeptical. in the ancient world, it was 'truly known' that the earth was flat and that it was in the centre of the universe and not many years ago, most of the people were convinced that it was impossible to transmit voices let alone pictures over long distance. indeed, so often we have discovered the falsity of widely held ideas that we perhaps tend to think that man progresses by the rejection of 'truths' than by their discovery...”. hence, building on such a firm foundation, as descartes attempted to do, is not only impossible; it is undesirable: “what cannot be achieved is the discovery of principles that will put skepticism out of question for all times. skeptical criticism is always possible and indeed desirable. but the search for epistemic foundation has as its aim the provision of immunity from such criticism. the attempt to find such foundation is thus not hopeless, it is also undesirable” (hamlyn1970: 10-11). one popular aphorism says 'to err is human'. “man can never have any guarantee against error in his acquisition of knowledge nor can there be any system of knowledge that would be immune to error, criticism or skepticism” (omoregbe 1989: 55). so long as man remains within the limitation of his finitude and confines to the fluctuation of space and time, attainment of epistemological certainty that will put skepticism out of questionas descartes envisagedremains an unrealizable enterprise. conclusion this article critically examined descartes' attempt to reconstruct an indubitable epistemic foundation that would be impregnable to skeptical demolition and upon which all other fabrics of knowledge will be erected. for him, that was the famous 'cogito'. the fundamental question considered here was can descartes' epistemological foundationalism justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? descartes' cogito as a sure foundation cannot withstand the evil genius argument earlier put forward by him since there is no guarantee that such conclusion was not influenced by the same malignant evil genius. unarguably, skepticism has been instrumental to the birth of epistemology. the theory of knowledge is, partly, a set of defense against the impossibility of knowing with certainty. descartes' epistemological foundationalism cannot entirely defeat the skeptics' arguments. no epistemological conclusions enjoy absolute certainty and/or finality. knowledge follows the metaphysics of man and it is characteristically tentative, dynamic and contextual. it grows and/or progresses more often by disagreement than by mere consensus. references beck, i. j. (1969), the metaphysics of descartes. oxford: university press. carlo, w.e. (1967), philosophy, science and knowledge. milwaukee: the bruce pub.co. christian, j,l. (1973). philosophy: introduction to the art of wondering. san francisco: rinehart press. 99 can descartes epistemology justifiably answer the skeptics' arguments? nkereuwem dominic ekpo descartes, r. “discourse on method” in anscombe e. (editors)(1954), descartes philosophical writtings. new york: thomas nelson and sons pub. rd descartes, r. meditation of the first philosophy (3 edition, translated by cress, d.a) (1993). indianapolis; hackett pub co. eboh, b. o. (1993). basic issues in the theory of knowledge. nsuka: felluda pub. co. 1995 hamlyn, d. n. (1970). the theory of knowledge. london; mac. edu. pub. kung, h. (1978). does god exist? great britain: the university press. mercier, j. l. (1982). epistemology and the problem of truth. bangalore: niger fernandes. ojong, k. a. and ibrahim, a. a., (2011). fundamental problems of epistemology. calabar: jochrisam pub. omoregbe, j. (1989). epistemology: a systematic and historical study. lagos: joja edu. pub. ozumba, g. o. (2001). a concise introduction to epistemology. calabar: ebenezer printing press. packer, f. h. (1960). “a realistic appraisal of knowledge” in houde, r. and mullay, y. (editors), philosophy of knowledge: selected readings. chicago: lippincat pub. co. russerl, b. (1998). the problem of philosophy. new york: oxford university press. schacht, r. (1984). classical modern philosophers (descartes to kant). london: routledge pub. st. augustine, city of god (bk xi, 26) translated by gerald g.usa. 1958 100 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 99 page 100 page 101 page 102 page 103 page 104 page 105 page 106 page 107 page 108 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract this paper is a critique of the culture, method and end of education today. it claims that education today does not aim at the integral formation and cultivation of a person. put differently, it claims that philosophy of education critically speaking ought to be a kind of eudaimonism. education ought to be fundamentally about the ultimate good of the human person, and the task of philosophy of education is to critically establish and direct education towards the ultimate good of the human person. philosophy of education in a very simple but fundamental sense, is a critical attempt to understand the foundation of education, that is to say, the nature and the end of education. what kind of education ought to be given to children in a city or nation-state, has been an ancient question in different civilizations. this work, is not only a critique of contemporary educational systems, but also a call for a philosophy of education that fundamentally connects education with the good or happy life. hence, this research is an investigation on a philosophical education that is based on the eudaimonistic principle initiated by plato and aristotle and sustained by the philosophers of antiquity, such as the epicureans and the stoics. it also expounds ancient chinese philosophy, to sustain the argument that an eudaimonistic philosophy of education has a universal effect and application. keywords: classics, philosophy, education, eudemonism, confucianism, happy life. introduction this research simply put is a critique of the culture, method and end of education today. it claims that education today does not aim at the integral formation and cultivation of a person. hence, it explores the classical notion of education in the west and the east (focusing on classical confucianism) that squarely emphasizes education as the formation and cultivation of the soul, that aims at the ultimate good or happiness of the human person. this classical philosophy of education, in this work is exposed as eudaimonia. this eudaimonic end of education is clearly emphasized in the thought of plato and aristotle and subsequent greco-roman philosophers. it also demonstrates, that the classical chinese philosophers also maintains this eudaimonic end of education. this work calls for a transformation in education today. it calls for a re-establishment of the superiority of liberal education over servile education. it is therefore, a call for action, that posits the ultimate good of the human person as the ultimate end of education. this will be achieved by investigating a philosophical education based on the eudaimonistic principle initiated by plato and aristotle and sustained by the philosophers of antiquity, such as the cynics, the cyrenaics, the epicureans and the stoics. it also expounds ancient chinese philosophy, to sustain the argument that an eudaimonistic philosophy of education has a universal effect and application. hence, the research will be executed thus: 1. exposition of eudaimonistic education in greek and roman antiquity. 2. eudaimonistic nature of confucian education. 3. a case for philosophy of education as eudaimonism. this would be followed by a conclusion. 21 “eudaimonism” in classical west and east as philosophy of education today justin nnaemeka onyeukaziri, (phd) fu jen catholic university, taiwan. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 exposition of eudaimonistic education in greek and roman antiquity this section is to show that both plato and aristotle consider the end of education as a happy life both of the individual and of the city-state at large. this could be seen in the works republic and politics of plato and aristotle respectively. the primary problematic in the dialogue, republic, is justice. the efforts to define justice that is to know the quiddity (essence) of justice, created a whole discussion of what ought to be the ideal city-state and what kind of people should constitute the city-state and their different roles. in the dialogue, socrates contends that the best way to define justice, is by the means of knowing the just person. to know the just person, one need to know first, what a just city is, its nature and end, since the just person is part of a just city (see, republic bk ii, 369a). this leads to a long discourse on an ideal political economy of the platonic city-state. gathered by individual self-insufficiency, in order to compliment the lack in oneself by the strength of the other, every one, therefore, aims at the common good of the citystate. a special education is needed for the persons whose role is to guard and govern the citystate. this kind of education should be in accordance with the nature of the ideal person. furthermore, this education is formulated towards the formation and development of the entire human person, body and soul, but most importantly the three parts of the soul—irrational, spirited and rational, with special attention given to the rational part of the soul. of which, socrates in the dialogue, posits the love of learning or love of wisdom, which is philosophy, as the special education in accordance to the nature of a good guardian for a proper discharge of his duty. however, this education must begin with music and poetry (though with great censorship) for the cultivation of the soul in the exercise of harmony and moderation and physical training for the strength and health of the body (see, republic bk ii, 376b-e; bk iii, 404e). the ultimate end of the musical and poetic cultivation of the soul and physical training of the body is the harmony of the spirited and wisdom-loving parts of the soul per se (republic bk iii, 411e). in the dialogue, socrates argues that the end of this kind of education is not just for an individual happiness but it is in order to establish a happy city-state, to ensure that the city-state as a whole has the greatest happiness (republic bk iv, 420b-421c). this education, is ordered in such a way that there would be the cultivation of the four cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation (temperance) and justice, which are necessary for a happy city-state (republic bk iv 427e-435b). this shows a fundamental connection between education, virtue and happiness. the ultimate end of education is happiness and there cannot be happiness without the cultivation of virtue, most importantly the cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation (temperance) and justice. in sum, in book vii of republic, the famous allegory of the cave was employed by socrates to elucidate the effect of education, which is to disperse ignorance, mere perceptions and opinions, to lead one to the truth—the knowledge of things per se, the essence of things. at this juncture, socrates contends that education is not “putting knowledge into souls that lack it, like putting sight into blind eyes” but rather that “the power to learn is present in everyone's soul and that the instrument with which each learns is like an eye that cannot be turned around from darkness to light without turning the whole body. this instrument cannot be turned around from that which is coming into being without turning the whole soul until it is able to study that which is and the brightest thing that is, namely, the one we call the good” (republic bk vii, 518b-c). thus, education is an activity of the soul, the redirection of the soul to the light of knowledge, which is truth. the contemplation of the truth, therefore, is the happiness of the soul. the happy person, therefore, is one who is rich in a good and rational life (republic bk vii, 521a). simply put, the 22 onyeukaziri “eudaimonism” in classical west and east as philosophy of education today end of education should be in order to be rich in good and rational life, that is to say, the excellence in virtue and intellection. this sought of education, must be absolutely free, without coercion, “because no free person should learn anything like a slave. forced bodily labor does no harm to the body, but nothing taught by force stays in the soul” (republic bk vii, 536e). aristotle begins his work, politics, with a teleological motif, by contending that every political community or the state “is established with a view to some good”, not just for a certain good but for the highest good (bk i, 1252a1-10). he posits “justice” by which in this context he means “the common interest” as the good of political science, of which proper subject as a science, is the political community or the state (politics bk iii, 1282b15-20). however, in respect to the good of the state per se, he maintains that the highest good is the good life, of which education and excellence (virtue) are of superior importance (politics bk iii, 1283a23-25). making reference to his eudaimonic position in the nicomachean ethics, he sustains “the happy life”, as what characterizes the best constitution of government. of which he describes the happy life as “the life according to excellence lived without impediment, and that excellence is a mean, then the life which is a mean, and in a mean attainable by everyone, must be the best” (politics bk iv, 1295a351295b1). the life of the mean, which for him is life in accordance to the rational principle of the soul, in other words, the intellectual life (1295b5-10). in book vii, aristotle plunged into the question of the best life, eligible for all the member of a state. he maintains that the happy man ought to have the threefold goods of life: “external goods, goods of the body and goods of the soul” (1323a25-30). he elevates the goods of the soul, which is intellectual activities and moral excellence (arête), over and above the other two goods. hence, he submits that “happiness, whether consisting in pleasure or excellence, or both, is more often found with those who are most highly cultivated in their mind and in their character, and have only a moderate share of external goods, than among those who possess external goods to a useless extent but are deficient in higher qualities” (1323b1-10). this follows that for him, the cultivation of the soul is indispensable for the happy life of an individual person and for the state at large. whereas, the usefulness or utility of external goods decreases inversely proportional to increment of the external goods, while, the utility of the goods of the soul increases directly proportional to the increment of the goods of the soul. thus, he sustains that “each one has just so much of happiness as he has of excellence and wisdom, and of excellent and wise action” (1323b20). this, he claims also applies to the state. he maintains that “the happy state may be shown to be that which is best and which acts rightly; and it cannot act rightly without doing right actions, and neither individual nor state can do right actions without excellence and wisdom” (1323b25-30). therefore, he submits that “the best life, both for individuals and states, is the life of excellence, when excellence has external good enough for the performance of good actions” (1323b35-1324a1). he thus, with several examples of states in antique (1324b1-40), sustains that the educational formation given by a state is determined by what the state considers to be the best life. hence, positing an eudaimonic relationship between education and the good life or happy life (life of excellence or virtue) of individuals and the state. aristotle posits three principles that make the human person good and excellent, and they are, nature, habit and reason. among the three, only reason is exclusively a principle in the human person, since, nature (instinct) and habit are common in humans and other animals. for the human person to lead the happy life, the three principles of nature, habit and reason, must be in harmony with one another. the strive that constantly exist between these three principles, besides the use of legislation, must be regulated and harmonized by education (1332b1-10). therefore, education 23 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 should be planned and executed with the best end of the human person in mind; with the view that leisure and peace are more superior than business and war; what is honourable in life is superior to what is necessary to survive and what is useful in life (1333b1-5). what is honourable in life actually deals with the formation of the rational part of the soul, the intellectual and moral activities of the soul. while what is necessary and useful in life deal with the irrational part of the soul and the corporal part of the human person. he emphasizes the place of excellence in leisure to the formation of both a happy person and a happy state, saying, “since the end of individuals and of states is the same, the end of the best man and of the best constitution must also be the same; it is therefore evident that there ought to exist in both of them, the excellence of leisure” (1334a10-15). leisure is very necessary for the cultivation of the rational part of the soul, and this explains the relationship between philosophy and leisure. hence, aristotle contends, “courage and endurance are required for business and philosophy for leisure, temperance and justice for both, and more especially in times of peace and leisure” (1334a20-25). he concludes the work, politics, with these words on education: “thus it is clear that education should be based upon three principles—the mean, the possible, the becoming, these three” (bk viii, 1342b30ff). these three principles are intrinsically connected to the intellectual and moral excellence of the human person and the state. eudaimonism is the principle that guides, especially, the practical philosophies of aristotle. he systematically constructed this principle and expounded on it in his work entitled, nicomachean ethics (ne). he begins this work thus: “every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim” (bk i, 1094a1-5). every action and choice we make, in the final analysis, is in order to live, in other words, their good is life or for the good life. what then is the purpose of living or the good or end of life? what is the ultimate good of the human person? what is the good life? these are the questions, at the heart of eudaimonism through the greco-roman period. socratic-plato, entertained this questions in their philosophical discourse, but it was aristotle that initiated these questions into the central enterprise of philosophy, by sustaining a systematic discourse in response to these questions. the ultimate good is that for which sake everything is done, that for which sake every action or choice is made. hence the ultimate or chief good is complete per se and lacks nothing, for it is self-sufficient. it is “that which is in itself worthy of pursuit more complete than that which is worthy of pursuit for the sake of something else, and that which is never desirable for the sake of something else more complete than the things that are desirable both in themselves and for the sake of that other thing” (ne bk i, 1097a25-30). he calls this ultimate good eudaimonia (roughly translated as happiness or wellbeing). however, what exactly is this happiness which is the ultimate good of every human person, as aristotle admits, this is a big problematic among both the wise and the common people. aristotle attempts to describe it as the “activity of soul in conformity with excellence, and if there are more than one excellence, in conformity with the best and most complete” (ne bk i, 1098a15). a thorough reading of nicomachean ethics, shows that aristotle himself is not clear and precise on what exactly is happiness. thus, it became the very task of subsequent philosophical traditions to clearly define what the ultimate good, happiness, is. hence, diverse philosophical schools after aristotle were developed for the education and training of people to lead life in accordance to their notion of the ultimate good. this sort of education, therefore, is what has been known as eudaimonism. below, the eudaimonistic view of the following schools is 24 onyeukaziri “eudaimonism” in classical west and east as philosophy of education today briefly exposed: cyrenaic, cynicism, epicureanism and stoicism. the philosophical school cyrenaicism, most probably was founded in athens, by aristippos/aristippus of cyrene (c.435-c.360bc). he went to athens from cyrene, attracted to the teachings of socrates and become one of the companions of socrates. by his own life and teachings, aristippos maintains that the ultimate good is in the enjoyment of pleasure, no wonder “he was the first of the followers of socrates to charge fees and to send money to his master” (diogenes laertius, n.65). hence, for the cyrenaics, living pleasurably each day is the ultimate good, for only the present day is within the control of a person. from the church father, athenaeus, we are informed that “all the philosophical schools have contended about the choice of enjoyment; and that which is known as the cyrenaic school took its origin from aristippos the socratic, who taught that the enjoyment of pleasure is the end of life, and that happiness resides in that” (cited in robin hard, 2012, n.538). one may disagree (as many of their contemporaries did) with the cyrenaics philosophy of life, but the point is that they were committed to the education of aristippos in leading a life that is consistent to their belief that present enjoyment of pleasure without worrying of the past or the future, as the ultimate good. happiness is in present sensual satisfaction (bodily pleasure) and not in being mastered by pleasure but in mastering pleasure. according to diogenes laertius, 'they also hold that there is a difference between “end” and “happiness.” our end is particular pleasure, whereas happiness is the sum total of all particular pleasures, in which are included both past and future pleasures” (lives of eminent philosophers, n.87). this eudaimonistic attitude which was later called hedonism, had a strong influence on the epicureans. the school cynicism, was founded by diogenes the cynic (c.404-c.323bc), also known as the dog. he is from sinope but lived and practiced his philosophy in athens. having being influenced by the teaching of antisthenes who emphasizes the ascetic way of life, he chose a radical way of life that maintains the critical attitude of socrates to conventions, but to the extreme. he chose to live a frugal life of a beggar on the street or in a jar during the cold. he considers himself as “a liberator of humanity, a healer of human ills…. a prophet of truth and plain speaking” (in robin hard, n.1). his view on the noblest of men is “those who despise riches, reputation, pleasure and concern for life, and are thus able to overmaster their opposites, poverty, ill-repute, suffering, and death” (stobacus in robin hard, n.78). following their master, the cynics maintained the choice of life, which is to fight against pleasure and to clean up human life. they took upon themselves poverty and self-sufficiency as way of life. thus, positing poverty as the natural aid to philosophy, since the end of all philosophizing is to be self-sufficient, a free choice of poverty is thus, its quickest route. according to diogenes laertius, “they maintain, that the end is to live in accordance with virtue…. that we should live a simple life, feeding only to sustain ourselves, wearing only a single cloak, and scorning wealth, repute, and high births…. it is the privilege of the gods to need nothing, and of those who are like the gods to need little” (in robin hard, n. 27). for them the ultimate end is virtue and the ultimate good is happiness and happiness is the mind and soul being in a state of calm and serenity. this eudaimonistic attitude to life, explains why they have strong influence on stoicism. as mentioned above the school epicureanism was influenced by cyrenaicism, especially in respect to their ethics and way of life. however, their philosophy of nature and general metaphysics was influenced by the atomistic philosophy of democritus. thus, their metaphysical orientation is materialistic. epicurus (341-271 bc) who hailed from athens was the founder of 25 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 epicureanism. epicureanism holds that the ultimate good is pleasure. influenced by their master, the epicureans believe that “the totality is [made up of] <bodies and void>; for in all cases senseperception itself testifies that bodies exist, and it is by sense-perception that we must infer by reasoning what is non-evident” (diogenes laertius in brad inwood, n.37). this implies, only bodies and void (which are unlimited and eternal) exist, nothing spiritual including the gods exist. in letter to menoeceus, epicurus writes to one of his students enjoining him, thus: “do and practice what i constantly told you to do, believing these to be the elements of living well. first, believe that god is an indestructible and blessed animal…. get used to believing that death is nothing to us. for all good and bad consists in sense-experience, and death is the privation of sense-experience” (diogenes laertius in brad inwood, n.123). simply put, since everything is matter and atoms, one should not fear death because there is nothing after death. for it is the fear of death and the longing for immortality, that cause disturbance and restlessness in the human person. as epicurus contends, “so death, the most frightening of bad things, is nothing to us; since when we exist, death is not yet present, and when death is present, then we do not exist” (n.125). therefore, one ought to be contented with the present life and maximize its enjoyments, seek pleasure and avoid pain, for the ultimate goal is freedom of the soul from disturbance. thus, while the cyrenaics directly seek bodily pleasure as a positive end, the epicureans seek pleasure in the soul by the avoidance of pains, in other words as a negative end. epicurus himself, clarifies their position on pleasure thus: “so when we say that pleasure is the goal we do not mean the pleasures of the profligate or the pleasures of consumption, as some believe, either from ignorance and disagreement or from deliberate misinterpretation, but rather the lack of pain in the body and disturbance in the soul” (n.131). hence, they maintain, “pleasure is the starting-point and goal of living blessedly” (n.128), as the sum of their eudaimonistic attitude. just as epicureanism was influenced by cyrenaicism, stoicism was influenced by cynicism. stoicism was founded by zeno (c.334-262 bc) around 300bc in athens. according to seneca, who himself is a prominent roman stoic, stoics follows the guidance of nature (reason), “a doctrine upon which all stoics are agreed. not to stray from nature and to mould ourselves according to her law and pattern—this is true wisdom” (on the happy life, iii,3). sustaining this line of thought, epictetus (ad 50-135), another stoic, contends, “the subject-matter with which the good and excellent man has to deal is his own governing principle, that of a physician and the masseur is the body, of a farmer is his farm; but the function of the good and excellent man is to deal with his impressions in accordance with nature” (bk iii, ch.3). this “governing principle” which is the subject-matter of the good and excellent man is reason. on the enquiry on what is the happy life, seneca maintains that “the happy life, therefore, is a life that is in harmony with its own nature, and it can be attained in only one way. first of all, we must have a sound mind and one that is in constant possession of its sanity; second, it must be courageous and energetic, and, too, capable of the noblest fortitude, ready for every emergency, careful of the body and of all that concerns it, but without anxiety; lastly, it must be attentive to all the advantages that adorn life, but with over-much love for none—the user, but not the slave, of the gifts of fortune” (on the happy life, iii, 4). the end of these attitude, is the tranquility, peace and harmony of the soul, “boundless joy that is firm and unalterable” (on the happy life, iii,4). from another perspective, seneca maintains that for the stoics, the ultimate or highest good “is a mind that scorns the happenings of chance, and rejoices only in virtue…. or say it is the power of the mind to be unconquerable, wise from experience, calm in action, showing the while much courtesy and consideration in 26 onyeukaziri “eudaimonism” in classical west and east as philosophy of education today intercourse with others” (on the happy life, iv,2). for the stoics, therefore virtuous life in accordance to reason is the only good, the only treasure worth living and dying for. eudaimonistic nature of confucian education the confucian analects (���z), begins with the question of 「�w��」 (studying and learning/practice). it is maintained that, it is pleasurable to put study or learning into practice ( [「�w而�r��之，不亦�f乎」 (���z·�w而篇第一 )] analects bk i). which shows that confucius and his disciples consider educational formation as central to human development. education should be aimed at the moral cultivation and social integration of the human person. the ultimate end of confucian education is the cultivation of the ontological cum moral principle 「仁」(ren), that constitutes the quiddity of the confucian human person. the four books that constitute the confucian classes, all defines the human person thus: [「仁者人也」], that is to say, what makes the human being a person is ren (「仁」). ren (仁) as a chinese character pre-dates confucius, but it could be said that it was confucius that employed the character 「仁」as a philosophical category and concept. in the thought process of the chinese people, the notion of 「仁」 has evolved in its signification. from, the loving experience among family members and kin, 「�塾h」, as it could be found in the text 《��z》 and 《左��》, to「��人」(“love humanity or human love”). with confucius, henceforth, it becomes a more philosophical concept, possessing meaning extending beyond family or kinship love, to becoming the ground for moral value in the society [(「道德�r值」。)] in the major confucian classical text, the term 「仁」 is a key term but used with slightly different significations. for instance, in the analects《���z?里仁》, it is maintained「不仁者不可以 1久���s，不可以�l����。仁者安仁，知者利仁。」 here, 「仁」signifies moral virtue, whereby a contrast is made between the moral person 「仁者」who has cultivated the moral essence 「仁」and 「不仁者」, who lacks happiness due to lack of the cultivation of 「仁」. thus,「仁」is posited as the source not only morality but the source for a tranquil and serene happy living (「仁者安仁」). the privation of 「仁」leads to the inability to persevere in adversity and the inability to be self-controlled and modest in bountifulness (「不仁者不可 以久���s，不可以�l���贰�. the end of chinese philosophy in a sense is, the self-cultivation and the serenity of the human person (「修己安人」). the quiddity of the human person in the confucian anthropology is 「仁」 (《中庸》：「仁者人也」；《孟子?公孫丑章句上第七章》：「���[之心， 2仁之端也; �o���[之心，非人也」; 「仁也者，人也。合而言之，道也」 ). these assertions simply maintains that to be a person is to possess 「仁」, that is to say to be a moral being (「道德物」). it is thus, morality that distinguishes the human person from other living beings. the ultimate purpose of education therefore is, self-cultivation 「修己」, aimed at the development and enhancement of the principle of 「仁」 in the human nature. on the sociopolitical level, this self-cultivation produces the ideal person in the confucian socio-political 27 1. 【宋】朱熹，《四書章句集注》，台北市：長安出版社，民國80年。for english reading see: d.c. lau (trans.) (1992). confucius: the analects (bilingual edition). hong kong: the chinese university press. 2.【宋】朱熹，《四書章句集注》，台北市：長安出版社，民國80年。 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 thought, 「君子」(junzi). however, the ultimate end is to become the sacred sage (�}人), the transcendental persona (personhood), that everyone ought to aspire to. education, therefore, ought to be organized and executed towards this socio-political and transcendental end. as a result, these concepts “li”「�y」 and “yue”「��」 are both emphasized in confucian philosophy, as the educational means for the self-cultivation of the human person. while confucius (孔子) and mencius (孟子), emphasize 「�y」, xunzi (荀子) emphasizes 「��」 in the self-cultivation of the human person. while 「�y」is the philosophical concept for sociopolitical order and harmony, 「��」 is the philosophical concept for the interior order and harmony of an individual person. with both 「�y」 and 「��」，the external cultivation of the social-ethical person, 「仁德，」 and the internal cultivation of the moral law, 「仁道，」 respectively could be developed. in《孟子?公孫丑章句上第七章》, it is maintained: 「天之尊爵也，人之安宅也。莫之 3�r而不仁，是不智也。不仁、不智、�o�y、�o�x，人役也」, where, 「仁」as a theoretical substance, is posited as the foundational principle for the three practical principles that intrinsically define the human person, namely, 「智」, 「�y」and 「�x」. thus, the concept 「仁」, is not just a moral virtue but the principle of all virtues. it has the concept of「道」as its first principle; 「德」as its manifestation and 「孝悌」 as its ground. 「道」is 「天道」 and「德」 is「仁 /人道」 . 「仁道」as the moral reduction of 「天道」 in the human person, is that which makes the transcendental union of the human person with the nature/heavens possible (「天人合一」/ 「天人合德」), which is the ultimate end of the human person. therefore, for the confucians, education must be aimed at the transcendental union of the human person with nature as its ultimate end. a case for philosophy of education as eudaimonism this work posits the question central to eudaimonism, which is: “what is the good life or happy life?” as the end of philosophy of education. put differently, this work claims that philosophy of education critically speaking ought to be a kind of eudaimonism. education ought to be fundamentally about the ultimate good of the human person, and the task of philosophy of education is to critically establish and direct education towards the ultimate good of the human person. philosophy of education in a very simple but fundamental sense, is a critical attempt to understand the foundation of education, that is to say, the nature and the end of education. what kind of education ought to be given to children in a city or nation-state, has been an ancient question in different civilizations. in ancient greek, as exposed above, we find it in plato's republic and in aristotle's politics, both raised and discussed the question within a general discourse on politics or political economy. however, their aim is to construct an ideal nation-state of an ideal people who enjoys or ought to have a good or happy life. in investigating the ultimate good of the human person, aristotle in the nicomachean ethics, contends that the ultimate good of the human person is eudaimonia, commonly translated in english as happiness, blessedness 3【宋】朱熹，《四書章句集注》，台北市：長安出版社，民國80年。 28 onyeukaziri “eudaimonism” in classical west and east as philosophy of education today or wellbeing. this question on what is the ultimate good of the human person, as exemplified in the lives of sages or wise men, became the nucleus of the hellenistic philosophical traditions, becoming what is, henceforth, known as eudaimonism. hence, every philosophical tradition during the hellenistic period, was a kind of eudaimonistic tradition. people seek to be educated by a philosopher/sage, mainly because they seek to lead a good or happy life. thus, making the end of education the strive for a good and happy life, through intellectual discourse and the pursuit of moral and virtuous living. this philosophy of education thus is eudaimonism. similar experience is found in ancient chinese civilization. the ultimate end of education in the thought of ancient chinese philosophers is the moral and virtuous cultivation of the human person with the view to becoming the ideal human person. this especially is not only the central end of the philosophy of education of the confucian philosophy, originated by confucius (孔子 ) and sustained by mencius (孟子) and xunzi (荀子), it is indeed, the nucleus of their entire philosophical, ethical and political thoughts. the ultimate good of the ideal person（�}人） , which is the moral person（德者）, in confucianism is (「天人合一」), that is to say the transcendental union of a person with nature or the absolute one. during the middle ages, both in the west and in chinese history, unfortunately, education began to have less and less the eudaimonistic nature and end, and began to have a more servile and utilitarian end. in the west, during the middle ages, education became mainly the privilege of those within the ecclesiastical and religious hierarchies and those around the royal courts; philosophy becomes the handmaid of theology, serving a functional end; the eudaimonistic end of philosophical education became substituted, mainly, by christian spirituality and religious rites. in the chinese world, during the middle ages, education became a tool to break out of poverty and the class of the common people into the elite class. the passion for education, for many, became to pass the imperial examination and become a staff in the imperial court. simply put, education became a necessity for socio-economic survival and for elevation in social status. since, the breakthrough and continuous advancement of science and technology in the modern era, with its consequent industrial, economic and commercial revolutions, education, more or less, has become a state's tool in producing citizens that can sustain the doing of servile works for the wealth of a nation. today, schools have become more or less a capitalist factory, where labour forces are produced to fill in the spaces in the capitalist labour markets. education today, is becoming a means by which young people obtain the tools and the certificate to secure a job and make a living. hence, it is uncontestable that the need for philosophy of education not only for professional philosophers or professional teachers but also for students, is pertinent. this work, therefore, is not only a critique of contemporary educational system, but a call for a philosophy of education that fundamentally connects education with the good or happy life. and as aristotle contends, that, which was sustained by the philosophers of antiquity, the good or happy life deals mainly with the interior cultivation of the human person, that is, the intellectual and moral activities of the soul. since, what distinguishes the human person from other animals, is the possession of rationality, the happiness and the good of the human person must necessarily be about the rational activities of the soul. 29 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 conclusion this work is a critique on education today. education, as contended by this work has been hijacked by capitalistic economical ends. these ends make education basically pragmatic and functional. in the sense that students mainly take courses in the university to have grades and spent four or more years in the university to obtain a certificate, which has at its end finding a job and make a living. hence, students go to school in order to secure a job, after which, they live in order to work. teachers and schools today, therefore, have become instruments and factories that produces work forces or labour for the small, medium and big companies—private and state-run, all over the world. the question to ask therefore is: what is the ultimate purpose of the university or college education? why should a young boy or girl spent four years or more in the university or college? if one is guaranteed a job, whether or not one has a university or college certificate, does one still need a university education? put simply, other than job security, is there a need to obtain a university education? if there is, then, what is it? the purpose of this work is to answer this question(s). this work by asserting the eudaimonic end of education, contends that there is fundamental need for education, especially for higher education—university or college education. the purpose of higher education is the training and cultivation of the soul; education is the activities of the soul. the activities of the soul are mainly the intellectual and moral formation of the human person. the intellectual and moral formation of the human person, is possible because the human person possesses intellectus, the rational part of the soul. the possession of the rational part of the soul, is what distinguishes the human person from all other animals. therefore, education, especially the university education, ought to be focused on making or helping the young ones become or realize their personhood, by the cultivation of the distinguishing nature of the human person. hence, the university education should aim at self-realization and selfactualization of students. during, the university education, the young should be challenged and inspired to ask serious, critical and fundamental questions about themselves, their society, the world and reality in toto. by completing a university education, a student, should be able to have a better self-awareness, should be able to know thyself. for no one could be truly happy or fulfilled who does not know his or herself. these processes of the formation and cultivation of the soul, aimed at the ultimate good or happiness of the human person, is what has been exposed as eudaimonia in this work. this eudaimonic end of education is clearly emphasized in the thought of plato and aristotle and subsequent greco-roman philosophers, notwithstanding, some bioethical (such as euthanasia) or socio-political (such as exclusion of women and slaves in education) implications in the formation of their ideal person and state. it is also demonstrated, that the classical chinese philosophers also maintains this eudaimonic end of education. simply put, for the classical people, education is for the interior formation and integral discipline of the human person; it is a way of becoming a person; a way of life. hence, education is philosophy and philosophy is education. people do not go to the philosopher or sage to be educated in order to make a living, but in order to live; they do not go, in order to obtain a certificate, but in order to obtain wisdom; they do not go to school because they have to, but because they need to; they do not go to school because they feel compelled by parents or society, but because they are freely moved by the love of wisdom and truth; they were not interested in riches and wealth, but they were interested in virtue 30 onyeukaziri “eudaimonism” in classical west and east as philosophy of education today and honour. in conclusion therefore, to save education today, is to re-establish the superiority of liberal education over servile education. that is to say, to re-establish the place of leisure for learning and learning for leisure, over and above, learning for utility and for work. this work, therefore is a call for action that posit the ultimate good of the human person as the ultimate end of education. this was achieved by investigating a philosophical education based on the eudaimonistic principle initiated by aristotle and sustained by the philosophers of antiquity, such as the cynics, the cyrenaics, the epicureans and the stoics. and of which the ancient chinese philosophy was also exposed, to sustain the argument that an eudaimonistic philosophy of education has a universal effect and application. references aristotle (1984). “politics” (tr. by b. jowett). the complete works of aristotle (vol. ii), jonathan barnes (ed.), new jersey: princeton university press. aristotle (1984). “nicomachean ethics” (tr. by w.d. ross/ revised by j.o. urmson), the complete works of aristotle (vol. ii), jonathan barnes (ed.), new jersey: princeton university press. brad inwood (ed) (2003). the cambridge companion to the stoics, cambridge: cambridge university press. brad inwood and l. p. gerson (trans. & eds.) (1994). the epicurus reader: selected writings and testimonia, indianapolis/cambridge: hackett publishing company, inc. d.c. lau (trans.) (1992). confucius: the analects (bilingual edition), hong kong: the chinese university press. diogenes laertius (1972). lives of eminent philosophers. bk 1-5), r.d. hicks (trans.), cambridge: harvard university press. robin hard (trans.) (2012). diogenes the cynic sayings and anecdotes: with other popular moralists, new york: oxford university press. epictetus (1985). the discourses as reported by arrian, the manual, and fragments (vol. ii), w.a. oldfather, (trans.), (cambridge: harvard university press. plato (1997). complete works, john m. cooper & d.s. hutchinson (eds.), indianapolis/cambridge: hackett publishing company. seneca (1932). moral essays (vol. ii), john w. basore (trans.), (cambridge: harvard university press, 1932). 【宋】朱熹 (1991)《四��戮浼��贰ｌū笔�：�l安出版社。 31 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract this paper argues that the capacity and control of ecological feminism provides a distinctive framework both for reconceiving feminism and for developing environmental ethic, which takes seriously connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature. it discusses the nature of a feminist ethic and the ways in which ecofeminism provides a feminist and environmental ethic. hence, it holds that feminism must embrace ecological feminism, if it is to end the domination of women, because domination of women is tied conceptually and historically to the domination of nature. it concludes that any feminist theory and any environmental ethic which fails to take seriously the twin and interconnected dominations of women and nature is at best incomplete and worst simply inadequate. this research employed analytic method. keywords: feminism, ecofeminism, ecology, environment and ethics introduction ecological feminism (ecofeminism) has begun to receive a fair amount of attention lately as an alternative feminism and environmental ethic (warren 1990, p.220). it was in 1974 that francoise d'eaubonne introduced the term ecofemmisme to bring attention to women's potential for bringing about an ecological revolution (p. 213). since then, the term has been used in many ways. ecological feminism is the position that there are important connectionshistorical, experiential, symbolic, theoretical – between the domination of women and the domination of nature, and an understanding of which is crucial to both feminism and environmental ethics (warren 1996, p. 230). ecofeminism is an ideology and movement that sees climate change, gender equality, and social injustice more broadly as intrinsically related issues, all tied to masculine dominance in society (200). specifically, ecofeminism holds that most environmental issues can be traced back to the global prioritization of qualities deemed masculine (particularly the ones some would regard as toxic, like aggression and domination) and those in power who embody those attributes. ecofeminism also calls attention to the fact that women are disproportionately affected by environmental issues (vareba et al, 2019). according to a report of centre for environment, human rights and development (cehrd), the adrift fortunes: testimonies of women in oil polluted communities of the niger delta, women worldwide typically hold less monetary wealth and rely on the natural environment more, they are more likely to be displaced by climate change and have to travel farther for resources, like water, as dry seasons extend. research shows women are also more greatly ecofeminism reconceives feminism in potential ecological feminism dr. dinebari david vareba department of philosophy rivers state university nkpolu-oroworokwo, port harcourt & dr. charles barivule berebon department of philosophy rivers state university nkpolu-oroworokwo, port harcourt 88 affected by climate change than the men. (vareba et al, 2019). this study also suggested some men may have internalized aversions toward environmentalism. there are several sub-branches of this movement, including vegetarian ecofeminism, spiritual ecofeminism, and materialist ecofeminism. but at their root, they all assert that masculine dominance has led to a disconnect between nature and culture, which has adversely affected marginalized groups as well as nature itself. feminism, in all its waves, has experienced evolutions and resurgences since it formally began in the mid-1800s. as climate change awareness and subsequent activism rose in recent decades, feminists began to identify the ways in which the movement for gender equality and the movement for environmental protection are related. the term "ecofeminism" was coined by the feminist francoise d'eaubonne in 1974. according to her, the disenfranchisement and oppression of women, people of color, and the poor are intrinsically linked to the degradation of the natural world, as both arose as a result of patriarchal dominance (d'eaubonne 1974. pp 10). over the years, many more have explored the sentiment behind ecofeminism—and begun advocating for it. women such as vandana shiva founder of the research foundation for science, technology, and ecology, and carolyne merchant, author of death of nature: women, ecology, and the scientific revolution, are just two prominent names within this movement since its inception. some other names of note include val blumwood, greta gaard, and susan griffin, just to name a few. ecofeminism creates a linkage between ecology and feminism. ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. eboh believes that “ecofeminism is about a sense of being in relationship with the natural environment” (2001, p. 23). patriarchal systems, where men own and control land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. this applies to the niger delta region of nigeria where the international oil companies (iocs) have explored oil for decades without regard to environmental regulations and standards, thereby leading to the destruction of nature and the environment. the aftermath of this has led to the destruction of women's livelihood in the region. vareba et al argue that pollution in the niger delta impacts more on women than men in the region as women depend more on the natural environment for livelihood than men (2019, p. 12). in the light of this, ecofeminism argues that the men in power control the lands, and therefore, can exploit it for their profit and success. in this situation, ecofeminists consider women to be exploited by men in power for their profit, success, and pleasure. thus, for them, women and the environment are both exploited. hence, ecofeminists believe that the people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctively because they are seen as passive and helpless. ecofeminism, therefore, as a way of repairing social and ecological injustice, calls on women to work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of lands that most women, especially rural women rely on to provide for their families (vareba et al, 2019, p. 18). ecofeminism again believes that there is a connection between women and nature that comes from a shared history of oppression by patriarchal systems. shiva claims that women have a special connection to the environment through their daily interaction with it. she observes that “women in subsistent economies, producing and reproducing wealth in partnership with nature have been experts in their rights of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes. but these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and substance need not recognized by the capitalist reduction paradigm because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature or women's lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth” (shiva 1988, p.33). “it spreads the gospel of egalitarianism and equity” (ebo 2001 p. 28). ecofeminism aims to tackle livelihood issues in the 89 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 face of environmental degradation. it however leaves out health hazards, which women also suffer in a polluted environment. its approach is also materialistic. however, in so far as ecofeminism will be very relevant in today, it is not a holistic approach to resolving inequality. it presses only for the economic interest of women. feminism, ecological feminism and conceptual frameworks feminism is simply the movement to end sexiest oppression. it involves the elimination of any and all factors that contribute to the continued systematic domination or subordination of women (eboh, 2001 p. 6). shiva observes that feminists disagree about the nature of and solution to the subordination of women, however, all feminist agree that sexist oppression exist, is wrong and must be abolished (shiva 1988, 40). a 'feminist issue' is any issue that contributes in some way to understanding the oppression of women. equal rights, comparable pay for comparable work, and food production are feminist issues wherever and whenever an understanding of them contributes to an understanding of the continued exploitation or subjugation of women. searching for water and firewood and fetching them are feminist issues wherever and whenever women's primary responsibility for these tasks contributes to their lack of full participation in decision making, income producing, or high-status positions engaged in by men. what counts as feminist issue, then depends largely on context, particularly the historical and material conditions of women's lives. environmental degradation and exploitation are feminist issues because an understanding of them contributes to an understanding of the oppression of women. in the niger delta region of nigeria, as the oil-polluted communities continue to grapple with the consequences of oil spills and gas flares resulting from unregulated explorative activities of the international oil companies (iocs), women are seen to bear the greatest brunt. they bear the burden of caring for families and depend mostly on the natural environment for sustenance and livelihoods. the . primary economic activity in the niger delta is farming and fishing notably, the primary sources of livelihood of women in the niger delta include fishing, gathering of seafood, fuel wood and subsistence farming. these livelihood structures depend on the endowment of the natural environment. environmental pollution impacts men and women disproportionately. given the different roles and responsibilities in the household and community levels; women are more impacted during oil spills. women are more exposed to environmental change because of a number of cultural and socio-economic factors. women in the niger delta are often poorer, relatively uneducated, possess fewer livelihood assets and depend more on the natural environment for their livelihoods. consequently they bear the heaviest burden of environmental change. one of such apparent huge impacts of environmental change attributable to pollution on the niger delta women is loss of agricultural land. research unravels how oil pollution specifically impacts on women in the region. given the little attention giving to the impact of oil pollution on women in the niger delta, and the associated sufferings experienced by the local population, this research seeks to investigate into the grave human cost of oil pollution on women in the region (vareba et al, 2019). feminist philosophers claim that some of the most important feminist issues are conceptual ones: these issues concern how one conceptualizes such mainstay political notions as reason and rationality, ethics and what it is to be human. ecofeminists extend this feminist philosophical concern to nature. they argue that, ultimately, some of the most important connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature are conceptual. to see this, consider the nature of conceptual frameworks. 90 vareba & berebon ecofeminism reconceives feminism in potential ecological feminism a conceptual framework is a set of basic beliefs, values, attitudes, and assumptions, which shape and reflect how one views oneself and one's world (warren 1996, p.10). it is a socially constructed lens through which we perceive ourselves and others. it is affected by such factors as gender, race, class, age, affectional orientation, nationality, and religious background. some conceptual frameworks are oppressive. an oppressive conceptual framework is one that explains, justifies and maintains relationships of domination and subordination. when an oppressive conceptual framework is patriarchal, it explains, justifies, and maintains the subordination of women by men. warren argued that there are three significant features of oppressive conceptual frameworks: first, value hierarchical thinking, by this she means “up-down” thinking which places higher value, status, or prestige on what is “up” rather than what is “down” (warren 1996, p.291). secondly, is value dualism. by this, she implies disjunctive pairs in which the disjuncts are seen as operational rather than complementary and exclusive rather than inclusive and which place higher value (status, prestige) on one disjunct rather than the other (e.g., dualism which give higher value or status to that which historically been identified as “body,” “emotion,” and “female”); and thirdly, the logic of domination, i.e., a structure of argumentation, which leads to a justification of subordination (warren, 1996, p.35). the third feature of oppressive conceptual frameworks is oppressive conceptual framework is the most significant. a logic of domination is not just a logical structure. it also involves a substantive value system, since an ethical premise is needed to permit or sanction the 'just' subordination of that which is subordinate. it also involves a substantive value system, since the ethical premise is needed to permit or sanction the “just” subordination of that which is subordinate. this justification typically is given on grounds of some alleged characteristics (e.g., rationality) which the dominant (e.g., men) have the subordinate (e.g., women) lack. contrary to what many feminists and ecofeminist have said or suggested, there may be nothing inherently problematic about “hierarchical thinking” or even “value hierarchical thinking” in contexts other than contexts of oppression. hierarchical thinking is important in daily living for classifying data, comparing information and organizing material. taxonomies (e.g., plant taxonomies) and biological nomenclature seem to require some form of “hierarchical thinking”. even “value hierarchical thinking” may be quite acceptable on certain contexts. (the same may be said of “value dualism” in non-oppressive contexts). for example, suppose it is true that what is unique about humans is our conscious capacity to radically reshape our social environments (or “societies”), as murray bookchin suggests (murray, 1987, p.9). then one could conclude that humans are better equipped to radically reshape their environments than are rocks or plantsa “value hierarchical” way of speaking. the problem is not simply that value-hierarchical thinking and value dualisms are used, but the way in which each has been used in oppressive conceptual frameworks to establish inferiority and to justify subordination (warren 1996, p.230). it is the logic of domination, couple with valuehierarchical thinking and value dualisms, which “justifies” subordination. what is explanatorily basic, then, about the nature of oppressive conceptual frameworks is the logic of domination. ecofeminism reconceives feminism the discussion so far has focused on some of the oppressive conceptual features of patriarchy. as we use the phrase, the “logic of traditional feminism” refers to the location of the conceptual roots of sexist oppression in the african societies, in an oppressive patriarchal conceptual framework characterized by a logic of domination. insofar as other systems of oppression (e.g., racism, classism, ageism, heterosexism) are also conceptually maintained by a logic of domination, appeal to the logic of traditional feminism ultimately locates the basic conceptual interconnections among all systems of oppression in the logic of domination. it thereby explains at the 91 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 conceptual level why the eradication of sexist oppression requires the eradication of the other forms of oppressions (alison 1980, p.42). it is by clarifying this conceptual connection between systems of oppression that a movement to end sexist oppressiontraditionally the special turf o feminist theory and practiceleads to a reconceiving of feminism as a movement to end all forms of oppression. suppose one agrees that the logic of traditional feminism requires the expression of feminism to include other social systems of domination (e.g., racism and classism). what warrants the inclusion of nature in these “social systems of domination”? why must the logic of traditional feminism include the abolition of “naturalism” (i.e., the domination of nonhuman nature) among the “isms” feminism must confront? the conceptual justification for expanding feminism to include ecofeminism is twofold. one basis has already been suggested: by showing that the conceptual connections between the dual dominations of women and nature are located in an oppressive and, at least in western societies, patriarchal conceptual framework characterized by a logic of domination, ecofeminism explains how and why feminism, must be expanded and recognized as also a movement to end naturalism. this is made explicit in the following argument a: (a1) feminism is a movement to end sexism. (a2) but sexism is conceptually linked with naturalism (through an oppressive conceptual framework characterized by a logic of domination (a3) thus, feminism is (also) a movement to end naturalism. because, ultimately, these connections between sexism and naturalism are conceptualembedded in an oppressive conceptual frameworkthe logic of traditional feminism leads to the embarrassment of ecofeminism (warren et al 1991, p.288). the other justification for reconceiving feminism to include ecofeminism has to do with the concepts of gender and nature. just as conceptions of gender are socially constructed, so are the conceptions of nature. of course, the claim that women and nature are social constructions does not require anyone to deny that there are actual humans and actual trees, rivers and plants. it simply implies that how women and nature are conceived is a matter of historical social reality. these conceptions vary cross-culturally and by historical time period. as a result, any discussion of the “oppression or domination of nature” involves reference to historically specific forms of social domination of women by men. if ecofeminism promises to reconceive traditional feminism in ways which include naturalism as a legitimate feminist issue, does ecofeminism also promise to reconceive environmental ethics in a way which are feminist? we think so. ecofeminism as a feminist and environmental ethic a feminist ethic involves a twofold commitment to critique male bias in ethic wherever it occurs, and to develop ethics which are not male-biased. sometimes this involves articulation of values (e.g., values of care, appropriate trust, kinship, friendship) often lost or underplayed in mainstream ethics (warren 1990, p. 288). sometimes, it involves engaging in theory building by pioneering in new directions or by revamping old theories in gender sensitive ways. what makes the critiques of old theories or conceptualizations of new one's “feminist” is that they emerge out of sex-gender analyses and reflect whatever those analyses reveal about gendered experience and gendered reality. as we conceive feminist ethics in the pre-feminist present, it rejects attempts to conceive of 92 vareba & berebon ecofeminism reconceives feminism in potential ecological feminism ethical theory in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions, because it assumes that there is no essence (in the sense of some transhistorical, universal, absolute abstraction) of feminist ethics. while attempts to formulate join necessary and sufficient conditions of a feminist ethic are unfruitful, nonetheless, there are some necessary conditions, what we prefer to call “boundary conditions,” of a feminist ethic. these boundary conditions clarify some of the minimal conditions of a feminist ethic without suggesting that feminist ethics has some ahistorical essence. they are like boundaries of a quilt or collage. they delimit the territory of the piece without dictating what the interior, the design, the actual pattern of the piece looks like. because the actual design of the quilt emerges from the multiplicity of voices of women in a cross-cultural context, the design will change over time. it is not something static. what are some of the boundary conditions of a feminist ethic? frist, nothing can become part of a feminist ethiccan be part of the quiltthat promotes sexism, racism, classism, or any other “isms” of social domination. of course, people may disagree about what counts as a sexist act, racist attitude, classist behavior. what counts as sexism, racism, or classism may vary cross-culturally. still, because a feminist ethic aims at eliminating sexism and sexist bias, and (as we have already shown) sexism is intimately connected in conceptualization and in practice to racism, classism and naturalism, a feminist ethic must be anti-sexist, anti-racist, anti-classist, and anti-naturalist and opposed to any “ism” which presupposes or advances a logic of domination. second, a feminist ethic is a contextualist ethic. a contextualist ethic is one which sees ethical discourse and practice as emerging from the voices of people located in different historical circumstances. a contextually is properly viewed as a college of mosaic, a tapestry of voices that emerges out of felt experiences. like any college or mosaic, the point is not to have one picture based on a unity of voices, but a pattern which emerges out of the very different voices of people located in different circumstances. when a contextualist ethic is feminist, it gives central place to the voices of women. third, since a feminist ethic gives central significance to the diversity of women's voices, a feminist ethic must be structurally pluralistic rather than unitary or reductionistic. it rejects the assumption that there is “one voice” in terms of which ethical values, beliefs, attitudes, and conduct can be assessed. fourth, a feminist ethic reconceives ethical theory as theory in process which will change over time. like all theory, a feminist ethic is based on some generalization (frye 1986, p.291). nevertheless, the generalizations associated with it are themselves a pattern of voices within which the different voices emerging out of concrete and alternative descriptions of ethical situations have meaning. the coherence of a feminist theory so conceived is given within a historical and conceptual context, i.e., within a set of historical, socioeconomic circumstances, including circumstances of race, class, age, and affectional orientation and within a set of basic beliefs, value, attitudes, and assumptions about the world. fifth, because a feminist ethic is contextualist, structurally pluralistic, and “in process,” one way to evaluate the claims of a feminist ethic is in terms of their inclusiveness; and epistemologically favored, which are more inclusive of the felt experiences and perspectives of oppressed persons. the condition of inclusiveness requires and ensures that the diverse voices of women (as oppressed persons) will be given legitimacy in ethical theory building. it hereby helps to minimize empirical bias, e.g., bias rising from faulty or false generalizations based on stereotyping, too small a sample size, or a skewed sample. it does so by ensuring that any generalization, which are made about ethics and ethical decision making includeindeed cohere with – the patterned voices of women (warren 1996, p. 250). 93 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 sixth, a feminist ethic makes no attempt to provide an “objective” point of view, since it assumes that in contemporary culture there really is no such point of view. as such, it does not claim to be “unbiased” in the sense of “value neutral” or “objective”. however, it does assume that whatever bias, it has as an ethic centralizing the voices of oppressed persons is a 'better bias'“better” because it is more inclusive and therefore, less partial than those which exclude voices (warren 1996, p. 31). seventh, a feminist ethic provides a central place for values typically unnoticed, underplayed, or misrepresented in traditional ethics, e.g., values of care, love, friendship, and appropriate trust (nathan 1981, p.30). again, it needs not do this at the exclusion of consideration of rights, rules, or utility. there may be many contexts in which talk of rights or of utility is useful or appropriate. in a feminist contextualist ethic, whether or not such talk is useful or appropriate depends on the context; other values (e.g., values of care, trust, friendship) are not viewed as reducible to or captured solely in terms of such talk (cheney 2008, p.100). eight, a feminist ethic also involves a re-conception of what it is to be human and what for humans to engage in ethical decision making, since it rejects as either meaningless or currently untenable in any gender free or gender-neutral description of humans, ethics and ethical decision making. it thereby rejects what alison jaggar calls “abstract individualism”, i.e., the position that it is possible to identify a human essence or human nature that exists independently of any particular historical context (jaggar 1980, p.42). humans and human moral conduct are properly understood essentially (and not merely accidentally) in terms of networks or webs of historical and concrete relationships. all the probs are now in place for seeing how ecofeminism provides the framework for a distinctively feminist and environmental ethic. it is a feminism that critiques male bias where it occurs in ethics (including environmental ethics) and aims at providing an ethic (including environmental ethics) and aims at providing an ethic (including environmental ethic) which is not male biasedand does so in a way that satisfies the preliminary boundary conditions of a feminist ethic. first, ecofeminism is quintessentially anti-naturalist. its anti-naturalism consists in the rejection of any way of thinking about or acting toward nonhuman nature that reflects a logic, values, or attitude of domination. its anti-naturist, anti-sexist, anti-racist, anti-classist (and so forth, for all other 'isms” of social domination) stance forms the outer boundary of the quilt: nothing gets on the quilt which is naturist, sexist, racist, classist, and so forth. second, ecofeminism is a contextualist ethic. it involves a shift from a conception of ethics as primarily a matter of rights, rules, or principles predetermined and applied in specific cases to entities viewed as competitors in the contest of moral standing, to a conception of ethics as growing out of what jim cheney calls “defining relationship”, i.e., relationships conceived in some sense as defining who one is (cheney 2008, p.106). as a contextualist ethic, it is not that rights, or rules, or principles are not relevant or important. clearly, they are in certain contexts and for certain purposes. it is just that what makes them relevant or important is that those to whom they apply are entities in relationship with others. ecofeminism also involves an ethical shift from granting moral consideration to nonhumans exclusively on grounds of some similarity they share with humans (e.g., rationality, interest, moral agency, sentiency, right-holder status) to “a highly contextual account to see clearly what a human being is and what the non-human world might be, morally speaking, for human beings (cheney 2008, 99). for an ecofeminist, how a moral agent is in relationship to another becomes of central significance, not simply that a moral agent is a moral agent or is bound by rights, duties, virtue, or utility to act in a certain way. 94 vareba & berebon ecofeminism reconceives feminism in potential ecological feminism third, ecofeminism is structurally pluralistic in that it presupposes and maintains difference difference among humans as well as between humans and at least some elements of nonhuman nature. thus, while ecofeminism denies the “nature/culture” split, it affirms that community (in some respects) and different from it (in other aspects). ecofeminism's attention to relationships and community is not, therefore, an erasure of difference but a respectful acknowledgement of it. fourth, ecofeminism reconceives theory as theory in process. it focuses on patterns of meaning, which emerge, for instance, from storytelling and first-person narratives of women (and others) who deplore the twin dominations of women and nature. the use of narrative is one way to ensure that the content of the ethicthe pattern of the quiltmay/will change over time, as the historical and material realities of women's lives change and as more is learned about women-nature connection and the destruction of the nonhuman world (warren 1996, p.28) fifth, ecofeminism is inclusivist. it emerges from the voices of women who experience the harmful domination of nature and the way that domination is tied to their domination as women. it emerges from listening to the voices of indigenous peoples of the niger delta region of nigeria (ogonis, ijaws, igbos and ibibio-efik) who have been displaced of their livelihoods and are also suffering heinous health hazard due to pollution arising from oil and gas exploration by the international oil companies. (vareba 2019, p.10). with its emphasis on inclusivity and difference, ecofeminism provides a framework for recognizing that what counts as ecology and what counts as appropriate conduct towards both human and nonhuman environments is largely a matter of context. sixth, ecofeminism makes no attempt to provide an objective point of view. it is a social ecology. it recognizes the twin dominations of women and nature as social problems rooted both in every concrete, historical, socioeconomic circumstances and in oppressive patriarchal conceptual frameworks, which maintain and sanction these circumstances. seventh, ecofeminism makes a central place for values of care, love, friendship, trust and appropriate reciprocityvalues that our relationships to others are central to our understanding of who we are (cheney 2008, p. 103). it thereby gives voice to the sensitivity that in climbing a mountain, one is doing something in relationship with another, an “other” whom can come to care about and treat respectfully. lastly, an ecofeminist ethic involves a re-conception of what it means to be human, and what human ethical behavior consists. ecofeminism denies abstract individualism. humans are who we are in large part by virtue of the historical and social contexts and the relationships with nonhuman nature. relationships are not something extrinsic to who we are, not an “add on” feature of human nature; they play an essential role in shaping what it is to be human. relationships of humans to non-humans environment are, part, constructive of what it is to be a human. by making visible the interconnections among the dominations of women and nature, ecofeminism shows that both are feminist issues and the explicit acknowledgement of both is vital to any responsible environment ethic. feminism must embrace ecological feminism, if it is to end the domination of women because the domination of women is tied conceptually and historically to the domination of nature. a responsible environmental ethic also must embrace feminism. otherwise, even the seemingly most revolutionary, liberational, and holistic ecological ethic will fail to take seriously the interconnected dominations of nature and women that are so much a part of the historical legacy and conceptual framework that sanctions the exploitation of nonhuman nature. failure to make visible these interconnected, twin dominations results in the inaccurate account of how it is that nature has been and continues to be dominated and exploited and produces an environmental 95 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 ethic that lacks the depth necessary to be truly inclusive of the realities of persons who at least in domination of western culture have intimately tied with that exploitation, viz., women. whatever else can be said in favor of such holistic ethics, a failure to make visible ecofeminist insights into the common denominators of the twin oppressions of women and nature is to perpetuate, rather than overcome, the source of that oppression. conclusion we have argued in this paper that ecofeminism provides a framework for a distinctively feminist and environmental ethic. ecofeminism grows out of the felt and theorized about connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature. as a contextualist ethic, ecofeminism refocuses environmental ethics on what nature might mean, morally speaking, for humans, and on how the relational attitudes of humans to othershuman as well as nonhumans sculpt both what it is to be human and the nature and ground of human responsibilities to the nonhuman environment. part of what this refocusing does to take seriously the voices of women and other oppressed persons in the construction of that ethic. works cited alison jaggar. (1980) feminist politics and human nature totowa, nj: rowman and allanheld ebo, marie pauline, (2001) “ecofeminism: a politico-revolutionary discourse”. journal of gender studies (jogs), 1 (3). pp. 22-29. ebo, marie, pauline. (2000) “african women, human rights and fundamental freedom”. journal of gender studies (jogs), 6 (2). pp. 3-18. francoise d'eaubonne. (1974). le feminisme ou la mort paris: pierre horay press. marilyn frye. (1986). the possibility of feminist theory. chicago: wadsworth publishing co. pp. 291-309. jim cheney. (2008). “hypatia” in deep ecology versus ecofeminism: healthy difference or incompatible philosophies. ed. robert sessions. 6(4). pp. 90-107. karren j. warren and jim cheney. (1991) “hypatia” in feminism and ecosystem and ecology. ed. wiley jason 6 (1). pp. 179-197 morray bookchin. (1980) social ecology versus deep ecology in green perspective newsletter of the green program project no. 4-5. nathan hare. (1981) “black ecology,” in environmental ethics, ed. k. s. shrader-frechette (pacific grove, calif: boxwood press. shiva, vandana. (1988). staying alive: women, ecology and development. zed books. vareba, dinebari david, nwanne marsha. (2019) adrift fortune: testimonies of the impact of oil pollution on women in the niger delta. a research published by centre for environment, human rights and development (cehrd). https://cehrd.org.ng/index.php/activities/2019-reports/14-adrift-fortune-repor warren j. karen. (1996). ecological feminist philosophies. usa: indiana university press. 96 vareba & berebon ecofeminism reconceives feminism in potential ecological feminism page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract education is an essential tool in developing a nation and an opportunity that every child needs to utilize at a young age for the purpose of establishing themselves and their communities. this research aims to encourage the teacher to engage in the use of monologue and dialogue in transmitting knowledge to their students, which will also create the room of learner and teacher relationship as a means of quick transfer of knowledge. this paper identified the causes of poor use of monologs and dialog in educational setups as inadequate training of educators, lack of infrastructures and equipment for training educators, poor curriculum design, and lack of parental guidance for children. the research also exploits the valuable means by which one can use monologs and dialog to enhance quality of education in the society. this research used descriptive method. keywords: monologue, dialogue, education, sustainable instrument, effectiveness introduction education is the bedrock of every nation, a lacey to generation after generation from their parents. the situation of our present-day schools in nigeria is in a severe deplorable state to the extent there is known teacher-student relationship anymore, and this has made learning challenging for a student from primary to the university. the motivation for this research is a result of a teacher who hit his student for correcting him over what he wrote on the board, and the student was rushed to the hospital for treatment due to the brutal hit from her teacher. some present-day teachers do not apply monolog and dialog in their teaching and relating with the students, resulting from the abovementioned issue. monologues and dialogue remain the best method of transmitting learning to the student. this method has been tested and proven to be the best approach in educational technics to sustain and communicate the learning process to the student to achieve the desirable golds in the educational setup. to achieve success in education, the government and the teachers must ensure that teachers know monologs and dialog from primary to the university. should includemonolog and dialog in the curriculum for the teachers in training at both primary and university levels. monologs and dialog are easy ways to communicate with students by telling them what to do and what not to do. according to taylor (1966:87), “many educators are unaware of these barriers and untrained in knowing what to do about them. a part of their inability concerning barriers monologue and dialogue as a sustainable instrument for effective teaching in nigeria schools orimsan agboifo phd baptist college of theology, benin city. department of education. and augusta ainerhonmiton baptist college of theology, benin city. department of education. 208 stems from their monological conception and practice of communication”. without good communication, it is difficult for the student-teacher relationship to take place. they gave students notes to copy on the board or material to read, like the university is not the best way to sustain education without using monologs and dialog. concept monologue vs dialogue in education. the monologue is a long speech of a person in a play, sometimes a soliloquy. an educational monolog is the process of a teacher talking for a long time which is also seen as a play with the features of different characters being displayed by one person in an attempt to transmit learning to the student through communication. teachers are the leading players in determining to teach and learn in any school, and they design the curriculum in a way that helps both the teacher and the learner. mangal (2013.170) defines learning according to henry smith (1962) "learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience." based on the definition above, monologs must be explored to acquire new behaviour in the learning process because they should guide the student on what to do through communication. eduwen (2003. 1) opined that learning is considered the apparent modification of a person's behaviour through his activities and experiences so that his knowledge of his environment is changed, more or less permanently". omatseye (2004. 109) observed that "learning is generally considered to both a process and an outcome of a lifelong activity intended to modify the behaviour of the individual to enable him to cope and adapt to the demands of his environment." it is why monologue in education is critical in enhancing the change desired by teachers from the student. behaviour is one of the key factors in changing students through observation and studying their characters. dialogue in education is a conversation or discourse between two or more individuals. it is another meaningful way of sustaining education from the primary to the university, and it is also a tool to help learners. there is a known way effective learning can occur without communication between the teachers and students. omoruyi (2001. 181) observe that “extension education is essentially a process of communication of ideas and skills between and among people. it includes transferring technical information from its source to the client or the point where it is intended". it is the most reason why dialog is crucial because it helps to transfer communication; send the real message of the teacher to the learner for proper understanding of any subject or lesson to the recipient. this work will employ the descriptive method because it will explain how the researcher will carry out this work and how it will benefit the readers. it will also suggest ways to use monologue and dialogue to transmit learning in education to this contemporary student from primary to the university. causes of poor monologue vs dialogue in education monologs and dialog are effective weapons in transmitting learning if adequately used. the inability to use it brings poor education in the following dimensions. 1. poor educational training of educators education is the light of every nation and individual if adequately applied to every sector of life and situation in and around us. the standard of education in this country is inferior due to not using monologs and dialog in transmitting teaching and learning in schools, 209 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 including universities. based on this poor performance from the transmitters of learning in the schools, there is an excellent diminishing retune of poor performances of the student in apprehending the basic tenet of studies to the natural course of going to school in the application to meet the standard of the society. when the teachers are not well groomed in their area of specialization, it always produces negative output from the receiver. educators can only deliver what they have, either positive or negative, and this has to do with the builders of the curriculum used to transmit learning to the educators before they can also become an educator. 2. poor curriculum design for educators lawrence (1977, 1) the oxford dictionary defines curriculum as "a course, especially a regular course of studies such as a school or university." supporting the view above, omatseye stated, “curriculum is considered to be the total interaction of pupils and teacher rather than a program of studies." the curriculum design for the teacher who is in tune and will teach in the schools from primary to university should include monologue and dialogue to assist them when they start teaching. the curriculum builders should consist of monologs and dialog into it to enable the teachers in training to know what monologs and dialog are, their meaning, and usage of it when and how they should be applied in the classroom for the students. the manual design for the teacher does not include monologs and dialog; this has affected the teacher's building relationship with their students, and it could lead to the teacher hitting students, failing them in their examines, and the student on their part withdrawing from school as a result of lack of monolog and dialog. 3. lack of infrastructure and equipment for training educators infrastructural development and equipment in training teachers are critical in school. not having them is like not having the human resources to work in an organization for onward success. it has made many school teachers lack what to do and how to do it before and after training. infrastructural development and equipment can fast rack learning process if they are fined for use by the teachers. the government is responsible for providing this equipment to enhance the training of the trainers of schools. most of our schools, if not all, lack infrastructure and equipment, which has contributed to the half-bridge of teacher in our school today, leaving the student undeveloped and preparing to face the future and become who they want to be and what society want from them. 4. lack of parental guidance for schoolchildren parents/guardians are the necessary factors in enhancing education in the nation. when parents/guardians who are supposed to be the helping factors in education are not learned, it becomes complicated to encourage others or their children to be serious in their schooling. many parents do not care about the school welfare of their children, and they contribute little or no to their children's education, which has discouraged children from going to school. poor parenting hinders good monolog and dialog in sustaining education in the nation. education is an all-rounder; children learn from home to school and from school to the house because education is informer former and non-former; this is why education is a circle; it starts from the parent and ends with the parent. benefit of monologue vs dialogue in education there are tremendous benefits of monologs and dialog in transmitting learning to students if adequately used by teachers. to this, the rewriter will discuss the usefulness of 210 ogboifo & ainerhonmiton monologue and dialogue as a sustainable instrument ... monologs and dialog in education. 1. monolog vs. dialog as a communication tool for transmitting education. john and don (2009, 181), in griffin (1993), “see communication as sharing messages, ideas or attitudes that produce a degree of understanding between a sender and a receiver. it implies an attempt to share meaning by transmitting messages among people”. supporting the view above, jerry (2001, 12) states, "communication in teaching, learning and practice the art of using words well and strive to avoid words and actions that put others down even when they disagree with the method." communication using monologs and dialog is essential to achieve success in education. it will help the teacher, who is the sender, to prepare the message that the receiver who is the student, receives and utilize it to their benefit. through this process, teaching and learning will be effective in schools. omoruyi (2008, 128) opines, "communication can be considered or viewed as a process of sending information, idea or simply, symbols from one person to another." casey observes that communication enables you to get the masses involved with what you are doing". 2. monolog vs. dialog as means for creativity in education education is not all about theories but practical. today's student knows nothing more than theory, which is the wrong approach to teaching and learning from primary to university. this is because the suitable method, monolog, and dialog, is not used. teachers who are the sender and curriculum developer are not creative in their education career, and the same knowledge is being passed or transferred to the student who is the receiver of the message the teacher sends remains uncreative. ayo-obiremi (2016, 22) states, "creative is often described as a quality of a person. however, creativity is more a quality of ideas, behaviors, or products and can be developed”. mangal (2013, 333) asserted that “creativity is the capacity of a person to produce compositions, product or ideas which are essentially new or novel and previously unknown to the producer." students need to be creative in their areas of study as a proof to what the teacher has taught them. considering today's studies, it is more theories than practical, which does not characterize a good learning outcome for society. mangal (2013, 337)furthermore, "cannot separate creativity from intelligence, intelligence or creativity can function independently, and creativity involves divergent rather than convergent thinking used in demonstrating intelligence." but creativity cannot be separated from individual intelligence." 3. monolog vs. dialog as a factor for enhancing interpersonal relationships there is nothing like a good relationship. it is a means of transmitting learning between teacher and student and helps the students to be teachable. when a student is teachable, there is a spirit taking correction and instruction from someone else. according to olaleye (2010; 26), "every follower should see himself as a learner and not a learned. to be a follower is to be ready to take instructions from your leader". in this case, students see their teacher as a leader, mentor, and guide through monolog and dialog to transmit teaching and learning. charles (2021; 59) opined, “interpersonal factor refers to the relationship that individuals develop with significant persons or persons in their environment." only (1996; 237-238), "for a student to learn and internalize a new behaviour must put him through several experiences which support and reinforce each other. this involves careful consideration of two kinds of relationships between a learning experience. 211 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 4. monolog vs. dialog as a means of practical curriculum evaluation flordeliza (2000,25) states, "evaluation is a systematic process of determining the extent to which ." the learning achieves educational objectives ughamadu (1998;83) says that " if we have education as a process which seeks to change the behaviour of students in the direction of objectives considered desirable, then an evaluation may be conceived as the process of determining the nature and extent of these change in the behaviour of students after being exposed to a particular curriculum." lawrance (1977;100) observed that in measurement-based evaluation, it is argued that the goal functionality is to enable the development of criteria-based rather than criteria-based tests. norm-related tests show how an individual compares to a group. criterion-referenced-referenced tests tell us how an individual performs concerning a standard". omoruyi (2001; 198) defined "evaluation as the organizer of the program assess the progress of the program and findings arising from this observation is used to take vital decision bordering on adopting, readjusting or eliminating the program." students need to be evaluated to ascertain the amount of knowledge acquired from the subject taught by the teacher and to know how effectively the teacher has transmitted learning by using monologs and dialog. one of the best ways to carry out a standard evaluation is through monolog and dialog because it helps get feedback from the student by communicating through different means, and it will also help the teachers change their teaching method and relate well with the student. 5. monolog vs. dialog a sustainable instrument for education. according to charles (2021), sustainable development is the process of developing countries, cities, communities, and businesses, contingent on meeting the needs of the present without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their needs. sustainable development requires improved living conditions for all people without overutilizing natural resources beyond the level of the planet's carrying capacity. one of the sustainable development's most critical challenges is eradicating poor religious leadership. sustainability can mean different things, but sometimes contradictory for economists, environmentalists, lawyers, and philosophers. so it seems that the consensuses between the views of those are elusive. monolog and dialog are another way of sustaining education in present-day learning because it helps to bring out the beauty in education as a means of transmitting knowledge. curriculum and other means can be indeed, but of what use is all of that without communication in the system. can sustain school through monolog and dialog? the government and all agencies observe this in the educational body to enhance an excellent sustainable education in the nation. all standards must sustain rudiments of teaching and learning to achieve the desirable gold required and pass it to the next generation as a legacy that must continue for the upcoming people to have a strong base. 6. monolog and dialog as a means of building confidence there is a great challenge for the upcoming students regarding self-confidence. today's students must build confidence in themselves to defend what they have been taught in school and stand up to their responsibility and creativity. your level of degree with selfconfidence cannot compel you. for instance, a first degree cannot sputter despite the degree because lack of confidence is the primary limiting factor. the use of monologs and 212 ogboifo & ainerhonmiton monologue and dialogue as a sustainable instrument ... dialog can help curb a lack of self-confidence. omoruyi (2001, 37) states that “selfreliance stipulates the need for people to take their destiny into their hands as a means of ensuring genuine development for themselves and their community ."concerning development, self-reliance demands that the student apply knowledge and skills in exploring the resources at their disposal to promote their product in their community or state. recommendations: based on this research, the writer recommends as follow: 1. to see monolog and dialog as means of communication in schools from primary to university to build self-confidence in our area of study and stand to defend our work publicly. 2. the government and other educational agencies made in their curriculum of the trained teacher the use of monologs and dialog to demonstrate in classrooms and other places it was meaningful. 3. students are creative in their areas of study to defend careers through which they can sustain education and revive the dilapidating society. 4. parents/ guardians are to assist their children in having a better education by providing the basic needs for their school children and also help in assisting their communication gap by using monologs and dialog. conclusion education is vital in building society; this will enable the nation to rise to an enviable position for the betterment of individuals. if educators apply the rudiments of education like monolog and dialog in teaching the students, education will be comfortable and in tune; they will represent the nation reasonably, which befits the nation's standard. monolog and dialog can sustain education if applied well because they will help build interpersonal relationships between teacher and student and between students to a student. references marvin j. taylor, an introduction to christian education abingdon press nashville new york 1966,87. edwin o. friday, elements of human learning; published by ogunlere 2003,1 mangal s.k. advance educational psychology; second edition phi learning private limited2013, 170. omatseye .j. nesin educational philosophy and the africa school mindex publication 2004,109. omoruyi e.o prince francis the dynamics of community development: the nigeria approach enlarge edition new era publication 2001, 181 lawrence stenhouse an introduction to curriculum research and development heine mann london 1999,1 jimoh b.o and don omoike perspective in educational management edited by omregie and don omoike krisbec publication 2009,181. jerry akinsola effect church community; faylan printers 2001, 12. olusola .o ayo-obiremi, creative compliance: teaching with creativity baptist press, 213 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 nigeria ltd 2016,22. adeyemi s.k olaleye, effective followership for kingdom growth; sola oresson and associate 2010, 26. ughamadu k.a. curriculum concept, development and implementation; kmensuo educational publishers 1998,83. ehisienmen charles, pastor care approach to church and moral delinquency; theo+scop journal of baptist college of theology,oyo baptist press nig. ltd, ibadan 2021, 59. __________ religious leaders and sustainable development: pastoral care approach nigerian association of pastoral counsellors lead city unversity 2021. reyes c. flordeliza, engineering the curriculum: a guidebook for educators and school managers, dela salle university press 2000, 25. only i.o. steps in curriculum development. curriculum development for africa edited by uga onwuka africa feb publishers limited 1996, 237-238 casey treat, church management; leading people in church growth, published by casey treat ministries 1989,39. 214 ogboifo & ainerhonmiton monologue and dialogue as a sustainable instrument ... page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr the duty of the nigerian state to safeguard the nigerian environment: an ethical perspective mark omorovie ikeke, phd department of religious studies and philosophy, delta state university, abraka, nigeria drikeke@delsu.edu.ng abstract the environmental question is a grave one that humanity must attend to in a vigourous manner. right from the late 1960s when the environmental question began to come into prominence, humanity has become more aware of the plight of the environment. it has come to be seen that many environmental problems are anthropogenic, arising from human activities and footprints on the earth. nigeria is not exempted from environmental problems. in nigeria there are environmental problems such as oil spillage and pollution of land, marine, and atmospheric resources; gas flaring; soil erosion, desertification; deforestation; environmental displacement of people; poor management of solid waste; noise pollution, etc. in nigeria, especially in the light of dumping of toxic waste in koko in the delta state of nigeria, the federal environmental protection agency was set up to administer and enforce environmental laws. but the fundamental environmental law in nigeria is the 1999 constitution as amended. while it is true that there are many environmental laws in nigeria, and the constitution puts an obligation on the government to ensure a safe and healthy environment (section 20); this duty of government is not enforceable or justifiable, as there is an ouster clause (section 6.6c) in the constitution. this paper uses critical analytic and hermeneutic methods to argue that the responsibility of the nigerian state to protect the environment should be an enforceable duty not just an objective or aspiration. the paper concludes that if it becomes an enforceable duty, nigerians will enjoy more environmental safety and welfare. keywords: nigeria, duty, state, environment, ethics, constitution. introduction the supreme law of the land of nigeria is the constitution. the federal republic of nigeria (2023) clearly states its environmental objectives as: “the state shall protect and improve the environment and safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wildlife of nigeria” (p. 36). an objective is a goal, aim, aspiration, or target that a person or group intends to achieve. the nigerian state has set before itself this objective. this paper argues that beyond being objective, it ought to be an obligation or duty or responsibility, a moral one of the nigerian state. the nigerian state is plagued by many environmental problems that include: desertification, deforestation, climate change, seasonal flooding, oil spillage and pollution of land and marine places, gas flaring, endangerment of biodiversity, poor management of solid waste, noise pollution, air pollution, illegal trade in endangered species, herdsmen-farmers clashes, environmental insecurities leading to displacement of people and many others. amid nigeria's environmental problems, the nigerian state, its government, and its people havea grave duty to promote environmental protection and ensure that environmental problems are resolved. the gravest responsibility should be on the government which by the fact of the social contract 83 about:blank has a responsibility to provide the good life for the people and ensure an enabling environment to flourish. united nations (1972, 1992) in its declarations places great responsibility on states to ensure environmental conservation.nigeria has a duty, even as it exploits itsresources to strive for sustainable development and ensure that the environment is not compromised in meeting the needs of present and also future generations. in carrying out the aim of this paper, a conceptual clarification is followed by a presentation of the situation of the nigerian environment. not every environmental issue in nigeria can be discussed in a brief paper like this, but a few shall be mentioned. when that has been done, the paper shall argue that protecting and safeguarding the environment is a duty of the nigerian state and that this duty ought to be enforced. when that has been done, the paper shall be brought to a conclusion. it is through the critical analytic and hermeneutic methods that this paper is carried out. clarification of concepts the first term to be explicated here is duty. frazier (1998) states that a duty is a binding obligatory requirement that the person or group that has the requirement has to fulfill, except if there is an exculpating reason. to fail to carry out a duty is to fail to carry out an obligation and the person or group that has a duty but fails to fulfill it can be criticized justifiably.a duty is not an optional or voluntary task, it is something that ought to be done by the fact of acquiring the duty. frazier (1998) notes further that a feature of duty is that it implies justifiable reasons for an action. another definition is by hill and hill (2002) who write that duty is “… a legal obligation, the breach of which can result in liability.” new world encyclopedia (n.d) writes duties imply requirements and oughts. a person who has a duty ought to perform the duty and a duty is a compulsory obligation. requiring definition here also is the concept of the nigerian state. one of the most common words in political science is the state. ayeni-akeke (2008 ) writes that the state is a political organization existing in a society that comes into being through the process of management of the common matters of the society's members and is ordered to promote the security, welfare, and well-being of the members; this state which is also a political society is marked by having the features of territory, population, sovereignty, and government. hoffman and graham (2009) cite dunleavy and o'leary to assert that the modern institution called the state is distinguished by five features: it is a public institution, it has sovereignty, it has a law, it has recruited personnel, and it can collect revenue from its citizens or the population. related to the above, as burnham (2009) writes the state could be seen as a public institution concerned with domination for the common interest of a particular territory. one special power of the state according to some scholars is its coercive power over the members of the state. it formerly had a monopoly of power, though today many non-state actors illegitimately impose their power upon some members of the state. the nigerian state located within the west african sub-region has sovereignty, a population, and a government and also has coercive powers to carry out its duties. people often confuse the term government with the state, but the government is just an agency of the state. governments do come and go but the state often remains unless it is dissolved. the state exists for the well-being of the members of the state. every state is saddled with certain duties if not the state has no reason for its existence. it is through the government, the agency of the state that these duties are essentially carried out. ayeni-akeke (2008) writes that government is here seen as a set of public institutions with the people elected or selected as the case may be to enable the state to perform its numerous functions, and these functions include 84 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 forming and maintaining law and order, and protection of the citizens. it is indisputable that government exists for the well-being of the people. though, unfortunately, there are people who come into government and instead of working for the well-being of the people, they corruptively enrich themselves and their cronies. another term that requires a definition also is safeguard. to safeguard is to protect a thing, a person, property, a group, or an entity. it is to protect from harm, abuse, misuse, plunder, and abnormality. you normally safeguard what is precious, valuable, good, worthwhile and what is in existence already. there are objective functions for which a state or government exists. the government has to ensure that those functions are not tampered with but enhanced and exercised. to safeguard means to guard safely as the word implies. within the context of this paper, the nigerian state is to protect the nigerian environment from harm, abuse, misuse, and degradation. the word, “environment,” refers to everything in existence in the created material and unseen universe. from the french word, “environ,” environment is what surrounds a thing, organism, place, entity, etc. everything you see around you and even what you don't see is in the environment. human beings are part of the environment, so also are animals, plants, birds, rivers, mountains, rivers, microorganisms, etc. the editors of the encyclopedia britannica (2024) state that: “environment, the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival.” ezedike (2020) writes that the environment is also “…totality of physical, economic, cultural, aesthetic and social circumstances and factors which surround and affect the quality of life of the biotic community (human and non-human natural world).” also requiring definition here is the term, “ethical.” ethical is the adjectival version of ethics. ethics deals with right and wrong human actions or behaviours. ezedike (2020) states that from the greek word “ethos,” ethics means custom or character; and ethics can be seen as principles of morality, theory of morality, and moral values. ethics is concerned with the standards or norms by which human decisions, judgements, and actions are based. what is considered by society to be right and the appropriate way to behave or order one's life in that society is considered to be ethical or moral. it is unethical when it deviates from the standard of morality and good order. though ethics may differ from one society to another there are common universally held standards of ethical conduct. this is why for instance in the international community, there are laws of war, there are crimes against humanity, and there is genocide, ethnic cleansing, etc. no matter where crimes against humanity are committed, the perpetrators will be held accountable. the universal declaration on human rights sets out some basic human ethical manners of conduct, and so also are many other human rights instruments. the implications for instance are that nigeria as a country, and a member of the international community cannot exempt herself from global public morality, or ethical codes of conduct. the question of the environment for instance, in light of this, implies that nigeria has to strive to conduct her environmental obligations and laws in line with universal ethical norms and frameworks. the right to a healthy and safe environment has been explicitly codified into laws that are enforceable in other national jurisdictions but this is not the case with nigeria. the situation of the nigerian environment is a troubling one. the situation of the nigerian environment much can be said about the nigerian environment. unfortunately, much of this is on the environmental problems facing nigeria. no matter how you conceivethe environment, there are environmental problems facing nigeria. take for instance the nigerian social and cultural 84 ikeke the duty of the nigerian state to safeguard the nigerian environment... environment ( socio-cultural environment.) the nigerian socio-cultural environment is bedeviled with social problems that leave the country in a pitiable and shameful state. insecurity pervades the nigerian state. there is hardly any place that you go in nigeria that is free from insecurity. terrorism and kidnapping of people is the order of the day in nigeria. a month hardly passes in nigeria without you hearing of the kidnapping of people. examples includethe kidnapping of the chibok girls in 2014, the abuja-kaduna train kidnaps, dapchi in 2018, kankara school children in 2020, etc. all these are all threats to the natural environment and environmental security. violence, terrorism, and warfare all hurt the natural environment. ikeke (2014) has opined that violent conflicts have negative effects on the social and natural environment. the nigerian natural environment is afflicted by problems such as soil erosion, deforestation, desertification, gas flaring, oil spillage and pollution, displacement of people, poor management of solid waste, climate change, etc. since the discovery of oil in nigeria in commercial quantity in oloibiri the land has always experiencedoil spillage leading to pollution of land, marine, and atmospheric space. the level of oil spillage in the niger delta is troubling. people's land, farmland, and streams have been devastated as a result of oil spillage. biodiversity in the niger delta has been either endangered or destroyed. a place like ogoniland in nigeria's niger delta is so polluted and degraded that the united nations asserted that it will take up to 25 years to remediate. there is so much environmental harm in nigeria arising from the activities of oil companies. human rights watch (1999) states that oil exploration has caused pollution that has damaged the livelihood of people in the oil communities, and unfortunately nigeria has very record of enforcement of environmental laws compared to some other nations in the world. another problem confronting the nigerian environment is gas flaring. among the negative effects of gas flaring are: environmental health hazards, precipitation of sickness and diseases, emission of toxic and poisonous air, death of plants and animals, etc. because of the negative effects of gas flaring, the nigerian state has made laws to end it. but many deadlines have come and gone and there is still gas flaring. osondu (2012) writes that a 2008 deadline that was set has come and gone and yet there is still gas flaring in nigeria. oil companies prefer to pay fines and continue flaring gas. the government has a responsibility to end gas flaring. nigeria is also a land inundated with different types of pollution. in the country, people are experiencing air pollution, marine pollution, land pollution, etc. pollution can come from poisonous chemicals or solid waste dumped into the land and water bodies, pollution can also come from oil spillage and oil exploration activities. almost all the processes of exploiting and exploring oil can precipitateenvironmental pollution. to lay their pipelines, oil companies have to cut down trees and precious forests while excavating the ground. they destroy at times people's farmland and even houses. oil companies at times use weak and decadent equipment which side effects pollute the land and water bodies. in nigeria's niger delta oil spillage and leakages in streams and rivers can be there for weeks and even months without being attended to. ikeke (2013) notes that it is common practice for oil companies to use dilapidated technologies to save costs in the niger delta. hazardous wastes that are dumped into the land also pollute the land. careless dumping of solid waste in nigeria can also cause pollution and pose health hazards to people. there is also industrial pollution in nigeria. osondu (2012) states that industrial pollution is a multidimensional problem and as industries produce and carry out their activities they create both solid and toxic waste, and also effluent discharges which are often entered into rivers, creeks, and other water bodies. the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria remains the fundamental law of the 86 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 land. whatever is not guaranteed and explicitly defined as justifiable in it or any other enabling law becomes a mere wish or desire. concerning government, if the government cannot be held accountable it becomes difficult for the government to prefer its duty. see examples of provisions from the nigerian constitution that should solidify a right to environmental health and place it on the government as an obligatory duty. section 20 states: “the state shall protect and improve the environment and safeguard the water, air, forest and wildlife of nigeria. ” section 17 states that: “….exploitation of human or natural resources in any form whatsoever for reasons, other than the good of the community, shall be prevented…” the constitution is clear that the use of natural resources should serve the common good of the citizens, this means that non-sustainable use, misuse, abusive use, and any form of exploiting the environment that harms human welfare and well-being is unacceptable. the government has a responsibility to stop such. the point that should also be made is that not only human interests should be considered by the government, but also ecosystems health and stability of the earth community of life. government response should be ecocentric, not simply anthropocentric. section 13 in chapter two of the constitution clearly states that: “it shall be the duty and responsibility of all organs of government and all authorities and persons, exercising legislative, executive or judicial powers, to conform to, observe and apply the provisions of this chapter of this constitution.” eminike, ebikake-nwanyanwu and ajie (2020) have rightly noted that section 6(6c) of the nigerian constitution has ousted the provisions of chapter two as it denies the court power to entertain cases arising from chapter two concerning the duties of government and this means that the provisions of chapter two are not enforceable or justifiable. in other countries of the world, there is an explicit provision for environmental rights and the government must safeguard it. eminike, ebikake-nwanyanwu and ajie (2020) note further that the constitutions of countries like malawi, uganda, pakistan, spain, peru and south africa all expressively and explicitly provide for a right to a healthy environment. these three authors just mentioned equally state that, in ethiopia, art 14 and 92 of her constitutionmake it the duty of the government to provide a healthy and clean environment; and in ghana under her directive principle of state policy are enforceable as interpreted by her supreme court, and only applicability of the african charter on human and people's rights (achpr) accords her citizens environmental rights. eneyo (2018) corroborates these three authors just mentioned when he states that the constitutions of countries like japan, australia, germany, portugal, south africa, brazil, and spain make environmental provisions justifiable and enforceable. awolowo (2017) writes: “in spite of the human rights and environmental abuses, there is the absence of a constitutionally guaranteed 'environmental right' under the nigerian law to remedy the various acts of environmental degradation and abuses” (p.17). the achpr which has been domesticated in nigeria can give an opening for the implementation of environmental rights in nigeria, but there is still a conflict as the supreme court states that the c h a r t e r i s n o t s u p e r i o r t o n i g e r i a n l a w, d e s p i t e n o t a b l e j u r i s t s ejiwunmianduwaifofavouringstanding on the side of the charter when there conflict between it and the nation's law. it becomes very difficult if not impossible to enforce section 20. another issue with the nigerian environment is the issue of environmental laws in nigeria. it is important to remark upon this because it borders on the functions of the nigerian state. because of a degraded and polluted environment, the nigerian state has made various environmental regulations. nigerian environmental laws are very many. they include the national oil spill detection and response of 2006, the national environmental standards and regulations enforcement of 2007, the environmental impact assessment act of 1992, the national policy on environment of 1989 and 1999, the harmful waste act of 1988, etc. if these 87 ikeke the duty of the nigerian state to safeguard the nigerian environment... laws were effectively implemented and enforced, it would go a great way to enable the nigerian state to achieve its environmental objectives. nigerian environmental laws are obsolete, outdated, or poorly enforced. the failures of the nigerian state to fulfill her environmental objectives may be one of the reasons why different governments in nigeria have failed to enact environmental rights in the constitution or affirm that the nigerian state must perform environmental protection, from the justifiability perspective.that is, if the state does not perform its environmental duties one can sue the state for damages. safeguarding the environment as a duty of the nigerian state in the foregoing section, it was clearly shown that environmental rights are justifiable in some other national jurisdictions. if the state fails to perform its environmental duties to citizens, the state can be sued. not until the rise of environmentalism the functions of the state in the west and european formerly colonized land, were mainly perceived in terms of security, protection, and provision of the good life. the environmental question was rarely raised. it is as if the state has no environmental functions or duties. take nigeria as a case in point. the nigerian constitution states vividly some fundamental rights that all nigerian citizens are entitled to, such as the right to life, the dignity of the human person, personal liberty, fair hearing, private and family life, thought, conscience, religion, freedom of expression and the press, to peaceful assembly, freedom of movement, freedom from discrimination, etc. these are spelled out in chapter four of the constitution. because they are fundamental rights, the nigerian state must ensure that they are safeguarded and protected. a citizen can easily sue the government or the individual or group that violates his/her rights. the fundamental human rights are justifiable. egede (2007) has argued that pollution has led to the death of people in the niger delta and infringed on their right to a clean environment, and there is no reason why it should not be a justifiable right in nigeria. unfortunately, the issue of the environment is not presented in the framework of rights or duties that the nigerian state is supposed to guarantee. as previously argued, in some states in the world, environmental rights are guaranteed in the constitution of the land. it is enacted as a duty and obligation of the state. this is not the case with nigeria. it is simply presented as an objective that the nigerian state should aim towards. though at present section 20 of the nigerian constitution is merely an aspirational objective of the nigerian state, and so you cannot sue the government if it fails to protect the environment, it should be made a duty of the state. it should be obligatory on the part of the government to protect the environment. there are many reasons why protection of the environment should be an obligation of the state and not simply what is expected of the state. the first fundamental reason here is the issue of fundamental human rights that accrue to the citizens. it is difficult if not nearly impossible for citizens to truly enjoy and exercise their rights if the environment is degraded and polluted. in a polluted environment the right to life, freedom of association, and movement are all threatened. environmental health is necessary for people to enjoy their right to life and human dignity. in many places especially in rural locations in the niger delta and other mining areas in the nation, people have been deprived of their right to life as their source and means of livelihood are endangered by oil pollution, banditry, kidnapping, and terrorism. a fundamental condition that makes life meaningful and accessible is a good and healthy environment. united nations (1972) states: “man has the fundamental right to …adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generation” (p.4). 88 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 the nigerian state is a respected member of the international community. nigeria is a signatory to many international declarations. it is unfortunate to state that there are restrictions on the implementation of international instruments in nigeria. in section 12, of chapter one of the nigerian constitution, “no treaty between the federation and any other country shall have the force of law to the extent to which any such treaty has been enacted into law by the national assembly.” also in this section 12, the constitution is clear that without a majority of houses of assembly in the country, the national assembly cannot enact a bill to pass to the present for assent regarding this section 12.osondu (2012) writes that this makes it more difficult for the national assembly to domesticate an international environmental law, it cannot be implemented in nigeria and even if the national assembly attempts to domesticate an international law, it cannot succeed unless there is majority of states of houses of assembly in the nation that agrees to it. it should be argued here that having a healthy environment is a human right. the organization of african unity (1981) in the african charter on human and peoples rights states in article 24 that:“all people shall have the right to a general satisfactory environment favourable to their development” (p. 8). the charter places an obligation in article 25 upon states to see it as their duty to ensure that article 24 is safeguarded and realized. the united nations (1972, 1992) has also affirmed that human beings have a right or at least the environment should be made homely and friendly to meet their needs. it is unfortunate to state, as ogidiagba and umuakpo (2016) state that despite all the environmental laws in the land, the nigerian state has recorded and continues to record a poor state of environmental governance. it must be affirmed avowedly that living in a healthy, safe, and conducive environment is a right. the state must ensure environmental rights are protected, and this right should be justifiable. what about the issue of the sustainable development goals (sdgs)? among the 17 sdgs are: promoting sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, climate action, affordable and clean energy, etc. these and many others concern environmental matters. it is the duty and responsibility of every state that is a member of the united nations to ensure that these goals are implemented in their various states. according to glass and newig (2019), it is the role of government in the state to ensure that there is environmental governance. environmental governance should enhance development. if the government of a state does not foster development, one wonders what the state exists for. the nigerian state must ensure development. in the light of the sdgs, it has an enormous responsibility in this. many of the sdgs embrace environmental issues. the united nations in nigeria (2024) states from 2015 nigeria has demonstrated commitment to the implementation process of the sdgs. no responsible government in the global community should exempt itself from the global community. it is difficult for the sdgs to be achieved if they are simply left as objectives or to the whims and caprices of the state. if the state is not accountable and responsible and can be sued for failing in its responsibility, then it becomes difficult to achieve the goals of development. people in nigeria should be able to sue the nigerian government when it fails in its environmental responsibility. from an ethical viewpoint, protecting the environment is the right thing to do. it is the right thing to do for it enhances human life and non-human life. environmentalism must colour the activities of government. what is environmentalism by the way? mautner (2005) writes that environmentalism in politics and ethics is the position that protecting the natural environment should be a major moral and practical concern for humanity. it is an issue that can no longer be neglected by the state. the very survival of the state depends on it. if there is no environment, there is no state, and if there is no good environment, the purpose of the state will be vitiated. ikeke (2022) cites wangari maathai that meaningful developments depend on healthy 89 ikeke the duty of the nigerian state to safeguard the nigerian environment... ecosystems. one of the ways to ensure that the nigerian state dutifully safeguards environmental protection is to ensure that it is spelled out in the constitution as an obligatory duty of government, not just an objective. until people can be able to sue the government in court for violating their environmental rights, there will be so much impunity on the part of government officials. if the local government fails to dispose of waste generated in the market for instance and a person sustains an injury from it, a citizen should be able to sue the government. aniyie (2007) states that environmental laws are necessary for every state to preserve the environment, promote sustainable development, and for the good and welfare of the people. this being the case the government must see it as a duty on its path, not simply as an objective. because if environmental duties on the path of the nigerian state are not justifiable, the state can and does act with impunity. as argued previously protecting the environment is a moral or ethical issue. osondu (2012) writes that the implications of section 6(6) of the nigerian constitution is that the state cannot be sued if it fails to carry out its responsibility to protect the environment. the constitution should be rightly amended to make provisions for enforceable environmental rights. it should be realized that conserving and protecting nature on the part of human governments, organizations and individuals is a moral obligation. it is a duty of the government. it is not something optional that governments have to embark upon. it is a priority for the peace and security of the citizens. if nature or the environment is not effectively governed and managed it will be subjected to vandalization and plundering from capitalist profiteers. these will endanger the lives of the people. anthropogenic environmental problems caused by humans often cause floods, droughts, climate change, etc that affect people's lives. conclusion this paper has argued that the environmental objectives of the nigerian state should not simply be aspirations and goals that the state wishes to accomplish, without the objectives being enforceable and justifiable. the paper asserted that the environmental objectives are duties that the nigerian state should perform. to this end, the ouster clause (section 6.6c) of the constitution should be amended. it was shown that in many other states in the world environmental rights are justifiable and enforceable. people can sue the state if the state fails to perform its environmental duties. but this is not the case in nigeria. this is unacceptable. protecting the environment is an essential aspect of the united nations sdgs. without a safe and healthy environment, other rights and freedoms are gravely impeded and people cannot enjoy them to the full. ethically, it is the right thing to do for the state to protect the environment and guarantee environmental rights. if environmental rights are secured and enforceable, nigerians will enjoy more welfare and wellbeing. 90 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references aniyie, i.a. 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(1992).riodeclaration on environment and development. retrieved may 15,2024, from https://culturalrights.net/en/documentos.php?c=18&p=195#:~: text=the%20rio%20declaration%20states%20that,and%20key%20sectors%20of%2 0societies. united nations. (1972). declaration on human environment. retrieved april 20, 2024, from https: / /documents .un.org/doc/undoc/gen/nl7/300/05/pdf/nl730005.pdf? token=rsduyqrgtrraup5ljk&fe=true united nations in nigeria. (2024). how the un is supporting the sustainable development goals in nigeria. retrieved april 20, 2024, from https://nigeria.un.org/en/sdgs#:~:text=our%20work%20on%20the%20sustainable%20devel opment%20goals%20in%20nigeria,how%20the%20un&text=since%20the%20adoption%20of%20the,ownership%20of %20the%20implementation%20process. 92 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 about:blank about:blank about:blank page 91 page 92 page 93 page 94 page 95 page 96 page 97 page 98 page 99 page 100 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract the question of what constitutes a stable and secure state has occupied political philosophers for centuries. a stable and secure state is defined by security of life and property of its citizens in the absence of which life will be “brutish, short and nasty”. thomas hobbes is one of the leading modern political thinkers whose notion of overarching power of the state is encapsulated in his world famous concept of leviathan. nigeria state is unfortunately ever under the threats of centrifugal forces of ethnicism, fear of religious and cultural domination, which once precipitate a civil war (1960 – 1970). nigeria political history is a history of management of these forces of ethnic, religious and cultural domination. this research seeks to employ the positive aspects of hobbes's leviathan as a philosophical foundation of a strong nigeria state. the research argues that a strong state is defined by strong political institutions. the research employed the method of philosophical analysis and finds that terrorism, banditry, separatist agitations, struggle for ethnic, religious and cultural domination among the constituent peoples of nigeria federation constitute centrifugal forces militating against stable, secure and economically viable state in nigeria. this research argues that the idea of a strong state advocated in hobbes's leviathan is a solution to nigeria state crisis. the research makes the conclusion that the positive aspects of hobbes's leviathan is a veritable tool of state-building and a panacea to centrifugal political forces bedeviling the nigeria federation. keywords: stable state, overarching power and strong state. introduction the failed state syndrome of the nigeria state is a political reality seeking for an urgent resolution. it is a state where the citizens' right to life, freedom of movement and association are not guaranteed due to the weakness of the institutions saddled with the responsibility of maintaining the state structure. the collapse of the state would be so devastating that it would take us back to the state of nature. whereas, the fall of nigeria state will be a highly upsetting reality that would set ripple effects and templates for the balkanization of sovereign states in the africa continent. this is what thomas hobbes' thomas hobbes's leviathan and its implications for nigeria state ejinike emmanuel umeh. department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. emmanfrancos@gmail.com & ifechi j. ndianefo, phd. department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. ndianefooifechukwu@gmail.com 36 view of sovereignty or overarching power of the state aimed at forestalling and which is the crux of this philosophical essay. the implication of hobbes' leviathan for nigeria state hobbes' commonwealth was built with the assurance of security of life and property of the citizens. his concern was to show a necessary relation between order, political power, autonomous authority, and political obligation. therefore, his leviathan state was a creation to end the lawlessness and threats to life of the state of nature. without a state power and authority (sovereignty), each man becomes his/her own judge and legislator and when majority were governed by their own reason, there is nothing one can make use of which will not be of a great help to him in conserving his life against his adversaries. within this context, nature allows each man to seek for self-preservation and to do what he/she believes is necessary to actualize this end. consequently, each man turning against the others and in this state, life then becomes solitary, poor, nasty, animalistic and short (as cited in bagby, 2007:31). hobbes argued that since no man can safely rely on his own strength alone in safeguarding him/herself, men's objectives under this law of nature to refrain from harming one another must be subject to collective guarantee else, for anyone to abstain in the competitive struggle would be to jeopardize his/her life. there is no dependable guarantee to the safety of everyone unless all parties agree not to exercise their natural right to all effects, but to submit unconditionally to a sovereign authorized to act on behalf of each of them, with the facility to help them keep their agreements. collective restraint would also be a duty. hence, according to borchert (2006:140), the supreme duty of the state is the preservation of peace and forestalling the war of all against all as witnessed in the primitive state. this duty entails that the sovereign becomes the necessary common power demanded to maintain peace and security. with the authority given to the state by every man within its governance, the state can use legitimate right to force his people into a state of peace and this would make life, liberty and property possible. by acceding to the leviathan state all the powers, hobbes' argument would mean that more sure and harmonious exercise of political authority plus obedience to the sovereign is directly tied to peace in all realms. the covenant needed the state to empower the sovereign to run the state, to determine controversies through proper adjudication and phrasings of laws. the leviathan commonwealth is one in which the state does not lack the political temerity of leveraging on the overarching power of the state in protecting the fundamental rights of the citizens via guaranteeing their safety and quelling uprisings, terrorisms and secessions but maintains the harmony within the state as its prominent duty among all. there was no lurking fear of attacks of fundamentalists in the leviathan state because the state possesses the requisite power to forestall anything that can revert the standard back to the state of war of all against all. there is a lesson here for nigeria towards building its state power and authority. the incessant armed confrontation by bandits, terrorists and separatist movements against the nigeria state raises up the question of how sovereign is the nigeria state sovereignty and its sustainability. when the government which is an apparatus of the state is unwilling to draw the overarching power of the state in ensuring a prevailing peace for the nigeria state and where citizens now pay taxes to terrorist groups instead to the nigerian state, in order to ensure their safety 37 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december (adewale, 2022:43). a situation where the terrorists are overwhelming the apparatuses of the state, annexing territories and there is no guarantee of security for the citizens to ply their trade were not what the leviathan state would have condoned. it is noteworthy that for bagby (2007:9), in the leviathan state, there is this assurance of security from the lurking fear of the state of nature because of the sovereignty of the state which resides not just on the government but also on the willingness of the state's institutions to draw the state's overarching powers. hence, nigeria state could borrow a leaf from hobbes' leviathan to make for a strong state which could bolster nigeria statecraft, legitimacy of the government and the confidence of the nigeria citizens in the nigeria project. thus, ensuring that the essential functions of the state seen in hobbes' commonwealth are maintained. when the weight of the state is utilized, it will reassure the faith of nigerians in the viability of the nigeria state, and ensuring that the nigeria state as a unified entity would be preserved, and the balkanization of nigeria state guarded against. when the citizens cannot ply their trade without fear of attacks from one of the terror groups holding sway in the country is worrisome. even to transverse the length and breadth of the country is not safe due to the activities of the non-state actors, because no means of transportation in nigerian is now insulated from the attacks of the terrorists, be it air or train. the horrors of the kaduna attack of march 26, 2022, where heavily armed men numbering over 200 attacked the international airport in a major city, killing security personnel and temporarily halting flight movements remains vivid to memory (adewale, 2022:43). the situation was even worsened by the train attack of march 28 2022, where many citizens traveling to kaduna were either killed or abducted by terrorists. how can the nigerian state not leverage on the modern technological gadgets like gprs (general packet radio service) and satellites in ensuring the security of its territorial space? this certainly, the hobbes' leviathan would have done, if it were to be in our days. hobbes's leviathan and nigeria polity the leviathan has acquired for itself a notorious name in the socio-political philosophical cycles, and this notoriety is not what this work is out to defend rather trying to grill out a positive aspect from it and that aspect is the notion of the overarching power of the state and how best its utilization would be of a greater benefit to the nigeria polity. nonetheless, a state was needed because of the fact that no existent is selfsufficing given man's selfish ambitions and expectations. having all these ambitions, we call on one another's help to conciliate them and when we have collected a number of comrades to live together in one place, we call that agreement a state. supposing that the state owes its actuality to the human requirements which are to bridle the selfish tendencies of man to dominate and maim and the first and the topmost need being the provision of food to keep us alive and the shelter. still, for hobbes, the state was a creation of the acceded will of the people in order to be suitable to escape the horrors of the state of nature. the fear of the state of nature is the starting point of hobbes' construction of the state and for schmitt (1996:31), the boundary is security of the civil stately condition. every state is surely pioneered on a covenant and this forms a harbour for the conformation of the guiding principles for the civil state. hobbes' social contract and state of nature would become important models for doctrines of human nature and politics in centuries to come. “covenant,” as hobbes calls it, 38 thomas hobbes's leviathan and its implications for nigeria state e.e. umeh & ijechi j. ndianefo according to popkin & stroll (1993:76), consists of an agreement among people to abide by a selected set of rules, or conventions. these constitute what we now call the guiding principles of the state (popkin & stroll, 1993:92). nevertheless, the emergence of the nigeria state was shrouded in miry shadows because it never followed the paths sculpted by the studies of hobbes rather, it was a product of a forceful amalgamation of the southern protectorate with the northern protectorate in 1914 by lord fredrick lugard for the economic gains of the british crown (ebizie & eloanyi, 2020: 94). be that as it may, an imposition is never a creation of the people's wish and would as such not augur well for the people, instead the compressed strange bed fellows will perpetually struggle to stampede each other out. nonetheless, we found ourselves with this reality and thus became the citizens of the nigeria state. following the mandate for civil state as stated in hobbes' social contract, the nigeria state is expected to live in unity and harmony as one indivisible and indissoluble sovereign nation provided that the sole aim of opting for a civil state is not compromised. thomas hobbes' leviathan had left a lasting influence on political thoughts of subsequent philosophies. his idea of sovereignty and his thoughts on the role of state led to more investigations like this discourse. he recommends that people should submit themselves almost completely to the will of a sovereign power, a will that represents the people's will (bagby, 2007: 30). he wants people to see the logic of submitting to a sovereign of almost limitless power and accept his authority willingly even if that authority is not always pleasantly applied, as far as the authority is willing to safeguard the state and its citizens from external aggression. in accepting this contract, the people will have no right to revolt against their sovereign, no right even to complain unless, where the state is failing to keep its end of the contract, which is hinged on the provision of security of its citizens (bagby, 2007: 33). because the state's failure to keep to its own end of the contract will create the situation of war of all against all which was what hobbes tries to avoid by opting for a sovereign state. therefore, the only right which the people will retain is the right to try to protect their own lives if they are threatened with death, for no one can take the right to self-preservation in any case because, it represents the survival instinct and it is the whole reason for entering the social contract in the first place (bagby, 2007: 32). the security concern of a state is indisputably as ancient as the state itself and it is the bedrock for the formation and opting for a civil state, thereby escaping the dreads of the state of nature where life is brutish, solitary, and short. as could be drawn from the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria, (constitution of the federal republic of nigeria. section 14, article b and c.) it declares that the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of the government and the participation by the people in their government shall be ensured in accordance with the provisions of this constitution. this points that the spine of the nigeria commonwealth revolves around the provision of security for life and property to advance the fortunes of the state and its citizens. however, ujomu (2018: 31), maintained that security is more than just safety from the violence, it means the absence of any form of violence, whether it is economic, sexual or military. for ujomu (2018: 32), “the central feature in the quest for natural security is the concern for the desire and capacity for self-defense or as the preservation of the borders of a state”. 39 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december thus, a constitutional state is a state where within the confines of the state, laws and extralegal laws aimed against the state cannot exist. only a state established by such constituent assembly is constitutionally a lawful and constitutional state (schmitt, 1996: 68). as hobbes' leviathan state witnessed tranquility (pax humanae) through the instrumentality of the overarching power of the state. so, the nigeria state via its institutions like the armed forces, the legislature and judiciary is expected to witness a pervading tranquility and stability within the jurisdiction of the nigeria commonwealth. but, this is not yet achieved and therefore puts a question against nigeria sovereignty. in the thoughts of collins (2005: 11), stable sovereignty was the most elevated of human achievements, for it secures what he considered the abiding end of political life: peace. the state then is saddled with the responsibility of maintaining law and order within its borders and also promotion of peaceful coexistence of its populace. then, how tenable are the primary objectives of a state within the nigeria state? has the nigeria state the political temerity to ensure the optimal security of lives and properties within its borders? the overarching power of the state demands obedience to the rule of law. utilizing the overarching power of the state to provide constitutes real freedom in all its ramificationsemotional, economic, social-political and cultural well-being of the state and its citizens and ensuring that the secular status of the nigeria state is not trampled on the altar of religious bigotry. this will form the bulk of the analysis in the succeeding subheading as we focus more on the state-building in nigeria as informed by the hobbes' leviathan. hobbes' leviathan and a strong stable nigeria where the state is too weak to wield its constitutional sovereign powers, non-state actors like the boko haram, iswap, bandits, fulani herdsmen, and separatists will question the sovereignty of the state. when the government seems to have ceded partial control of a vital state function to terrorists like amassing new territories and collection of taxes and tributes as the boko haram and the bandits are doing now is one of the signs of the urgency of a strong state as could be seen in the leviathan state. the irrefutable fact about the leviathan state is the fact that it surfaced to foster confidence in the state and encourage co-operation among its citizens. it is herein that there sounded to be some situations of core social values in the leviathan state similar as trust, co-operation, compassion, justice, forbearance to insure that the colorful situations of the state could effectively manage the human cum natural resources for the overall security, peace, prosperity and well-being of all within its borders (ujomu, 2018: 32). the leviathan state was a political creation of the masses via a binding covenant. this covenant consists of an agreement among people to abide by a particular set of rules, or conventions. rested on this covenant is the capability of the leviathan state to moderate the over-ambitiousness of people which is substantiated on the continual trouble of safety and security of all others, this hobbes believes is inimical to the peace of the state. when our national assets could not go round for the good of the citizens because of corruption and embezzlement by a group of people in the corridors of power, is just but taking us back to the state of nature which was modernity exited through opting for a civil state. where the 80 percent of nigerian crude oil is stolen and the greater percentage of the oil revenue ends in private pocket (obiezu, 2022) and the nigeria state is hapless, is unhealthy for the survival of the 40 thomas hobbes's leviathan and its implications for nigeria state e.e. umeh & ijechi j. ndianefo statehood of nigeria. besides, it is due to the government's lack of political will and leveraging on the overarching powers of state as seen in hobbes in checkmating the crime against the state because of a religious belief that is very dangerous and worrisome. in order to avert this, hobbes advocated for a state power to moderate the capricious drives of men (bagby, 2007: 9), so as to insure a secured atmosphere within the bounds of its jurisdiction and ensure that religion is far removed from the scope of state politics because of the secular status of our democracy (lawhead, 2002: 224). it is within this context, that we take the statecraft as the construction of the state institutions defined by their monopoly of use of lawful violence in a given territory. and this conception does not indicate that the state is the only actor actually using violence but rather that it is the only actor that can legitimately authorize its use (munro, 2013: 116). these institutions include the parliament, the judiciary and the armed forces controlled by the state. the state can grant an actor the permit to use legitimate violence without losing its monopoly as long as it remains the sole source of the proper use of legitimate violence as could be seen in the functional engagement of the armed forces and still maintains the capacity to apply this licit monopoly (munro, 2013: 117). the armed forces is a central feature of the state vested with the primary ideal of securing the territorial integrity of the state. the central idea of security provided by the fortified forces was according to ujomo (2018:32), a heritage of westphalia treaty of 1600s. so, due to the essential attribute of sovereignty of the state, it becomes all the more necessary for the state to have a modern armed forces utilizing the modern security gadgets in ensuring that it maintains its sovereignty, territorial integrity, and citizens' protection from internal and external adversaries. one of the comparable characteristics between the leviathan state same and the nigeria state is the premium placed on security, like it is in every animal kingdom which is the logical warrant and precedent to the propagation and survival of the species. ukhun, (2018: 86) noted that indeed in the lower beast fiefdoms, security is a conditio sine qua non for survival because it is a serious business. security has always been a deciding factor for the food and durability of human civilization. the nigerian budgetary security allocation since 2012 till date had be the highest in the percentage when compared to other critical sectors on the state. why then is it so difficult to rescue the nigeria state from this impending collapse. while, hobbes advocacy for a civil state via the leviathan was in a bid to alleviate the dreads of the state of nature in which life was solitary, poor, nasty, animalistic and short and the emergence of the nigeria state should have been for the effective maximization of the richness of our both human and natural resources. and not to allow the festering of ethnicity, religious fundamentalism and terrorism which are inimical to the sovereignty of the nigerian state as they constitute the chunk of the forces trying to tear the nigerian state apart. within the nigerian geopolitical terrain, public security is the safety of the state and all its factors. a state is safe when its territory is not violated, its sovereignty is not threatened, its wealth is not despoiled and its citizens can conduct their licit business on the corridors of tranquility and harmony (umeh, 2023: 54). the rising nature of the terror conditioning of the boko haram, and iswap in the northern nigeria, coupled with the enterprising moves of bandits and worsened by the fulani herders despoiling around mutilating lives and properties in an unbounded manner point to some latitude of sympathy within the 41 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december dimension of those that should wield the powers of the state. this is in discrepancy to what the hobbes leviathan advocates for the safety of the state. because, hobbes' leviathan was neither swayed by political permutations nor lacked the political will to wield the tool of the state. citizens cannot transverse the length and breadth of the country for their businesses freely because of the terror conditioning of these non-state actors. they kidnap citizens in droves unbounded whether it is on the kaduna-abuja express way or in katsina and zamfara. as if their coward act were yet to brim over, they have moved towards adding some part of the nigeria territory in their shot to declare a caliphate, this becomes the most grueling attempt to the nigeria sovereignty. why is the nigeria government so amenable to these terrorists? is it that nigeria has lost the sense of requisite overarching power of the state? why is the nigeria state not using the system applied to quell the dare threats of the ipob in the east that led to the successful conduct of the november 6th 2021 gubernatorial election in anambra state, the yoruba secessionists in the west and the militants in the south? hence, the urgent need to borrow the overarching powers of the state as supported by hobbes in crushing these apostates to insure the non-collapse of the nigerian state. with the appreciation of hobbes' leviathan we can begin to think of a nigeria beyond banditry, kidnapping and endless circles of violence that have engulfed the nigeria state. what about the economic terrorists, who have planted themselves at the corridors of powers and doing away with our common heritage through pillaging and embezzlement, thereby, threating the profitable viability of the nigerian state and pushing it to ruin and eventual collapse. for ebo (2018: 119), the enormity of the economic terrorism to the sovereignty of the nigeria state is unappreciable. this ranges from endemic and institutionalized corruption, embezzlement of public funds, cyber related crimes and advanced fee fraud of what is now termed “yahoo-yahoo or yahoo plus”. thus, there is the necessity for the utilization of the overarching powers of the state as advocated by hobbes to ensure all round security which is attained based on the principles of justice and fairness. on another note, the other powerful institution of the state is the legislature. the legislature is the arm of government saddled with the responsibility of formulation of laws that will guarantee the peace-building of the state and shield the state from the tyrannical propensity of the members of the executive arm of the government and protect the sovereignty of the state and the supremacy of the constitution from internal threats as would have been the case with olusegun obasanjo's third term agenda, which was killed on the floors of the plenary. thus, motivated by the drive to uphold the statehood of the nigeria state through a waxing and formidable state, the legislative arm of the government ensures that laws that can enhance the legitimacy of the state's monopoly of violence are formulated and implemented through the various windows of governance checks and balances and oversight functions. lastly, the judicial arm of the government as the temple of justice and altar of equity and fairness, armed with the sacred edits of the state becomes the last hope of the common man, ensures that there is legitimacy in the state acts of both the executive and the 42 thomas hobbes's leviathan and its implications for nigeria state e.e. umeh & ijechi j. ndianefo legislative. wielding further its constitutional power of the review, the judiciary becomes a veritable institution of the state whose contribution to the statecraft is unquantifiable (umeh, 2023: 57). the members of the bar and bench had contributed immensely to deepening the strong state advocated in this thesis through their various pronouncements and judgements because it aids in statecraft and ensures the stability of the polity and peaceful coexistence. finally, armed with the lessons from the leviathan state, nigeria can wriggle out of its sorry state by enforcing the secular status the nigeria state as to give each citizens the necessary freedom from the shackles of confusion over the status of religion and the state in a plural democracy and ultimately preserve the unity of the nigerian state and prevent its eventual collapse. evaluation and conclusion in the course of this philosophical discourse, it is very evident that thomas hobbes critically gave us a clear picture of how a society without a government would look like and the principles that were at work in such a society. man's life there was in solitary, poor, very nasty, brutish, short and worst of all, in continual fear and danger of death. however, the civil state was an evolution from a state ruled by nature. and the quintessential nature of the state of nature is none other than civil wars which can only be prevented by the overarching might of the state. exacting the overarching powers of the state whenever the situation compels. this philosophical discourse also examines how to strengthen the nigeria state using hobbes' idea of an overarching power of the state against the hydraheaded security challenges threatening nigeria and its core formation. it considers those incidents that threatened to hold the nigeria state to a standstill only to be minimized with the stepping in of the overarching tool of the state. this discourse in a subtle manner appreciates the crux of the foundation of the state as the escape from the brutish condition of the state of nature into the safest condition that guarantees right to life, freedom of movement and association and above all, the security of life and property. this essay buttresses the fact that the state is the only legitimate base that possesses a monopoly of licit violence and saddled with the responsibility of protecting its territory and inhabitants within its territory from every illegitimate violence as orchestrated within the ambience of the charter of civil state creation. hence, it is only thomas hobbes among all the state and social contract theorists who is so emphatic about the notion of the overarching 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(p. 86). lagos: malthouse press limited. 44 thomas hobbes's leviathan and its implications for nigeria state e.e. umeh & ijechi j. ndianefo page 44 page 45 page 46 page 47 page 48 page 49 page 50 page 51 page 52 aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr abstract this paper looks at the ethics of nudity and woman dignity in the contemporary society. the woman is seen as a person with dignity, rights, will (voluntas) and reason (ratio), hence should be valued and respected. the ironical, troubling and perplexing issue as well as question raised is centered on the way the media uses the nudity of the woman for various purposes. the media uses the woman nudity for commercial/ money making ventures, entertainment, pleasurable object and son on. this paper therefore questions the morality of such activities and maintains that the media should realize that womanhood and woman value is beyond entertainment and pleasure, hence should be restricted. it further argues that the nudity of a person is respected, regardless of the sexes, and if this is addressed, affects the personhood, image, perception and dignity of the woman. it therefore concludes that as women occupy a greater percentage of the populace, they should be respected as humans and persons, for there to be peace and sustainable development. keywords: nudity, woman, woman dignity, ethics, media. introduction philosophy, etymologically entails the love of wisdom. it questions and investigates into the nature of reality and reality resolves round nature and being. the aspect of reality that investigates into nature/ universe is said to be cosmo centric, while the other aspect that is interested in being/human, is said to be anthropocentric. anthropology is therefore concerned with the nature, meaning and study of humanity (human beings) in aspects ranging from biology and evolution to culture and society. in other words, anthropology incorporates the concept of person and personhood in the society. the person is therefore seen as a being characterized by consciousness, rationality, intentionality and a moral sense, and traditionally thought of as consisting of both a body and a mind or soul .. in other words, a person both the male and female are seen as persons, that should be valued and respected as such. however, it is troubling when the nude image of a woman is used for various dehumanizing ventures and purposes in the media. based on that, the questions become, what does nudity connote? what happens to woman dignity? are the human nudes no longer sacred in the society? are there no regulation in the media? these questions and many of its kind are the major concern of this paper. nudity: a conceptual analysis nudity is one of the concepts that is as old as humanity and it is associated with human sexuality, philosophy of sex and human nature. the word nudity entails the condition of being naked, nude, bare or without clothing. it is derived from the french word nudité nakedness or directly from late latin nuditatem (nominative nuditas) "nakedness, bareness," from latin nudus "naked, bare" avicenna uses the arabic word the ethics of nudity and woman dignity in the media ikea, chidimma s., ph.d department of philosophy, imo state university, owerri mmaimsu@gmail.com 170 https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=e03d3c9bc5f19881jmltdhm9mtcxndi2mjqwmczpz3vpzd0xn2jlmdhkmc1lyjbiltzjmjatm2i0nc0xyta4zwexnjzkn2umaw5zawq9ntc0mq&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=17be08d0-eb0b-6c20-3b44-1a08ea166d7e&psq=philosophical+meaning+of+person&u=a1ahr0chm6ly93d3cudghlznjlzwrpy3rpb25hcnkuy29tl1blcnnvbisocghpbg9zb3boawnhbck&ntb=1 https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=e03d3c9bc5f19881jmltdhm9mtcxndi2mjqwmczpz3vpzd0xn2jlmdhkmc1lyjbiltzjmjatm2i0nc0xyta4zwexnjzkn2umaw5zawq9ntc0mq&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=17be08d0-eb0b-6c20-3b44-1a08ea166d7e&psq=philosophical+meaning+of+person&u=a1ahr0chm6ly93d3cudghlznjlzwrpy3rpb25hcnkuy29tl1blcnnvbisocghpbg9zb3boawnhbck&ntb=1 https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=41bcd2fba39164fdjmltdhm9mtcxndi2mjqwmczpz3vpzd0xn2jlmdhkmc1lyjbiltzjmjatm2i0nc0xyta4zwexnjzkn2umaw5zawq9ntc0nq&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=17be08d0-eb0b-6c20-3b44-1a08ea166d7e&psq=philosophical+meaning+of+person&u=a1ahr0chm6ly93d3cuyxjpc3rvdgvsb3boawxllmnvbs9cb29rcy9bcnrpy2xlcy9cb2v0agl1cy0xlnbkzg&ntb=1 'tajrīd', literally, 'disrobement' or 'stripping', to speak of an 'abstraction' or what is 'abstracted' (mujarrad)(www.etymonline.com). nudity, nakedness, naturism are synonymous in so far as both words are related to the unclothed body. according to ogochukwu okpokwasili (2021: 156), nudity is defined as a state of indecent dressing which expose in the public or in the open the breast, belly, waist and lap of a female above the age of 14 years, as well as any part of the body from two inches below the shoulders downwards to the knee. nudity is a social practice in which the sexes interact freely but commonly without engaging in sexual activities generally for some reasons (for or comfort). in other words, it may be health perused as a socio-cultural way of life. chizoba oriaku (2020:45) explains: in the primitive era, near nudity or nudity was the lifestyle because of the absence or the existence of a few clothing items. the available items included a piece of spun fabric tied round the groin, for the men. the women covered the privates while the girls that have reached puberty had dresses in the form of ritualized and significant body decorations accompanied with waistbeads. however, the origin of the practice in in the early 20th century coincided with a germany rebellion against the rigid attitudes of the late 19th century. the first known nudist club, moral freilichtpark (“free light park”), appeared about 1903 near and was soon followed by hamburg richard ungewitter's work die nacktheit (1906; nakedness), which went through seminal several printings. nudism spread through europe after and became established in world war i north america culture during the 1930s. the american league of physical was founded in 1929 to promote nudism. in the and the practice has remained restricted to a few united states canada secluded camps and beaches. the atmosphere of these camps is generally deliberately non-erotic, and most are governed by strict rules of conduct. although public nudity of varying degrees became increasingly common in the latter part of the 20th century, nudism still is not widely accepted. most nudists are adults, although families sometimes participate. adults who practice nudism have been found to be psychologically healthy, but the impact of nudism on children is a subject of dispute among psychologists. biblically, there are cases of nudity from the bible days and is always associated with something evil. the concept has been associated with morality right from the bible days when adam and eve noticed their state of nakedness as a result of them sinning against god. as of the time of creation, nakedness was not in the world. it came to be because of sin. the bible said in genesis that “then the eyes of both of them were opened and they knew they were naked and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves coverings”. the sins of adam and eve were one that was so great in the sight of god that he opened their eyes to see their shame. nakedness or nudity is equated with a shameful thing and sin. a nudist is therefore a person who engages in the practice of going naked wherever possible. however, figures of women with no clothes are peculiarly common in the art of the western world. this situation might seem perfectly natural when one considers how frequent the state of undress is in every human life, from birth to the bath to the boudoir. bezemer elspeth (i999:33) point out that: the female nude in art can be categorized in various ways. as a 'tradition' the long and consistent historical presence of images of the unclothed human body indicate a chronology of artistic interest in the human body. naked female figures are shown in very early prehistoric art, and in historical times, similar 171 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://www.britannica.com/topic/health https://www.britannica.com/place/germany https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moral https://www.britannica.com/place/hamburg-germany https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/seminal https://www.britannica.com/event/world-war-i https://www.britannica.com/place/north-america https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture https://www.britannica.com/place/united-states https://www.britannica.com/place/canada images represented include the fertility deities, and the greek goddess aphrodite belongs to this family. aphrodite was imagined as life-giving, proud, and seductive goddess. for many centuries, the greeks preferred to see her clothed, unlike her near eastern counterparts, but in the mid-fourth century b.c., the sculptor praxiteles made a naked aphrodite, called the knidian, which established a new tradition for the female nude…in addition, her pose, with head turned to the side and one hand covering the body, seemed to present the goddess surprised in her bath and thus fleshed the nude with narrative and erotic possibilities. the position of the goddess hands may be meant to show modesty or a desire to shield the viewer from too full a view of her godhead….since the nudes of ancient greece and became normative in later western art, it rome is worth pausing to consider what they are and are not. they express profound admiration for the body as the shape of humanity, yet they do not celebrate human variety; they may have sex appeal, yet they are never totally prurient in intent. the nudes of greco-roman art are conceptually perfected ideal persons, each one a vision of health, youth, geometric clarity, and organic equilibrium. understanding woman and woman dignity the concept of woman is best understood in the context of a woman's sexuality. according to chidimma ukaulor (20i3:7), the idea of a woman can be understood from the notions of gender and sex. as a child, a woman belongs to the group of girls and as an adult; she belongs to the women-folk. in other words, a woman is the opposite of a man. biologically, women are different from men and as a result women have been interiorized, subsumed, made inferior, subordinated to men and relegated to the background, as they are seen as the weaker sex; physically, mentally, sexually, spiritually and otherwise. menarche therefore marks the beginning of womanhood. the idea that women are defined by their bodies and that female body is defined by sexual and reproductive functions has a long history. jean jacque rousseau argued that a man could transcend his sexual nature but a woman remains female, her whole life, dominated by processes such as menstruation, child bearing, nursing and nurturing. menstruation, defloration, childbirth, lactation and biological preparedness differentiate a woman from a man. in other words, she menstruates, becomes pregnant, she has no penis as such cannot make anyone else pregnant but someone else can make her pregnant…. she can be pregnant, give birth and can suckle an infant. these characteristics therefore make a woman powerful, unique and mysterious in her being. a woman is a female biologically; women biologically are feminine. females are typically feminine in nature. an individual femininity is determined by combination of factors such as the genes, chromosomes (x,x), hormones etc. the female develops with ovaries, a uterus or womb, a vagina and a clitoris and these characteristics become defining aspects of her nature or femaleness. the general (most common) and natural way of speaking for most women include softness/ tenderness of voice, reticence, and extreme politeness (there are women who are tom-boy and do not have some of these features); hence they are judged and defined in terms of their personality traits, behavior, and appearance. there is a distinct, consistent and significant difference between men and women. in other words, they differ physically, genetically, biologically and otherwise. fertility, (ovulation) and sexuality impact important meaning to the woman's body. during the thsecond half of the 19 century, the view flourished that the female body was entirely organized for sex and reproduction, but the essence and the raison d'etre of a woman's existence form the expression of the cause of her existence as a woman(i996:34) 172 ikea, chidimma s the ethics of nudity and woman dignity in the media https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/play/hd_play.htm women have two x chromosomes and men have two x and y chromosomes which are expressed in hormonal and psychological contrast. men and women also differ in primary (genitalia and reproductive organs) and secondary (breast, voice, hair) sexual characteristics but in average, weight, height and strength and are seen as tender, soft, feeble in their emotional make up, hence they are called the weaker sex. for these reasons, a woman can therefore be a wife to a man and a man a husband to a woman but not conversely. biological difference does not have to mean that females or women inferiority, for biology is not destiny. women and men have the same shape, size of brain relative to the rest of the body, that is to say that apart from reproduction, men and women have the same biological structures, system and function. the woman is a person, hence rationality, self consciousness, transcendence, rationality, openness, intentionality, spirituality, awareness, freedom and communication and transcendence are the main qualities of a person. rationality (homo sapiens sapiensis) distinguish human (man and woman) from other lower animals. with self consciousness a person recognizes itself, socializes and perfects itself. with communication, s/he communicates and rapours with others in love, friendship, grief, hatred etc while it penetrates the realm of the eternal and absolute with self transcendence(i964:257) however, the notion of human dignity, arises from human/self-awareness, experience, evaluation and worth. human dignity therefore centers on honour, glory, distinction and value attributed to humans, that is, something thought to be first, a highest value. woman dignity is therefore associated with the worthness, honour and respect attributed to women. in other words, it points at the value women possess for respect, hence, what is due to them as women. mary wollstonecraft used the notion of dignity to articulate her demands for the change in women's status. and tradesmen live truly dignified lives. overview of the current state of nudity portrayal in media there are several ways female nudity is portrayed in media; artistic expression, commercial interests, and social values. television shows and streaming platforms; these are seen in various television shows, film industry, and various social media platforms, like big brother nigeria (bbn), games of thrones, euphoria where explicit/obscene scenes are shown. nudity is often used to depict realism or to enhance storytelling, and this obscene trend keep growing and spread through the media. advertisement. some advertisements still rely on sexualized nudity to sell products, perpetuating stereotypes and objectification. on the other hand, there is a growing movement towards using nudity in advertising to promote body positivity, self-acceptance, and empowerment. social media. social media platforms like instagram, facebook, x and tiktok are avenues through which nudity is marketed. hence, influencers, content creators and activists use social media to challenge and market beauty standards and promote nudity, so as to get followers, especially young people. ethical considerations of nudity ethics examines the rightness or wrongness of human actions. in other words, it considers human act as moral, amoral or immoral. the interest of this paper is to look at the negative impacts of female nudity on the society. 173 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 western culture sees nudity as a matter of choice and right and a woman expressing her sexuality in the way she deems it fit. generally, in african culture and particularly in nigeria it is a taboo, shameful and depicts insanity for one to express one's sexuality in such daring manner. women have a stipulated way of behavior, mapped out by the society, as stipulated in their modus viviendi. exposing one's nudity was never part of the african culture. the issue of expressing one's sexuality via nudity affects every member of the society, as it has more harmful and negative effects. these negative effects include: reification. exposing the female obscene pictures can lead to her reification or objectication. that is, reducing women as mere things, objects of attraction, sexual desire and satisfaction, rather than portraying them as whole individuals with thoughts, feelings, and agency. by so doing, women are seen as means to an end rather than an end in itself. this also contribute to the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes and unrealistic beauty standards, leading to body dissatisfaction and low self-esteem among women and girls who do not conform to these ideals. cultural and social stigma. nudity portrayal in media can contribute to stigmatization, bodyshaming, social stigma, especially for women who do not conform to societal expectations of modesty. this can limit women's freedom of expression and contribute to social marginalization and discrimination sexualization and exploitation. the oversexualization of female nudity in media can reinforce the notion that a woman's worth is tied to her physical appearance and sexual appeal, rather than her intelligence, skills, or accomplishment. this can create a culture of exploitation where women may feel pressured to conform to narrow beauty standards or engage in behaviors that compromise their dignity, value and autonomy. sheila jefferys (i997:45) explains: the sex industry has become immensely profitable, providing profitable resources, not just to individuals, and networks, involved in trafficking women but to government who has to depend on sex industry for revenue. normalization of gender-based violence. the exposure of female nudity can lead to the normalization of gender-based violence, such as sexual violence, domestic violence, sexual assault and harassment, perpetuating harmful attitudes and behaviors towards women. in other words, it affects the psychological, sexual, and social wellbeing women. e.e. emedo (2020:33) explains that it becomes dangerous when certain issues are not in the society: the failure to address this issue of sexual and gender-based violence entail a significant cost for the future. numerous studies have shown that children growing up with violence are more likely to become dangerously violent or perpetrators of violence in the future. one characteristic of gender-based violence is that it knows no social or economic boundaries and affects women and girls of all socio-economic backgrounds: this issue needs to be addressed in both developing and developed countries. it can also reinforce gender inequality and discrimination in the society. andrey shastri laments (2022:86) over the situation of the women; women face every kind of discrimination in this society. they are deprived from the basic facilities like education. women's lives are shaped totally by our customs that are centuries old. they had many boundation also. well as described by the manu in 200 bc, “by a young girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house. in childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons, women must never be independent. 174 ikea, chidimma s the ethics of nudity and woman dignity in the media the unequal representation of male and female nudity in media, with women often being objectified and sexualized more frequently than men, reinforces gender inequality and power imbalances. evaluation and conclusion having made an expository analysis of nudity and woman dignity in the media, it is therefore necessary to state some possible solutions to curbing female nudity in the media. some of these include: regulation and implementation of strict guidelines regarding nudity in media content can help reduce gratuitous or objectifying portrayals of women. this includes age restrictions, clear labeling, and penalties for non-compliance. education and media literacy. educating the masses and promoting media literacy and can empower individuals to critically analyze and challenge portrayals of female nudity in the media. this includes teaching about media representation, body image issues, and the impact of unrealistic beauty. encouraging media producers, content creators and influencers to include diverse representations of women in terms of body types, ages, races, and abilities can help challenge stereotypes and promote gender balancing. empowering women and girls. supporting female creators, writers, directors, and producers can lead to more authentic and respectful portrayals of women in media, including their uses of nudity and female images. the church, sects, non-governmental organizations can also help to foster this in the society. reorientation. there is the need for re-orientation, from the family to the society. this will help the society in recognizing and challenging cultural norms and attitudes towards female nudity can lead to more progressive and respectful representations in media. the society would not just achieve development but sustainable development, when women are respected, valued, and honored as persons in the society. works cited th bunting, susan j. mirror of humanities, 27 ed., new york; mc-graw hill, 2002. elspeth, bezemer., a femeneutics of the nude,  university of johannesburg (south africa) proquest dissertations publishing,  1997. emedo, e.e understanding women and violence, aba: intex, 2020. encyclopedia britannica,www.google.com. access, april 20, 2024. jefferys, sheila., globalizing sexual exploitation, sex tourism and the traffic in women, new york: mcgraw hills, 2022. nd lips, hilary m. a new psychology of women gender, culture and ethnicity, 2 ed.,new york: mc-graw hill, 2003. mondin, battista. philosophical anthroplogy: man, an impossible project, bangalore: pontifia universities urbaniana, i964. okpokwasili, ogochukwu a., “nudity, women and morality in a contemporary nigerian society: a philosophical discourse”, nnadiebube journal of philosophy, vol. 5(1), 2021. oriaku, chizoba, “femininity and nudity: a synthesisin the works of asuquo alfred akpabio” the international journal of humanities & social studies, volume 7, issue 9,2020. shastri, andrey. “gender inequality and women discrimination”, journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss) volume 19, issue 11, nov. 2014 ukaulor, chidimma, in praise of african feminism,owerri: clebez, 20i3. 175 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 162 the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 and its implications for christians today bitrus gando isaac department of biblical studies gindiri theological seminary (an affiliate of the university of jos, nigeria). gandoisaac@gmail.com abstract this paper employs the grammatical-historical approach to examine the folly of forming futile alliances of the people of god (israel), as described in the prophetic book of isaiah 30:1-17. this approach considers the rules of grammar, particularly in the hebrew language, through which the passage was conveyed, and also takes into account the historical circumstances that gave rise to the message of the text. the study explores the passage within its immediate and broader context, considering its genre and the use of poetry as a literary style by the prophet to address the audience. furthermore, it includes a verse-by-verse analysis resulting in a wellstructured outline for relevant applications in contemporary times. despite the passage being distant from our era, the research emphasizes its significance in addressing modern issues of worthless alliances of god's people. the study underscores the relevance of trusting solely in god and avoiding any futile endeavors that may jeopardize the mission of spreading the gospel to the world. throughout the examination, the presupposition remains that the text of isaiah is the work of a single author (isaiah), is inspired and is applicable today. the findings illustrate that god, who called israel into fellowship and entrusted them with a divine mission, expressed dissatisfaction with their reliance on human strength instead of trusting in him—the holy one of israel. the evident consequences of their actions serve as a reminder for present-day believers to place their complete trust in god and refrain from engaging in any futile pursuits. keywords: folly, worthless alliance, people of god, isaiah. introduction a careful reading of genesis 12: 1-3 reveals clearly that god chose israel to be a blessing to all nations on earth. her status as the chosen people was an act of grace (deuteronomy 9:5-6), which means that they were to remain faithful to god and rely entirely on him to fulfill the mission for which they were chosen. however, from the beginning, the journey towards fulfilling this mission was fraught with struggle and temptations, even as they had to move from place to place and have had to be careful as they interact with other nations of the earth. for the journey to be smooth, the ten commandments outlined what god expected of israel, the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac mailto:gandoisaac@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 163 starting with a reintroduction of himself and a reminder of what he had done for them (exodus 20: 1-2). for example, the first commandment, "you shall have no other gods before me" (exodus 20:3), requires complete faith and trust in the lord. this means that the israelites were to be mindful of activities that would jeopardize their god-given mission. for example, they were frequently reminded not to imitate the practices of other nations or be like them (deuteronomy 23:24; leviticus 18:3; 2 chronicles 36:14). during isaiah's time, the people of god failed to maintain their integrity and repeatedly transgressed the laws of the lord their god (2 kings 18: 12). they worshiped other gods and pledged allegiance to other nations and seeking help from their gods (2 kings 17:7). this rebellious behavior prompted chapters 28-31, which served as warnings to the people of god in isaiah's day. despite isaiah's earlier warnings, judah allied with egypt and believed they were safe from assyria's invasion. however, god was the one they refused to trust, even though he was the one who ultimately saved them (chapters 27-33; 31:5-9; 37:36) (david and pat alexander, 1973, p. 387). today, many christians still find themselves in a similar situation. like israel, christians are called to evangelize the world by being a shining example and positive influence, but they have often failed to maintain their integrity by forming unworthy and unacceptable alliances. the aim of this paper therefore, is to provide an exegesis of isaiah 30:1-17, considering both its immediate and broader context. the approach taken in this paper will be to analyze the biblical text within its canonical context, ultimately revealing the foolishness of forming alliances that are not in tandem with the will of god. an overview of gramatico-historical method being a method adopted and used in this paper, silva & kaiser (2007), characterizes the grammatico-historical method as "a technique for comprehending the significance of scripture through an intricate analysis that meticulously considers the language of the original text and the cultural context from which the text emerged." (p. 19). this approach according to yilpet (2023) holds great importance in exegesis due to its emphasis on the wording of the text, specifically how the verbs in their various forms function, and how the nouns, adjectives, prepositions, and other parts of speech are interconnected within the syntax. this method also takes into account the historical backdrop of the text, delving into cultural elements, customs, and philosophies (yilpet, 2023). through this method, we are able to delve deeply into grammatical and historical aspects, thus enabling us to grasp the intended meaning of the author, a matter of deep concern for christians (tyler, ny, para. 2). this aspect underscores the authority by which the message remains relevant for transforming individuals and encouraging reliance on god rather than human folly, as demonstrated in our passage under study. 164 stressing the significance of grammar, stuart (2009) points out that "a precise comprehension of grammar is indispensable for an accurate interpretation of the passage." (p. 9). lending their voice on the role of grammar, hayes & holladay (1987) opine that: grammatical criticism is concerned with analyzing a text through its language. to be sure, language consists of words, but ideas and concepts rather than being conveyed through words standing alone are transmitted through words arranged in various combinations with each other. grammatical criticism is concerned not only with how individual words function as carriers of meaning but how those words are arranged in phrases and sentences to form meaningful sense units. this type of criticism may be thought of as the set of skills and discipline through which we seek to re-create and enter the original thought world of the author (or text) through the language of the text (p. 59). while engaging this method, the invaluable role of exegetical tools such as bible dictionaries and encyclopedias, which address significant biblical ideas and concepts, biblical wordbooks and lexicons that provide language-focused information, and the biblical concordance, which lists verses containing specific words remain important (hayes & holladay, 1987, p. 60-61). this method has been employed in our analysis of isaiah 30: 1-17, where key terms have been identified, scrutinized, and the historical context of the passage has been ascertained. text and translation of isaiah 30: 1-17 the hebrew text for this study is gotten from biblia hebraica stuttgartensia (elliger & rudolph, 1983, pp. 718-720). ה ה ְולֹא ִמִני ְוִלְנֹסְך ַמֵסכָּ ִנים סֹוְרִרים ְנֻאם־ְיהוָּה ַלֲעׂשֹות ֵעצָּ 1 הֹוי בָּ את ְולֹא רּוִחי ְלַמַען ְספֹות ַחטָּ את׃ ַעל־ַחטָּ ah, stubborn children," declares the lord, "who carry out a plan, but not mine, and who make an alliance, but not of my spirit, that they may add sin to sin; עֹוז ַפְרֹעה ְוַלְחסֹות עֹוז ְבמָּ לּו לָּ אָּ ֶרֶדת ִמְצַרִים ּוִפי לֹא שָּ 2 ַהֹהְלִכים לָּ ִים׃ ְבֵצל ִמְצרָּ who set out to go down to egypt, without asking for my direction, to take refuge in the protection of pharaoh and to seek shelter in the shadow of egypt! ה׃ סּות ְבֵצל־ִמְצַרִים ִלְכִלמָּ עֹוז ַפְרֹעה ְלֹבֶשת ְוֶהחָּ ֶכם מָּ יָּה לָּ 3 ְוהָּ therefore, shall the protection of pharaoh turn to your shame, and the shelter in the shadow of egypt to your humiliation. the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 165 ֵנס ַיִגיעּו׃ יו חָּ כָּ יו ּוַמְלאָּ רָּ יּו ְבֹצַען ׂשָּ for though his officials are at zoan 4 ִכי־הָּ and his envoys reach hanes, מֹו לֹא ְלֵעֶזר ְולֹא ְלהֹוִעיל ִכי 5 ֹכל ֹהִביש ַעל־ַעם לֹא־יֹוִעילּו לָּ ה׃ ס ְלֹבֶשת ְוַגם־ְלֶחְרפָּ everyone comes to shame through a people that cannot profit them, that brings neither help nor profit, but shame and disgrace." ַלִיש ֵמֶהם ֶאְפֶעה ִביא וָּ ה לָּ ה ְוצּוקָּ רָּ א ַבֲהמֹות נֶ ֶגב ְבֶאֶרץ צָּ 6 ַמשָּ ף ְמעֹוֵפף ִיְׂשאּו ַעל־ֶכֶתף ֲעיִָּרים ֵחיֵלֶהם ְוַעל־ַדֶבֶשת ְגַמִלים רָּ ְוׂשָּ ם ַעל־ַעם לֹא יֹוִעילּו׃ אֹוְצֹרתָּ an oracle on the beasts of the negeb. through a land of trouble and anguish, from where come the lioness and the lion, the adder and the flying fiery serpent, they carry their riches on the backs of donkeys, and their treasures on the humps of camels, to a people that cannot profit them. ֶבת׃ זֹאת ַרַהב ֵהם שָּ אִתי לָּ רָּ ֵכן קָּ ִריק ַיְעֹזרּו לָּ ;egypt's help is worthless and empty 7 ּוִמְצַרִים ֶהֶבל וָּ therefore, i have called her "rahab who sits still." ּה ּוְתִהי ְליֹום ַאֲחרֹון ם ְוַעל־ֵסֶפר ֻחקָּ ּה ַעל־לּוַח ִאתָּ ְתבָּ ה בֹוא כָּ 8 ַעתָּ ם׃ ַעד ַעד־עֹולָּ לָּ and now, go, write it before them on a tablet and inscribe it in a book, that it may be for the time to come as a witness forever. בּו ְשמֹוַע תֹוַרת ְיהוָּה׃ ִנים לֹא־אָּ ִשים בָּ ִנים ֶכחָּ ,for they are a rebellious people 9 ִכי ַעם ְמִרי הּוא בָּ lying children, children unwilling to hear the instruction of the lord; נּו ְנֹכחֹות ֹרִאים לֹא ִתְראּו ְוַלֹחִזים לֹא ֶתֱחזּו־לָּ ְמרּו לָּ 11 ֲאֶשר אָּ קֹות ֲחזּו ַמֲהַתלֹות׃ נּו ֲחלָּ ַדְברּו־לָּ who say to the seers, "do not see," and to the prophets, "do not prophesy to us what is right; speak to us smooth things, 166 prophesy illusions, ֵנינּו ֶאת־ְקדֹוש 11 סּורּו ִמֵני־ֶדֶרְך ַהטּו ִמֵני־ֹאַרח ַהְשִביתּו מִ פָּ ֵאל׃ ִיְׂשרָּ leave the way, turn aside from the path, let us hear no more about the holy one of israel." ר ַהֶזה ַוִתְבְטחּו בָּ ְסֶכם ַבדָּ אָּ ֵאל ַיַען מָּ ַמר ְקדֹוש ִיְׂשרָּ ֵכן ֹכה אָּ 21 לָּ יו׃ לָּ ֲענּו עָּ ְבֹעֶשק ְונָּלֹוז ַוִתשָּ therefore, thus says the holy one of israel, "because you despise this word and trust in oppression and perverseness and rely on them, ה בָּ ה ִנְׂשגָּ ֹון ַהֶזה כְ ֶפֶרץ ֹנֵפל ִנְבֶעה ְבחֹומָּ ֶכם ֶהעָּ ֵכן ִיְהֶיה לָּ 11 לָּ ּה׃ ֲאֶשר־ִפְתֹאם ְלֶפַתע יָּבֹוא ִשְברָּ therefore, this iniquity shall be to you like a breach in a high wall, bulging out, and about to collapse, whose breaking comes suddenly, in an instant; תֹו ֵצא ִבְמִכתָּ תּות לֹא ַיְחֹמל ְולֹא־ִימָּ ּה כְ ֵשֶבר ֵנֶבל יֹוְצִרים כָּ רָּ 14 ּוְשבָּ ֶגֶבא׃ פם מִ יָּקּוד ְוַלְחֹׂשף ַמיִ ֶחֶרׂש ַלְחתֹות ֵאש מִ and its breaking is like that of a potter's vessel that is smashed so ruthlessly that among its fragments not a shard is found with which to take fire from the hearth, or to dip up water out of the cistern." ֵשעּון ַנַחת ִתּוָּ ה וָּ ֵאל ְבשּובָּ ַמר ֲאֹדנָּי ְיהִוה ְקדֹוש ִיְׂשרָּ 15 ִכי ֹכה־אָּ ה ִתְהֶיה ְגבּוַרְתֶכם ְולֹא ֲאִביֶתם׃ ְבַהְשֵקט ּוְבִבְטחָּ for thus said the lord god, the holy one of israel, "in returning and rest you shall be saved; in quietness and in trust shall be your strength." but you were unwilling, ב ַעל־ 16 ַותֹאְמרּו לֹא־ִכי ַעל־סּוס נָּנּוס ַעל־ֵכן ְתנּוסּון ְוַעל־ַקל ִנְרכָּ ֵכן ִיַקלּו ֹרְדֵפיֶכם׃ and you said, "no! we will flee upon horses"; therefore, you shall flee away; and, "we will ride upon swift steeds"; therefore, your pursuers shall be swift. נֻסּו ַעד ִאם־ ה תָּ ד מִ ְפֵני ַגֲעַרת ֲחִמשָּ ד מִ ְפֵני ַגֲעַרת ֶאחָּ 21 ֶאֶלף ֶאחָּ ה׃ ר ְוַךֵנס ַעל־ַהִגְבעָּ הָּ נֹוַתְרֶתם ַךֹתֶרן ַעל־רֹאש הָּ a thousand shall flee at the threat of one; at the threat of five you shall flee, the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 167 till you are left like a flagstaff on the top of a mountain, like a signal on a hill. the setting of isaiah 30: 1-17 the passage isaiah 30:1-17 is located specifically within the oracles of woe (chs. 28-33), which consist of prophetic warnings regarding reliance on either egypt or the lord in the face of assyrian threats (robinson & harrison, 1979). the book of isaiah is structured into various thematic sections, with the initial part (chs. 1-12) containing prophecies of restoration for judah and jerusalem. subsequent sections include oracles of judgment and salvation concerning foreign nations (chs. 13-23), discussions of world-judgment and israel's redemption (chs. 2427), warnings against alliances with egypt (chs. 28-35), and a mixture of history, prophecy, and song (chs. 36-39). the later section (chs. 40-66) offers comfort, salvation, and the promise of future glory for israel (robinson & harrison, 1979). chapter 30 is part of the oracles of woe, which are united by the theme of "woe" and revolve around the consequences of depending on egypt instead of the lord (mosley & bond, 2003, p. 838). in this fourth "woe," god rebukes the nation's rebellion for turning to egypt for aid against the assyrian threat, despite past divine interventions (robinson & harrison, 1979). wiersbe (2004) points out that isaiah begins and ends his prophecy with accusations of rebellion against god. unlike previous leaders like moses, joshua, david, and jehoshaphat who sought god's will in critical decisions, the rulers of jerusalem did not seek divine guidance and turned to feeble egypt for help, which proved to be inadequate against the powerful assyrian army (np). the subsequent "woes" (chs. 31-32 and ch. 33) continue to denounce those who trust in egypt's military might rather than in the holy one of israel. the sixth and final woe (ch. 33) is directed against the treacherous spoiler who has already devastated judah's cities and is now besieging jerusalem in 701 b.c. (robinson & harrison, 1979). isaiah 30 is linked to preceding chapters in its condemnation of the people's unfaithfulness and their reliance on human strategies rather than turning to god. it also connects to subsequent chapters where isaiah delivers messages of hope and restoration, indicating that god's judgment is not final, and there is still an opportunity for repentance and redemption (wiersbe, 2004). during the era of prophet isaiah in the kingdom of judah, leaders deliberated over forming an alliance with egypt to protect against the assyrian empire's threat (isaiah 30 – trust in the lord, not in egypt, ny, introduction section, para 1 & 2). the crucial decision was whether to trust in egypt or rely on the lord's intervention in the face of the assyrian menace (yilpet, 2018, p. 2). hezekiah chose to reject paying tribute to assyria, instead opting to seek 168 encouragement from egypt, ultimately leading to sennacherib's invasion in 701 b.c. (mariottini, 1987). despite their attempts to seek assistance from assyria, judah faced setbacks, including the destruction of gaza and the loss of several regions between 734 and 732 b.c. (as indicated in 2 kings 16:7, 2 kings 15:29, 16:7-9, 2 chron 28:19, and isa 7:1) (robinson & harrison, 1979). the attempt to forge a partnership with egypt against assyria proved unsuccessful, resulting in judah confronting sennacherib without external support. even the advice provided to israel against paying tribute to assyria had negative consequences, further worsening judah's precarious position (robinson & harrison, 1979). despite these circumstances, judah did not consider turning to the lord as a viable option, and chapters 30 and 31 were the lord's response to the detrimental alliance formed by judah. isaiah's message was primarily directed at the leaders of jerusalem who were the main focus during the crisis that preceded sennacherib's invasion (yilpet, 2018, p. 2). literary unit of isaiah 30: 1-17 within its immediate context isaiah 30:1-17 is considered to be a self-contained section, with the term "woe" marking the beginning of a new segment. this is a typical style in prophetic books where the lord delivers pronouncements. this passage maintains a coherent narrative, addressing the issue of reliance on egypt. watts (2002) describes isaiah 30 as a scene depicting the struggle between god and the judean leaders who are determined to follow their own plans. the chapter can be divided into three main units: verses 1-17, known as the "oracle of the rebellious children," which warns the people of judah against seeking alliances with foreign nations instead of relying on god, offering hope of restoration if they turn back to him. the second unit, verses 18-26, is the "promise of the holy one of israel," assuring judah that god will be gracious and restore them if they repent and trust in him. this promise includes physical, material, and spiritual blessings. another unit, verses 27-33, focuses on the judgment of assyria and the defeat of its army (watts, 2002). the literary units in isaiah 30, including verses 1-17, can be further divided into two major sections: verses 1-7 and verses 8-17 (matthew henry's commentary on the whole bible, 2006). these units are interconnected and reflect common themes of judgment, warning, and hope throughout the book of isaiah (isaiah 1:2-9: 5:1-7: 24:1-23: 30:1-18). allusions on the text of isaiah 30: 1-17 the term "rebellious children" in verses 1-3 alludes to the unfaithfulness and disobedience of the israelites, who turned away from god's guidance and rejected his path. this behavior is reflected in other biblical passages, such as exodus 32:9, deuteronomy 9:7, jeremiah 3:6-10, ezekiel 2:3-5, isaiah 1:2, 4, 23, 30:9, 65:2, hosea 11:1-2, and acts 7:51. the narrative of proceeding to egypt and egypt's inability to provide help, leading to shame (verse 2a, 5), is referenced in other contexts like jeremiah 43:7; 2:36, isaiah 30:7; 31:3. the notion of carrying the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 169 out plans without seeking consultation (verse 1b) is alluded to in isaiah 29:15. the reference to "pharaoh, the king of egypt" (verse 4) likely symbolizes oppressive earthly rulers or powers that israel might trust instead of god. similar themes are found in 2 chronicles 16:7-9, where king asa of judah sought help from the king of syria instead of relying on god and faced the consequences of his lack of faith. this theme also recurs in prophetic books like isaiah 31:1-3 and jeremiah 2:18. the mention of "rahab" in verse 7 alludes to ancient symbol of chaos and evil defeated by the gods in canaanite creation mythology representing opposing forces to god's order and goodness (watts, 2002). in verse 6, the phrases "the adder” and “fiery serpent" may allude to the israelites' experiences in the wilderness during the exodus, including the incident of the bronze serpent in numbers 21:4-9. the concept of trusting in military might rather than in god, as depicted in the entire passage, is mentioned in various other verses, such as psalm 20:7, psalm 33:16-17, and psalm 147:1011. the repetition of the phrase "holy one of israel" in verses 12 and 15 emphasizes god's holiness and uniqueness as the god of israel. similar expressions can be found in isaiah 1:4, isaiah 10:20, and jeremiah 50:29. while there is no direct reference to a specific new testament verse, themes from isaiah 30:1-17 can be related to new testament teachings. it highlights the recurring theme of relying on god's guidance over worldly solutions, present in both isaiah and the new testament (e.g., matthew 6:33, philippians 4:19). additionally, the need for repentance and turning back to god, emphasized in isaiah, is reiterated throughout the new testament, with jesus frequently preaching about repentance and salvation (e.g., mark 1:15, luke 24:47) (the reformation study bible esv., 2015, pp. 1175-1176). textual, grammatical and exegetical notes on the text of isaiah 30: 1-17 verse 1: the first verse of the passage introduces a proclamation attributed to the lord, expressed as ְנֻאם־ְיהָוה which is translated as "saith the lord" or "declares the lord." the term -originates from a foundational root denoting a soft utterance, signifying an oracle (ncmsc) ְנֻאם like pronouncement (ot: 5001 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers and concordance, 2006). within this context, it is the lord who is communicating a declaration concerning judah, characterizing them as ָבִנים סֹוְרִרים which translates to "stubborn children.” (ot: 1121 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006). according to watts (2002), the mention of "rebellious children" builds on a theme introduced in 1:2 (np). the verb סֹוְרִרים (qal act ptc mp סרר – be stubborn) indicates their persistent obstinacy, portraying an unbroken state of stubbornness. the participle also describes "action in progress." it depicts the action as dynamically unfolding in the very course of the narrative (wheeler, 2006). the particle הֹוי (hebrew interjection) translated “oh” or “woe” “alas” indicates that the declaration was carried out by the lord in a lamentable or pitiable situation (wheeler, 2006). 170 the phrase ַלֲעׂשֹות ֵעָצה meaning, "who carry out a plan," employs the verb ַלֲעׂשֹות (prep. qal inf. cstr to do, make) to highlight the intention behind the actions of these rebellious children. this draws attention to the fact that they are pursuing their own agendas. the expression ְולֹא translating to "but not of me," suggests that they deviated from god's guidance to follow ,ִמִני their own path, implying that their plans do not originate from the divine source. according to watts (2002), this portion of the verse defines the nature of their rebellion. the term ֵעָצה (ncfsa) meaning "a plan" underscores that yhwh has a strategic plan for israel. however, the political leaders also have their own plans, which, unlike yhwh's plan, lead nowhere (watts, 2002). the verb ְוִלְנֹסְך(conj. prep. qal inf. const – to weave) potentially signifies the nature of their plan, one that is not aligned with god's spirit (ְולֹא רּוִחי). the interpretation of this verb is a subject of debate (watts, 2002, p. 464). according to brown, driver, & briggs (1907), the phrase ִלְנֹסְך ַמֵסָכה holds four possible related meanings: (1) "pour out a libation" (as seen in 48:5); (2) "cast a molten image" (30:22; 42:17); (3) "weave a web" (25:7); or (4) "negotiate an alliance." the final interpretation aligns well with the parallel concept of "doing a plan." nonetheless, the notion of "weaving a web" could also symbolize the intricacy of the plan, fitting the context of the discourse. by their plan, they were adding sin upon sin. the verb ְספֹות (qal infc – add, increase) conveys the idea of "adding" or "accumulating," rather than indicating a specific instance of the action. this leads them farther away from god. widyapranawa (1990) characterizes it as a single action resulting in destruction, the reason behind judah's forthcoming "shame and disgrace" (30:5) (p. 184). this verse employs synonymous parallelism, where the phrases "to those who carry out plans that are not mine" and "heaping sin upon sin" convey a similar concept, underscoring the consequences of their deeds. verse 2 continued what judah had conditioned her mind to do; going down to egypt for help. this of course perfectly explains their being referred to as stubborn children. the participle verb ַהֹהְלִכים (qal act ptc mp to go, walk) emphasizes the ongoing and continuous nature of the action. it describes a recurring behavior or characteristic of the people who seek help from egypt rather than turning to god for assistance (wheeler, 2006). the verb ָלֶרֶדת (qal infc come down) emphasizes the action of descending or going down to egypt. for not consulting the lord, they were treating him as one unable to protect and help them. the verb לֹא ָשָאלּו(neg. qal pf 3cp lav – ask, borrow) translated “they have not asked” implies that god was not involve. the expression ּוִפי translated “and my mouth” ultimately translates to “for my direction” esv ultimately referring to god’s direction; they were on their own, taking refuge in the protection of pharoah. the verbs ָלעֹוז (qal infc. – take refuge), ְוַלְחסֹות (conj. prep. qal infc hsj – make refuge, (put) trust) (ot:2620 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) expresses the purpose, intention, or result of an action, in this context, “going down to egypt”; i.e., finding security by relying on egypt instead of trusting in god's guidance and protection, they have forgotten quickly what the lord had done from the time of their forefathers, how he carried them on eagle’s wing have now turned away to look for help outside the lord. their trust was on egypt; seeking protection from pharoah and shelter in the shadow the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 171 of egypt. hebrew parallelism is evident in this context, where finding refuge under pharaoh's protection is akin to seeking shelter in his shadow. both expressions essentially refer to seeking help from egypt. according to widyapranawa (1990), contrasting the traditional faith which considered yahweh as the rock of refuge and a safe stronghold (e.g., ps. 90:1; 27:1; 18:1–2), judah now sets out “to go down to egypt” to seek refuge and shelter (p. 184). watts (2002, p. 465) noted in line with the aforesaid that jerusalem’s leaders were determined to play the game of power politics, pitting one superpower against the one they thought would be its successor. verse 3: it is vain to depend on egypt for help because that would not only be a waste of time, but would set them on the path of shame and humiliation. the verb ְוָהָיה (conj. qal pf. 3 ms be, become) translated “but it shall come to pass” “therefore” (ot: 1961 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) introduces the consequence that will occur: egypt's help will be worthless to the people addressed in the passage. it emphasizes that the situation described is a certainty and will inevitably happen. it was foolishness to depend on the protection of pharoah who ordinarily needed to help himself. the phrase ַפְרֹעהָמעֹוז translated “the strength of pharoah” refers to the military might and power that the rulers of egypt, represented by pharaoh, possessed during that period. this is again speaking of human inability to provide the kind of protection judah required. driver (2006) refer to it as a foolish mission, adding that it was fruitless and folly of those who expect from it any substantial result. here, we find the presence of parallelism as a poetic element. it is evident in the protection sought from pharaoh (ָמעֹוז ַפְרֹעה) and trust placed in the shelter of egypt (ְוֶהָחסּות ְבֵצל־ִמְצַרִים), which ultimately results in ְלֹבֶשת (translated as "shame") and ִלְכִלָמה (translated as "humiliation") (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006). these poetic features serve to emphasize a significant point. verse 4: the expression ִכי־ָהיּו translated as "because they were" or "for they were" serves as a connector, providing a reason for the situation described in the previous verse (verse 3); the strength of pharaoh (egypt) being a cause of shame and confusion for the people of judah. it appears the lord is telling judah the strength of pharoah’s administration that though ָשָריו (ncmpcx3ms) translated “his princesses” or “his officials” “his head persons” (biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006). ּוַמְלָאָכיו (conj. nmp 3ms sf) translated “his ambassadors” “his envoys” are at zoan and his envoys reach as far as hanes (widyapranawa, 1990, p. 184) may probably be describing the length and breathe of what might have enticed judah and felt she could be protected and secured. in v. 4.a. of lxx, the pronouns in the word under consideration are missing, while the vulgate includes them. on the other hand, the mt retains the pronouns as indicated. this observation is significant as it enhances our understanding that pharaoh's officials were positioned both far and near (watts, 2002, 462). the verb ַיִגיעּו (hiphil impft 3mp – reach, arrive) translated “they reach” figuratively, to arrive, acquire) (ot: 5060 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) describes the officials being at zoan, and their envoys arriving at hanes, indicating their presence in different locations for diplomatic or political purposes. verse 5 continued to build on what judah was probably thinking she could do. the lord is still reminding them that they would be put to shame. in this verse 5.a. the kethib (k) reading for 172 the hebrew word is הבאיש, which is understood as a hiphil perfect, third person singular form of the root באש, meaning "be odious, stink." on the other hand, the qere (q) reading, influenced by gesenius' hebrew grammar, suggests ֹהִביש, a hiphil perfect, third person singular form of the root בוש, which means "come to shame." this emendation, represented by q, is the first among several suggested changes. in the masoretic text (mt), this qere reading aligns better with the context, as noted in biblia hebraica stuttgartensia (bhs), following procksch's view (as cited in watts, 2002, 462). the verb ֹהִביש (hiphil pft 3ms vwb – to be ashamed) has a causative meaning, indicating the act of making someone else feel ashamed or bringing shame upon them. in this verse, it is applied to the previously mentioned people who cannot offer help or benefit to others. egypt, described as ַעל־ַעם לֹא־יֹוִעילּו ָלמֹו, is translated as "a people that cannot profit them," meaning they provide neither help nor benefit. consequently, judah was engaging in a business venture that would inevitably lead to loss, not profit—a futile transaction resulting in shame and disgrace. watts calls it a willful folly (watts, 2002, 462). egypt, in this scenario, becomes a burden for judah, offering no protection or assistance. calvin (1998) remarked that the ultimate outcome is not only the absence of the expected support but also severe punishment due to their arrogance and lack of faith. verse 6: the oracle now directs its attention to the creatures of the negev. ַמָשא translated as "burden", specifically refers to tribute or porterage, and figuratively conveys an utterance, primarily a doom (ot: 4853 from ot: 5375 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006).this imagery portrays the destitute burden-bearing animals, namely camels or donkeys, which compose egypt's caravans in the southern regions of palestine. these creatures are compelled to traverse through the terrifying presence of wild animals in this "land of trouble and anguish" (watts, 2002, 465). the negev, characterized by wilderness and desert, presents a harsh and rugged terrain, from which emerges ָוַלִיש ֶאְפֶעה ְוָׂשָרף translated as "the lion, the adder, and the flying fiery serpent" (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006). this description emphasizes that the region is indeed a "land of trouble and anguish," highlighting the adversity these animals must endure during their journey. despite the challenging landscape, judah still chooses to transport their riches and treasures on the backs of donkeys and the humps of camels to egypt. however, the lord describes egypt as "ַעל־ַעם לֹא יֹוִעילו" translated as "a people that cannot profit them" (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006). the verb "יֹוִעילּו" (hiphil imft 3mp luy profit, benefit) (ot: 3276 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) implies that their efforts were and will continue to be in vain. by doing so, judah is investing in the wrong place, where losses will be recorded rather than any gains. their act of carrying such valuables signifies loyalty to a nation that ultimately cannot provide any real help or benefit to them. verse 7: concludes this sub-unit again with the lord reiterating that egypt’s help is utterly useless. even though the bhs suggests omitting מצרים, “egypt,” (watts, 2002, p. 465), this is however not necessary. the retaining of egypt in the mt only adds meaning and clarity to what god wanted israel to know; “egypt’s help is worthless”. in the verb ַיְעֹזרּו (qal impft. 3mp rzu – help, aid) as used in the imperfect form expresses an action that has not yet been completed the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 173 or one that is anticipated to happen in the future. it is not something to be desired or admired; it is not required. the result of what egypt might have claimed she could do was shame and disgrace. the lord called her “rahab the do-nothing”. the verb ָקָראִתי (qal pft. 1cs arq – call, proclaim) translated “i called/proclaimed” indicates that it is god who is performing the action of calling or proclaiming. this means that she (egypt) had to capacity to render a long-lasting help if at all she had any. she is empty; she is declared incapacitated to render any help. luther et’al (1990) adds that rahab: egypt sits still will completely ignore judah and will not protect her (p. 255). verse 8 introduces the second subsection within the passage we are examining. the initial word, "ַעָתה" (an adverb commonly translated as "now"), signifies that the prophecy should be documented immediately, underscoring its pertinence and significance in the present moment (biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006). this word modifies the verbs בֹוא(qal impv ms awb – come in, go) ָכְתָבּה (qal impv ms btk x3sm – write) ֻחָקּה (qal impv ms qqj x 3fs – cut in, inscribe); implying a divine directive for the prophet isaiah to indispensably record the conveyed prophecy or message for the people of israel. the imagery of writing on a tablet emphasizes the significance and permanence of the (ֵסֶפר) and inscribed on a scroll (לּוחַ ) message that it might be ּוְתִהי(qal jus. 3fs hyh – be, become) as a testimony or witness to the people, meant to be preserved and passed down to future generations so that they are not left uninformed as to whether their forefathers obeyed the word of the lord or not. for the fact that these things were to be written before them, “before their eyes” (ִאָתם), luther et’al. (1990), wrote is “so that their descendants might inherit the warning of their parents, who were cut off because of their unbelief, and this might serve them as a perpetual witness to frighten all descendants. by means of this alarm he wants to deter the ungodly from their malice” (p. 255). verse 9: again, the lord reiterates that the israelites are rebellious people (ַעם ְמִרי). the noun translated “rebellious” from hr*m*; a primitive root; to be (causatively, make) bitter (or ְמִרי unpleasant); (figuratively) to rebel (or resist; causatively, to provoke) implies that the deeds of the people; disobedience provoke and made god bitter. the lord also described them as ָבִנים from vj^k*; a primitive root; to be (ncmpa) ֶכָחִשים translated “lying children”. the word ֶכָחִשים untrue, in word (to lie, feign, disown) or deed (to disappoint, fail, cringe) (ot: 3584 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) implies that they were in word and deed not faithful to the terms of the covenant. all these are introduced by the ִכי; a major subordinating conjunction indicating causal relations (wheeler, 1990) which provides the reason or justification for why the people are described as "rebellious" or "stubborn. לֹא־ָאבּו (neg. qal. pf. 3cp -be willing) ְַשמֹוע (qal infc umv hear) (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006) combine which translate “children unwilling to hear” conveys the idea of the people's unwillingness or refusal to listen to the instruction of the lord, highlighting their rebellious nature. verse 10 continues to depict the prevailing attitude among the people. the verb "ָאְמרּו" (qal pft 3cp rma – to say), translated as "they said," pertains to the people. at this point, their situation 174 had reached a stage where they derided the seers and prophets. they directly address the seer, saying "לֹא ִתְראּו" (neg. qal. impf. 2mp see), meaning "do not see," and they speak to the prophets, stating "לֹא ֶתֱחזּו־ָלנּו ְנֹכחֹות" (translated as ‘do not prophesy to us what is right’). the verb "לֹא ֶתֱחזּו־ָלנּו" (neg. qal impf 2mp – prep. 1cp – prophesy, see) and "ַדְברּו־ָלנו" (piel impv. 2 m.s – prep. – 1 c.p. sf. speak), translated as "prophesy" and "speak to us smooth things" (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006) respectively, indicate their refusal to accept prophecies that challenge their conduct and beliefs. instead, they prefer to hear only what aligns with their desires, even if it means disregarding the truth. essentially, the people reject prophetic messages that confront their wrongdoings and call for repentance. they desire prophets who will speak comforting words that support their sinful ways, regardless of whether these words are truthful or in accordance with god's will. this aligns with what paul wrote to timothy about people seeking teachers who will cater to their preferences and desires in 2 timothy 4:1-5. verse 11 shows that their call upon the seers and the prophets was to abandon the way of the lord which the people might have felt was a means of disturbance. the use of the verbs סּורּו (qal impv mp rws – turn aside), ַהּטּו (hiphil impv mp hfn – turn, incline) (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006) all in the imperative sense implies a command. it shows clearly that the people were rejecting the prophetic messages and visions, preferring not to hear about what the future holds. they are essentially asking the prophets not to reveal anything to them. they were completely out of the way by their not interested in hearing about translated “the holy one of israel”; they had forgotten quickly what he had done ֶאת־ְקדֹוש ִיְׂשָרֵאל for them and the promises he had made to their forefathers. they wanted freedom; depending on human power (egypt) and not the lord. they saw the prophets as narrow instead of broad minded. the hiphil verb ַהְשִביתּו (hiphil impv. 2mp tkv – destroy, remove) (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006) implies a call to remove the presence or influence of the holy one of israel from their midst. the people being addressed are being asked to cease their behavior or actions that are contrary to the ways of the holy one of israel. verse 12: the holy one of israel is again mentioned here and making a declaration as indicated by the verb ָאַמר (qal pft 3ms rma – to say) that because ָמָאְסֶכם (qal infc sam+ 2mpreject, refuse, despise) translated “they despise” the word of the lord as illustrated by verses 9–10b, (motyer, 1993) mt reads ַבָדָבר ַהֶזה translated “this word” and ַוִתְבְטחּו (consec. qal impf. 2mp – trust) translated “and trust” (motyer, 1993) in oppression and ְוָנלֹוז (niphal act. ptc. ms zwl – be crooked, perverse) translated “perverseness” and ַוִתָשֲענּו (consec. niphal impft. 2mp /uv lean, support) translated “and lean/rely) implies that the holy one of israel had every reason to sanction them. their rejection of the truth (this word) and trusting in oppression, perverseness and relying on them and not god, constituted the evidences for their sanction. in essence, isaiah is once more reading to them the implications of their choices. they chose to have a new morality (10e–11b) and every humanly devised morality is sooner or later a bondage and a cruel master (motyer, 1993). the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 175 verses 13-14: ָלֵכן (hebrew adverb) translated “therefore” in verse 13 which is omitted by the niv, resumes the corresponding word in verse 12, giving a typically isaianic formation, (motyer, 1993) as a result of the above (their iniquity), the calamity that would come ִיְהֶיה (qal impf 3ms hyh -be, become) upon them is sudden and is compared to a bulging wall that bursts and falls which in an instance will collapse and crash down. their destruction was near. the emphasis on "iniquity" in v.13 is evident by the use of the hebrew word "sin" ָעֹון (‛āwôn; cf. 1:4; 6:7) (ot: 5771 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006). it reflects the accusation of an unwillingness to listen as indicated in v. 9. according to motyer (1993), two illustrations are provided to illustrate this point. the first illustration portrays a wall ֹנֵפל (qal ptc ms lpn -fall) falling/collapsing under its own weight. indeed, the wall was about to collapse as indicated by the verb ִנְבֶעה (niphal ptc hub ms -searched, swell) while the second depicts a pot that is smashed by an external force. both examples demonstrate that iniquity leads to selfdestruction and invites judgment (motyer, 1993). this wall which will eventually break, as indicated by ּוְשָבָרּה (qal ptc 3ms rbv x3fs-break, burst) (ot: 7665 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) translated “and he will break it” can be interpreted as a passive construction, but it is more likely referring to the lord as the agent of the action. in summary, vv 13-14 with many other verbs יֹוְצִרים (qal ptc mp form, create) ָכתּות (qal pass. ptc ms ttk – beat, crush) ִָיקּודמ (prep. qal pass. ptc dqy – be kindled) ַלְחתֹות (qal infc htj – snatch up) conveys the consequences of iniquity and the certainty of its eventual downfall and judgment. verse 15: further still, ְיהִוה ְקדֹוש ִיְשָרֵאל “the holy one of israel” will not relent. ֹכה־ָאַמר (conj adv. qal pf 3ms rma – to say) translated “for thus said” (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006) indicates that the words that follow are the divine proclamation of the lord god, specifically conveyed through the prophet isaiah. that despite all they have done; provoking him to anger and considering him as not the help they need and the consequences of their actions awaiting them, he said there is still hope but only in returning to him will they be saved. the phrase ְבשּוָבה ָוַנַחת translated “in returning and rest) emphasizes that true security and strength lie in turning back to god and finding rest in his presence. the verb ִתָּוֵשעּון (niphal impf 2mp uvy) means "to save" or "to deliver" (ot: 3467 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006). the prefix ִָתּו (ti-vva-) indicates the second person plural, so the word refers specifically to a group of people who are refusing to follow the path of salvation and deliverance that god is offering them. verse 16 continues to show that despites such wonderful offer, the people were unwilling to do the needful. the verb ַותֹאְמרּו (consec qal impft 2mp rma say) (ot: 559 biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers, 2006) translated "and you said" introduces the words and intentions of the people. now what they said shows that they were completely detached from the lord. they prefer to flee upon horses whose guarantee of saving them was zero percent. their being proud of fleeing on horses and riding upon swift steeds is clear from the verbs ָננּוס (qal impft 1cp -flee, escape) “we will flee” ִנְרָכב (qal impf 1cp bkr – mount, ride) “we will 176 ride” express their collective decision in rejecting the lord’s help. the phrase ַעל־ֵכן ְתנּוסּון translated “therefore you shall flee away” and ַעל־ֵכן ִיַקּלּו ֹרְדֵפיֶכם translated “therefore your pursuers shall be swift” (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006) all suggests that their attempts to escape their enemies through military alliances and expeditions would be futile. instead of finding security, they would become the ones fleeing, facing the swift pursuit of their enemies. verse 17 explains that for their folly, they shall surely be put to shame and defeated because egypt whom they relied on is unable to help them. their enemies in their fewer number shall pursue them. the phrases "ַגֲעַרת ֶאָחד" translated as "the threat of one" or "the rebuke of one" and ְִפֵני ַגֲעַרת ֲחִמָשה ָתנֻסּומ translated as “the threat of five you shall flee” (interlinear transliterated bible, biblesoft, inc., 2006). the verb ָתנֻסּו (qal impf 2mp swn – flee, escape) is describing a situation where a thousand people will flee or be scattered when confronted or threatened by just one individual. the imagery used here illustrate a condition of fear and weakness, where a large group becomes powerless and scattered in the face of minimal opposition. the verb ִאם־נֹוַתְרֶתם (conj. niphal pf 2mp rty be left, remain) indicates how they were left ֵַנס ַעל־ַהִגְבָעהֹתֶרן ַעל־רֹאש ָהָהר ְוכַ כ “like a flagstaff on the top of a mountain, like a signal on a hill.” lending his voice, watts (2002) says, “they became a hollow and lonely symbol without meaning or following” (p. 466). summary of the message of isaiah 30: 1-17 in verse 1-2, the prophet isaiah starts with a stern warning to the rebellious children of judah, who are seeking alliances with foreign nations, particularly egypt, without seeking god's guidance. they are heading down a path of disobedience and trust in their own wisdom rather than relying on god. in verse 3, isaiah did not hesitate to point out that their reliance on egypt will only lead to further disappointment and shame, as egypt's help will prove to be futile and untrustworthy. despite isaiah’s warnings in verse 4-5, the people of judah insist on pursuing this alliance with egypt, refusing to listen to the guidance of the prophets sent by god. in verse 6-7, isaiah compares the stubbornness of the people to the uncooperative animals in the negeb, a desert region known for its difficulty in taming animals. the people's refusal to heed god's warnings will lead to their own destruction. in verses 8-11, god instructs isaiah to write down his message as a witness against the people, condemning their rebellious ways and false reliance on egypt and other nations instead of seeking him. they have rejected the divine instruction and prefer deceptive and comforting words that do not address their sin. in verse 12-14, the people demand that the prophets stop speaking about their sins and god's judgment and instead speak pleasant and soothing words. they wanted to hear only what makes them feel good, rather than facing the truth of their wrongdoing; a similar situation paul wrote timothy about (2 tim. 4: 5-6). in verse 15, however, god, through isaiah, calls for repentance and a return to him, promising that salvation lies in the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 177 turning away from their sinful ways and trusting in his guidance. god reveals further in verse 16-17 that true salvation and strength lie in returning to him and relying on his mercy and compassion. if the people of judah repent and seek god, he will help them overcome their enemies and deliver them from their troubles. but if they insist on relying on foreign nations, even a microscopic few will defeat and disgrace them. outline/structure of isaiah 30: 1-17 upon examining the passage verse by verse, and subsequently summarizing it for our study, the following outline/structure emerged for effective application for today: 1. trusting in egypt's help vv. 1-7: a. israel’s rejection of god’s guidance vv. 1-2 b. the futility of trusting in egypt vv. 3-5 c. even in the face of disaster (the negev desert), the people refuse to turn to god vv. 6-7 2. the rebellious people vv. 8-11: a. isaiah as the messenger of god's word to a disobedient people vv. 8-9 b. the people’s rejection of god's message and preference for deception and lies vv. 10-11 3. disregard for god's word vv. 12-14: a. the people's disdain for the word of the lord, seeking comfort in falsehoods vv. 12 b. israel’s rejection of god's word and their refusal to turn to him in repentance will result in their complete destruction, v. 13-14 4. repentance and rest verses 15-17: a. returning to god in quietness and trust v. 15a. b. the consequences of rejecting god's counsel, leading to vulnerability and adverse circumstances vv. 15b-17 implications of the message of isaiah 30: 1-17 for today the timeless relevance of isaiah 30:1-17, conveyed by the prophet isaiah to the ancient israelites, remains pertinent to our lives today. this passage holds a crucial message of caution, reproach, and direction (2 timothy 3:16). the application of this message can be observed in four distinct levels, as delineated by the passage's structure. in verses 1-7, israel sought an unworthy alliance, schemed and carried out their own plan. today, people of god who are called to serve him and evangelize the world as part of keying into the mission given to israel (genesis 12: 1-3) are faced with many challenges resulting from issues arising from politics, insecurity, economy among others. they may as a result be tempted to seek help and solutions from the world rather than relying on god. james 4: 4 admonishes the people of god to know that friendship with the world is hatred toward god and. it is essential to remember that our ultimate trust should be in god, and seeking worldly solutions without seeking god’s guidance can lead to detrimental consequences as experienced by israel. 178 in 1 john 5:21, people of god are admonished to keep themselves from idols," emphasizing the need to remain focused on the true god. in verses 8-11, the people of israel rejected god’s word and were unwilling to listen to the message of the lord given through the prophets. they wanted to hear only pleasant and reassuring words, rejecting any correction or warnings of impending judgment. similarly, in today's world, there might be a tendency to ignore or downplay certain aspects of god's word that challenge our lifestyles or beliefs. as people of god, we should be open to receiving his full counsel, even if it means confronting our own shortcomings and making necessary changes in our lives. we must remember that god’s inspired word cannot be changed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness (2 timothy 3: 16). people of god should desist from manipulating or calling pastors and teachers of the word to tell them what their itchy ears want to hear. this was the situation paul reminded timothy that would happen (2 timothy 4: 5-6). in verses 12-14, the israelites by rejecting the word (truth of god) put their confidence in oppression and deceit, thinking that these tactics would protect them. however, these strategies would only lead to further destruction as reflected in vs. 15b 17. in the present age, some might be tempted to gain power or control through unethical means, thinking it will secure their position or protect them. the message from isaiah reminds us particularly in nigeria where oppression of the masses and deceit is the order of the day. people of god must know that such methods (putting confidence in oppression and deceit) are ultimately futile and contrary to god's will. as god's people, we should seek justice, truth, and righteousness in all our endeavors. this was the prophet amos’ admonition in 5: 24. amidst the warnings and rebukes, isaiah in vv. 15a offers a message of hope, encouraging the people to return to god with repentance, acknowledging their need for his guidance and grace. this timeless message is still relevant today and reminds us of joel 2: 12 to return to the lord in repentance. no matter how far we might have strayed from god, his invitation to return with a repentant heart remains open. when we humbly seek his forgiveness and guidance, god is always ready to receive us with love and grace. however, if we refuse to obey god, we will vulnerable to adverse circumstances as reflected in verses 15b-17. conclusion by utilizing the rules of hebrew grammar relevant to the passage and considering its historical context, the prophetic text found in isaiah 30:1-17 elucidates the imprudence of forming futile alliances among the people of god. instead of relying on god's guidance and protection, judah is censured for seeking associations with foreign powers. regrettably, this alliance merely offered them a false sense of security, ultimately serving as nothing more than a temporary delay of their impending doom. the passage serves as an illustration of the folly of entering the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 179 into meaningless alliances, the repercussions of which are severe. it underscores the danger of depending solely on human strength and worldly wisdom, while disregarding god's guidance and protection, as exemplified by the historical actions of israel. as a result, this passage remains an enduring reminder that genuine safety and wisdom emanate from placing our trust in god and faithfully following his guidance. references biblesoft's new exhaustive strong's numbers and concordance with expanded greek-hebrew dictionary. (2006). biblesoft, inc. and international bible translators, inc. brown, f., driver, s. r. and briggs, c. a. (1907). a hebrew and english lexicon of the old testament. clarendon press. calvin, j. (1998). calvin's commentaries: isaiah electronic ed. logos library system, albany, or: ages software. driver, s. r. (2006). the biblical illustrator. ages software, inc. and biblesoft, inc. elliger, k. and rudolph, w. (eds.). (1983). biblia hebraica stuttgartensia (bhs). deutsche bibelgesellschaft. gesenius, w. (2006). gesenius’ hebrew grammar gkc 2nd ed., trans. cowley, a. e. pc study bible formatted electronic database. hayes, j. h. & holladay, c. r. (1987). biblical exegesis: a beginner’s handbook. second edition. john knox press. interlinear transliterated bible. (2006). biblesoft, inc. isaiah 30 – trust in the lord, not in egypt. enduring word bible commentary isaiah chapter 30, https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/isaiah-30 (accessed august 24, 2023). john, t. m. (ny). grammatico-historical exegesis, the four senses, and the apostolic hermeneutic: an essay in biblical hermeneutics for the church.https://www.academia.edu/6504503/grammatico-historicalexegesisthe four senses and paul's hermeneutics (accessed august 21, 2023). luther, m., jaroslav, j. p., hilton, c. o., helmut, t. l. (1999). luther's works: lectures on isaiah: chapters 1-39. (vol. 16). concordia publishing house. mariottini, c. (1987). hezekiah and the assyrian crisis. scandinavian journal of the old testament. https://www.semanticscholar.org. (accessed august 21, 2023). matthew henry's commentary on the whole bible. (2006). pc study bible formatted electronic database. https://www.blueletterbible.org/search/presearch.cfm?criteria=isaiah+30&t=nkjv file:///c:/users/rev%20isaac%20gando/documents/enduring%20word%20bible%20commentary%20isaiah%20chapter%0930 file:///c:/users/rev%20isaac%20gando/documents/enduring%20word%20bible%20commentary%20isaiah%20chapter%0930 https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/isaiah-30 https://www.academia.edu/6504503/grammatico_historical_exegesis_the_four_senses_and_pauls_hermeneutics https://www.academia.edu/6504503/grammatico_historical_exegesis_the_four_senses_and_pauls_hermeneutics https://claudemariottini.com/ https://claudemariottini.com/2009/02/25/hezekiah-and-the-assyrian-crisis/ https://www.semanticscholar.org/ 180 mosley, h. & bond, s. (2003). the book f isaiah. in chad, brand et’al. (eds.), holman illustrated bible dictionary (pp. 837-841).holman bible publishers. motyer, j. a. (1993). the prophecy of isaiah: an introduction & commentary. intervarsity press. pat, alexander and david. (1973). the lion handbook to the bible. lion publishing plc. robinson, g. l. and harrison, r. k. (1979). isaiah. international standard bible encyclopedia, revised edition. eerdmans publishing co. silva, m. & kaiser, c. w. (2007). introduction to biblical hermeneutics. zondervan. stuart, d. (2009). old testament exegesis: a handbook for students and pastors. fourth edition. westminster john knox press. the reformation study bible esv. (2015). sproul, r. c. (ed.). the reformation trust. watts, j. d. w. (2002). word biblical commentary: isaiah 1-33. word, incorporated (word biblical commentary 24). watts, j. d. w. (2005). word biblical commentary: isaiah 1-33. revised edition. thomas nelson, inc. wheeler, d. m. (2006). wheeler's hebrew syntax notes. widyapranawa, s. h. (1990). the lord is savior: faith in national crisis: a commentary on the book of isaiah 1-39. eerdmans; handsel press. wiersbe, w. w. (2004). the bible exposition commentary: old testament. biblesoft/pc study bible. yilpet, y. k. “the practice of religious hypocrisy in isaiah 29: 9-14”. jos journal of religious studies and humanity 1 (2018): 1-9. bsjrsh.org/index.php?journal=sbs&page=article&op=view&path%5b%5d=1. yilpet, y. k. (2023). “developing an appropriate method of interpreting the scriptures,” [class lectures]. university of jos, july 18, 2023. the folly of worthless alliance of the people of god in isaiah 30:1-17 bitrus gando isaac aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract pandemics refer to national or global prevalence of a condition, particularly, a pathological condition with significant societal disruption. unlike endemic disease which is associated with a given locality or region, for instance malaria in africa, pandemics are comparatively ephemeral but global in their spread. the condition of being a woman, as a singular way of being human, often determined by socio-cultural and religious considerations, calls for special reflection in an era of pandemics. research have been carried out on vaccines against the disease, the number of cases, death and health related information such as symptoms, preventions and treatment, but it does not appear, given the available information, that there has been any reflection done on being woman and pandemics. this chapter explores the nature and condition of womanhood and the existential challenges which are posed by pandemics in africa. it adopts a phenomenological approach: it describes, analyses and interprets womanhood from the perspective of changing gender-relationship. it avers that investment in resilience and promoting sense of complementarity, much against the traditional gender relation of dependence, should guide policies and interventions for better health outcomes during and in post-pandemic times. the paper is significant for medical practitioners, psychologists and policy makers. keywords: covid-19 pandemic, gender issues, resilience, women's health, empowerment of women. introduction the figure of womanhood is a subject of great interest today. as a socio-cultural concept, the growing change and alteration in african socio-cultural landscape warrants a corresponding change in the understanding of womanhood in africa. in times of pandemics, the figure of womanhood becomes even challenging. in a world characterized by interconnectivity and instant communication, it is not surprising that socio-cultural patterns that defined womanhood outside africa do impact on the people of africa. with new forms of religious belief, change in patterns of socio-economic life, urban migration and education and new systems of value which impact on traditional gender roles, a clear understanding of the actual configuration of womanhood becomes imperative. this is because womanhood as a socio-cultural construct that is tied to gender roles is both temporal and contextual. ickes, w (1993) reflecting on female-male relationship in marriage argued that there is an inherent paradox in the enactment of traditional gender roles. according to him, while playing traditional gender roles do provide grounds for individuals to feel attracted to the other as a potentially desirable mate, the very roles could undermine the very relationship which it seeks to establish. womanhood and pandemics: the african case innocent i. enweh department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka. innocent.enweh@unn.edu.ng 63 gender roles introduce a miscommunication that leads to unsatisfying relationship. what ickes observed in the context of family-hood can be extended to traditional gender roles in general and as such significant in reflecting on womanhood. studies done in respect of the nature and origin of gender role differences have classified it into evolutionary, cultural determinist and bio-cultural interactionist perspectives (ickes, w: 1993, 76-79). in the wake of feminism and gender rights, attention has continued to be drawn to the role and dignity of women in the society. there is an increasing number of women's forum and organizations: international women's forum (iwf), women's forum for economy and society, united nations development fund for women (unifem), global fund for women, organisation for women in science for developing world, (owsd), global fund for women, etc. during the covid-19 pandemic a lot of studies were done and policy statements made to the effect that women were considered particularly affected and as such should be given special attention. the impact of covid-19 on women (un policy brief: 2020; imf/fiscal affairs: 2021; torres, j et al: 2021; who africa:2022; rivera, c et al:2022; oecd:2020) is seen to have many ramifications despite the fact that in most countries, as diagnosis show, men are 50% -80% most likely to die from the virus than women (staff, g:2020). evidence from studies have shown that socio-cultural factors impinge on women's access to health facilities, forms of empowerment and wellbeing (philips, s: 2005; azuh, d. e et al: 2014; alenkhe, a. o & ibiezugbu, m. i: 2015; ndisika, m & gordon, a. e: 2022). the roles and expectations of men and women by the society might change over time, places and life state, even though the mode of being (male or female) remains constant. for this reason, this chapter x-rays the nature and condition of being woman in africa in pandemic period and that investing in resilience and promoting sense of complementarity, when factored into sustainable gender relations lead to better health outcomes for women, in particular, and societal wellbeing in general. ideas expressed in this chapter are drawn, to a large extent, from review of published studies in the area of gender health in developed as well as developing worlds. phenomenological method is used to describe, analyse and interpret the womanhood and pandemics in light of changing gender relations. the chapter is divided into four subheadings and a conclusion: first, nature and condition of womanhood. here womanhood is considered as a gender construct that is anchored on asymmetrical relationship of dependence on the male folk. second, womanhood and health issues – focused attention on the gendered nature of risks, health seeking behaviour and health outcome. third, gender difference in the experience of covid-19 pandemic underscored the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on the income, employment, education opportunities and health of women. fourth, womanhood, resilience and complementarity for improved health outcomes. this section considered how leveraging on investment on resilience and promoting sense of complementarity as underlying motive of improved gender relations could lead to better health outcomes for women during and in post-pandemic times. the conclusion recapitulated the ideas expressed in the chapter, namely, that womanhood in the context of pandemic is a 64 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december complex socio-cultural construct. however, despite the difficulty in transiting from traditional gender relation to the demands of current socio-cultural realities, a sustained and genuine concern for improved individual resilience and complementarity in gender relationship would yield better health outcomes for women and the society. nature and condition of womanhood the word “woman” refers to a female human being. the word “woman” is distinct from “sex” which is distinctly a biological term. according to the document of government of canada (2012), “sex refers to the biological characterization such as anatomy (body six and shape) and physiology (e.g., hormonal activity or functioning of organs) that distinguish males and females” (2). the word, “woman,” though linked to biology, is a socio-cultural term. chawla, m & rout, h. s (2007) asked: in what consists the difference between male and female humans? does it consist in their reproductive system or hormonal difference, or could it be sought for in their susceptibility or resistance to certain diseases? to these questions they replied that the difference lies in some socio-cultural construct. they explained that this is a gender question and gender is an abstract and relational concept. it refers to the system of relations between male and female. there are certain traits that are traditionally attributed to women, such as that they are more emotional than men; they do less productive work than men; they are better carriers of children (1). it does appear, however, that explaining everything from the socio-cultural point of view might give the impression that their biological makes up contributes nothing, in this context, to their health outcomes. given that the reproductive organ of women are made to conceive and bear children, would it not be reasonable to say that nature furnished women with a certain disposition for nursing the children they bear? breast feeding is both a biological activity, but with intricate social dimension since it is a means of bonding between the child and the mother. therefore, analysing womanhood from purely socio-cultural perspective might not be the whole story. as chawla, m & rout, h. s (2007) have explained, with regard to health issues, sex and gender, that is, biological and socio-cultural considerations are major determinants for both men and women. they are related to other variables such as age, race and socio-economic status. they all help to shape biological vulnerability, exposure to health risks and diminishments as well as access to medical care and health services (5-6). african nations as members of the united nations uphold the fundamental principles of the un charter that prioritizes the achievement of international cooperation in the promotion and encouragement of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all irrespective of race, sex, language or religion (art. 1. para 3). human rights fact sheet 23 outlined a number of traditional practices that are harmful to physical and psychological health of women, and as such violate international human rights laws. some of these practices are seen to have promoted gender inequality at the expense of women. according to african development bank document on gender policy, (oesu: 2001) it is observed that, in africa, culture is used to legitimise difference in gender status, values and roles and to justify inequality in gender relations (14). womanhood is, thus, anchored on an asymmetrical relationship of dependence on the male folk. in their commitment to the fundamental principles of the un's charter, african nations, as 65 womanhood and pandemics: the african case innocent i. enweh signatories to the un general assembly land mark convention for the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (cedan) which was adopted in 1979, have, despite implementation challenges around cedan, pursued a clear gender policy commitment and articulated framework for the institutional implementation of the policy (au. gender policy: 2009). non-governmental organization, such as, inter-african committee (iac) has been working against harmful traditional practices since 1984 (ras-work, b (2006, 7). in ghana by 2009, the ministry of health had already developed “a gender policy to direct its actions on handling gender related health concerns” (national gender policy: 2015, 11). given the importance of education in development, it has been argued that closing the male-female education gap will go a long way to addressing the problem of gender inequality and ensuring equitable access to resources and empowerment of women (abdullahi, a. a et al:2021; collins, m:2022, 11). womanhood and health issues matud, m. p (2017) rightly remarked that the difference in health of women and men is a complex issue. it is contrary to intuition to observe that despite the fact that it is believed that women have poorer health, higher morbidity and incapacity rates than men, and have used health services much less often than men, women have higher life expectancy. research conducted in different countries have, to a large extent, questioned these assumptions. there is a high intra-group variability coupled with a significant and complex interactions between the genders and other variables. the dominant perspectives in research on the differences in sex health are (a)the empirical study of trends and explanations of sex differences in mortality and morbidity and (b) the specific patterns of disease for each sex, which have frequently corresponded to differential politics and research on 'women's health' and 'men's health (57-58). the research approaches have succeeded in reinforcing the binary model which underlie the construction of sex and gender as well as the consideration of sex and gender as separable. it has come to be recognised that women are different in terms of sex and in their roles and responsibilities in the society. little wonder they face different health risks because of their biological and social differences. it is significant to note that these differences affect responses of the health systems, their health seeking behaviours as well as their health outcomes. matud, m, p (2017) observes that there are factors that explains gender differences in health, such as, biological, social, psychological, structural factor (67-69). gender inequality is telling on the health of men and women since it affects their health outcome, health status as well as access to preventive and curative services. as it were, health need is a constant in human life and as such accompanies the individual throughout the various stages of life. it needs to be remarked that health needs are differentiated according to gender. this is why it is important that policy makers take into cognisance the differential effects of gender roles and norms in order to rectify the existing inequality between men and women and ensure a sustainable health agenda for all. alvarez-dardot, c and vives-cases, g (2012), writing for the european union, have identified three main waves that are responsible for linking gender and health since gender studies came to be linked to health sciences. they have categorized the three waves into, first, the phase of visibility and legitimatisation; second, the phase of involved acceptance of gender as a genuine health determinant; and third, the phase of development of gender policies that 66 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december followed on the heels of the beijing conference held in 1995 and the work done by an entity of world health organization, the commission on social determinants of health (4-6). what is not evident is whether or not africa has really experienced these waves of gender consciousness with regard to issues of health. in the domain of development, africa is lagging behind such that with respect to industrialization, when the developed nations are talking of post-industrial age that is opening up to the fourth industrial revolution (4ir) africa has yet not been really identified with industrialization. perhaps it is not important, in this chapter, labouring to determine which wave of gender consciousness african is in with regard to health. it suffices that africa comes to a greater consciousness of the social determinants of health and tailor her policies to improve health and gender indicators in her health systems in order to ensure equity and inclusion in framing her public policies to bring about real change in the health of women and men of the continent. in a study done by who regional office for africa (2012) it was noted that in africa maternal health is in a dismal state. women are known to bear unacceptably huge burden of disease and death. little is done to improve the healthcare of women and this calls for a multi-sectoral approach if women's health is to be improved on. it was observed that improvement in health outcomes for women will be difficulty if their socioeconomic empowerment is neglected. the deplorable phenomenon of violence against women was decried as violation of the rights of women. the report perceived a lot of socioeconomic benefits that would accrue to the society if women's health improves. the report recommended better data gathering to help in monitoring progress made in achieving the targets set for better health outcomes for women and girls. gender differences in the experience of covid-19 pandemic the african society is fast changing. the traditional patriarchal system that attributed to men the role of providers is becoming obsolete as women, daily, in their numbers leave the house alongside their partners to work and provide for the family. it means that rather than dependence which characterized spousal relationship in the past, it is complementarity that is the case today. the result is that the traditional gender roles are becoming less optimal to the successful functioning of male-female relationship in today's culture and society. the male dominance which was accepted in the past as a biological given has come to be interpreted as political oppression. nevertheless, it could be said that african gender relationship is caught in a paradox: what their genes and past culture dispose them to do is in opposition with what their present culture now prescribes. this could lead to what ickes, w (1993) terms “miscommunication” when in malefemale interaction they respond from “a fixed” perspective rather than, ideals. when a situation as this is aggravated by disruptions and uncertainties that go with pandemics, the traditional gender roles are revealed to be unhealthiest to and well-being of the womenfolk. the impact of covid-19 on the socio-economic life was unprecedented. world economy, industries and firms have been variously affected. aoyagi, c (2021) in a study done on nigeria and ethiopia reports that there was wide spread income reduction due to 67 womanhood and pandemics: the african case innocent i. enweh the high share of women in the informal employment. another study done by torres, j et al (2021) for the world bank group reveal that women-led businesses in the hospitality industry, micro-businesses and other women-led businesses in countries severely affected by the pandemic was disproportionately hit compared with men-led businesses. despite lack of public support these businesses had more likelihood of increasing the use of digital platform in micro-firms, yet there was less likelihood of investing in software equipment or digital solutions. the socio-economic and health implication of the pandemic on women was serious. with women making up to 70% of the healthcare workforce, it became obvious that they were more exposed to the risk of contracting the virus. at home, women shoulder much of the burdens, and with the closure of schools and childcare facility and the overall gender inequality in unpaid work, covid-19 pandemic constituted a crushing burden on the shoulders of women. besides the high risk of job loss, with its attendant income loss, the women were exposed to violence and exploitation, abuse and harassment without possible recourse to social support systems due to the lockdown. several reports (oced 2020; pwan: 2020; who africa: 2020; tang, v et al: 2021; paho/who, 2022) on the condition of women during the pandemic alluded to genderbased violence suffered by women during the lockdown with increased pressure of unpaid care and drastic shortage in their earnings. the death rate occasioned by the pandemic in africa is said to have tripled in a week in some african countries. in south africa, according to path (2021, 4) report, community health workers were said to have engaged in door-to-door screening for covid-19. it was observed that africa which make up 17.7 percent of the world's population only received 1 percent of the world's covid-19 vaccine supply. this inequality scaled up death rate at a continental rate. assessment of the impact of the pandemic showed it as a great threat to decades of progress for women and girls. it had disproportionate impact on women's income, employment, and education opportunities. with regard to maternal healthcare, it has been shown (ameyaw, e. k, et al:2021) that in africa, covid-19 was source of great disruption as expectant mothers turned away from antenatal, pregnancy care and skilled birth, immunisation and nutritional supplementation on account of fear arising from misconceptions relating to the pandemic. womanhood, resilience and complementarity for improved health outcomes makama, g. a (2013) in a critique of patriarchy and gender inequality noted that the structure of social relation which adversely affect woman have some conceptual and material base which makes it possible for men to dominate and oppress women. the domination and exploitation of women have been explained from different perspectives, namely, the materialist perspective, the radical feminist account and the postmodern approach. however, it is not enough to explain the root of women's subordination in terms of relations of production (materialist), or specific relation of production and sexuality (pure feminist) or sociocultural construction (postmodernist). the ultimate explanation of the subordination of women will have to include the social context of 68 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december power relations. it is, therefore, important to underscore sustainable gender relation that would enhance the wellbeing of women. such gender relationship is presented here under the rubrics of resilience and complementarity. resilience is about capacity and as such belongs to “the faculties in virtue of which we can be said to be liable to the emotion, for example, capable of feeling anger or pain or pity” aristotle, nich ethics 1105b-25f). to have a capacity is one thing, and the manner of deploying it might be a different matter. it is here that cultivating a certain habit by which one is well disposed in respect of the emotions becomes important. being resilient is not just pure capacity, it is capacity meeting disposition. resilience is capacity to be well disposed to live. it is not virtue in the moral sense. it is a form of excellence by which one can adjust appropriately for one's well-being. as a form of change or adaptation, it could be said to belong to motion as primary determination of living organism. it is principle of self-preservation in practice. resilience is generally described as the ability to cope under pressure. it is about learning to adjust and adapt with time to life-changing situations. it is therefore not a once for all act. it is a process that involves time, effort and commitment to a number of steps. the brochure of american psychological association (apa) defines it in these words: resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress such as family and relationship problems, serious health problems or workplace and financial stressors. it means 'bouncing back from difficult experiences. considered as an ability to cope well under pressure, resilience has been identified as a pattern of behaviour, manner of thinking and acting that could be developed by anyone. apa affirms that resilience is not a trait. keith, ladd & macomber, john (2018, 10-11) reflecting on resilience as a fundamental characteristic of vibrant and thriving communities mentioned ten principles by which communities could be helped to recover from extreme events, bounce forward and thrive. this quality of being is known to be higher in women than men and this might account for their advantage over men in terms of longevity. in respect of covid-19 pandemic, it was observed that, perhaps due to immunological sex differences or behavioural reasons woman are more likely to survive the virus. it is therefore important to leverage on certain factors in resilience to build more resilient women for better health outcome and wellbeing that outlive pandemic times. some of these factors include (a) having healthy and supportive relationships; (b) having a certain flexibility in designing plans and be able to take steps to carry them out; (c) having good self-esteem and trust in one's strength and abilities; (d) openness to others and readiness to face challenges as they present themselves; and (f) self-control or discipline of emotions. while each woman is required to take into consideration these factors in developing personal resilience, a number of factors touching on gender-role have to be given proper attention. with very limited social protection measures in africa, covid-19 manifested itself in gendered ways both in respect of the impact of the pandemic as well as the response to it. in a situation as this, a gender-approach is required to deal with the pandemic in order to develop effective and equitable policies and interventions. african union, under the un 69 womanhood and pandemics: the african case innocent i. enweh human rights, has outlined seven possible action to safeguard women's rights in respect of covid-19. the possible actions include: (a) economic measures; (b) access to good health; (c) improved mechanisms for availing victims of gender-based violence the opportunity for speedy and appropriate assistance and redress; (d) access to food, water and sanitation; (e) greater participation of women in the decision-making process; (f) humanitarian aids to the vulnerable, especially the internally displaced persons, and (g) data collection and information on the concerns of women and he actual responses to them. the bottom line is working for gender equity, economic empowerment of women, inclusivity that enhances the agency of women, accountability and political engagement. as aoyagi, chie (2021) rightly pointed out, gender-sensitive policies are needed to narrow the gap between men and women during and post pandemic. if resilience is to be built for the future, it is important to recover from the present one. according to un women headquarters, it is estimated that covid-19 will push 47 million additional women and girls into extreme poverty. with disproportionate job losses and increased gender based violence, the socio-economic and health implications for women calls for policy interventions. it is important to focus squarely on gender specific issues and challenges. this would require, in the words of who regional office for africa (2012) a multi-sectional approach that will bring about improved health for women. besides building on the characteristic resilience of women by leveraging on factors that make for personal and collective improved health and wellbeing, recognition of gender roles as expression of complementarity will go a long way to disabusing one's mind of exaggerated negative perception of gender that are psychologically unhealthy for the female folk. the different roles which women and men have evolved across the centuries are dependent on their values, norms, customs and laws. these roles include different labour responsibilities, decision-making process and knowledge. even in their needs, observed cbd, (2022), the use and management of resources are gendered in different ways. this is even more obvious in the area of health need, more so in period of pandemic. aggressive enlightenment should, therefore, be undertaken to bring the male folk to understand the importance of respecting the rights of women to paid work, inviolability of their dignity as persons, and the immense socio-economic benefits from improving women's health. in light of who gender policy, human rights conventions and health rights accords, promotion of gender equality in health status and health development is fundamental to the survival of african women in the event of a pandemic. paho (2005, 11-18) mapped out some tools for integrating gender with a clear list of components of gender inclusive health program. this concern for recognition of the gendered nature of women's health is an affirmation of the dignity of difference and complementarity rather than gender disparity. for as francesca viliani (2011) put it, gender inequality can be measure by health indicators. given that different factors explain health outcomes of women and men, the assignment of roles which is based on sex and societal values and believes about gender is assumed to be informed by sense of complementarity. although it is explained that biology is determined by social and environmental factors, the fact is that there is some admissible constant about biology. it does not appear that if the traditional roles assigned to men 70 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december were reversed so that men take up those roles assigned to women, women will be like men in all things. there might be some sense in the biological explanation that a certain affinity exists between sexuality and certain gender roles. it needs to be added, however, that affinity of roles only makes sense in specifically biological domain such as childbearing. while it belongs biologically to a woman to conceive and give birth to a child, complementarity obliges the involvement of man in the nursing of the child for proper upbringing. parental leave which was traditionally assigned to women could now be extended to men on the understanding that there needs to be a certain level of bonding between the child and both parents. in this way, gender stereotypes could give way to realistic appreciation of difference and complementarity. experience show that value based discrimination is gradually giving way to better understanding of gender roles. with shift in traditional socialisation process and gender roles (ras-work, b:2006; vlassof, c:2007; neculaesei, a-n:2015) due to the introduction of formal education and greater consciousness of human rights, women participation in the economy, politics and overall economic growth, the idea of complementarity would come to replace dependence. that is why, in nigeria as elsewhere in africa, steps have been taken to empower women through a number of programmes (abdullahi, a. a et al: 2011). it is in light of complementarity and greater resilience for better health outcomes and wellbeing that the following are recommended as sustainable gender-responsive measures that outlive pandemics: i. challenging and eliminating unhealthy traditional practices in some african countries, there are traditional practices that militate against the dignity, health and wellbeing of women such as early and forced marriages, abduction and kidnapping of a girl to rape her and thus force her into marriage, cultic slavery where a girl is given to a deity as redemption price for an undisclosed crime committed before she was born, female genital mutilation (fgm), and similar obnoxious practices (ras-work, b:2006, 2-4). some of these practices make women vulnerable to poverty and diseases, thereby militating against their wellbeing and better health outcomes. working to eliminate them should be the concern of all. ii. putting in place gender transformative programme it is important to make promotion of gender equity an important area of attention with mechanisms that will help to achieve positive development outcome. this will include changing unequal gender relationship through inclusivity in matters relating to decisionmaking, control of resources, access to employment, as well as women's rights to own and inherit lands. iii. establishing frameworks for addressing gender issues gender violence, rape and other abuses that have psychosocial impact on their victims are detrimental to the health of women. in other to protect victims from indignity and stigmatization, it behoves on public authorities to establish centres where victims could easily, at no cost, find support and assistance. iv. early induction of males into hospitality services and house keeping in the spirit of complementarity, it is important to begin early enough to train the male folk to give care to the sick and the vulnerable. men have to learn to offer spousal assistance to their wives as much, or even better than their wives do to them in their time of ailment, but 71 womanhood and pandemics: the african case innocent i. enweh this will happen only if they are brought up to appreciate their gender roles in complementary terms. v. building social networks for communication and information dissemination one of the negative impact of covid-19 pandemic was due to the misconceptions relating to it. fear of covid-19 generated a lot of distrust in the safety of health care system that many people, particularly women, who would have needed health care services preferred turning away from public health institutions. concern for improved resilience would require that sustainable communication system be put in place to ensure that women get the right information, to which they are entitled, at the proper time. this could help them work out alternative means of gaining access to uninterrupted health services for better health outcomes vi. good governance and policy framework for promoting women's health good governance and right policy framework make for responsiveness of healthcare systems to address the health needs of women. underinvestment in women's health care and poor monitoring of progress made towards achieving targets for women's health undermine meaningful attempts at promoting the course of women's health. conclusion in the foregoing discussion, the chapter drew attention to the traditional understanding of womanhood and the problems which are associated with it. given that biological and gender differences account for differences in the health outcomes of women and men, the reflection carried out in this chapter expatiated on the correlation of gender differences with the health outcomes for women. cognisant of the gradual transformation of the understanding of womanhood based on research and studies in gender related matters, the fundamental principles of the un charter on human rights, the landmark convention for the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (cedan), and gender policies, the chapter, having x-rayed the impact of covid-19 on women, avers that rethinking womanhood in light of genuine concern for building resilience and promoting sense of complementarity would lead to a better health outcomes for women and overall wellbeing of the society. references “the road to resilience – american psychological” (pdf) abdullahi, a. a., adekeye, s. d and shehu, r. a. 2011. “towards improving gender relations in nigeria: implications for sustainable development,” journal of sustainable development in africa, volume 13, no. 18:239-253 african union. “7 possible action – women's rights and covid-19,” retrieved on 26 september, 2022. alenkhe, a. o and ibiezugbu, m. o. 2015. “socio-cultural changes, women empowerment and family welfare among ubiaja women of southern nigeria,” academic journal of interdisciplinary studies vol. 4, no.2:427-434 alvarez-dardet, 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(pdf) vlassoff, c. 2007. “gender differences in determinants and consequences of health and illness.” journal of health, population and nutrition (j. health popul nutr) 25 (1):47-61 who africa (1). 2020. “who concerned over covid-19 impact on women, girls in africa.” regional office for africa. who africa. 2022. “who concerned over covid-19 impact on women, girls in africa,” regional office for africa (pdf) who regional office for africa. 2012. “addressing the challenges of women's health in africa,” report of the commission on women's health in the african region. 74 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december page 71 page 72 page 73 page 74 page 75 page 76 page 77 page 78 page 79 page 80 page 81 page 82 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 49 christianity and marxism: the church’s view titus aliyu, ph.d. department of religious studies federal university lokoja. abstract one of the ideological confusion of our time is the claim that christianity and marxism should have come to be regarded as mutually compatible, not only by some members of left-wing organizations and movements, but also within certain sectors of the church itself. indeed, some enthusiasts go so far as to say that christianity and marxism complement each other, and at the extreme end of the scale, there are a number of pundits who posited that they are fundamentally identical. this study examines the variance between christianity and marxism. while christianity is described by marxism as the ultimate religion capitalism, and viewed as a religion used by dominant class to perpetuate and justify their dominance along with the secular ideologies such as the right to private property, marxism is described by christianity has been intrinsically atheistic through force of circumstances, and viewed as being inconsistent. the study, therefore, attempts to evaluate the debate between christianity and marxism concerning man, it is to point out some of the problems which christian faith believes that the doctrine of marx and his followers cannot resolve. the paper also examines the massive differences between christianity as a religion and marxism as a law dealing with human society. the study employed a multi-disciplinary approach and concluded that christians should sow the seed of faith, hope and love of god, for all else that is lacking in the world today, especially justice. with this, the peace we seek in our world today will come to pass. keywords: christianity, marxism, religion, theology. introduction christianity and marxism belong to two distinct spheres of life and should therefore be able to coexist peacefully without mutual contact or interference. christianity is a religion, a faith or religious way of living, and as such does not need to concern itself with formulas for the construction of the earthly city (lischer,1966). marxism, on the other hand, is a science dealing with the laws of human society containing within itself the blueprint for social revolution, and is not, therefore, qualified to make pronouncement on god or a life hereafter.. there should be no contradiction in having “marxist christians”, in the same way as there are “marxist 50 engineers”, since engineering and religion are not mutually exclusive and move on separate planes. social revolution and salvation must like-wise belong to separate spheres of life and are therefore compatible. to christian eyes, this is suspiciously like trying to push christianity into the background by reducing it to the purely passive state of hope in another world, while the marxist slice of the cake contains all the plums (lischer, 1966). in what strikes us as an overnight phenomenon, we are suddenly surprised to read of two doctrinaire antagonists—one aged, the other youthful—sitting down to rationally discuss, debate, and search for understanding. this survey and evaluation of the conversation between christians and marxist humanists will operate under the basic assumption that such a meeting of minds is not only harmless but that it is absolutely necessary (macintyre, 1996). the dialogue became necessary at that moment in history when man perfected his capacity to destroy the world. the dialogue has become necessary as christianity and marxism have begun to recognize the permanence of one another. marxist inspired political philosophies govern one third of the world’s population. the christian insistence upon the transitory nature of these regimes is both unconvincing and unrealistic. marxist philosophy likewise teaches the necessary disintegration of religion in a socialist society, augmenting this philosophical proposition with harassment and persecution. nevertheless, the permanence of christianity presents itself as a fact of life to communists (maxwell, 1989). it is necessary to point out that a christianity reduce to the realm of the purely spiritual with the eyes fixed solely on the hereafter, while it withdraws from history and from the task of bringing the world to god, is a pure fiction that has nothing whatever to do with the message of the gospel. a faith deprived of action in this world is the as no faith at all. to hand over history as a gift to marxist is to concede everything. such christianity is the formal and total denial of the incarnation of the son of god, and also of the church. it opens up a yawning of chasm between religion and life, and totally destroys the unity of reality. it completely breaks the relation between god’s will and human action, and turns christ into a shadowy figure no longer concerned with the life in this world, thus negating the whole meaning of his message and of the history of salvation (maxwell, 1989). marxism both in theory and in practice can never admit that there are other areas of reality which do not fall under its jurisdiction. an engineer is not likely to deliver a lecture on medieval literature, for example, because such a topic would normally be outside his field. but marxism cannot adopt this kind of attitude towards things of the spirit and eternal life. in regard to spiritual matters, the theoretical and practical stand adopted by marxism is one of absolute denial. in this sense, it aspires to an all-embracing cosmic vision and total revolution (gellwwitzer, 1966). it is monolith, a closed system, with absolutely no place for god or for the history of salvation (harvey, 1968). marxism takes on the character of a metaphysics and other religion seeks to dominate every facet of what it considers to be reality. and quite naturally, other religions cannot be tolerated, the net result is inevitable conflict, a death struggle, between marxism and christianity, where the whole world is the battleground and the fate of human history the outcome (gellwwwitzer, 1966). christianity and marxism: the church’s view titus aliyu, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 51 humanism in different senses, christianity and marxism contain undercurrents of humanism. this humanism should not be confused with the historical renaissance movement, for, in present usage, it connotes all that tends to render man more truly human (herbert, et al., 1968). true humanism recalls his original greatness by causing him to participate in all that can enrich him in nature and in history (herbert, et al., 1968). in marx’s day, the natural sciences served as the only available model for this need. the portrayal of this inherent need for selfrealization also identifies marx as a child of his age, in that he presupposes the 19th century doctrine of human progress, of “the principle of movement”, propelling man forward (hervey, 1968). in most discussions of marxist humanism scholars tend to limit their comments to the early marx. before he reached his high level of economic and political sophistication, marx wrote more about the problem of human existence. according to marx, mastery over the earth in form of work ultimately distinguishes man from the animals and defines the degree of his humanity. man humanizes himself through work by making the object of his activity, nature, useful to him. by defining the object of his activity, man as the determinative factor in his process of humanization, he transcends crude, atomistic materialism. the goal of marxist’s humanism is a world without domination or exploitation of man by man, class by class. no ultimate goal exists in the writings of marx, be it state or god, but lies outside man (jaccques, 1938). the common ground for a meeting between christian and marxism is usually sought in the tenet of humanism, which, for present purposes, can be defined as a doctrine centering everything on man, in the life of society. on the basis of this definition, some christians reason that both christianity and marxism can be considered as a separate versions of humanism, each animated by its own particular view of human existence (jacques, 1938). why then should not these two kinds of humanism form a common front and fight the forces of alienation and dehumanization, now recognize as the common enemy of all? man in so far as he is the end, measure, and interpreter of history, could thus harmonize two humanist conception of life: that of christ and that of marx (macintyre, 1996) the gospel message can only be called humanist in a restricted and specific sense. it is in the meaning given by pope paul vi when he said, “true humanism is the theocentric, that is its center and foundation are in god and not in man”. in the gospel, man is seen as only attaining his full personal and social growth when he rises above himself to adore god. he must increase and i must decrease, and he who loses his life for my sake, the same will gain it (karl, 1967). christian humanism, if we are to use the form at all, is therefore the doctrine of the insufficiency of man, who needs to be saved by god, and who, on being saved, infinitely surpasses the limits of his nature. it is the humanism of the god, man of the cross, and of eternity. in this sense, it is more correct to say that christianity is something over and above any kind of humanism (karl, 1967). following the same line of argument, it would seem that marxism is less than a humanism. there is, to be sure, a broad vein of humanism running through the early writings of marx, in 52 which he justly denounces the human practices of nineteenth century capitalism. however, it is equally certain that with the development of marxism, man has not finally been lifted out of his state of depression as promised. instead, he has been absorbed into the mass of dialectical matter, so as to become an epiphenomenon, an accident of nature (karl, 1967). the human ideal of marxist-leninism does not rise above the level of the homo faber, that is, man as an economic unit, a producer of goods. the human person is seen as having a mere social function, like a single cell of a complex organism, or a cog in a wheel of a vast collective mechanism (maxwell, 1989). we have seen that, to stretch the meaning of the term humanism so as to include both christianity and marxism is simply to play with words. if christianity can be called humanism, then marxism cannot, and vice versa (macintyre, 1996). this is no formality, for the opposition is absolute. there is nothing in common between theocentric humanism and theism: between man as a son of god and man as a phenomenon of matter; between the humanism of adoration and that of class struggle; between salvation on high and the earthly paradise of the collective society. to try to reconcile both extremes by abusing the word humanism is mere wordplay that will accomplish nothing toward reducing the distance between two diametrically opposed concepts of human nature (herbert, 1968). atheism atheism is simply the believe that there is no god or gods. the atheist’s rejection of belief in god is usually accompanied by a broader rejection of any supernatural or transcendental reality. indeed, the atheist is almost a naturalist believing that there is only the natural world and not any supernatural one. materialism goes one step further than basic naturalism, and claim that the only thing that are real are material objects, made up of atoms and sub-atomic particle (kai, 2023). a central core of judaism, christianity and islam is the affirmation of the reality of one, and only god. adherents of this faith believe that there is a god who created the universe out of nothing and who has absolute sovereignty over all his creation; this includes, of course, human beings – who are not only utterly dependent on this creative power but also sinful and who, or so the faithful must believe. the varieties of atheism are numerous, but all atheist reject such a set of beliefs (kai, 2023). atheism, however, cast a wider net and reject all beliefs in spiritual beings, and to the extent that belief in spiritual beings is definitive of what it means for a system to be religions, atheism reject (reding, 1965). in our world today, there is a lot of discussion as to whether marxism is intrinsically atheistic, or just atheistic through force of circumstances. here we refer only to the christian side of the fence, because the marxists themselves do not appear to be losing any sleep over the thought of their future conversion. the founders of marxism make themselves quite clear in this respect. for marx religion was, as we know, the spirit of an eye without spirit of the people. in other words, it was purely and simply alien influence. robbed of this humanity by economic exploitation, man appear inexorably under the liberating blows of communism. adding his own commentary to this way of thinking, lenin would later say: “any religious belief, any idea of god whatsoever is inexplicitly base. and also: religion is the spiritual vodka with which the christianity and marxism: the church’s view titus aliyu, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 53 slaves of capitalism drawn every human aspiration. and in conclusion: marxism is implacably hostile to religion” (reding, 1965). atheism would then be the historically and temporary form taken by the original marxism in its struggle to proclaim the dignity of man and achieve his social liberation. thus, if religion were to clear the way for the construction of communist society, there would be opened up a religious possibility for marxism. in other words, if god accepts marxism, marxism could accept god (reding,1965). to imagine that marxist atheism would ever want to restore man to a state of superstition involving the idea of god, from which he supposed to have been liberated, could only be the sheer illusion of someone who is out of someone’s mind. marxism cannot, under any circumstances, concede the slightest objective reality to god, eternal life, or salvation, without betraying everything that it stands for. to tolerate even the subjective illusion of faith in individual circumstances, no matter how marxist the objective, and social conduct of the persons concerned might be, is viewed by orthodox marxism as being inconsistent. and with good reason; for what purpose could possibly be served by such an individual and subjective concession to an alienating superstition? revolution is the marxist’s religion, and it obliges him to destroy, to the extent that he is able, every possible rival, and above all, that which comes from heaven (reding, 1965). materialism strong materialistic values help to maintain consumer capitalism, but they can have negative consequences for individual well-being, for social equity and for environmental sustainability (koren, 1967). endless pursuit or increasing rate of production and consumer capitalism has contributed to environmental problem such as the depletion of natural resources, biodiversity loss and climate change enhancement (koren, 1967). rising material consumption has also failed to constantly improve well-being for people in developed countries (hiley, 1968). evidence shows that placing high importance on acquiring money and material goods may even be linked to poor personal well-being (herbert, 1968). it is sometimes said that the frequently mentioned theory of dialectical materialism does not come from marx at all, but was proposed by engels and systemized mainly by his later commentators. it should later be regarded as a thesis belonging to a later school of thought and is not, therefore, essential to marxism. the proponents of this approach to marxism added that the so called marxist materialism, eve in its academic formulations, has almost reached the point of becoming a case of verbal misunderstanding, for this term actually means realism in the sense of western philosophy, and should be therefore understood as a reaction against philosophical idealism. in the historical order, this socalled marxist materialism would in turn be simply an emphasis on the economic and social conditions of life, which is, moreover, common to the social sciences of our times. after the revolution, there would be nothing left of that materialism which brutally strangles man’s dignity, but rather a true humanism. christians should therefore have nothing to fear from the marxist thesis (fromm, 1961). 54 the means in origin, religion may be genuinely revolutionary, a real attempt to abolish exploitation (karl, etal., 1968). engel goes on to say that whereas socialism puts its deliverance on earth, christianity puts it in heaven (karl, et al., 1968). kautsky, however, in the foundations of christianity was prepared to go further. “the liberation from poverty which christianity declared was at first thought of quite realistically. it was to take place in the world and not in heaven” (langloise, 1974). the transference of liberation to heaven only took place later (langloise, 1974). thus the essential mark of latter day religion (according to marxism) is its other – worldliness. it places far off the salvation that socialism brings near. it has its origin in man’s sense of his powerfulessness in the world. engels continually emphasizes man’s feeling of powerlessness before nature in speaking of the origins of primitive religion (kenneth, 1918). but it is not before nature that man is powerless; he is also overwhelmed by society, so that the process of appear to man as strange and terrible divinities. thus in ancient greek religion the power of necessity, ananke, was personified (langloise, 1974). this passage is characteristic of the marxist contention that the gods are personification of the powers that dominate human life. when such power no longer dominate man, there will no longer be gods (markus, 1967). this is how marxism hopes to abolish religion. marxism seems to assume from the outset that religion is palpably false (markus, 1967). today’s christians are becoming more and more aware of the need to change the world, where so many things are out of step with the ideals of the gospel (garaudy, 1966). on the other hand, marxistleninism is readily seen as one of the great contemporary forces of change, not only because of its revolutionary aims, but also on account of the tempting efficiency of the political weapons at its disposal (rummel, 1977). christians and marxists aspiration is not the same, is it really necessary to agree on the desired end when things are just beginning? we are not dealing here with a problem of the distant future. the means employed already imply the nature of the ends to be achieved. in a way, the end is already contained in the means; the procedure gives more than just a clue to the result. preaching, killing, agitation, force, prayer, are not neutral means that can be used to attain any end: each of them bear its result within it (vernon, 1946). the christian means for transforming the world can only be those of christ: the conversion of the human heart which, to the extent of its interior liberation, expresses itself socially in just institutions; the moral transformation of ourselves and our neighbors, of our customs and our ways of thinking. it is a conversion from within towards the outside; from human person toward human structures; from the depths of the personal and collective conscience toward the objective systems which manifest it (siefer, 1964). this way of the gospel, which is always thought of in terms of human liberty, possesses the obvious draw backs of every moral transformation: its slowness, its fallibility, and the inconsistency of the human will. is it not utopia to found the new world on purity of heart, to limited, as it always is, by the effects of original sin? (siefer, 1964). marxism offers the reverse path: from the outside in (macintyre, 2023). it is based on the idea that the interior of man, his spirit and values, is a reflection of his material conditioning and christianity and marxism: the church’s view titus aliyu, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 55 the forms of ownership and production in each age. it will attempt, therefore, to exert external, physical, and usually violent pressure on the structure and groups that sustain the status quo (siefer, 1964). man – the new man, that is – will be a product of this steady technical manipulation concerning the objectivity of the economic system. neither moralizing nor utopian ideas are needed (rummel, 1977). marxism is not a set of ethics: it is necessary not to yield to moral indignation, said engels (niebuhr, 1932). marxism is presented as a science and a technique of social action specifically aimed at fomenting class struggle to the utmost: dialectic conflict as a system containing a maximum of hatred and passion (macintyre, 2019). this is the only driving force, the only fuel for the marxist revolution (markus, 1967). the christian way is slow and dangerous (langloise, 1974). it lacks prescribed formulas and its results will always be imperfect, for paradise is not to be found on this earth. nevertheless, it is the only way for the believer. the other – the marxist way – carries inscribed on its instruments the nature of the end which it attains: a world of brute force, hatred, passion, and slavery. for the dialectics they multiply indefinitely while man remains the same: materialistic and with hatred in his heart. social conflict can only take on dignity and humanity in the heart of one who has turned in love to god and his neighbor. and such a conversion has never been attained by hate or violence (langloise, 1974). class struggle one of the most powerful sociological explanation of social conflict is that of carl marx, who posited a class struggle between proletariat and bourgeoisie intrinsic to capitalist, industrial society (rummel, 1977). this notion is powerful in being dynamic, intuitively persuasive and appearing to fit well with history (rummel, 1977). it is important to recognize that marx viewed the structure of society in relation to its major classes, and the struggle between them as the engine of change in this structure (langloise, 1974). a class is defined by the ownership of property. such ownership vests a person with the power to exclude others from the property and to use it for personal purposes (niebhur, 1932). for marx, distribution of power over production is determine by power over production (langloise, 1974). marxism assures us that class struggle is not a human deficiency, but a dialectical necessity of the social process, which will inevitably end in a complete break with the past. for marxism there is absolutely no possibility of reconciling the proletariat with the bourgeoisie. the idea of a common set of rules, or of some moral or religious principle linking both fronts, is dismissed out of hand as an illusion, the dead weight of a reformist mentality, or just a bourgeois trick.63 the classes are conceived as closed and irreconcilable entities in total confrontation, extending to every aspect of life, whether it be cultural, ethical, or religious. and some christians who adopt this interpretation think, analogously, that social unity is impossible in the world today, because it would disregard the objective reality of the struggle between classes (markus, 1967). 56 but not the marxist: for him the social struggle can only end in the elimination of all rivals. therefore, he has not injected an absolute and messianic not into the conflict, a radical dimension of finality, that a christian recognizes only in the theological battle between grace and sin, between god and devil (heibnitz, 1918). obviously then, no christian can accept the marxist meaning of class struggle. he knows that the theological drama does not revolve around conflict between two social groups, two political blocks, or two opposing world fragment. between these fractions, which are only relatively in opposition, the christian will rather look for reasonable agreements based on principles common to humanity, not apocalyptic clashes. he will seek a salvation, not destruction (karl, 1967). the really decisive conflict of life does not involve social clashes at all. it is an ethical and religious conflict that extend across all frontiers and is to be found at every social level and at every geographic latitude; for it is waged within the heart of every individual (rummel, 1977). the marxism would have us retreat to a position far from the battleground of conscience: to an arena where the war is waged, not inside man, but outside on the social plain: a confrontation between two classes representing the forces of absolute good and absolute evil (markus, 1967). this is something that can never be accepted by a christian who refuses to make absolute doctrine out of the opinion able matter of social conflict. evil in itself is not a system. it is not capitalism or any other human group, bourgeoisie or otherwise. evil is rooted inside each one of us. it is sin in all it many forms. pride, hatred, selfishness, greed, and lust are not labeled either bourgeois or proletarian. neither does goodness in itself reside in any class, in any messianic party or redeeming collectivity. only god is good, only christ is the redeemer (langloise, 1974). all human groupings are steeped in imperfection and wretchedness. they do not redeem others, for they need to be saved themselves, as do the persons who form them. the love of christ has unforeseen resources. it touches the bottom of the human heart and develops such social creativity, such a unifying force, that it alone is capable of renewing the face of the earth and the forms of all its institutions (langloise, 1974). conclusions when we realize the complete incompatibility between marxism and christianity in both doctrine and practice, it is hard not to be amazed that some believers support a double militancy, that is, a practical alliance between marxism and christianity in the struggle for social change. the phenomenon can only be understood in terms of internal crisis in matters of faith, theological hope, authority, and moral conscience, which today affects many christians. when these christians, handicapped by weakening in their religious faith, enter the political arena with a degree of generosity matched only by their spiritual anemia, it is very difficult for them to resist the temptation of marxism as a theoretical basis for revolutionary action. thus, they remain christians at heart, though marxists in their social and political behavior, in spite of the inconsistency of this uncomfortable duality. christianity and marxism: the church’s view titus aliyu, ph.d. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 57 christian who lean toward marxism are sometimes portrayed as members of the faithful bored with the unreal and otherworldly atmosphere of the church, who sally forth to do battle in the world of reality. on the other hand, christians who resist marxism are seen as still living in a religious limbo, because they have not crossed the threshold of the real world. a christian does not have to give up his faith and align himself with militant atheism in order to take an active part in the life of society and the very reality of history. today, therefore, the church begs her children, as she has always done in times of crisis, to take an active part in public life. she asks them to sow the seed of faith, hope and love of god; for all else that is lacking, especially justice. references fromm, e. (1961). marx’s concept of man with the text of marx’s economic and philosophical manuscripts. t.b boltmore (trans.). ungar publishing company. gollwwitzer, h. (1961). “the christian church and communist atheism.” ecumenical review, 14. harvey, c. (1968). “the christianmarxist dialogue; what next?’’ dialogue, vii herbert m. and hervey, w. (1968). varieties of humanism. the center magazine. hiley h. w. (1968). god and marx today. fortress press. henry j. k. (1967). marx and the authentic man. duquesne university press. jacques, m. (1938). true humanism. the centenary press. jackson t. l. (2005). better by consuming less? is there a “double dividend” in sustainable consumption? journal of industrial ecology. doi: 10. 1162/ 1088198054084734. langloise, l (1974). christianity and marxism. catholic postion papers. nigerian edition, lagos-ibadan. lischer, r. (1966). marxism in dialogue with christianity. herder and herder. marx, k. & engels, f. (1952). manifestoes of the communist party. samuel moore (trans.), f. engels (ed.). encyclopedia britannica. heinitz, k. (1918). “the theology of hope according to ernst block”. dialog. vii. rahner, k. (1967). “christian humanism”. journal of ecumrnical studies, iv. kai, e. n. (2023). atheism. encyclopaedia britannica. markus, b. (1967). “developing dialogue between marxists and christians”. journal of ecumenical studies, iv. 58 reding, m. (1965). “marxism without atheism”. commonweal, lxxxii. marx, k. & engels, f. (1964). on religion. (ed.) reinhold niebuhr. schocke books. macintyre, a. (2019). marxism and christianity. journal of the mcgrath institute for church and life. university of notre dame press. maxwell, j. (1989). christianity and marxism. herder and herder. niebuhr, r. (1932). moral man and immoral society. charles scribner’s son. rummel, l. r. (1977). conflict in perspective. zed books. siefer, g. (1964). “the church and industrial society,” (trans.) isabel and florence mchugh. darton, longman, and todd. vernon, v. (1946). “human nature: the marxian view.” alreda. knopt. christianity and marxism: the church’s view titus aliyu, ph.d. aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr understanding heidegger's ontological difference i n relation to temporality and time peter iorhom akunoko, ph.d department of philosophy benue state university, makurdi akunoko.peter@gmail.com/pakunoko@bsum.edu.ng abstract in his quest to unravel the mystery behind the meaning of being, heidegger discovered that the manner in which this question was raised in traditional ontology is the reason for the forgetfulness of being. so it became pertinent for heidegger to do something new by moving away from the traditional method of raising the question of being in order to rescue being from its forgetfulness. in establishing a new ontology heidegger identified a particular kind of being that its understanding can provide an inroad into the understanding of being in general. this being heidegger designates as dasein. in an attempt to understand the being of dasein, heidegger holds that the knowledge of this being is only possible through carrying out an explicit distinction between being and beings. this kind of distinction heidegger calls 'ontological difference'. for heidegger this distinction is only possible in relation to temporality and time because time constitutes the horizon for the understanding of being. taking heidegger's phenomenological insights even further, this paper considers the question of ontological difference and the relationship between time and temporality. what we intend to explain in this paper is the distinction between being and beings and to establish whether temporality can simply be referred to as time. with heidegger, this paper submits that the being of dasein is intrinsically connected to temporality and time. the being of dasein is that of existence and existence is only possible within the framework of time. dasein also defines time and its temporal moments. dasein is a being that creates history through its actions on the world. the performance of any kind of action at all is always the present action of dasein aims at affecting the world. these human actions are projected in the future perfect tense. in this light, time becomes more than the mere flowing time of the clock but acquires a new meaningfulness defined by human actions. keywords: being, dasein, temporality, time, ontological difference, existentielle, ontic. introduction the main goal in heidegger's ontology is the study of being. in his quest to unravel the mystery behind the meaning of being, heidegger discovered that the manner in which this question was raised in traditional ontology is the reason for the forgetfulness of being. so it became pertinent for heidegger to do something new by moving away from the traditional method of raising the question of being in order to rescue being from its forgetfulness. in establishing a new ontology heidegger identifies a particular kind of being that its understanding can provide an inroad into the understanding of being in general. this being heidegger designates as dasein. this is a being that is capable of understanding itself and other beings around it. in an attempt to understand the being of dasein heidegger holds that the knowledge of this being is only possible through carrying out an explicit distinction between being and beings. this kind of distinction heidegger calls 'ontological difference'. for heidegger this distinction is only possible in relation to temporality and time. this is because time constitutes the horizon for the 133 understanding of being. it may appear so simple to say that ontological difference is simply an explicit distinction between being and beings but heidegger's goal is far more than such a simplistic explanation. what heidegger had in mind was to establish the prime place of dasein in understanding the question of the meaning of being in general. heidegger intended to show that the three modes of being are fundamentally structured by modes of time and temporality. it is within the framework of time that dasein is able to establish its ontic-ontological priority over other beings. heidegger also shows that the varieties of time are bound up together by the complex relations of degeneration and dependence. ordinary time is seen as a degenerative form of world-time, and world-time a degenerative form of originary temporality. it is precisely in these relations of degeneration that the distinction between time and temporality is resolved. understanding the 'ontological difference' for one to properly understand heidegger's ontological difference one has to first of all understand an important distinction he made between the ontological and the ontic. heidegger (1962) writes “understanding of being is itself a definite characteristic of dasein's being. dasein is ontically distinctive in that it is ontological.” the ontological in this regard refers to the being of a particular being, while the ontic refers to what a particular being can do or does. dasein, for instance, is different from other beings ontically because its ontological nature makes it possible for dasein to question its own being. this questioning of the meaning of being which is peculiar to dasein has established dasein as having ontological priority of the question of the meaning of being over other sciences. however, for large (2008, 25-26) the most important reason why heidegger thinks we should treat this question seriously is the ontic priority of the questioner. ontology is the study of being, or of what it means for something to be what it is. heidegger contrasts ontology with ontic investigations, which are studies of particular beings, rather than their being. to an extent, then, what other sciences do cannot be referred to as ontology without qualification. the investigation of other sciences can best be referred to as regional ontologies that deal with particular aspects of being. there is only one being, however, who asks the question in the first place—and that is myself. no doubt, i can be treated as though i were like any other being (this is what the sciences such as psychology and anthropology do) but i am also very different from other beings because i am the only being who is capable of asking what other beings are (large, 2008:26). what heidegger means here is that it is only dasein that tries to understand itself and the totality of existence. of course, heidegger's concern was not to clarify the being of particular things. it was to understand the meaning of being in general, or what it means to be at all. but, in order to properly ask this question, he first had to answer another: what does it mean to be human? fernandez (2018, 27) notes that for heidegger, we need to articulate the essence of human existence before we can properly inquire into the meaning of being as such. this is because human beings are the ones who ask ontological questions in the first place. human beings are “pre-ontological”, because they already have some vague understanding of what it means to be. the question is, how does heidegger approach the distinctive ontology of the human being? in being and time, he aims to discover and describe the basic “structures” of human existence. these are “not just any accidental structures, but essential ones which, in every kind of being that factical dasein may possess, persist as determinative for the character of its being” (heidegger 1962, 38). by "factical dasein," he refers to a particular human existence, a human being with a concrete history, situation, and so on ( ). in other words, heidegger's goal is to discover fernandez 2018, 29 those structures of human existence that hold across all particular human beings. heidegger goes on, then, to make a clear distinction between the existential and the existentielle in his attempt to establish dasein's ontic-ontological priority for a clearer explanation of 134 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 ontological difference. existence for heidegger is completely individual. only i can live my life. however, my life is characterised by the possibilities of choices. these choices i make in my life—which are mine even if i disavow them—are described by heidegger through the neologism “existentielle” (large, 28). it means that the ontic categories of dasein, all that dasein does, together constitute existentielle. heidegger, on the other hand, refers to the ontological categories—the being of dasein as care, as always being with others and as futural—as the existential nature of dasein. the understanding of the existential nature of dasein is only possible through the existentelle. the opposite of the existential understanding of being is the categorical. the categorical understanding of being relates to those beings which i encounter in the world (large, 28). these categorical beings are particular entities we encounter daily in our existence. they are objects of concern. heidegger does not dismiss these categorical beings, rather he argues they are utterly inadequate to investigating the existential meaning of being (large, 28). dasein is a being that is thrown into a world with historical circumstance and projects itself in that world towards possibilities. dasein is born (thrown) into a time and culture which he does not choose. in existing in the world, dasein exists with some limitations which he nevertheless may overcome because of his interests and concerns about the world in which he exists. this means that daseinis thrown in the world with other entities which are not of the character of dasein. however, dasein is a being that cares about its being and other beings because of its existential character. dasein comports itself towards itself and toward beings. this comportment is possible for dasein because of the ecstatic character of temporality which makes it possible for dasein to deal existentially with others and other beings that are either handy or extant. temporality makes it possible the understanding of being and it is only in the light of this understanding of being that dasein can comport itself toward its own self and toward others as beings. however, it is only in existence that dasein understands beings and comportsitself towards beings. heidegger holds that it is in existence that the difference between being and beings is located. he remarks: the distinction between being and beings is there (ist da), latent in the dasein and its existence, even if not in explicit awareness. the distinction is there; that is to say, it has the mode of being of the dasein: it belongs to existence. existence means, as it were, to be in the performance of this distinction (1982, 319). this means that the being of dasein is different from any other being which is not of the character of dasein. it is only dasein that really exist and has the capacity to understand its being and other beings around it in its existence. this implies that the difference between being and beings is in dasein's existence. however, according to heidegger this difference becomes manifest on the basis of temporality because it belongs to the dasein's existence the immediate unity of understanding of being and comportment towards beings. for heidegger only because this distinction belongs to existence can the distinction become explicit in different ways: because when this distinction between being and beings becomes explicit the terms distinguished contrast with each other, being thereby becomes a possible theme for conceptual comprehension (logos). for this reason we call the distinction between being and beings, when it is carried out explicitly, the ontological difference. (1982, 319) 135 peter iorhom akunoko understanding heidegger's ontological difference... this quotation shows that the whole question of ontological difference lies in the explicit distinction between being and beings. the ontic claim of ontological difference is the distinction of being and beings, by claiming that it applies to all the ontological different ways of being. thus, there is an ontological difference between dasein and ready-to-hand entities (zuhanden); between lives (like animals or plants) and present-at-hand entities (vorhanden); between abstract objects (like numbers) and dasein. since they enjoy different kinds of being, there is an ontological differentiation among them (gandellini, 2018, 146). the major position of ontological claim of ontological difference is that dasien is different from present-at-hand and ready-to-hand entities. this establishes the peculiarity of dasein, namely its understanding of being. the decisive phenomenon we have met is the original fact in the essence of dasein itself, the fact that we understand something as being or, more clearly, that we make distinction between beings and being of beings. understanding of beingis the possibility of the realization of this distinction between beings and being or, shortly, the possibility of the ontological difference (gandellini,2018, 147). ontological difference shows the distinction between beings and being, which allows dasein to understand being in the proper sense this distinction we have seen lies in existence as the basic character of dasein. it is precisely in this distinction between being and beings that heidegger brings out clearly the objectification of positive science (science of beings) and transcendental ontology or science which is the science of being. in this objectification, heidegger also establishes a distinction between temporality (zeitlichkeit) which has to do with the science of beings and temporality (temporalitat) which is actually the temporality of being rooted in existence as the basic character of dasein. scholars have argued that heidegger's ontological difference goes beyond just the explicit distinction between being and beings which rest on the ontic claim but added the metaontological dimension to deepen the understanding of ontological difference. meta-ontological claim (moc) expresses the traditionally overworked idea that being “is” something different from beings. since being “is” what determines beings as beings, it must not be a being itself (in order to avoid the infinite regress). being must be something different from beings. something is if it is an entity, so one missed the point of ontological difference by saying that “being is”, because he would treat being as an entity. therefore, a plausible rephrasing of (moc) is “being is not an entity, a being” (gandellini, 2018, 145-146). this is a meta-ontological claim because it ranges over the “ontological” domain and the “ontic” domain, by ensuring a distinction among them: indeed, the one between being and beings. gandellini (2018, 146) further notes that by separating being from beings, od succeeds in defining the reference environment of both ontology and metaphysics. in other terms, it provides the epistemological criterion that distinguishes ontology (the inquiry on being) and metaphysics (the science of beings as such). heidegger holds that with the factical existence of the dasein, beings are always already unveiled. furthermore, in the understanding of being that goes with them being is also already unveiled. in this factical existence of the dasein, two essential fundamental possibilities of objectification are posited. despite this objectification of being and beings, they are manifestly related to each other regardless of their fundamental diversity. heidegger (1982, 321) remarks: because the carrying out of the distinction between being and beings is always already proceeding in the dasein's temporality, temporality is the root and the ground for both the possibility and properly understood, the factical necessity of the objectification of the given beings and being. this is to say that temporality is that of dasein and it is when being is unveiled that beings can be unveiled. the objectification of that which is (beings) in which the positive sciences variously constitute themselves has its centre in the projection of the ontological constitution of the beings 136 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 which are to become objects. this projection of the ontological constitution of the region of beings, which is the essential nature of the objectification that is foundational for the positive sciences, is nevertheless not an ontological investigation of the being of beings in question. however, there is still pre-ontological awareness in the positive sciences, because what gives the positive sciences their validity relates pre-ontologically to the being of beings. yet this does not mean that the positive sciences have entered the domain of ontology. what then is the kind of science that rightfully occupies the domain of ontology? this kind of science is what heidegger refers to as “temporal science” (1982, 323). this is because all truths of ontology are temporal propositions. their truths unveil structures and possibilities of being in the light of temporality. this is a kind of science that is transcendent where dasein surpasses itself in transcendence. this means that transcendence makes possible existence in the sense of comporting oneself to oneself as a being and to others as beings. however, this transcendental science is rooted in temporality which provides it with its horizon. time then becomes the primary horizon of transcendental science or ontology. it is important to note that the analysis so far shows that in dasein's existence there is an essentially twofold possibility of objectification of the given. this dasein's existence establishes two basic types of science which are the objectification of beings as positive science and objectification of being as temporal or transcendental science, ontology or philosophy. no understanding of being is possible that would not be rooted in a comportment toward beings. understanding of being and comportment to beings are readily present by means of temporality. this method of ontology is nothing but the sequence of the steps involved in the approach to being as such and the elaboration of its structure. temporality and time heidegger is of the opinion that his interpretation of dasein does violence to the everyday understanding of human existence. he says that originary temporality explains time, and for that reason it deserves the title of originary time. explaining heidegger's originary temporality william blattner (2005) states that: so, when we have shown that the “time” that is accessible to dasein's intelligibility is not originary and, what is more, that it arises out of authentic temporality, then we are justified in accordance with the proposition, a postiori fit denominatio, in labeling temporality, which has just been exhibited, originary time (316). time as we encounter it in our everyday experience is not originary. heidegger distinguishes, in fact, two kinds of everyday time, world-time and time as ordinarily conceived. time as we ordinarily conceive it is time as the pure container of events. world-time is the sequence of meaningfully articulated, everyday times e.g. bed time, dinner time, etc. world-time differs from ordinary time in that the times of world-time are overtly defined in terms of their relation to human interests, whereas ordinary times are conceptualized as independent of human interests. thus, the distinction between ordinary time and world-time shares some of the contours of the distinction between the available and the occurrent the available (zuhanden) is the paraphernalia of human life, all of the things that are what they are in virtue of the way they are involved in human practices. the occurrent (vorhanden or present-at-hand), however, is what is independently of human practices. according to heidegger, the world is that in which factical dasein lives (1962, 93).this world is articulated temporally, that is, things happen in the world and they can be measured in part by when and for how long they happen. these are the contentful, meaningful times in terms of which 137 peter iorhom akunoko understanding heidegger's ontological difference... we lead our lives, and they make up world-time. ordinary time, however, is the pure flow of clock-time, meaningless, empty and potentially precise. it is, as heidegger says, a “pure succession” (1962, 474). the characteristic datability and significance of world-time are missing. one might infer from all this that ordinary time is somehow more real than world-time, because it is more independent. whereas world-time depends crucially on human practices in order to be what it is, ordinary time does not seem to do so. however, for heidegger, no time is completely independent of dasein. he explains this in what he calls temporal idealism. temporal idealism is the thesis that time depends on dasein (1962, 377). time depends on dasein, insofar as it depends on dasein's originary temporality. primordial or originary temporality is a formal structure of dasein's being and so, in this sense world-time and natural time (ordinary) depend on the being of dasein. this means that time belongs to dasein's being. blattner (2005, 318) notes that, for heidegger, one cannot say “time is” because time is not an entity or a thing. rather, it is more accurate to say that “time temporalizes itself” (die zeitzeitigtsich). so, to say that time depends on primordial temporality is not to say that there will not be time if originary temporality were not. what this means is that originary temporality is the ground from which ordinary time and world-time spring from. hence, by understanding what heidegger means in writing that time arises out of originary temporality, we can see both what he has in mind by way of time's dependence on originary temporality and why he thinks that originary temporality is a kind of time. by 'arise out of', heidegger refers to a kind of degeneration that is common in the field of ontology. for heidegger (1962), the ontological source of dasein's being is not inferior to what springs from it, but towers above it in power from the outset; in the field of ontology, any 'springing-from' is degeneration (383). by degeneration here, heidegger is referring to a condition of change that takes place when one form of time changes into another. when this change occurs, a certain form of time loses some basic characteristics that make it what it is. this kind of change is what heidegger refers to as degeneration or leveling off. this is why heidegger described ordinary time as leveled off world-time. world-time is leveled off into 'ordinary time, in that the datability and significance of word-time are 'covered up so that time seems merely to be a pure succession of 'nows'. this shows that datability and significance are the basic characteristics of world-time that are lost as a result of this degeneration. 'nows' are public in that they are not the private possession or horizon of an individual or group, but rather accessible to all as a horizon for measuring events. ordinary 'nows' are spanned and public, but not datable and significant. just as ordinary time is a levelled-off version of world-time, so world-time is a leveled-off form of originary temporality. heidegger holds that, dasein's being-amidst (sein-bei) inwardly entities belongs to the structure of care, and its temporal meaning is enpresenting (blattner, 2005, 320). this means that dasein's relation to the worldly entities and events that surround it, and thus to the meaningful time in which the events and entities take place and find their location, is but one element of the structure of originary temporality. the degeneration of originary temporality into world-time is a reduction in the sense of a disconnection, an abstraction, of the world-time now from its home in originary temporality. this abstraction of the now, however, should not be thought of on the model of the medieval conception of the standing now. the worldtime now is not disconnected from its own past and future, that is, from other world-time 'nows'. the standing now was conceived as a 'now', a moment of time with no past and no future, asingular, isolated moment of time. when heidegger talks about the world-time now stretching from world-time past and world-time future he is referring to the way events which characterize world-time now are connected to the events which are past and those in the future. this world-time now is isolated from the originary 138 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 past and originary future. this is because the ecstasy of the original future is dasein's pressing ahead to its possibilities which will never come to be present as an event. likewise, the original past is dasein's being already, and its horizon is the way things matter to dasein, its attunements. these attunements are the drag that situates and concretizes the thrust of dasein's projection towards possibilities. they do not belong to the sequential past as the various episodes of my life history. these attunements were not at one time present after which they slipped into a past. rather these attunements always characterize dasein. the world-time 'now' is intrinsically spanned or stretched from world-time past (no-longer-now) to a world-time future (not-yetnow). it is thus stretched, heidegger argues, because it is a significant now, a now defined by the relations implied in the in-order to. the world-time now is inherently spanned or stretched from a before to an after. it is significant, datable, spanned, public, and sequential or successive. this world-time now-structure is, however, embedded in originary temporality as merely one of the later's ecstasies. the structural unity of the ecstasies of the temporality of circumspective concern depends upon the unity of originary temporality. this is because originary temporality is the formal structure of dasein's being, and in this sense, word-time now and natural time depend on the being of dasein. the world-time now necessarily spans from the before to the after, because it is embedded in the structure of original temporality. now we can recognize phenomenologically that the 'now' experienced in engaged everyday practice is part of a larger whole, the whole that is the care-structure of dasein. heidegger calls the structural unity of care originary temporality. when one considers this above, however, one quickly arrives at the question of why originary temporality should be thought of as a kind of time at all. heidegger answers by showing how if we do classify primordial or originary temporality as a form of time, we are able to explain aspects of ordinary time that otherwise remain mysterious, such as its continuity. the continuity of natural time is the way in which natural times stretch back to their immediate past and forward to their immediate future. this continuity of natural time remains a brute fact about time and can only be explained metaphysically. for this reason, metaphysicians have long sought to do so, but always failed. heidegger's suggestion is that, we can only explain the continuity of natural time as a reduced or leveled off form of the span of world-time. the spannedness of world-time is merely a leveled off form of the inherent unity of original temporality, the way in which the originary future and originary past are intrinsically bound up with one another and with the originary present, which opens up the now for us. in short, originary temporality should be called a form of time. heidegger, then, concludes that, the three varieties of time (originaltemporality, world-time and ordinary time) form a degenerating series. it is onlywhen we understand ordinary time as a thinned out or reduced version of world-time, and we regard world time as a disconnected form of originary temporality that we can explain the continuity of time. it is only when we accept this account in terms of degeneration that we can refer to originary temporality as a form of time. however, primordial temporality cannot be regarded simply as time as it is ordinarily conceived. conclusion the paper has shown that the being of dasein is intrinsically connected to temporality and time. the being of dasein is that of existence and existence is only possible within the framework of time. but why is it that the being of dasein is this important in heidegger's attempt to understand the meaning of being in general. this is because dasein is the only being that tries to understand itself and other beings. dasein tries to make sense of the world in which he lives. it is clear from the foregoing that dasein, existing within the framework of time, also defines time and its temporal moments. dasein is a being that creates history through its actions on the world. this means that history is as a result of the past actions of dasein. the performance of any kind of 139 peter iorhom akunoko understanding heidegger's ontological difference... action at all is always the present action of dasein aims at affecting the world. how then are these human actions conceived? they are projected in the future perfect tense. actions have both because-motives and in-order-to motives. the because-motive propels dasein to act with a telos in mind which constitutes the in-order-to motives. by and large, time is not the mere flowing time of the clock but the meaningful time of humans; human activity is what makes time time. references blattner, w. d. (1999). heidegger's temporal idealism. cambridge university press. blattner, w. d. (2005). temporality. in a companion to heidegger. eds.hubert. l. drufus, mark. a. wrathall. blackwell publishing ltd. fenandez a. v. (2018). beyond the ontological difference: heidegger, binswanger, and the future of existential analysis. rowman and littlefield. gandellini, f. (2018). the “ontological difference” again: a dialectheic perspective on heidegger's mainstay. https://doi.org/10.1515/opphil-2018-0011. large, w. (2008). heidegger's being and time. edinburgh university press limited. heidegger, m. (1962). being and time. transl. john macquarie and edward robinson. harper and row. heidegger, m. (1982). the basic problems of phenomenology. transl. albert hofstandter. indiana university press. 140 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr boko-haramization of political institutions in nigeria: examining the role of religion in the fight against terrorists in leadership and governance ishaya, brunu (ph.d fellow, unn) department of religion and cultural studies, faculty of the social sciences, university of nigeria, nsukka ( )ishayabrunu@gmail.com and rev. ngele, omaka kalu, phd department of religion and cultural studies, faculty of the social sciences, university of nigeria, nsukka abstract the contemporary nigerian state is replete with leaders that are engrossed in theft of the national treasury for personal aggrandizement. these indices of maladministration adventure that found expression in fiscal banditry have been the highest stage of terrorism that any nation can experience. hence this study specifically studied the activities of these leaders and equated them with terrorists, thus the coinage; boko-haramization. the study discovered that the nigeria leadership has over the years embezzled monetary allocations for the purchase of arms to fight terrorism, she has also misappropriated funds for the building of infrastructures and investment in education, agriculture and other developmental projects that are necessary to create decent society. these have affected the country in a number of negative ways. hence, religion has the singular duty to serve not only as a moral compass but also as a pressure group to call the nigeria leadership to account. this is in the hope that it will help in addressing the menace that is already a great challenge to the nigerian society. keywords: boko-haramization, political institution, religion, terrorist, leadership, governance. introduction it is an almost universal undeniable postulation that the yearnings and aspirations of citizens is a leadership that ensures good governance for all. good governance encapsulates democratic dividends, where citizens share in the prosperity of the land (ngbea, 2017). this holds true in the opinion of the hobbesian treaty; where citizens in the state of nature surrendered their rights and privileges in exchange for a community that provides direction for all through legitimate leadership (honderich, 2010). this is so because it allows everyone the opportunity to access all the privileges accruing thereto and to also be given equal treatment. thus where this is not obtainable, the resultant effect will be anarchy. in contemporary nigerian society for example, at least since the return to democratic rule in 1999 after an interregnum, where the military held sway, the citizens have longed for a leadership that is people oriented (asad, 2017). the leadership question is therefore at the centre of the expectations of the citizens to share in the wealth and prosperity of the nation. little wonder, at every election circle, they had trouped out en masse to vote for a leadership at all levels that will pass the test of good governance. this is necessary because it will ensure prosperity for all and sundry. the last general elections bear testament to the above assertion. the electorates with high expectation for free, fair and credible elections have voted. whether the general elections were conducted in line with the electoral guidelines or whether it was free and fair, is left for the public 93 mailto:ishayabrunu@gmail.com to decide. but the general atmosphere suggests that the people's will was smashed. and this is not the first time that nigerians will complain of such a gross act of electoral fraud. claiming ignorance will be contrary to the principle of justice. von-wezsacke (1985) as cited in kukah (2010) avers that whoever closes his eyes to the past becomes blind to the present, whoever does not wish to remember inhumanity becomes susceptible to the dangers of a new infection. thus, it is evidently glaring, that the expectations and hopes of the people have almost always been defeated. this understanding is held, at least, in the assessment of many a citizen to which most academics and even onlookers share in such opinion. therefore, it could be said that with the blatant failure in almost all spheres of human life, ranging from economy, security to education among many others, the people have not maximally benefitted. for the security situation has worsened to the extent that citizens do not longer sleep with their eyes closed. banditry, kidnapping, boko-haram insurgency and many other agitations that could be liken to acts of insurrection, have soured communal relationship (afolabi, 2015). hence, it has deterred human capital development and social prosperity. the economic ladder has gone down to the lowest ebb in the last eight years or so. the educational decay that greeted the country's educational sector is only better imagined. from the foregone, it becomes literally difficult to contemplate how the very leaders, who are elected on the basis of trust for stewardship in governance, cannot provide the needed succor which the people so desperately desire. no wonder, ambrose (2017) asserts that if legitimate authorities cannot tame the rise of insecurity, educational decay and economic retrogression, but can only indulge in baseless embezzlement of the national treasury, then the leaders should be equated to terrorists. this is true because terrorists usually engage in unprovoked destructions. thus, an unprovoked looting of the national treasury is akin to fiscal terrorism. on this basis, this paper tasked itself with the burden to examine the activities of leaders who occupy our political institutions vis-à-vis their apparent maladministration adventures. this is in view to paving the way for religion to proffer solutions that could stand the test of time and thus, drastically eradicate bad governance or reduce it to a bearable level. boko-haramization book-haramization is a coinage from the word boko-haram. boko-haram is an islamic militant organization based in the northeast nigeria. it is also active in chad, niger, cameroon, and mali. boko-haram is loosely translated to mean western education is forbidden (mbaya, 2013). it is a terrorist organization that has been terrorizing the northeast of nigeria and its border communities for more than two decades. thus, boko-haramization here is an adjective, qualifying all acts bastardizing our political institutions as acts of terrorist. understanding the nigerian political institution: the journey so far the amalgamation of 1914 by lord fredrick laggard saw the emergent process for the beginning of a new nation called nigeria. history reveals that the colony of lagos, the southern and the northern protectorates were merged to form an entity called nigeria. according to agi-otto (2014) these protectorates were characterized by decentralized socio-religious structures irrespective of size and shape. and the various ethnic nationalities existed as independent nations, with their forms of government and leadership structures. it is imperative therefore to note that in the north, there were different kingdoms such as the kwararafa kingdom, the sokoto caliphate, the kanemborno empire and the tiv nation among 94 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 others. in the south, there were the oyo empire, the bini kingdom and the kingdom of opobo among many others. these kingdoms, empires and caliphates are peopled by different ethnic groups such as yoruba, hausa, tiv, jukun, orobo, igbo and others (onouha, 2008). igbo occupies the east of the southern protectorate with its unique form of governance structures and leadership styles, with each of these units operating as a separate independent entity. and none was neither under the political or judicial subjugation of another nor paying allegiance to any power or authority outside its enclave (kukah, 1998). more so, most scholars believe that even though the different ethnic nationalities in nigeria exercised socio-political independence, it was not in isolation of global events. thus, the then prevalent global event where states under colonial rule clamored for self-rule soon crept into nigeria. at that point, some early national figures such as herbert macauley, anthony enahoro, nnamdiazikiwe, obafemi awolowo, ahmadu bello, tafawa balewa among many others, asked that nigeria be granted independence (umar, 2003). as a consequence therefore, different constitutional conferences were held to begin the gradual process of british withdrawal from the nigerian political scene. by 1960, october 1, in an event that was greeted with pump and pageantry, the union jack came down and the nigerian flag went up, signaling the beginning of an independent nigeria (olufemi, 2013). at independence, nigeria operated the british styled parliamentary system of government. however, the first republic was not to last long as it was overthrown by a group of some young military officers on january 15, 1966. seven months later, there was another military coup that replaced the government of major general johnson, thomas umunnakweaguyi-ironsi. the succeeding military government headed by general yakubu gowon, presided over the nigerian civil war, where an estimated figure of between 1.5 million to 3 million nigerians, mostly of igbo origin were massacred, killed, maimed or starved to death (kukah, 1993). after the civil war, there was the continued back and forth of the exchange of leadership between the military and the civilian. during this period, nigeria witnessed a short-lived second republic from 1979 to 1983 and an aborted third republic in 1993 (mbaya, 2013). it was not until 1999 when the military finally returned to the barracks. thus, the fourth republic that begun in 1999 continued till date with the last general elections held on february 25, 2023 and march 18, 2023 respectively. the general elections offered the nigerian electorates the opportunity to elect their president, members of national assembly, governors and members of states assembly to occupy political institutions and preside over the affairs of government at least in the next four years. book-haramization of the nigerian political institution: examining the eroding values of democratic dividends the modern nigerian state is officially federalist and democratic in status with a modified united states of america presidential system of government. such state status is to be for the benefit of the citizenry in every facet of life. this is because the various federating units will bring the government closer to the people, so that they can enjoy the dividends of democracy. thus, section 14 (1) of the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria, states that; “nigeria shall be a state based on the principle of social justice”. this goes to show that democratic values and principles are at the core of governance. section 2 (14) (2) (b) postulates that, “the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of government”. in the same light, section 16 (2) (c) stipulates that the state shall directs it policy towards ensuring that the economic system is not operated in such a manner as to permit the concentration of wealth or the means of production and exchange in the hands of few individuals or group. 95 ishaya & kalu boko-haramization of political institutions in nigeria: examining the role of religion... however, despite these constitutional stipulations, a cursory peep into the nigerian political scene reveals that nigerian political leaders have not lived up to the expectations of the citizens and the task which the constitution bestows on them. the political leadership in nigeria has been bastardized to the extent that leaders feel that they are no longer accountable to the electorates. the leaders exhibit what can be termed as leadership rascality. once they assume the position of leadership, they do not lead by the rule of law as stipulated in the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria. nigerian leadership misadventure is usually made noticeable through the act of nepotism display in the appointment of key personnel in the government's cabinet. they usually appoint family and friends into professional ministries and departments, not minding whether or not, they are qualified to occupy such offices. no wonder, richard (1987) is of the view that the political class has been caught in the web of “prebendalism”. richard (1987) associates prebendalism with the centrality of the nigerian polity of intensive and persistent struggle to control and exploit the office of the state. he opines that prebendal which is a pattern of political behaviour that rests on the justifying principle that political offices should be competed for and then utilized for personal benefit of the office holders as well as of their reference or support group characterized the nigerian political underpinnings. in such a case, the official public purpose of the office often becomes a secondary concern however much that purpose might have been originally cited during the periodic competition to fill it. the above, illustrates the desire to engage in official corruption which captures the degree of the moral decay that has characterized the nigerian political institutions at least, since independence. from available records, the nigerian political institutions have been conditioned for corrupt practices and manipulation of the administrative procedures, to allow for easy access to wealth through looting the national treasury. such corrupt tendencies have been rooted in the nigerian blood stream since independence which the process itself is shrouded in corruption. little wonder, ugwu (2002) posits that the pre-colonial society knew little about corruption but soon after nigeria's independence in 1960 and shortly afterwards in 1963 when nigeria had become republic, corruption grew in galloping proportions in every sphere of human life. in the same vein, maier (2001) insists that nigerians spend a good part of their lives trying to get better of the government for their own benefit or that of their family, their village or their region. rare then, is the head of state who acts on behalf of the nation. no wonder, kukah (2010:2) posits that: nigerian has remained trapped in a time warp. it has not succeeded in extricating itself from colonial trap that is suffused with inherited prejudices and distorted social histories. history has continued to serve as a platform for the reinforcement and concretization of age-old regional, ethnic and religious prejudices. the result is that in politics, economics, education, academia, religion and every area of our national life, these prejudices continue to dog and shape the choices we make in our relationship. therefore, the dividends of democracy such as jobs opportunities, access to quality and affordable healthcare, free and compulsory education, security, good access roads, peace among many others, which are provided through good leadership, have eluded the citizenry. this is because the nation is deeply immersed in ethno-religious sentiments, regional bias and corruption arising from poor and weak leadership and the results are embezzlement, fraud and kick backs (ugwu, 2002). the government and leadership styles have been structured to allow for official corruption. thus, the newswatch magazine as cited in anugwom and igbo (2002) found that corruption in nigeria is institutionalized through the establishment of many elephant projects and money gulping jamborees, such construction of fly-over and double-carriage highways many of which are ill-maintained. these projects are known to be ways of siphoning public money and 96 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 rewarding loyal public officials, politicians and retired and serving military administrators or governors who run their states as if they were private estates. the above stark really was true then just as it is now. hence, the blazing heat of the fire of political corruption has sent so many nigerians packing. thus, “japa” has become a popular phrase that indicates leaving the country in the search for greener pastures overseas. the numbers of skilled, semi skilled and unskilled workers of all kinds that usually leave nigeria on daily basis in search of greener pasture overseas are only better imagined. it is now a known fact that the streets of europe and america are littered with nigerians of all backgrounds, sweeping the streets and washing corpses just to earn a living. in other instances, nigerian professionals who see openings for jobs in the middle-east, asia, europe and america usually do not let such opportunities pass them. according to odey (2001), from a politically standpoint, the turmoil, the repression, and the general insecurity that pervaded nigeria, forced thousands of her citizens to flout all international borders' laws in order to get out of the country either by hook or by crook. as a consequence therefore, nigeria's external image suddenly degenerated to a shameful state. indeed, nigerians are undergoing severe and excruciating experience as a net effect of corruption. a chronicle of the people in public and civil services that are involved in corruption and are protected by institutions of law enforcement, will only leave one shading tears. and, nigerian leaders, virtually at all levels of government, ranging from states to local governments, are on the lead in exacerbating it. this of course demonstrates the state of the eroding values of democratic dividends in nigeria. consequently, the “talakawas”, the downtrodden and the common men appear helpless. leadership and governance in nigeria: terrorists calling the shots it is evidently glaring from what we have seen in the foregone analysis, that the nigerian political history is characterized by deliberate poor leadership and weak governance. thus, it appears obvious that the nigerian elected representatives at all levels, have formed a syndicate akin to a terrorist gang, to loot the commonwealth of the nigerian state at the expense of effective leadership. the nigerian ruling class has mastered the art of deception in leadership and they can hide under any cover, be it religion, ethnicity or region in order to stay afloat on the political stage. yusuf (1982) posits that, they usually find cover in ethnic affiliation or religious inclination to perpetrate these heinous crimes against the people. thus, he insists that: the intermediary bourgeois cannot appear as what he really is in the political economy of nigeria. he has to find a cover…he has to take cover – as a muslim or christian. he has to take cover as an ibo, hausa, idoma or efik. he has to posture as a majority or minority…essentially as a means of creating the context for his fancy dress ball, for his charade of disguises in order to further entrench division among our people, slow down their awakening at any cost; even the unity of our country for which so much has been sacrificed (25). thus, the nigerian political leaders who are supposed to be the custodians of the highest values of good governance and effective representation through worthy leadership as enshrined in nigeria's constitution, have turned terrorists, thereby destroying every noticeable fundamental fabric with which the country is stitched. it is therefore challenging that the nigerian political class can go to any length, no leaving any stone unturned in their quest to continue holding unto power. they employ all manner of tactics, dividing the people along ethno-religious and regional divides, not minding if relationships are soured. the ancient strategy of divide and rule has been used across cultures and civilizations especially by the colonial masters at the detriment of 97 ishaya & kalu boko-haramization of political institutions in nigeria: examining the role of religion... development and at the expense of merit. no surprise, kukah (2010) opines that regionalism; religious affiliation and ethnicity still weigh heavily as determinants in the choices and appointments of political officers and even bishops in the various christian churches in nigeria. this is equally true in almost all facets because imams face the same challenges too across the country and that the result is that the nation lives under the weight of catch-22 contradiction. little wonder, newswatch (1989) as cited in ogbonnaya (2016) quoted general ibrahim badamasibabangida to have admitted that nigeria is passing through a period of grave crisis and it is the attitude and role of the elites which have determined the nation's history. as an elite and the then military president, he avers that as leaders, they equate their ends with the ends of the groups and communities to which they belong. they also mobilize others to fight for their individual causes, individual beliefs and interests. he equally states that the worst features in the attitude of the nigerian elites include; factionalism, disruptive competition, extreme greed and selfishness, indolence and abandonment of the pursuit of excellence. from the foregone therefore, it could be seen that these terrorists parading as leaders have over time manipulated religion and ethnicity and hence, used them as tools to fan the embers of disunity and disaffection among the people. they have instigated so many communal and ethnoreligious crises which resultant net effects have been wanton destruction of lives and livelihood (reno, 2002). a chronicle of these politically instigated ethno-religious and communal crises are very instructive. without question, nigeria since the 1980s had its fare share of bloodiest ethnoreligious riots and communal uprisings with each producing or introducing a new dimension. the sunday tribute chronicled the violent religious uprisings in nigeria among which are the december 1980 religious disorders in which a staggering figure of 4177 people lost their lives and properties worth hundreds of millions of naira were destroyed, the 1982 maitatsine riots in maiduguri, the 1987 kafanchan riot and a host lots of others too numerous to mention (sunday tribute, 2015). the fact remains that all these adventurous disasters have been pewed by our founding fathers, which soon after independence, seemed not to have faith in one nigeria. for instance, the parrot (1960) as cited in john (2013:22) quoted ahmadu bello to have said that: this new nation called nigeria should be an estate of our great grandfather, uthmandanfodio. we must ruthlessly prevent a change of power. we must use the minorities in the north as willing tools and the south as conquered territory and we must never allow them to have control over their future. in another instance, ahmadu bello said, “the prime minister and sardauna need to go back to lagos to deal with zik and awo…we want your support…if you did not give it, there will be trouble” (ambrose, 2017:13). elsewhere, obafemi awolowo ventilated, “that nigeria is not a nation. it is mere geographical expression. it is a merely distinctive appellation to distinguish those who live within the boundaries of nigeria from those who do not” (mbaya, 2013:18). all these postulations are the expressions of selfish interests all at the detriment of the poor masses who are always the losers. the poor man looses at almost every policy decision of the government. he has never been at the centre stage of the genuine programmes of the government that will benefit him. thus, the poor man looses all the times. agbese (2002) cited in odey (2014) posits that: the poor is a loser. always was, always is and always will be. when things go wrong, he loses, when things go right, he is not much better. the politician calls him the common man… when the 98 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 gods of hate demand a sacrifice as a condition for peace; his common blood is available to the high priests of hate… when nations want to massage their ego, they put a uniform on the common man, put a gun in his hands and send him to the killing field where the leaders themselves fear to tread…when religious leaders have some problems deciding what name to call the supreme being of their faith, they summon the common man not to advise them but to fight and die for their own stupidity. in view of this, it can be safely asserted, that these leaders have excused themselves from the task of leadership and have now turned terrorists, dishing out bad governance, depriving the people of democratic dividends and manipulating them as tools for destruction. thus, what the ruling class knows best is looting the national treasury. the civil servants who are experts in administration usually do present themselves as willing tools. they embezzle money meant for infrastructures, security and jobs, thereby further stretching the grip of poverty on the people. what then can be worst than terrorism if terrorism is actually the destruction of a people's livelihood. obadiah (2020) alleged that a seating governor in the north is a commander of bandits and boko-haram, and that he is using state resources to provide logistics for those terrorist groups so as to cause mayhem and remain at the corridor of power. these ugly developments must be tamed otherwise, nigeria will remain a pariah state and her leaders turned terrorist in governance, will continue to plunder its resources at the expense of development. rescuing the collapsing political institution and the leadership structure: recommending the role of religion for nigeria to make headway in leadership and governance and thus, rid its political institution from the menace of those terrorists parading as leaders, the following recommendations are useful; 1. religion, especially christianity and islam, under the auspices of the christian association of nigeria (can), jamatusnasril islam (jni) and the supreme council of islamic affairs, should pressure the national assembly and the state houses of assembly to be deliberate and purposeful in their legislative duties of law making in order to come up with legislations that will strengthen our governmental institutions so as to make them strong for service delivery. if this must be achieved, these religious groups must partner with the civil society organizations (csos) to organize the people in such a way that they can hold their representatives to account in the event that they sort to compromise by doing the biddings of the executive arm of government. 2. the executive arm of government both at the federal and state levels must be effective in the delivery of their mandate in serving the people. leadership is the head and when the head is rotten, the body follow suit. the people's interest therefore, must be at the centrestage of their policy formulation and implementation. the attainment of this can be facilitated when responsible leaders are elected into position of authority. this is so because men of integrity live up to the task of effective leadership. to achieve this, can, jni and csos must collaborate to educate the electorates to the extent that they can subject all political candidates to debates so that they can present their manifestos on the basis of which they should be elected. this is so because when they failed or are failing in leadership, they can be reminded of the promises they made and thus be held to account. 3. can, jni and csos should support and encourage the institutions saddled with the responsibility of fighting corruption such as the economic and financial crime 99 ishaya & kalu boko-haramization of political institutions in nigeria: examining the role of religion... commission (efcc) and the independent corrupt practices and other related offences commission (icpc) and ensure that they be given a free hand to fish out corrupt officials and make them face the wrath of the law without witch-hunting and victimization. this is so because a country that does not allow any agency enacted or established by law to freely carry out its statutory function that country is only waiting for its collapse. countries that fit into the typical examples of failed states are usually come by as a result of mounting cases of unchecked official corruption and maladministration. 4. in all honesty, can and jni with the support of csos should work in collaboration with the judiciary and the nigeria bar association (nba) in restoring confidence to the common man. this should be done in the hope of igniting the spirit of checks and balances in governance. any country whose judiciary and the legal systems are not strong, such country do birth dictators who change laws at will and lord it over the people as though they are presiding over a regime of slavery. conclusion this research has sort to look at how the nigerian political institutions have been turned to a terrorist organization, thereby breeding leaders who in delivery service to the people as stewards in governance, have shown themselves as criminals, embezzling funds, looting the treasury at the expense of development. the paper argued that if terrorism is an unprovoked attacked on the people then the bad and poor governance style, exhibited by leaders of nigeria cannot be better named than referred to as terrorists hiding under the guise of leadership. in fact, no terrorist group or organization can be as worst as bad leaders who use state resources at the detriment of economic development and prosperity of the people. in the hands of such leaders, all kinds of criminal elements are bred. if it is true that, everything rise and falls on leadership; then, such leaders must live up to the challenge of personal example. if we must get it right as a nation, then we must advocate for right and responsible leadership. thus, having this in mind, the paper offers some recommendations in which religion can help, and hoped that if they are implemented, such terrorists parading as leaders who loot the national and states treasuries will be tamed for accountability and eventual development of the country in all facets. references afolabi, o.o. 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(1982). lecture on corruption and manipulation of religion in nigeria. unpublished 101 ishaya & kalu boko-haramization of political institutions in nigeria: examining the role of religion... page 101 page 102 page 103 page 104 page 105 page 106 page 107 page 108 page 109 aquino volume 2 issue 2 december 2022 for pdf abstract in the traditional igbo context, the earning of money is punctuated with patience and hard work and maintenance of one's integrity. the acquisition of wealth depends on how far one has honestly and properly invested his/her energy, resources and talent. no one claimed to be self-sufficient. everyone needed the help of the other. this virtue of hard work was transmitted in the process of family education. since the igbo society was not a closed one thanks to its extended family system, it was therefore communityoriented; and thus everybody cares for the other. to that effect, in business ventures, apprenticeship was highly promoted. mentoring was fully in vogue. the ? ga (master) has some ?m?-boi (apprentices) under him who he guides in learning a particular trade. the apprenticeship lasts for years after which, all things being equal, the ? ga settles the nwa-boi (apprentice) with a reasonable sum of money to help him begin his own trade. the nwa-boi based on his acquired trading skill gradually grows in wealth. in that context, acquisition of wealth was dependent on trading skill, patience and doggedness, hence the phrase ?kpa ego (that is, scouting for money) adopted from ?kpa ak? (scouting for palm kernel nut). usually scouting for palm kernel in the bush is a painstaking exercise demanding hours of engagement in search of palm kernel which can at times meet with disappointment when one ends up picking ak? ufulu (palm kernel without the edible nut). this research has the objective of investigating into the sharp transition from ?kpa ego to ibute ego (quick money) among our youth and proffer ways of returning to the status quo ante since it is more value-oriented. our methodology is descriptive and analytical. the researcher will make use of existing literature in this regard; explore into the various contexts that nourish this illicit quest for money and propose way forward. keywords: youth, leadership, diverse contexts, ikpa ego, ibute ego introduction the young people form a formidable part of any society. a society that suffers persistent demographic shortage of young people gradually goes into extinction. that goes to say that the future of any society is fundamentally dependent on its youth. consequently, that calls for unstoppable effort in the proper and integral education of young people in order to guarantee the tomorrow of the society. incidentally the young people are the children of their societal environment because they are influenced and groomed consciously or unconsciously by the various environments or contexts within which they grow. the young people that grow up in a “country of one of the world's most traumatized, from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational crisis of illicit financial quest among the igbo youth evaristus ifeanacho, (phd) department of religion and human relations nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. 75 pauperized and terrorized people” (dahiru, 2022, p.32) will surely have the same tapestry of contagious ills in their process of growth. aware of the fact that the future of humanity depends on how formidably the young people are founded on sound moral and christian values, the onus lies on those occupy the mantle of leadership not to dash their hope against the wall of immoral conduct and hopelessness. the igbo traditional set up of the earlier generation places high premium on integrity and training of young people. the extended family system makes the training of children a joint affair. everyone takes part in it. no one turns aside in the sight of misbehavior; rather a child is instantly corrected or even punished by anyone that is present in the occasion of any misconduct. the parents usually thoroughly cross-examine a child that comes home with any foreign item. such a child must explain every detail of how he came about such item. where he/he she is unable to give a reasonable explanation, he/she is mandated to return the item to its owner. this is the usual igbo context in the training of young people at the early time, many parents did not see the importance of education especially for their male children. consequently, some easily sent out their young children to business apprenticeship (igba boi/igba odibo/imu-ahia) in order to be guided by their master (oga) in learning a trade with the aim of being stabilized in a particular trade after few years. later, there was emphasis on education and many embraced education and enrolment to igba boi gradually dropped. nevertheless after secondary or tertiary education many also went back to business apprenticeship on account of the dearth of white collar job. in the recent generation of parents and young people, there came a new trend and a shift in mentality occasioned by some environmental trappings fueled by the get-rich-quick syndrome. parents gradually began to abdicate their responsibility towards their children. sequel to that, the inculcation of moral and social values began to suffer neglect. hard work and giving primacy to integrity came to be relegated to the background. hence, illgotten wealth was celebrated. the so-called 419 syndrome (419 scam is technically known as "advance-fee fraud", and is named after the article numbered 419 in nigerian criminal code, which deals with fraud drug trafficking, promotion of illicit wealth disseminated by the film making industries, and a more recent one which is yahoo yahoo and yahoo plus founded on indiscriminate electronic and internet robbery and hacking of accounts became the order of the day. with this, virtue of patience that accompanied commercial spirit of ?gba-b?i sharply turned to inordinate ambition to by the young people to get rich overnight in popular parlance called ego mbute (quick money). the research will delve into the exposition of ?kpa ego and ibute ego, the various contexts that have nourished the tendency of ibute ego among our young people, and the leadership spirit that is needed to overturn this ugly situation for a mental redirection of our young people. intergenerational relapse from ikpa ego to ibute ego one of the village experiences of young people in the traditional igbo socio-cultural set up is the adventure of ?kpa ak? (scouting for palm kernel) in which they search for palm kernels in the bush. it is a painstakingly patient exercise that guzzles a lot of time before a reasonable quantity is gathered. since in the search palm kernels are not heaped at a spot but scattered and traceable at different locations, it usually takes several days of persistent ), 76 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 and skillful search. knowing the suitable places where they could be discovered in greater number is usually an advantage; and as such places one at level above others. one is more successful in ?kpa ak? depending on how one is informed about the lucrative locations where ak? could be found. such knowledge helps in accumulating a big quantity which could be sold for a more profitable earning. the height of one's richness depends how he/she progresses in the ?kpa ak? which ultimately results in ability to have different heaps that could be sold. the joy of the whole adventurous exercise depends on what is gained after sale. however, misfortune could strike when it happens that the heap of palm kernel one has gathered is dominated by ak? ufulu (that is, palm kernel without the nut inside). it is usually an unfortunate situation that leaves one without much gain after having tirelessly laboured for many days. therefore, it was as rewarding as it was therapeutic but also dotted with some dangers that could sometimes rear up their ugly heads like being stung by scorpion or bitten snake etc. the nomenclature is equally applicable in the business ventures of the igbo people where it is referred to as ?kpa ak? or ?kpa ego (scouting for wealth or scouting for money). following from the igbo verb ?kpa, it demands a regular perambulation in search of something; and in this case in search of wealth or money making ventures. that goes to say that the making of wealth abhors laziness; and demands hard work because onye lu? o rie (he who works eats) and aka aja aja na-ebute ?n? mmanu mmanu (hands soiled while working in the farm brings about oily). simply put, hard work pays. one should be up and doing; and ready to sacrifice leisure and pleasure in an avid search for resourceful outlets for making money. this process of ?kpa ego is corroborated by the phenomenon of ?gba-b?i (business apprenticeship). according to okonkwo (2022), ?gba-b?i is a “locally generated venture capital” that requires a business owner who takes an apprentice and 'settle(s)' him at the end of a term of engagement by assisting in setting him up in a business through cash infusion, the payment of rent or offering of goods to the apprentice to sell and share in the profit.” this is consolidated by the fact of ?gba mb? (struggle) divested of every slothful attitude. in this entrepreneurial venture, it is gainful struggle that increases one's income and in the end creates wealth. for chinweuba and ezeugwu, to overcome this disdainful condition, the igbos tend to engage in economic struggle (?gba mb?) displaying a resounding entrepreneurial initiative, skill, ambition, competition, enterprise and hard work. consequently, the igbo embrace entrepreneurial ventures as a means of dominating nature, achieving economic reliance, satisfying their competitive innate drive for achievement, leaving human imprint, and improving the quality of human life. (2017:17) this ?gba b?i is strongly founded on the “igbo philosophies of communality, coprosperity and interdependence, the model is characterized by the transgenerational transfer of entrepreneurial skills and the reproduction of business champions”. (oyewunmi, oyewunmi and moses, 2020). inasmuch as the igbos work unstoppably and 77 iheanacho from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational... put in every form of ingenuity to create wealth and also help others to prosper, it is usually based on moral principles. honesty and maintenance of one's integrity are the pillars of their conduct even in business ventures. hence, the igbo saying, ezi afa ka ego (good name is greater than money or wealth). that is why parents can go long way to cross examine their children whenever they come home with any foreign material. in ability to explain its source will merit the child a merciless lashing with cane. in the end, he/she is compelled to send back the item from where he/she got it. chinweuba and ezeugwu (2017) gave a detailed expose of how the traditional igbo people detest ill-gotten wealth of any sort thus, wealth acquired through dubious means and circumstances does not earn intrinsic respect in igbo land. as such, wealth acquisition is expected to tow the means of hard work, integrity and honesty. in fact, the igbo assertion of ak? luo ?n? okwuo ebe o si (when wealth gets home, it declares its source) depicts igbo probe for sources of wealth that enters the community. even in this present epoch when global forces of westernization have disorganized some igbos into reproachable ventures, the true igbo communities still revere wealth made through honest means (ak? akpalu na ?z? kw? ?t?) and repudiate ill-gotten wealth or money (aj? ego). it is generally believed among the igbos that ill-gotten wealth is a curse rather than blessing. thus people are reluctant to associate with people whose source of wealth is suspected to be questionable. this is more so when it is money made through charms (?gw? ego) and shading blood (ego ?bara). (p.19) unfortunately, with the passage of time, the influx of western culture and its attendant eroding of some of our cultural values, the younger generation gradually became very much infested with the desire to be rich overnight without hard work. there was exaggerated and irrational admiration of the rich without thinking through on how far and how long it took the wealthy neighbor to attain his/her financial status. proper thinking should have informed one on the necessity of making proper judgement before desiring unfounded and hurried admiration. but the flamboyant celebration of wealth demonstrated rampantly in nollywood films, in pentecostal prosperity gospel that centred on cross-less christianity, in the inhumane amassing of wealth by most of our political leaders speedily began to collapse the social values of hard work, patience, honesty and integrity associated with ?kpa ego. to that effect, inordinate quest for wealth culminating in ego mbute (quick money) began to assume the centre stage in the mentality of the young people. this has begun to increase in geometric progression because the recent dimension has been nourished by cybercrime. cybercrime: the aiding of ego mbute for cross (2002), cybercrime refers to “any criminal offence committed using the internet or another computer network as a component of the crime” (p.2). further still, cybercrimes are “offences that are committed against individual or group of individuals with a criminal motive to internationally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly using modern/telecommunication networks such as internet and mobile phones” (halder, d. and jaishankar, k., 2012). 78 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 nonetheless, cybercrime incorporates wide range of fraudulent conduct, such as cyberbullying, cyber-building, cyberstalking, cyber terrorism, cyber espionage cyber fraudsters (yahoo-boys) and a string of others. in the nigerian context, yahoo-boys is also connected with advanced fee fraud (aff) or “419” (igwe, 2007; adogame, 2009). it is important to note that in 1993 a giant stride was made in the area of information technology with the coming of the world wide web (www). but 1997 saw the introduction of the world wide web technology known as “yahoo e-mail”. this was aimed at speeding up and easing off communication in the global context. with that, the sourcing of information for research and personal improvement in the learning process was upgraded. later, yahoo mail plus came with many more improved and advantageous features for its users both in the storage capacity and accessibility to wide range of useful features. however, just as this innovation was going on in the field of information technology, it was equally being malevolently accompanied by cybercrime. what was meant to alleviate the difficulties in the sourcing and dissemination of information became an instrument for an unimaginable rate of crime wave. without ever intending it, dalal (2006) notes that the advancement in science and technology has not only made a tremendously noticeable impact in every segment of human life like wireless communication, e-commerce, e-governance, e-library etc., it has also generated certain deviances and criminal tendencies like hacking, spamming, pharming, pornography, privacy violations, phishing etc. thus cybercriminals are on the increase by day. in the same vein, juxtaposed with yahoo mail is yahoo-boys. according to lawani and osagieobazee (2019) the yahoo boys' mode of operation involves sending deceptive e-mails using yahoo mail to unsuspecting victims which will finally lead to defrauding and swindling their victim(s);” hence the name yahoo-boys. as time went on, the “yahooboys phenomenon metamorphosed and assumed new dimension; and came to be known as yahoo plus. tade (2013) observes that, the 'plus' in yahoo plus implies the addition of spiritual ingredients to yahoo yahoo. within the yahoo yahoo family, a line is drawn between those who surf the net and defraud plainly (yahoo boys) and those who surf the net and employ spiritual assistance for increased defrauding (yahoo plus). the different approaches employed are esoteric to those involved in cybercrime while the larger society refers to both groups as yahoo boys. (p.690) in fact, lawani and osagie-obazee (2019b) maintained that most of them have discovered a new strategy of blending spiritual elements with internet surfing to enhance the chances of their success in defrauding their unsuspecting victims. the victims of this crime are the young people who are desperately sunk deep in unquenchable thirst for ego mbute. what matters to them is to be rich; the means is not called to question. these young people involved in cybercrime, generally known as the yahoo-boys, have been widely recognized as maintaining a distinctive lifestyle that confers a unique and/or a notorious identity on them in the society” (lawani, c. & osagie-obazee, g. 2019b). their life style is nothing to write home about. they cruise in flashy and classy cars, live in exotic apartments, dress in an outlandish manner, use scandalously expensive mobile phones, enroll in a club and possess a bevy of ladies, make a public bazaar of wealth at eateries 79 iheanacho from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational... and most often sleep during the day and stay awake in the night for their ungodly ventures. most of the young people who get involved in these odd jobs are equally addicted to methamphetamine (mkpulu mmiri) or other related drugs. definitely, such a lifestyle does not in any way correspond with their age. outrageously, most of the parents do not query their children on how they acquired such wealth. rather, these “young money bags” are celebrated by all and sundry as having attained an honorable feat; and in some cases chieftaincy titles are conferred on them by the traditional rulers whom they have mesmerizingly blindfolded with money. the resultant effect is that many young people drop out of school and go into the yahooyahoo business with the desire of getting rich quick. this attitude creates a serious dearth in professionalism. consequently, key areas that could boost the economy gradually begin to dwindle due to lack of competent hands. more so, leadership role that demands qualification in character and learning will be found wanting. for any society to grow there is need for transformational leadership, but when the young people who are the leaders of tomorrow engage in an untroubled manner in cyber fraud with the aim of amassing wealth, then the future will be very bleak as far as leadership is concerned. for no one gives what he does not have (nemo dat quod non habet). however, it is pertinent to note that these young people do not grow in a vacuum. to that effect, the various contexts in which young people grow help in a big way to either mar or channel them in the right direction. socio-cultural context ordinarily, nigerian society values family and human relation. in contemporary nigeria, the nuclear family exists side by side with the extended family. the family includes not only the immediate siblings but also grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, nephew nieces etc. the family according to mbiti (1992:143) also includes the departed relatives, whom may have designated as the living/dead. in family there is openness to life in which children are valued as a blessing from god. therefore children can contribute an enduring source of emotional satisfaction and joy to their parents. parents look upon the development and growth of their children as their work. the successes and failures of their children are their successes and failures. if the parents have not achieved all their youthful goals in life, they rejoice in the thought that they will see these goals fulfilled in their children. (getui, 1998:72) generally, igbo traditional system is marked with the responsibility of the upbringing of children with regard to values, skills and techniques of traditional cultural heritage. the family structure also serves as a place for formal and informal instruction during initiation rites that prepare the child to assume adult responsibilities. the extended family also has a system of social control, which guide the youth in their daily choices. these inbuilt mechanisms therefore help to a great extent in ensuring the stability of the family. the parental care and nurturing of children depend to a large extent on the economic, social, intellectual and the emotional situation of parents, which go to contribute in making the home the first school for youth formation. 80 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 nigerians especially igbos express their culture in customs, values, social norms, religion and beliefs and their day to day living and interactions. the richness of this culture is being reinforced and manifested also in their mode of greeting, clothing, arts, music, dance, drama, proverbs, traditional marriage and other ceremonial activities. however, fundamental to culture is knowledge. all these play prominent role in the life and behavior of the igbo people. for example, storytelling is used in teaching moral to children and the young ones thereby stimulating them toward good conducts. it also serves as a documentation of some actual events and people's life in a given period of time. proverbs serve to communicate the wisdom of the past generation. unfortunately, because of social changes, we are gradually experiencing the disappearance of some of these cultural values. nowadays, no pain no gain does not very much hold again. aka aja aja n'ebute onu mmanu mmanu (soiled hands bring about oily mouth; meaning that hard work pays) is becoming obsolete. people today are less interested in hard work but want quick money and wealth. today people want promotion without merit, employment without certificate, certificate without studying, marks without sitting for an examination; to pass through celebrated malpractice etc. in fact, oddities are boldly being celebrated. solidarity is gradually becoming a thing of the past; everybody thinks of his/her own without looking out to see how to help the other. the famous dictum of bacon (1996) “knowledge is power” is gradually being consigned to the literary lumber-room of forgotten events. the young people see money as power. the greatest culprit appears to be what achebe (1996:1) identifies as 'the failure of leadership,” in all its ramifications. some parents are bereft of moral values and as such have nothing to offer to the young people. the young people then become guides unto themselves. the consequences are affecting everybody. these values used to be part of every igbo person, because it is incorporated into the daily activities of people, as such, being a way people are being formed spiritually. unfortunately, today's socio-cultural state in which our young people find themselves is marked by insecurity in the highest order and complacent collusion. the atmosphere is charged with anger and aggressive tendencies. the odour of corruption is oozing out from every corner to the utter consternation of the rest of us. it is inexhaustible. political context “man”, said aristotle (1995), “is by nature a political animal” (p.1987). being so constituted by nature, he/she lives in a community and associates with others thanks to the gift of speech with which he/she is endowed. consequent upon this living together, comes the need to have leaders who will direct, make laws and guide the citizens towards a common good and who will fight for the welfare of the people. this will help to avoid a lawless situation where each person makes his/her own law as it suits him/her. an authority is therefore needed to guide the people towards a common good. thus, the leaders should always bear in mind that, there is no better way to establish political life on a truly human basis than by encouraging an inward sense of justice, and of service to the common good, and 81 iheanacho from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational... by consolidating the basic convictions of all as to the true nature of the political community and the aim, proper exercise, and the limits of political authority. (flannery, 1998:n.73) the political authorities on their own part are urged to act within the limits of the law and not place themselves above the law. in the nigerian context, what does the political situation look like? the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria (1999) in its preamble states that its purpose is for “promoting good government and welfare of all persons in our country on the principles of freedom, equality, justice, and for the purpose of consolidating the unity of our people.” to what extent these values are realised remains another question. in fact, nigeria has experienced and is still experiencing unhealthy political arrangement that has engendered and almost institutionalised corruption in every imaginable dimension. more still, the endemic corruption that has eaten into every fabric of nigeria further makes young people to jettison hard work and desire to become rich at all cost. democracy is gradually metamorphosing into plutocracy that culminates in “selectocracy”, with the eventual relapse into kakistocracy and finally degenerate into ochlocracy. there is unguided sycophancy and public fund is embezzled with impunity. in fact, the nigeria's political process has degenerated into a criminal franchise of power purchase by the highest bidder for self-service to the detriment of public service…. to put it simply, nigeria suffers from acute leadership challenge” (dahiru, 2022, p.32).votebuying is dangerously becoming the order of the day. according to uchegbu (2022, p.16), “vote-buying is coming up very strongly as offshoot of the dollarization of the leadership recruitment process. the situation is as woeful as it is regrettable. it is the highest bidder that wins and not necessarily the right candidate.” too appalling! unfortunately, this is the political environment within which the young people grow. in a similar vein, the young people in some cases have been used as instruments of violence during political campaigns and great have been the damaging effects. it is now the duty of the young people to be firm and act with right reason in every circumstance. john paul ii (1982) admonished them thus: “as true youth you will see, judge and then act according to the criteria of the gospel of jesus christ” (n.5). this admonition stretches to all sectors of community life in which the young people find themselves because their duty is an integral and not a lopsided one. religious context section 38(1) of the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria states that “every person shall be entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom (either alone or in community with others, and in public or in private) to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance.” corroborating this stipulation, the fathers of the second vatican council (1998) declared that, every person has a right to religious freedom. freedom of this kind means that all men should be immune from coercion on the part of individuals, social groups and every human power so that, within due limits, nobody is forced to act against his convictions nor is anyone to be restrained from acting in accordance with his convictions in religious matters in private or in public, alone or in association with others. (n.2). 82 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 based on this liberty, people have constantly exploited the gullible masses in the name of religion. in some religious houses, there is a mixture of evangelism with african traditional beliefs. some pentecostal churches for instance depart radically from the preaching of the crucified christ; offer wishy-washy holiness and continue to inundate their followers with the doctrines of prosperity. the young people begin to hanker for prosperity at all cost. such prosperity gospel anyaegbu (2020) affirms is “essentially the message that god does not want us to be poor but that he has destined riches, good health, and wealth for his children. it is a type of christianity that chooses only what is comfortable and sweet at the rejection of every discomfort.” (p.64) this religious context thus propels the youth to go in search of wealth by hook or by crook. unfortunately, this state of religion throws the youth who are not grounded in their faith into a confused state. the next line of action for them is to begin desperately to attempt any means that could yield money for them. in the end, they pay back with a handsome tithe believing that in such a manner god is appeased and their conscience is tranquillized. factors leading to ego mbute among young people the young people are drawn to this tendency of ego mbute as against ikpa ego based on some obvious facts that surround them. false cult of youth this refers to those who build a future without deep roots. it is impossible for us to grow unless we have strong roots to support us be it academic, spiritual, proper use of reason, etc. it is a cult that dismisses hard work and seeks unstoppably for easy life. such easy life seeks to amass wealth without hard work. to that effect, they can go to any imaginable length to get rich. that has lured many into hacking of accounts and such related cyber criminality. it is a massive deception if one rejects attention to academic work but wants to work in a government office after schooling; a generation of young people without academic roots that ground them is easily manipulated. however, there is need for them to interact with the wise and trustworthy elders because their wisdom and influence are keys to developing those roots. according to pope francis (2019)“if we journey together, young and old, we can be firmly rooted in the present, and from here, revisit the past and look to the future.” (n.199). peer influence there is no gainsaying the fact that peer influence remains a very crucial factor especially when students leave home with meagre resources to meet their basic socio-economic demands in the school. this situation is not limited to children of poor family background but also those of the rich. these students as soon as they are set free from the apron strings of their parents will find themselves unable to manage their freedom. consequently, most of them are blown away by any passing wind of deviant behaviour. although parents are supposed to be the primary teachers of their children and wards, it is often evident that at times peer groups have greater influence. this is sequel to the fact that some of the parents get terribly engaged with their economic activities and thereby abdicate their responsibility to their children. such children find succor in internet and their peers. evidently, they are not guided and they end up guiding themselves in 83 iheanacho from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational... cybercrimes of every sort. others are lured into ego mbute by their peers who are glued to yahoo yahoo business. this is very rampant in the tertiary institutions in nigeria today. at times the parents make effort to inculcate christian values on their children, but the peer group pressure often deletes these values from their head and reteaches their fellow peer the wrong attitudes that appeal to them. incidentally, young people spend more time with their peers than with their parents. therefore, young people must be vigilant and evaluate properly before adopting another's way of life. abdication of parental attention inattention of parents towards their children is tantamount to irresponsible parenthood. this is another obstacle that could negatively redirect the mind of the young people away from their rightful decisions in life. it is worthy of note that parents are the primary educators of their children at every level of their growth. this education entails taking care of their material and spiritual needs in order to help them grow into responsible adults that could be of desirable help to themselves, to their parents, to the society and eventually gain eternal life hereafter. when parents neglect this duty, the resultant effect is most often manifested in irresponsible children. such irresponsibility in young people will culminate in making wrong choices in life like drug-trafficking, cyber fraud and inordinate hunger for money. in the words of benedict xvi (2010), “young people need witnesses and teachers who can walk with them, teaching them to love the gospel and to share it, especially with their peers, and thus to become authentic and credible messengers” (n.104). when there is lack of proper guidance on the part of the parents, surely the young people remain in the words of erasmus of rotterdam like a “rolling stone that gathers no moss.” the gap could make them susceptible to succumb to the tendency of cyber fraud of any sort with the aim of getting rich quick (ego mbute). near collapse of academic learning the main undoing of the young people is the speedy collapse of academic learning in nigeria. more so, there is the tendency of seeing education solely as a means instead of an end. when education is seen solely as means of gaining white-collar job, then we got it all wrong. education is to be seen primarily as an end through which one becomes a cultured human being and a well-balanced person. one who knows his onions has got to prove himself in his own field of learning. education as a means also counts but it is purely secondary. in consequence of that, when education begins to collapse from its foundation as it is happening in nigeria, then institutions of learning will be churning out a bunch of mediocre and half-baked graduates that parade about with certificates which they cannot creditably justify in the field of work. terribly shameful! nonetheless, given the fact that education should be seen also as a means but not primarily as such, it becomes pitiable when government has no plan in place for the absorption of young people in the field of work. worse still, when education is made to be purely theoretical without a bent on the practical aspect that could promote self-reliance, it makes some young people to change their mind against the pursuit of learning that does not engage them at the end. though such change is not right but not everyone has such intellectual capacity to reason in that direction. many want to have something doing after their academic pursuit in order to help themselves, their parents, their younger ones and others. 84 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 when education is almost messed up as it is now happening in nigeria, young people will now have reasons to look for criminal alternative like cyber fraud of every kind aimed at ego mbute, drug trafficking, and in some cases kidnapping in order to get rich from the ransom. there is a serious need for a positive turn around with regard to education; otherwise the nation will be sitting on a keg of gun powder with regard to her future leadership. a nation populated by uneducated young people who are zealously aiming at ego mbute is dangerously heading to ruin. unemployment john paul ii (1981) laments: “it is particularly painful when unemployment especially affects young people, who after appropriate cultural, technical and professional preparation fail to find work, and see their sincere wish to work and their readiness to take on their own responsibility for the economic and social development of the community sadly frustrated.” (n.18) the case of nigeria is pathetic because one doesn't see any light at the end of the tunnel because there is no evident plan in place regarding nipping the problem from bud. such situation can generate any imaginable crime: violence, drug abuse, young people being used as political desperadoes etc. it is however an education that aims at self-reliance that can help in remedying this situation. when that is done, the young people can engage themselves in some concrete job without depending so much on white-collar jobs. but to realize that objective, there is need to diversify education. a nation like nigeria with the huge population of young people but without diversifying her educational system in order to make for self-reliant learning can in no way absorb such a teeming population of young people in the labour market. sequel to that, the young people seek for an easy alternative which is readily at hand in cyber fraud and other related crimes in order to make quick money (ego mbute). conclusion we make haste to say that the youth form a formidable part of the catholic church in nigeria. in fact, it is a common-place opinion as okafor observes (2004) that the “future of the church and indeed of humanity is in the hands of the young. it depends on the fundamental options they make and essential values they embody in their lives. they need therefore to be offered hope that can spur them on in their journey of faith.” to realize this objective, john paul ii (1995) noted that it is of utmost importance “to help young people to overcome the obstacles thwarting their development: illiteracy, idleness, hunger, drugs” (n.93). but incidentally, being a vulnerable group, and as such susceptible to any wind of change whether positive or negative, they are easily lured to the ephemeral fantasies of life, like ego mbute with its concomitant dangers. the old tradition of ?kpa ego and ?gba b?? with which the igbos were known has to be revived in order for the young people to imbibe its attendant virtues. paul vi (1965) at the closing of second ecumenical council made a passionate appeal to young people in these words: it is you who are to receive the torch from the hands of your elders and to live in the world at the period of the most gigantic transformations ever realized in its history. it is you who, receiving the best of the example of the teaching of your 85 iheanacho from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational... parents and your teachers, are to form the society of tomorrow. you will either save yourselves or you will perish with it. the young people have to be saved from the impending danger in nigeria. all hands must be on deck: parents, teachers, church leaders, government and indeed the young people themselves. with their immense vitality, they have a limitless disposition towards the confrontation of challenges. therefore, when the leaders properly harness their burning energies and talents, they could be a vital force in the process of societal change. references achebe, c., (1996). the trouble with nigeria, enugu: fourth dimension publishers. adogame, a. 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(2007). taking back nigeria from 419: what to do about the worldwide email scam--advance-fee fraud. new york: universe press. john paul ii, (1995). the church in africa. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. john paul ii, (1981). encyclical letter on human work. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. bacon, f. (1996). meditationes sacrae and human philosophy. whitefish: kessinger publishing. 86 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 2 issue 2 2022-december issn: 2786-9792 john paul ii, (1982). address to the young people of nigeria n.5. vatican city: libreria editrice vaticana. lawani, c. & gloria osagie-obazee, g. (2019). alarming rate of “yahoo plus” and human insecurity dilemma in nigeria: implication for counselling. european scientific journal, vol.15, no.13, 385-399. mbiti, j.s. (1992). introduction to african religion and philosophy. nairobi: east african educational publishers. okafor, s. (2004). prologue to the constitution of the catholic youth organization of nigeria (cyon), awka diocese, mercury bright press, awka, 2004, p.1. okonkwo, r.o. (2022). igba boi, ekekwe and bbc's distortion of igbo apprentice scheme, in https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/510395-igba-boiekekwe-and-bbcs-distortion-of-igbo-apprentice-scheme-by-rudolf-ogoookonkwo.html oyewunmi, a.e., oyewunmi, o.a., and moses, c.l. (2020), " igba-boi: historical transitions of the igbo apprenticeship model". in adeola, o. (ed.) indigenous african enterprise (advanced series in management, vol. 26), emerald publishing limited, bingley, pp. 13-25. paul vi, (1965). address to young men and women of the world, closing of the second ecumenical council. tade, o. (2013). a spiritual dimension to cybercrime in nigeria: the 'yahoo plus' phenomenon. human affairs 23, 689–705. uchegbu, a., (2022, june 16). vote-buying: our new national cancer. daily sun, p.16. 87 iheanacho from ?kpa ego to ego mbute: investigating into the intergenerational... page 1 page 2 page 3 page 4 page 5 page 6 page 7 page 8 page 9 page 10 page 11 page 12 page 13 122 gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's participation in south east nigeria. ogochukwu agatha okpokwasili, phd philosophy department, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria ao.okpokwasili@unizik.edu.ng & ignatuis nnaemeka onwuatuegwu, phd philosophy department, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria in.onwuatuegwu@unizik.edu.ng abstract the igbo apprenticeship system has been a longstanding cultural practice in the eastern nigeria which have played major roles in the region's economic growth and development. this abstract examines the different gender dynamics within this apprenticeship system and explores the extent of women have been involved in this traditionally male-dominated practice over the years. the igbo apprenticeship system was primarily initiated for young boys in the community whose parents cannot further their academic studies. they are taken in as apprentices to be mentored by established male artisans or traders in various fields such as blacksmithing, pottery, trading, and craftsmanship. this practice has provided valuable empowerment and entrepreneurial skills to young men, allowing them to establish their own businesses and contribute to the local economy. recent socio-cultural changes and gender dynamics have resulted in an increase in the interest and involvement of women in the apprenticeship system in igbo. this abstract examines the factors that influence women’s entry into occupations traditionally dominated by men, as well as the obstacles they face in their quest for apprenticeship opportunities. drawing on qualitative analytical methods, such as interviews, focus groups, and observations, the study collected data from male and female apprentices and mentors, as well as community members. the aim of the study is to determine the motivations, experience, and results of women who have opted to participate in igbo apprenticeship systems. the results suggest that women’s participation in the apprenticeship scheme is driven by a mix of economic necessity, self-employment aspirations, and changing social norms. some women struggle with resistance and gender bias within the system, while others have overcome these obstacles and established themselves as experienced artisans and entrepreneurs. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd mailto:in.onwuatuegwu@unizik.edu.ng aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 123 keywords: igbo apprenticeship system, gender dynamics, women's participation, entrepreneurship, economic empowerment. introduction igbo apprenticeships, also known as "igba boi" or "imu olu," are a traditional economic and social structure in southeast nigeria that is popular among the igbo people. it is a system whereby young people, usually males, are put under the instruction of seasoned artisans or traders to learn a trade or craft. although historically the apprenticeship system has been dominated by men, there have recently been initiatives to investigate and support women's participation. let's examine the changing position of women as we further explore the gender dynamics of the igbo apprenticeship system. the system of apprenticeship in igbo originates from patriarchal traditions that kept women out of economic activities and restricted their role to housework. therefore, women were largely excluded from apprenticeship system, which was seen as a man's domain. the primary purpose of apprenticeship system was to transfer skills, knowledge, and wealth from one generation to the next, which further contributed to the inequalities between men and women in terms of work and economic opportunity. however, due to social changes and increasing awareness of gender parity, the dynamics of apprenticeship system has changed. today, women are questioning traditional norms and seeking economic opportunities outside of the home. they are motivated by reasons such as financial autonomy, family support and selfdetermining. although igbo apprenticeships for women are still lower than apprenticeships for men, there are a number of promising women apprentices and entrepreneurs emerging. women are starting to enter the trades that were traditionally male occupations, including tailors, hairstyling, catering, and fashion designing. these women apprentices face a lot of obstacles, including social stigma, limited resources, and insufficient support networks. however, their resilience and perseverance make them able to overcome these obstacles and find their niche within the apprenticeship system. this same igbo apprenticeship system needs the mainstreaming of gender issues. numerous individuals and organizations are contributing. ngos, surrounding communities, and the government are all working to advance female empowerment and support their participation in apprenticeship programs. a few of the things being done for female apprentices involve networking, training, mentorships, and access to credit. the igbo community, in addition to outside assistance, is crucial to increasing the participation of women. the community's perception of women's importance to economic growth is going to cause a gradual shift in how it views female apprentices. some artisanal professionals are now more willing to accept female apprentices and sharing their expertise. 124 it is important to note, however, that gender dynamics within the apprenticeship system in igbo are complex and multi-faceted. women’s opportunities and challenges in their apprenticeship journey continue to be shaped by traditional beliefs, cultural norms and economic constraints. achieving gender parity and full apprenticeship participation requires long-term commitment at both the personal and societal levels. this includes education, breaking down gender stereotypes, and ensuring equal access to opportunities and resources... despite the fact that the apprenticeship system in igbo has traditionally been dominated by men, there is a continuous movement towards women’s inclusion in the system. women’s participation in the apprenticeship system is increasing over time, but there are still challenges to overcome. gender mainstreaming and women’s economic empowerment efforts are helping to overcome these obstacles and open up opportunities for female apprentices. however, continued advocacy, support and changes in social attitudes are essential for women’s participation to reach its full potential in the igbos apprenticeship system. igbo apprenticeship system before delving into igbo apprenticeship, we will first of all have an understanding of what apprenticeship is all about. darwinbox (2023) said that: apprenticeship is a training program for individuals who desire to become recognized in a specific trade or craft and do so in a way that adheres to the most current standards. the person completing the apprenticeship is known as an apprentice, and this individual learns the necessary skills of her or his chosen trade by carrying out common tasks for a predetermined length of time. training is administered by a seasoned trade or craftsman. while an apprenticeship could be compared to classroom learning, apprentices receive pay while learning how to become experts in their trades. examples of industries that offer apprenticeships include healthcare, food preparation / serving, manufacturing and public safety. the research associate, centre for economic performance, london school of economics and political science (2023) defines it as: “the expression apprenticeship means any system by which an employer undertakes by contract to employ a young person and to train him [or her] or have him [or her] trained systematically for a trade for a period the duration of which has been fixed in advance and in the course of which the apprentice is bound to work in the employer's service.” ryan et al (2010) defined it as “training programmes that combine vocational education with work-based learning for an intermediate occupational skill (i.e., more than routinised job training), and that are subject to externally imposed training standards, particularly for their workplace component.” things noted in all the definition offered above about apprenticeship: a. it is a training program for a particular skill. b. the apprentice learns the trade or skill from a master and later works for the master in return. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 125 there is a reason that igbo apprenticeship is well-known throughout the world. the distinction between this apprenticeship and others is the cause. it is something special and metaphysical that highlights the igbo man's humanity. ujamah (brotherhood) is a characteristic of igbos. when she stated that: "these are the reasons why african brotherhood, igwebuike, ujamah was established," okpokwasili (2023) provided a detailed explanation of what she meant. this concept of igwebuike encourages the development of the awareness that everyone must work together for the common good of all while eschewing all forms of rivalry. igbo apprenticeship served as a prime example of this african brotherhood. heidegger (1927) emphasized the idea of "being-in-the-world" and the notion that a fundamental feature of human existence is practical interaction with the outside world. ezeajughu (2021) said that the igbo apprenticeship system is an “unpaid business apprenticeship/incubator model that allows people learn business from a master for a certain number of years depending and at the end of their apprenticeship tenure, get cash infusion and support to start their own business”. aristotle in his “nicomachean ethics" and "politics" emphasized the importance of practical knowledge and experiential learning. his concept of "phronesis" or practical wisdom emphasizes the role of experience in developing virtuous action. apprenticeship, with its focus on hands-on learning and skill development, aligns with aristotle's emphasis on the practical application of knowledge. again the igbo apprentice system, also known as "igba boi," as culled from njoku, chinedu f (2012) and uchendu, victor c. (1985) is “a traditional system of apprenticeship that has been practiced by the igbo people of southeastern nigeria for centuries. it is a cultural and economic institution that plays a crucial role in the socialization, skill development, and economic advancement of young individuals within the igbo society”. john dewey, an american philosopher and educational reformer, highlighted the significance of learning through doing. 1n his "experience and education (1938), he emphasized on “experiential and democratic education, where students engage actively in their learning process”. dewey's ideas resonate with the notion of apprenticeship as a form of learning that involves active participation and practical experience. the origin of the apprenticeship system can be traced back to pre-colonial igbo trade and commerce. pre-colonized igbo communities were involved in a variety of interand intraregional trade. igbo culture of entrepreneurship dates back to the 15th century when slaves were traded in the slave trade. by the 1800s, thousands of slaves of igbo origin were sold at bonny and calabar. this pattern of trade continued till slave trade era ended. unlike most other african communities, slaves from igbo origin were exposed to entrepreneurship through their owners trading commodities such as spice, sugar, tobacco and cotton for export into europe, asia and america. . the entrepreneurship of the slaves ignited the entrepreneurial spirit of the igbos and this encouraged them to quickly engage in various forms of entrepreneurship in the pre-colonial period. this is the reason why it seems like igbo’s are mainly traders and they are occupying vast positions in major markets in nigeria. alaba international market is mainly occupied by igbos 126 which has ignited several outrages from lagosians in recent times. there is this general notion that an igbo man will come to a foreign land with nothing other than the cloths on his body but in the next few years you will see him buying lands from the owners of the land themselves. an igbo man has somewhat of a “survival spirit” inherent in him that can make him withstand any harsh economic condition around him. the igbos are leading in the areas of manufacturing. in this group you will see our nnewi traders like innoson motors leading the group. we have so many other industrialists of igbo origin doing so well in manufacturing, importation and exportation. they have even delved into clearing and forwarding of goods inside the country. this entrepreneurship culture of igbos has been sustained until the present age by the apprenticeship framework. young igbo men and women are still sent out as apprentices in various trading centers within and outside their community. this apprenticeship system allowed experienced traders to impart skills, knowledge, and business acumen to younger generations. the igbo apprentice system is a form of indentured apprenticeship where young individuals, known as "igba boi" are placed under the care and tutelage of a master or mistress, referred to as the “oga” or “madam”." the oga or madam could be a successful trader, artisan, or professional in a particular field. the apprentice lives with the oga/madam and learns the trade or craft through hands-on experience. the system serves multiple purposes within igbo society. it acts as a means of education and skill acquisition, providing practical training and knowledge in various trades such as blacksmithing, carpentry, weaving, trading, and farming. apprenticeship is also seen as a rite of passage, fostering discipline, work ethic, and the development of a strong moral character. the duration of apprenticeship varies depending on the trade and the agreement between the apprentice and the oga/madam. it typically lasts for a period of three to seven years, during which the apprentice receives training, room, and board from the oga//madam. in return, the apprentice provides labor and assistance in the daily operations of the trade. at the end of the apprenticeship period, the apprentice undergoes a "freedom ceremony" called "idu nwa boi" marking their transition from apprentice to a skilled individual who can establish their own business or practice their craft independently. the apprentice will receive some form of capital or resources from the oga/madam to start their own venture. the igbo apprenticeship system is rooted in the cultural and philosophical values of the igbo people of southeastern nigeria. it embodies several key philosophical principles that underpin its existence and significance within the igbo society. here are some of the main philosophical ideas behind the igbo apprenticeship system: a. igbo culture is based on the principle of communalism, which emphasizes the interdependence and inter-connectivity of people within the community. this is reflected in the apprenticeship system, which encourages the exchange of knowledge, skills and resources from masters to apprentices for the common good of the community. this reflects the notion that individual success is linked to the overall success and development of the community. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 127 b. the igbo people have a deep respect for their ancestors. they consider them to be important spiritual beings and a source of wisdom. the apprenticeship system is a way for the igbo people to pass down their knowledge and traditions from one generation to the next. through the apprenticeship system, skills, crafts and cultural practices are passed down from generation to generation. this way, the igbo people preserve their ancestral wisdom and strengthen their spiritual and cultural identity. c. igbo apprenticeship is based on the philosophy that “practical knowledge” and “experiential learning” are more important than “formal education” or “formal training”. practical knowledge refers to being able to do things on the spot and directly involved in a particular trade or craft, whereas “formal” education is limited to theoretical knowledge. this philosophy recognizes that the best way to develop skills and expertise is through hands-on experience, mentoring, and observation. this way, apprentices can gain a deeper understanding of the trade or craft they are interested in. d. the work ethic and discipline of apprentices are instilled in the apprenticeship system. the apprenticeship system teaches hard work, dedication and perseverance. the apprentices are expected to take part in the day-to-day work of the trade, help their masters, and contribute to the development of the business. the work ethic and discipline instilled in apprentices are based on a responsibility-driven, self-disciplined, and high-achieving philosophy. e. igbo apprenticeship system promotes entrepreneurship and self-sufficiency. the apprentices learn a trade or craft but also develop the skills and knowledge needed to set up their own business in the future. the apprenticeship system promotes selfsufficiency and independence, enabling them to play an active role in the economic growth and development of their communities. the philosophical roots of the apprenticeship systems are rooted in the igbo people’s cultural values and aspirations for community growth, cultural preservation and individual empowerment. the apprenticeship system continues to play an important role in the economic, social and cultural development of the igbo society. despite modernization and urbanization, the apprenticeship system is still present in many igbo communities. it continues to provide practical skills and knowledge to those who may not be able to attend formal education. the system also promotes social unity and intergenerational solidarity by ensuring the transfer of traditional values, traditional practices and indigenous knowledge. gender dynamics gender dynamics according to mauela& lorena (2019) is the: “connections and communications between boys, girls, men and women; contingent upon how they are revealed, gender dynamics can strengthen or contest existing norms”. brady 2022) noted that: “gender is dynamic because our lives are dynamic”; it is not simply a matter of inner self-perception, but also of affinity with others” (ricks: 2019) and of “responsiveness to the context(s) we find ourselves in” (cobert: 2008). an igbo apprenticeship is a process in which young people (both 128 men and women) learn a trade or craft under the mentorship and guidance of an experienced artisan or tradesperson. the apprenticeship lasts for several years and the apprentice learns the craft, skills, and business practices related to the trade. the apprenticeship system is highly respected in igbo society because it is a means of economic empowerment and knowledge transfer from one generation to the next. when it comes to gender dynamics in igbo apprenticeships, here are a few things to keep in mind: a. in the igbo society, there was a traditional division of labor. this meant that certain trades were mainly done by men, while others were mainly done by women. for example, blacksmiths, carvers, and other labor-intensive trades were mostly done by men. women, on the other hand, were mainly involved in textile weavers, potters, and traders. this traditional division of labor had an impact on the apprenticeship types offered to people depending on their gender. b. igbo apprenticeship has seen a change in gender roles in recent years. women are becoming more involved in trades that have traditionally been dominated by men, including carpentry, electronics and auto repairs. this is due to changing societal attitudes and women's desire for economic independence. c. gendered socialization influences the types of apprenticeships that people choose to pursue. cultural norms and expectations can influence parents’ decisions to enroll children in certain apprenticeships on the basis of their gender. for instance, parents may choose to enroll their sons in apprenticeships that are traditionally considered more prestigious or more financially advantageous. d. society’s perceptions and expectations can have a significant impact on the experiences of both male and female apprentices. for example, female apprentices may face genderspecific biases or stereotypes in their chosen trades. however, there are also examples of female apprentices receiving strong support from mentors and communities, which can help to create a more inclusive and empowered environment. all in all, igbo apprenticeship continues to reflect traditional gender roles, but it’s slowly changing to reflect more gender dynamics. as women’s roles change in apprenticeships, there’s a growing appreciation of their skills and a push towards gender parity within these economic structures. women's participation the traditional apprenticeship system was based on the idea of passing skills and knowledge down from generation to generation within certain trades, such as blacksmiths, potters, carvers, traders, basket weaving and many other occupations. the apprenticeship system worked on a hierarchical system, with apprentices learning from masters and gaining experience until they were able to start their own business. women did not participate in the traditional apprenticeship system, and were often confined to domestic roles. they were expected to gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 129 acquire skills related to housework, child-raising, and agriculture. this gender-based division of labor limited women’s access to economic opportunity and entrepreneurship. women apprenticeship in recent times has been converted to “imu olu aka”. it has become a trend that young female school graduates who have no money to further her education usually engage herself in learning a skill. hardly you will see a young igbo lady who is not in the university roaming the streets. where you see them will be in their madam’s shop learning one skill or the other. at the expiration of the training, the apprentice will be set free by the madam and given a certificate that certifies that she participated in the training for the said duration. it is not only young and unmarried girls that engage in the said training but young married women also engage in such training. many factors could be attributed to this growing trend. however, we will mention few of them below and they are: a. as a result of changing societal norms, gendered roles and expectations have changed over the years in igbo society. there has been a gradual shift in attitudes towards the empowerment of women and their economic independence. people are beginning to recognize that women can do things that men can only do in the home. b. the role of education and awareness in broadening women’s perspectives the role of education in broadening women's perspectives increased access to education external influences in women’s lives empowerment through education challenge traditional norms non-traditional careers participation in apprenticeship system. c. in light of the economic situation and the need to earn money for the family, some women have started to look for economic opportunities outside of traditional occupations. in igbo, the apprenticeship system is a great way for women to gain skills, become financially independent, and support their families. d. women’s groups, cooperatives, and associations have created a network of support for women who want to join the apprenticeship program. these networks provide mentorship, education, and tools to help women succeed in the apprenticeship program and in various trades. although women's participation in the igbo apprenticeship system has increased, challenges and gender disparities persist. some of these challenges include: e. some trades are still dominated by men, and women often face obstacles when trying to enter these areas. traditional beliefs and prejudices still hold sway in some areas, which limit women’s access to apprenticeship programs in certain trades. f. mentorship and networking opportunities for women apprentices may be limited. women apprentices may find it difficult to find female mentors and network with women in their fields of expertise. lack of role models and networks for women apprentices can make it harder for women to succeed in the apprenticeship process 130 g. women often struggle to find a balance between family duties and apprenticeship education. household duties, child care, and social pressures can make it difficult for women to fully immerse themselves in apprenticeship programs. women’s apprenticeships in eastern nigeria women’s apprenticeships in eastern nigeria is available in a variety of sectors. these apprenticeships involve hands-on learning and the development of practical skills in a particular trade or occupation. apprenticeships vary depending on the region and industry, but here are some of the areas where women can take up apprenticeships in east nigeria: a. apprenticeships in fashion and tailoring: the fashion industry provides apprenticeships for women who want to learn how to construct, pattern-make, and design garments. women can work with skilled tailors and fashion designers to learn how to make traditional nigerian clothing or modern fashion. b. beauty and cosmetology: women who want to learn about beauty and cosmetology can do so by taking an apprenticeship in a beauty salon, a spa, or a cosmetic shop where they can learn about hairdressing techniques, makeup arts, and skincare and other skills related to beauty. c. catering and culinary arts: apprenticeships in the culinary industry are open to women who want to learn how to cook, bake, or work in a restaurant, hotel, or catering business. women can gain hands-on experience in various culinary skills and food preparation. d. arts and crafts: if you're a woman looking to get into arts and crafts, eastern nigeria is a great place to start! you can get an apprenticeship in pottery, beads, weaving, or any other traditional craft. plus, you'll get to work with experienced artisans and learn how to make unique pieces with traditional techniques. e. agriculture and farming: agriculture is an integral part of the economy of eastern nigeria. women can take up apprenticeships in the fields of agriculture, poultry, fishing, and horticulture, learning about crop growing, animal husbandry, and sustainable agriculture. f. trade and commerce: apprenticeships are also available for women in a range of trades and commercial fields, including retail and merchandising apprenticeships and small business management apprenticeships. women can gain hands-on experience in business management, customer service and marketing. apprenticeship opportunities can be found through local trade associations, community organizations or directly by contacting professionals in your field. networking, asking questions about available apprenticeships and showing enthusiasm and commitment will increase your chances of getting an apprenticeship position. efforts are ongoing to overcome these obstacles and ensure greater gender balance within the igbos apprenticeship system. nongovernmental organisations (ngos), government initiatives and advocacy groups are providing mentorship, training and support specifically for women apprentices. awareness gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 131 campaigns and education programs are also being implemented to break gender stereotypes and promote a more inclusive apprenticeship approach. it is worthy to note that in recent times, igbo women has cut across so many barriers and are doing so well not only in skills but as owners of businesses themselves. as culled from linkedin list of richest igbo women and their sources of wealth.  dr. stella okoli who hails from nnewi, anambra state, is the founder and manager of emzor pharmaceuticals, which produces and distributes over 30 drugs across africa. she has an estimated net worth of 800 million u.s dollars.  pearlena igbokwe is the chairman of universal studio group, a division of nbc universal. she was in charge of creative development, casting, and production which produced wonderful series like "the good place", " new amsterdam, and russian doll". she also produced top-rated programs like "the blacklist", "blindspot", and "this is us". she has an estimated net worth of 50 million dollars.  arunma oteh. a native of abia state, she is a prominent woman in the business world, and one of the richest igbo women in nigeria. she was the treasurer and vice president of the world bank, and she served as the director-general of the securities and exchange commission, (sec) in nigeria. she has also worked for the havard institute for international development, and the centre point investments limited in nigeria. she was recognized on the powerlist 2020 for the most influential people in the u.k of african/african-caribbean heritage. her exact net worth is yet to be known  linda ikeji can best be described as the "queen of blogging". she is the founder of “lindaikeji’s blog", the most recognized blog in africa. she is also an entrepreneur and writer. she is a public figure from nkwerre, imo state. forbes describes her as a powerful and influential woman. she is also considered the 17th most powerful woman in journalism. she has an estimated net worth of 40 million u.s dollars.  genevive nnaji. she is a well-known nigerian actress that has appeared in over 100 movies. she comes from mbaise, imo state. she was the first lady to win an award from africa movie academy awards and city people awards for best nigerian actress. she was reportedly paid 3.8 million dollars by netflix for the movie, "lionheart"  diezani alison. madueke is a nigerian female politician and the first woman to head opec as its president. she was also the first female minister for transportation and petroleum resources. according to forbes, she has an estimated net worth of 500 million u.s dollars.  stella oduah is a nigerian senator and a native of anambra state. she served as onetime minister for aviation and the director of finance and administration during former president goodluck ebele jonathan's campaign. she has an estimated net worth of 600 million u.s dollars. 132 women’s participation in apprenticeship varies across south east nigeria depending on the region, culture, and social norms. traditionally, women have participated in apprenticeships in some trades, but there are still considerable gender gaps in terms of access and opportunities nnewi women are an important group of women from the southeast region of nigeria. they are well-known for their hard work, enterprise, and contribution to the economical and social growth of their society. nnewi is the capital of anambra state, which is located in the southeast part of the country. women have played an important role in the development of the economy of the state, especially in trade, manufacturing and commerce. women in nnewi are wellversed in business and have achieved success in various business activities, such as trading in fabrics and jewelry, food and consumer goods. nnewi women have built successful businesses and are active in both domestic and foreign trade. they are known for their resilience, diligence, and ability to adjust to changing market circumstances. some women have gone into manufacturing industries, including automobile spare parts, plastic, and electronics, which have contributed to the town’s industrial development. women are also active in community development and philanthropic activities. they have established various women’s organizations and associations to deal with issues that affect their community, including education, health, and women’s empowerment. these groups provide mentorship and support to younger women, who are encouraged to pursue education and business. nnewi women are also active in the sale of consumer goods. nnewi women not only contribute to the economy but also play an active role in the social and cultural life of the community. nnewi women take part in the traditional ceremonies, festivals and cultural events to preserve and promote the culture of the igbo nation. all in all, the south east nnewi women have proven to be a force to be reckoned with in terms of strength, resilience and determination. they have played an important role in the economic, social and cultural development of their communities and continue to be a source of inspiration for future generations of women across nigeria. apprenticeship is an integral part of south east nigeria’s culture and economy. it is a way for people to gain professional skills and knowledge. traditionally, apprenticeships have been mainly for men, and some trades have been seen as more appropriate for women. this is especially true of tailoring, hairstyling, cooking, ceramics, and traditional handicrafts. in recent years, however, women’s involvement in apprenticeship has become increasingly important. governments, ngos, and community-based initiatives have been working to improve gender equality and women’s empowerment through skill acquisition programmes. these programs are designed to break down gender barriers and provide women with the opportunity to learn and develop skills in various trades. these programs often include apprenticeship training programs, apprenticeship workshops, and apprenticeship mentorship programs. by promoting and supporting women’s participation in apprenticeship, they help to increase their economic independence and overall empowerment. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 133 women involvement in apprenticeship has gone far and has equally evolved as we can see. women apprentices in the igbo apprenticeship system can benefit in several ways from their madams (female mentors or trainers). these benefits include: a. skill development: apprenticeship provides women with hands-on training and practical skills in a specific trade or profession. their madams serve as experienced mentors who pass on their knowledge, expertise, and techniques. through this mentorship, women apprentices gain valuable skills that can help them establish their own businesses or secure employment opportunities in the future. b. access to networks: the relationship between apprentices and their madams often extends beyond the training period. madams can introduce apprentices to their networks of clients, suppliers, and other professionals in the industry. this access to networks can help women apprentices establish connections, build relationships, and expand their professional opportunities. c. guidance and support: madams play a crucial role in providing guidance and support to their apprentices. they offer advice, share experiences, and help apprentices navigate the challenges and complexities of their chosen trade. this mentorship can boost apprentices' confidence, provide emotional support, and help them overcome obstacles they may face during their training and beyond. d. business and financial knowledge: in addition to technical skills, madams often impart business and financial knowledge to their apprentices. they may teach apprentices about pricing, budgeting, customer relations, and marketing strategies. this knowledge equips women apprentices with a well-rounded understanding of their trade and enhances their entrepreneurial capabilities. e. role modeling: madams who have succeeded in their respective trades serve as role models for women apprentices. their achievements and accomplishments inspire apprentices and demonstrate that women can excel in traditionally male-dominated industries. seeing successful women in leadership positions encourages apprentices to pursue their goals with determination and challenges societal norms and expectations. f. empowerment and independence: the apprenticeship system provides women with opportunities for economic empowerment and independence. by learning a trade, women gain the skills and knowledge necessary to generate income and support themselves financially. this economic independence can have a transformative effect on their lives, enabling them to make decisions, contribute to their families' well-being, and exert agency in their communities. overall, the relationship between women apprentices and their madams offers numerous benefits, including skill development, access to networks, guidance, business knowledge, role modeling, and empowerment. by investing in women's training and mentorship, the igbo apprenticeship system can contribute to breaking down gender barriers, promoting gender equality, and fostering the economic and social advancement of women in south east nigeria. 134 entrepreneurship entrepreneurship is a multifaceted concept that has been studied and defined by scholars from various disciplines. hisrich, r. d et al (2017) said that "entrepreneurship is the process of creating value by bringing together a unique combination of resources to exploit an opportunity and generate innovative ideas that result in the establishment of a new venture." shane, s (2000) also said that "entrepreneurship refers to the process by which individuals, either independently or within organizations, identify, evaluate, and exploit opportunities to create value through innovation. it involves the combination of resources, including human, financial, and social capital, to launch and grow new ventures or foster entrepreneurial activities within existing organizations." alvarez, s. a (2007) said that: "entrepreneurship is the process by which individuals, teams, or organizations identify and pursue entrepreneurial opportunities without being immediately constrained by the resources they currently control." entrepreneurship is generally referred to as the process of identifying, creating, and pursuing opportunities to start and manage a business or organization. it involves the willingness and ability to take risks, innovate, and mobilize resources in order to transform ideas into viable ventures. entrepreneurs are individuals who exhibit entrepreneurial traits and behaviors, such as being proactive, opportunity-oriented, and resilient. entrepreneurship encompasses a wide range of activities, including: a. opportunity identification: entrepreneurs are those who are able to identify and evaluate opportunities in the marketplace or society that are often overlooked by others. they can identify unmet demand, market opportunities, or problem solving solutions. b. innovation and creativity: entrepreneurs are people who are able to identify and evaluate opportunities in the marketplace or society. they find gaps in the market or innovative solutions to issues that others may not see. c. risk-taking: entrepreneurs are risk-averse and willing to embrace the uncertainty and risk of failure that comes with starting and managing a business. risk-averse because they recognize that risk is inherent in the pursuit of opportunity and are willing to confront and manage it. d. resource mobilization: in order to run a successful business, you need to have access to and use a wide range of assets. these assets include but are not limited to: financial capital (equity) human capital (people, skills, and talent) social capital (network and relationships) physical assets. e. business planning and execution: business plans are the strategic documents that an entrepreneur creates outlining their vision, objectives, plans, and operational elements. business plans are executed by the management of operations, marketing strategy, sales strategy, finance strategy, and other essential elements of the business. f. growth and scaling: growth and scalability are at the core of entrepreneurship. as an entrepreneur, your goal is to grow your business, gain market share, and discover new markets or growth opportunities. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 135 entrepreneurship is not just about creating new businesses. it is also about taking part in entrepreneurial activities in your organization. for example, intra-preneurship involves employees engaging in entrepreneurial behaviors to drive innovation and growth. in conclusion, entrepreneurship is a dynamic, multi-dimensional process that creates new opportunities, drives economic growth, drives innovation, and drives social progress through positive change. apprenticeship program aims to foster the entrepreneurial mindset within your organization. economic empowerment economic empowerment refers to the ability of individuals or communities to improve their economic status, gain control over economic resources, and have the freedom to make economic decisions that shape their lives. it involves enhancing access to economic opportunities, resources, and markets, as well as increasing income, asset ownership, and economic security" (kabeer, 2005). "economic empowerment denotes the process of enhancing individuals' or groups' capacity to access, controls, and benefit from economic resources, assets, and opportunities. it involves the removal of systemic barriers, the provision of relevant skills and knowledge, and the creation of an enabling environment that enables individuals to generate sustainable income, improve livelihoods, and achieve economic selfsufficiency" (narayan, 2010). economic empowerment is the process of giving people or communities more power and influence over their financial opportunities, resources, and decision-making. it entails giving people the tools they need to raise their income, improve their overall economic status, and improve their financial well-being. economic empowerment includes a variety of elements, such as: a. ensuring that underserved and marginalized populations have access to and use financial services like banking, savings, credit, and insurance. this makes it possible for people to manage their finances, accumulate savings, and make investments in sources of income. b. creating opportunities for people to acquire the knowledge, education, and vocational training they need to improve their employability, their capacity for entrepreneurship, and their ability to earn money. individuals can access better job prospects and incomegenerating opportunities by expanding their knowledge and capabilities. c. supporting programs and policies that encourage job creation, lower unemployment, and improve labor market participation. this can entail activities like fostering entrepreneurship, assisting small and medium-sized businesses (smes), and enhancing methods for matching job candidates with open positions d. gender equality involves addressing differences in economic opportunity and participation based on gender. initiatives for economic empowerment frequently 136 concentrate on reducing the gender gap by promoting equal access for women and girls to financial services, education, employment, and entrepreneurship. e. ensuring fair access to economic resources like markets, capital, land, and technology. by granting people access to these resources, they can improve their quality of life by participating in profitable economic activities. f. social safety nets are put in place to lessen economic vulnerabilities and shield people and communities from shocks and risks. examples include conditional cash transfers, unemployment benefits, and health insurance. g. providing training, mentoring, access to capital, and market opportunities to support the growth of small businesses, startups, and entrepreneurship. entrepreneurship can foster innovation, spur economic growth, and create jobs. h. although igbo apprenticeships for women are still lower than apprenticeships for men, there are several promising female apprenticeships. empowering individuals and communities through economic empowerment plays a vital role in poverty reduction and social inclusion, as well as in sustainable development. through economic empowerment, inequalities are reduced, productivity increases, and a more prosperous and inclusive society is created. evaluation and conclusion the igbo apprenticeship system is one of the socio-economic institutions in south east nigeria that has had a significant influence on the gender dynamics of the region. in the past, the majority of apprenticeship positions in the system belonged to men and women had a limited presence in the system. over the past few years, the apprenticeship system has changed significantly in terms of the participation of women. the apprenticeship system has always been based on masculine values. cultural norms and traditional beliefs taught women that some skills and occupations are more suitable for men. this has meant that women were limited to doing domestic work and working in informal industries. on the other hand, men were able to monopolize lucrative and prestigious jobs. exclusion of women from the apprenticeship scheme contributes to their economic disadvantages and worsens gender inequality. women’s economic position in nigeria, urbanization, increased access to education, and globalizations have all contributed to the development of the igbo apprenticeship system. these factors have enabled women to break the traditional gender roles and occupy occupations that are traditionally dominated by men. women entrepreneurs, women’s education, cultural changes, and support from women’s organizations have all played a role in women’s involvement in the system. however, as women have started to participate in the system of apprenticeship in igbo, they have faced many challenges and obstacles. gender stereotypes, cultural resistance, and the persistence of patriarchal values are some of the reasons why women are not able to enter and succeed in certain trades. other factors that impede women’s progress include discrimination, limited access to resources, and the burden of household duties. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 137 despite these challenges, women's participation in apprenticeship in igbo has been on the rise. women's involvement in apprenticeship has resulted in many positive outcomes, such as economic independence, improved social status, and greater power in the family and community. successful women who enter and excel at apprenticeship become role models for other women to follow, challenging traditional gender roles, and pursuing career paths that are not expected of them. to improve women's participation in our apprenticeship system, we need to overcome socio-cultural obstacles and implement inclusive practices. this can be done by raising awareness, sensitizing the public, and implementing policy interventions that support women's education, training, and access to finance. collaboration between women's organizations, government agencies, and traditional institutions will also help to create an enabling environment that values and supports women's involvement in a wide range of trades. in short, south east nigeria’s apprenticeship system has traditionally been dominated by men. however, more and more women have started to participate in the apprenticeship system. although there are still challenges, women are beginning to overcome these barriers and diversify into different trades. this is helping them to become financially independent and challenging the traditional gender roles. we must continue to work towards making the apprenticeship system more inclusive and work for everyone in the region. 138 references https://explore.darwinbox.com/hr-glossary/apprenticeship accessed july 14 23 research associate, centre for economic performance, london school of economics and political science h.steedman@lse.ac.uk ryan p., k. wagner, s. teuber, u. backes-gellner, (2010). trainee pay in britain, germany and switzerland: markets and institutions skope research paper no. 96 july. ogochukwu agatha okpokwasili (2023) “sisterhood: a feminist approach to african’s igwebuike” pope john paul ii journal of philosophy, vol 2, no.1 p 170 martin heidegger (1927) "being and time," ezeajughu m (2021) “the igbo apprenticeship system: nigeria’s gateway to world dominance”. international journal of research culture society pg 46 njoku, chinedu f. "the igbo traditional apprenticeship system: the nexus of education, informal sector, and poverty reduction in nigeria." anthropologist 14, no. 3 (2012): 231-237. uchendu, victor c. "the igbo apprentice system." research in african literatures 16, no. 3 (1985): 395-413. alvarez, s. a., & barney, j. b. (2007). discovery and creation: alternative theories of entrepreneurial action. strategic entrepreneurship journal, 1(1-2), manuela. e, lorna.c (2019) the role of language and symbols in promotional strategies and marketing schemes , igi global riggs dw (20190 “working with transgender young people and their families: a critical developmental approach”. cham: springer international publishing; corbett k. (2008) “gender now: psychoanal dialogues”. 18(6):838–56. springer publications hisrich, r. d., peters, m. p., & shepherd, d. a. (2017). entrepreneurship. mcgraw-hill education shane, s., & venkataraman, s. (2000). the promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. academy of management review, 25(1), 217-226. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/top-richest-igbo-women-nigeria-networth-queenofthepen kabeer, n. (2005). is microfinance a 'magic bullet' for women's empowerment? analysis of findings from south asia. economic and political weekly, 40(44/45), 4709-4718 narayan, d. (2010). measuring empowerment: cross-disciplinary perspectives. the world bank research observer, 25(1), 15-51. gender dynamics in the igbo apprenticeship system: exploring women's … o.a. okpokwasili, phd & i.n. onwuatuegwu, phd https://explore.darwinbox.com/hr-glossary/apprenticeship mailto:h.steedman@lse.ac.uk https://www.igi-global.com/book/role-language-symbols-promotional-strategies/192043 https://www.igi-global.com/book/role-language-symbols-promotional-strategies/192043 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr abstract this paper on “democracy and african political development: problems and prospects” is an attempt to assess the level of growth, acceptability, challenges and the future of democracy in africa. it identifies major problems or challenges facing the practice and entrenchment of democracy in africa, including: military incursion in politics, sit-tight syndrome, illiteracy, poverty, weak institutions, the challenge of communication, violence, imposition of candidates in elections, negative influence of religion and endemic corruption. using analytic method, the paper discovers that these problems are artificial and remains due to inherent selfishness of african leaders; but are surmountable when inclusiveness is encouraged in the politics of african states. the work also establishes that african democracy ought to be modelled and influenced by african ideology of communalism, which entails egalitarianism. the work concludes that democracy ought to be the best alternative in contemporary africa and a veritable source of development. it recommends amongst other things that internal democracy should be entrenched in the political parties and education of citizens as a panacea to solving the problem of political underdevelopment that is militating against democracy. keywords: democracy, corruption, political development, african political development, african development. introduction the development of democracy as a form of socio-political system of government is traceable to the age-long demand for freedom as a prerequisite for citizens' rights. from aristotle's city-state to the contemporary mega states, the demand for freedom by citizens was and still is sustained through various forms of agitations, demonstrations and resolutions. the freedom to decide an acceptable form of government through a collective decision by the individuals and groups concerned leads ultimately, to accepting personal and collective responsibilities is, of course, a form of democratic ideals. democracy and development are interrelated and remain an integral part of the features of socialized government that defines the roles of individual and collective engagement of citizens in the task of running any particular form of government. the nature of african life and the mode of their living both in private and public or social settings are overtly engrafted into the thinking and nature of african society. african society is predominantly socially oriented. modern and contemporary democracy in african focus at egalitarian society where the rights and privileges of citizens are protected and every citizen is treated equally without undue preferences occasioned by myopic, ethnic and chauvinistic biases. from the foregoing, this work attempts to assess the development and impart impact of democracy and its influence on african experience. as expected, this work shall endeavor to clarify the concept of democracy and political development. furthermore, effort shall be tailored democracy and african political development: problems and prospects elijah okon john, prof. & ekpema udofia nkanang, ph.d department of philosophy university of uyo, uyo, phone: +234(0)7032878735 e mail: elijahjohn@uniuyo.edu.ng 39 towards assessing various problems and challenges facing democracy as a system of government and development strategy. attempts to examine the prospects of democracy as understood and practiced in line with african social ambience and orientation shall be considered. understanding african democracy and political development the communal living which characterised the ambience of african traditional society largely informs us about the understanding, application and general practice of democracy in africa. that is to say, democracy is a contextualized system of government in africa. the nature of african democracy reflects the nature of african system and thought. togetherness can best describe the perception of an african man towards another. this idea of togetherness, in this way, is not detached from collective decisions, actions and responsibilities. if democracy in the west involves participation of the masses in organising their future and society through peaceful and orderly selection of leadership, then, african democracy does not need to be westernised for it to be relevant or result-oriented to the people because, the very nature of african life is characterised by communalistic living and have been the preferred system of integration and cooperation from the beginning of the sociopolitical configuration called africa. the communalistic practice now called democracy has been, from time immemorial, the usual and effective system of government known to the traditional institution nay traditional african society. the advent of modern democracy in africa and its involvement in political development as a foreign product introduced by the western colonisers is a misnomer, fallacious and a mistaken conclusion. the basis for integration in african society, be it matrimony, patrimony, monarchy and any other form of defined system of ruling, is still part and parcel of the system of “give and take”, “live and let's live” strategy which has endeared africans. although westernization of african communities through colonialism has dealt a big blow to communal african spirit in recent years, but in spite of the problem and challenges of xenophobia being one of its negative influences, majority of africans still retain the harmonious living spirit which is characterised in their organum and translated to african moral dictum of “being our brothers' keepers”. this perhaps, is far from a sense in which the western idea of democracy is represented. democracy emphasizes the idea of collective bargaining, existence of pressure groups to press home demands for better life through enforcement of decisions and principles that guarantee total protection for citizens. d. d. raphael (147) believes that "democracy in a sense means following the view of the majority". the phrase: “for the people” by abraham lincoln and rousseau's concept of the 'general will' opt for the participation of the masses or citizens in governance through few selected individuals who are first and famous, elected by the people to represent them by being their mouth piece and exercising completely, the sovereign will of the people who are the legitimate sovereigns which they owe allegiance to. african society is of course, at the top of this enforcement. african democracy is devoid of cosmetic and window dressing approach to social justice which we have unfortunately experienced through western democracy, which is viciously warlike with clashing and confrontational mode of agitations. before now, these vicious strategies of gaining control of government and achieving group's goals, objectives and demands were not identified with african system. in fact, the recently practice of military democracy and selfish capitalist's economic and political regime is far from being africa's preferred strategy of governance. the concept of democracy apart from the etymological definition of democracy which derives its meaning from the greek root demos which translates to 'people' and kratos meaning 'rules' thus, connoting rule by the people; rule by the masses; rule for the generality of the populace. democracy as understood by 40 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 one time american president, abraham lincoln in his gettysburg address is: "government of the people, by the people and for the people". judging from the greek root demos and kratos, we infer with categorical exactness that democracy as practiced by africans as a populist political system and method of government that allows for massive participation of citizenry in party activities, general elections and major interactions through what is currently phrased as the 'town-hall meeting' which avails the citizens an opportunity of addressing major and nagging issues affecting the people; and, in some cases, selecting leadership through balloting. elijah john in his book man and the state (2020:99) believes that democracy as a concept is difficult to define. he explains that the difficulty in definition “is not because the concept is vague like so many political terms, but more importantly, because democracy is complete polymorphous concept. hence, he submits: “it is common for one to talk of 'participatory', 'popular', 'consensus', 'guided', 'bourgeois', 'liberal'... eastern democracy, western democracy, among others. secondly, the difficulty is that what “one person would regard as a paradigm for democracy, another would deny it as democracy" (2020:99). john's submission above is to buttress the point that democracy exists with different strands and evokes different interpretations and understandings. some scholars like rubushka (81), anam-ndu (152) and mchenry (5) consider democracy not just as a form of government, but as a particular method of government where the rights and privileges of citizens are guaranteed; where the citizens freely exercise their franchise and participate in selecting the government they want; and where the citizens know the rules and follow it in all aspects of their engagement in government as constitution provides and guarantees such freedom; for instance: freedom of speech, of peaceful association, freedom to property and all other human rights as provided by the united nations charter on human rights. this understanding of democracy is somewhat a contemporary inclined position. on his part, nnamdi azikiwe understands democracy to mean: “the rule of the people by its majority inhabitants and includes a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation, usually involving, periodically held free and fair elections” (1937: 23). the general understanding of democracy is that it is a system that encourages timely conduct of elections which allows their citizens the privilege of participating and aspiring to various political offices as a right. the nature of such an election is not a kind that is marred by violence and various other forms of irregularities but a kind that is judged free and fair. in his characteristic, “pragmatic and instrumentalist” dispositions, john dewey considers democracy both as a system and a method of government. he believes that democracy is “the settling for free use of the experimental method in social inquiry and thought, which is required for the solution of concrete social, political and industrial problems” (john, 2020: 104). appadorai (137) is of the opinion that democracy maybe described as a system of government under which the people exercise the governing power either directly or through representatives periodically elected by them. he further explains that a state may, in political sense, be termed as democracy if it strengthens the institutions for the expression and, in the final analysis, the supremacy of the popular will on basic questions of social direction and policy. moreover, appadorai considers the fact that "political liberty is the indispensable minimum" qualification for democracy. where such minimum standard of freedom or liberty is not guaranteed, then the claim for existence of democracy is definitely in doubt. he highlights these indispensable minimum provisions for democratic entrenchment to include: equal rights of all normal adult to vote and stand as candidates for periodical elections, equal eligibility for executive and judicial offices (provided the essential qualifications for the performance of these duties are satisfied); and 41 elijah & ekpema democracy and african political development: problems and prospects freedom of speech, publication and association. these rights provide the opportunities for political participation, that is, for choosing rulers and deciding the general lines of their policy, they enable those who are so minded to devote themselves to political problems as much as they please. among the political rights outlined above, stress must be laid on the rights of speech, publication and association. these rights are integral to democracy because they make possible free discussions and the continuous participation of the people in the government, not only in time of the general elections (appadorai, 137-138). from appadorai's submissions above, we can appreciate the importance of freedom of speech and necessity of media functioning as basic ingredients for democratic governance. free association of citizens is one aspect that must be allowed in the state before we can accept such system as democracy. blackburn on his part reasons that "in modern society, the sovereignty of the people in general is expressed not directly by a vote on individual question, but through representatives. he however raises concern whether these various mechanisms can ensure that decision making authentically answers to the people or serves their interest. he further submits that the problem of eliminating a democratic constitution howsoever suggest that political democracy is hallow” (blackburn, 93). thus, harold laski's assessment of modern democracy as an option for totalitarianism. as expressed above, one discover that democracy occurs in different forms and entails complicated economic relationships with other countries of the world. besides, democracy occurs in different forms of economic and political indices such as capitalism, socialism, welfarism, etc. following these different forms of democracy as explained earlier, scholars like john rawls and nnamdiazikiwe emphasize on a welfarist form of democracy where the resources of the state are managed and shared to citizens as primary responsibility of the state towards the welfare of its members. (popkin and stroll, 106; igwe, 187 -191). all these forms of democracy are necessary for engaging in development agenda of any society and african political development is not an exception. however, as had been observed earlier in the work, emphasis on modern form of democracy is not alien to african, in terms of social, political and economic integrations, african society has set a model that cannot be ignored even by the socalled developed democracies. for instance, african communalism exemplifies in ujaama of julius nyerere and connsciencism of kwame nkrumah are ideologies focused on socialism and welfarism which are typical of african practice; all expressing cooperation, freedom and responsibility to one another as 'brother's keeper'. this sense of unity, togetherness or communal living creates a possible opportunity for inter-personal discussions in all aspect of social life. it encourages and enforces a bond of unity and inclusiveness in the minds of citizens, it is this sense of collectiveness in decision making and action which gives a sense of collective responsibility that makes mcleam and macmillan believe that democracy as "a descriptive term is synonymous with majority rule" (139). the majority rule typically finds its meaning in an egalitarian society where there is emphasis on equal rights and rule of law. thus, african democracy thrives through deep rooted communalism and inclusiveness that elevate the spirit of african brotherhood towards building and sustaining egalitarian system that gives vent to equality and liberty. if the tenets of democracy include freedom of the citizens, then any freedom enjoyed under democratic system is not freedom in disguise that tends to enslave the citizens in a way and manner that they cannot enjoy their inalienable rights to life, such as freedoms of speech, association and movement, then it is a dubious freedom; freedom that cannot erode all forms of neo-colonialism and its attendant negative effects on the citizens. the nature of african democracy encourages massive participation and representation 42 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 of all stakeholders in a political system, but modern african democracy tends to follow western democratic ideals and trend which is suffering from blending and synchronisation of the best elements of ancient african democracy that thrive through mutual trust and deep sense of brotherhood exemplified in communal living and sharing and considers human life as sacred; urging respect and protection for citizens' lives as a major responsibility of leadership in piloting the machinery of government and its affairs. challenges facing african democracy and political development in this section attempt shall briefly discuss some of the inherent challenges facing democratic development in africa. we cannot deny the fact that there are numerous problems facing democracy and political development in africa. some of these problems are natural and others are artificial. that is to say, some of the problems are caused by african cosmogony and heterogenic nature, while others are manmade and motivated by ignorance and greed. the following will buttress the assertion made above: election rigging: one of the ingredients of democratic practice and development is timely conduct of election that is seem to be fair, free and peaceful. davidson and oleszek in tunde opeibi's discourse, politics and the 1993 presidential election campaigns in nigeria (2009:6), observing the importance of elections, held that "elections celebrate the individual citizens' membership and participation in the community's decisions and thus allowing the voters to signal their approval of the regime in power or to express their disapproval and set in motion an orderly transfer of power. in africa, the electioneering exercise is constantly turned into violence and in the process human lives and property are lost. typical examples abound in countries like nigeria, senegal, liberia, zimbabwe, gambia, etc. however, in recent times, some african countries have started learning the lessons that violence during elections is like a whirl wind that blows no one any good, as a result, conscious efforts have been made by stakeholders to ensure a hitch free exercise though pockets of violence become inevitable at times. other negative tendencies that characterise elections in africa include: vote buying, thuggery, ballot box snatching, ballot paper stuffing, change of original result of opponents in favour of particular individuals or government preferred candidates, unnecessary inducement, false propaganda during electioneering campaign (that is, spreading of falsehood), incitement of electorate against government and the contestants as the case may be, disenfranchisement of electorate by election officials and political gladiators, over voting, under-age voting, etc. lack of proper political communication and wrong use of language: political communication has been a major set-back to political development and promotion of democracy in africa. but in recent times, the advent of gsm, social media, and other communication platforms including internet, facebook, messenger, twitter handle, instagram, whatsapp, etc, have aided tremendously in easy dissemination of information. besides, the establishment and installation of high frequency radios and television stations by government and private individuals have helped in no small way in dissemination of information. also, the role played by print media cannot be overemphasized. the programmes of government and political parties are communicated with ease through the above mentioned media. nevertheless, we cannot pretend that the challenge of information and communication is completely surmounted. the reason for this conclusion is due to unfavourable network terrains that most african electorates are faced with and this has negatively affected the free and speedy flow of information. but fabulous effort is being made to spread development programmes to such difficult terrains through construction of 'road network, rail system and installation of high 43 elijah & ekpema democracy and african political development: problems and prospects frequency and digital media gadgets. opeibi (1995:16) observes that "in recent times, political communication has occupied a centre stage in discourses on governance because democracy as a form of government itself has become a global phenomenon". political development and democracy cannot adequately thrive without addressing the challenges of communication channels. in some cases, wrong information in form of propaganda and attempt to sabotage the efforts of government and integrity of opponents in an election may be disseminated to the electorates who have no means of verifying such information. before they realise that the information they had was not correct, a lot of damages may have been done both to government and the affected individuals whose integrity might have been soiled and their characters assassinated. it is therefore of importance and necessity for electoral bodies and government to address squarely the communication challenge if democratic development in africa must be sustained. in our digital age, it is proper for relevant agencies of government and non-governmental organisations (ngos) to campaign for and ensure that an up to date communication equipment are provided for speedy and right-channelled dissemination of information. it is also necessary to observe that wrong use of language and uncontrolled hate speeches have characterised most african political campaign outings. that is to say, wrong use of language of politics is a challenge to ideal and ideological electioneering process in african clime. beard in his the language of politics has clearly shown the relevance of language in political development when he reasons that “looking at the language of politics as an occupation is important because it helps us to understand how language is used by those who wish to gain power, those who wish to exercise power and those who wish to keep power” (2). in a similar perspective, christiana schaffner (202) believes that in linguistic literature, political language has been used either to donate the use of language in the content of politics, that is, a specific language use with the purpose of anchoring a specific politically motivated function. she justifies two types of political communication which are: internal and external political communications. the internal political communication concerns discussions that centres on "functioning of politics within political institutions, that is, governmental bodies, parties or other organisations", while external political communication is aimed primarily at "general public, especially the non-politicians for the purpose of carrying them along on government activities and other political developments around them" (202). the essence of analysing the language of politics here is to draw attention to the necessity of proper utilization of political language not as a means to deceiving the public but as a machine for proper articulation of political ideals and programmes to the understanding of the populace. communication, and perhaps right communication for that matter, is a panacea for the problem of misinformation and misrepresentation of government, political parties and other interest groups' strategies that have been misconstrued and is currently setting a wrong political and antidevelopment agenda in our society. of course, right and strategic information is a means of overcoming the deformity occasioned by misinformation. one fact is clear: either we are properly informed or (improperly) deformed. in either way, the effect on the lives of people in the society and from government programmes cannot be underestimated. struggle for power: african democratic process has over the years experienced fierce battle or struggle for power. power play at all tiers of government has negatively affected the progress of african nations. roche and stedman in their joint work: the dynamics of democratic government, aptly observe that, "among the most complex problems that rise to plague democratic government are those which relate to the extent and basis of executive power" (322), since absolute power is said to corrupt absolutely. however, there are those who maintain that strong or vigorous leadership is a dangerous proposition, while others, like the great political 44 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 sociologists, mosca and michel, according to john rosche and murrays syedman, are of the opinion that "leadership is by its very nature undemocratic" (322). their assertion is of course, directly or indirectly inferring that leadership cannot be democratic since the trace of autocracy has been implanted in every leader. to this end, two opposing ideas resurface: some persons are of the opinion that strong democratic executive is not necessary on the ground that they are likely to manipulate the process and ignore the ideals of government to satisfy personal ego and run away with the resources of the state, while the other group believes that strong leadership is necessary since democracy is a facade, a "political formula" which clever leaders use to convince the masses that they are working in the best interest of the society as a whole. we can appreciate the level of misunderstanding of the use and function of power that is, democratic leadership power. one has to agree with those who kick against dictatorial leadership. our experience in africa (and most especially, amongst countries that practise what we may call camouflage democracy) is the fact that few groups of people often runaway with government. they do this through various means: either by ignoring the people after assuming office; siphoning their money from the treasury and heaping them in foreign lands; creating a barrier that makes it difficult for anybody to approach or confront them on issues of good governance or embarking on vicious power mongering expedition such as unjust arrest or detention of oppositions on trumped up cases; withdrawal of aids and incentives from the people and concentrating such aids and incentives within small enclave of political and family bourgeois; and creating insecurity that may climax in incessant and sustained assassination of innocent people who are seen as posing a threat on their stands on certain issues of governance. power struggle is a challenge that has to be handled with care if meaningful achievement is to be attained by government. political power should not be seen as an end in itself but rather, in the right sense of the word, a means to an end and should be taken as such. if we acquire political power to serve the people, then it should be acquired in a most responsible manner that is devoid of physical and psychological assassinations of the very people we aspire to serve. the physical and psychological assassinations, in this case, involve spilling of blood and destruction of individual's character, respectively. those who struggle for power should endeavour to imbibe acceptable ethical code of conduct in order to avoid a rancorous situation that will destroy the peace and progress of the society. military incursion: military incursion into politics is one of the unfortunate experiences and the worst destabilizing factor in african political system. in majority of cases, military takeover of government has negatively affected the development of political life in african society. the military, on taking over power run a unitary government with minimal number of civilian involvement in the administration. the constitution as a basic democratic principle of government is often suspended. the supreme leader rules only with degrees promulgated by the supreme military council that acts as an alternative legislature at the same time wielding executive powers. during this time, major political activities are suspended, the existence of pressure groups which is one of the features of liberal democracy ceases; thus, giving room for the regime to rule the society with naked force. the recent experience of military incursions in some west african nations bears one out on this score. through the brazen use of barrels of gun instead of reasoning, which liberalizes the process of good governance, the military personnel rule with impunity. in fact, groups' agitation for a return to democracy and infrastructural development is met with stiff punishment and in most case, death penalty is pronounced and execution of agitators carried out with immediate effect and with ease. typical example of this scenario in nigeria's history was the execution of ogoni chiefs including ken saro-wiwa – a human right activist and 'environmentalist who 45 elijah & ekpema democracy and african political development: problems and prospects clamoured for a better deal for his people. however, other small sections of the african society would be comfortable with a call for military incursion in politics. it is a matter of individual and group's preference after taking into cognizance what one stands to gain or lose in the process of military incursion. once there is a disagreement in the political party where some individuals feel their interest is not protected, they will immediately contact the military politicians to overthrow the government. they do this in connivance with some self-seeking civilian politicians who move to act primarily on selfish' interest. in some cases, such individuals are compensated with appointments and huge contracts by the military government if the coup d'état is successful. on this account, therefore, we may assume that selfish or egocentric political and economic manoeuvre is one of the factors militating against the realisation and entrenchment of democratic ideals in african system and this may be the reason that africa is lacking behind in development both in politics and infrastructure. this egoistic, egocentric and narrow-minded political calculations by certain powerful individuals in the society usually lead to instability in the political calendar of democratic society. if we must achieve a steady political development in africa, such egocentric and egoistic individuals must be put under check. god-fatherism: one can identify the problem of god-fatherism which has characterised the democratic landscape of african countries. god-fatherism breeds jealousy, hatred, nepotism and puts unnecessary pressure that becomes counterproductive as far as peace, progress and stability of government and society is concerned. what these god-fathers want is to have unflinching access to the machinery of government and influenced executive and parliamentary decisions in order to satisfy their whims and caprices. they are known to have often hand-picked less qualified individuals, close relations and associates and impose them on the populace during political selections. this is one reason some persons see elections in african as mere 'selectocracy' instead of real and direct elections where every party in the race is protected and allowed to compete freely and favourably. once there is a level playing ground in an election, the contestants will have no option than to accept the result and congratulate the winner. and in such atmosphere, the winner will ensure that the fellow contestants who could not win are carried along, accommodated and rewarded when they assume office because in every competition, there must always be a winner. weak institutions: weak institutions in africa constitute a major set-back to democracy. respective institutions that should support democracy in africa are weak and corrupt. in this circumstance, the possibility of having vibrant democratic culture is very slim. john has succinctly submits thus: the judiciary, the security agencies like the police force, economic and financial crimes commission (efcc), independent corrup practices and other related offences (icpc), the legislature, labour unions, directorate of state security (dss), independent national electoral commission (inec), the press, civil society groups, religious, economics, political parties and other trade and professional bodies are highly sentimental, bias, corrupt and, as a result, very weak and incapable of supporting democratic ideals in different african nations. (2019:229). sit-tight syndrome: another major challenge to democratic development in africa is the sittight syndrome of some africa leaders. experience of this situation abounds in some african countries. we cannot forget the political uproar in libya, morocco, egypt, zimbabwe, gambia, kenya, cameron, ethiopia, democratic republic of congo; and even up to 1990's apartheid regime in south africa, that experienced the sit-tight syndrome of some of their past and current leaders. this sit-tight syndrome had been experienced also in nigeria during the regimes of 46 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 gowon, babangida, abacha and even obasanjo. african leaders are noted for attempting and at times succeeding in perpetuating their stay in the corridor of power by amending degrees or electoral acts and the constitution to favour their negative political and egoistic desires, namely: to stay longer than necessary in power, but it however turns a huge misadventure for them. but not for divine intervention, most of these leaders would have succeeded. the issue here is that selfishness cannot be removed from contemporary democratic practice in africa. this selfish desires lead to nepotism, ethnicity and complete absence of patriotism. other seeming problems that inherently discredit african democratic development are poverty, greed, corruption, absence of continuity in governance in term of project execution and policy direction, poor allocation of resources, violence, insecurity (which in some cases lead to voters apathy during elections), and absence of political ideology in existing political parties and other pressure groups. of course, the root cause of most of the problems enumerated so far is illiteracy. john (2020:122) has explained the pattern in which this can affect the whole process of electioneering. he believes that illiteracy would not allow the very process of election to be fair and free “since the people may find it difficult to distinguish party symbols, read and understand manifestoes of different political parties for them to vote for ideology” if at all such ideologies do exist. in this scenario, we cannot undermine the need for result oriented training and formal education in polity. the more literate the people are the fewer problems they will impose on the society. knowledge is virtue and virtue is power if i may align my thought with aristotle's idea in this regard. prospects of democratic cum political development in africa despite the numerous challenges and problems that democracy encounters in africa, the prospects are there. in fact, the advent of modern democracy has had some major positive impacts on the people. one of the many impacts is the participation of women in politics which hitherto was an exclusive right of men as african political space will continue to experience liberalization and massive mobilisation and participation of inclusiveness. in an inclusive political culture, development is assured and the unnecessary heating up of the polity is drastically curbed leading to reduction in crime will have direct impact on the people. it will also encourage proper exchange of ideas for the purpose of building a strong and viable economic cum political society where citizens are economically, socially and educationally empowered to contribute their quota in the development of their society. the current over bearing influences of religion which john (2020: 113) identifies as one of the problems of democracy will be overcome through the power of reasoning which, qualitative education both formal and informal can guarantee. it is a truism that knowledge is power. the more voters are educated the less the indoctrinating influence of religion on their placement of loyalty. in recent times, many educational institutes and universities have been established. it is hopeful that the establishment of these institutions will translate to quality-trained individuals who would actively participate in the task of democratic governance and development. besides, efforts should be made to ensure compliance to the principle of internal democracy within existing political parties that is competing for power. the institution of internal democracy will help to control rancour amongst members of the same party. by so doing, the booty and dividend of democracy will be enjoyed by citizens and it will boast african political development. 47 elijah & ekpema democracy and african political development: problems and prospects conclusion african democracy and political development have grown beyond mere experimental practice. what we have now as democracy in africa is basically, a modernised african democratic culture of communalism. this communal influence of african lifestyle is positively encouraging the thriving of democracy and political development. the tribal and ethnic influences on democracy can be checked through political education. propaganda that often lead to a minimal level once a pragmatic, political education is accepted as the basic government principles for development. this work, therefore, concludes on a positive note that african democratic and political development is on course. democracy is the most acceptable form and system of government in contemporary african states although we still have few communities that still uphold the traditional african culture that supports successive monarchy which produces direct biological heirs in the society in event of the death of the leader or king as against democratic principles. however, this practice is not given wider acceptance as it is merely taken to be a process of selection of leaders and not a system of governance in africa. references agarwal, r. c. political theory: principles of political science. new delhi: s. chan, 2007. anam-ndu, ekeng a. consociational democracy in nigeria: agenda for the 1990s and beyond. lagos: geo-ken associates, 1990. apporodai, a. the substance of politics. oxford: oxford university press, 1968. audi, robert (ed). the cambridge dictionary of philosophy. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1999. azikiwe, nnamdi. renascent africa. london: frank cass, 1937. beard, a. the language of politics. london: routledge, 2000. blackburn, simeon. oxford dictionary of philosophy: oxford university press, 2005. igwe, agbafor. zik: the philosopher of our time. enugu: fourth dimension publishers, 1992. john, elijah okon, “democracy in africa: problems, prospects and matters arising” in sepientia: journal of philosophy. vol. 10, 2019. john, elijah okon. man and the state: issues in socio-political philosophy. lagos: omega books, 2020. laski, harold. grammar of politics. kam nagar delhi: surjeet publications. 2004. mchenry, robert (ed). the new encyclopaedia britannica. (15th ed). chicago: university of chicago press, 1993. mclean, jain, and mcmillian, allstair. oxford concise dictionary of politics. oxford: oxford university press, 2003. opeibi, o. babatunde. discourse, politics and the 1993 presidential election campaigns in nigeria. lagos: unilagbopeibi@unilag-edu-ng., 2009. opeidi, o. babatunde. “language, meaning and context in legal discourse: analysis of selected text from court proceedings” – unpublished master's thesis. lagos: university of lagos, 1995. raphael, d. d. problems of political philosophy. london: macmillan press, 1976. roche, john & steadman, murrays, jr. dynamics of democratic government. new york: mcgraw-hill books, 1954. rubushka, alvin and shepsle, kenneth a., “political entrepreneurship and pattern of democratic instability in plural societies” in race. vol. 2, no. 4, 1971. sabine, george & thorson, thomas l. a history of political theory. india: dryclen press, 1973. schaffner, christian. “political discourse analysis from the point of view of translation studies” in journal of language and politics. 3:1-117-150. dakar: codesria, 2004. 48 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 page 47 page 48 page 49 page 50 page 51 page 52 page 53 page 54 page 55 page 56 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 59 karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea to islamic fanaticism in nigeria ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka anambra state. abstract nigerians are ferociously tethered to different religious sects, particularly christianity and islam. this makes the different religions prone to fanaticism. however, religious fanaticism is most pronounced within the islamic sect in nigeria. the country’s history is deluged with many religious motivated violent attacks championed by fanatics of islam. this sect who are driven by the erroneous assumption that islamic religion is supreme to other religions and that the revealed ‘truths’ of islam are manifest, that is, the truths are there for everyone to see. hence, they become easily threatened and declare the truths of other religions as blasphemy, which they consider contrary to theirs. this has continuously led to violent attacks against those they label infidels. this paper is of the view that karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude can serve as a solution to this menace. verisimilitude was a theory developed by karl popper to prove that truth is not manifest. in other words, that truth is not bare to all, but something that gradually unfolds as we continue to get closer through the process of conjectures and refutations. this continual evolvement of truth makes it dangerous to hold an absolutist view of it. since islamic fanaticism is mainly driven by an absolutist view of the truths of its doctrines, an understanding of karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude is a panacea to their fanaticism. this paper employs the critical reflection, analysis, evaluation and reasoned prescription method. keywords: religion, fanaticism, verisimilitude, islamic. introduction. over the years, men have claimed to have the knowledge of the existence of god and even the knowledge of his will. this has caused a lot of bloodshed. unfortunately, all these claims are built on the foundation of belief which is not interchangeable or similar to knowledge. more unfortunate even, is the fact that since belief is more of a projection of personal view or feeling; it cannot logically pass for an objective standard, since it is relative. how then can one validly make a knowledge claim on matters of belief? this is the major underpinning of religious 60 violence. nigeria, a country of individuals ferociously tethered to different religious sects, particularly christianity and islam, has become a breeding ground for religious fanatics. christianity and islam are the two major religions that dominate nigeria’s religion (ede, 2020). there are still other religions in the country, like the african traditional religion (atr) although they are in the minority. these religious sects have large followership across the country. however, one major problem of these different religious sects is their chauvinism. this is the unbridled tendency of the adherents of various religions in nigeria to see their religion as supreme as and better than others. ede (2020) strongly avers that this tendency is mostly evidenced among the adherents of islam. they conceive their religions as the only authentic religion. it is this highfalutin position that breeds religious intolerance and fanaticism, which goads their desperateness to leverage every available means to convert others to their faith or fight those whom they feel, disrespected their faith. the country’s history is replete with inexhaustible tales of religious violence, perpetuated by islamic fanatics, which mainly spins out of perceived disrespect or disagreements on beliefs and doctrines. since they consider their religion to be superior and the ultimate harbinger of truth, they can go to any length, even killing, to see that others conform to their own beliefs and doctrines. this is evident in the seeming perpetual rancour between christianity and islamic sects, wherein, christians have been the major victims of the fanatics' swords that bay for blood. this goes to show that religious fanaticism is a thing of the mind. it is not all about religion but the tweaked mindsets of some of its adherents who believe their religion is superior and see no reason others do not see it as such. it is this sect of people who become incendiary bombs of irrationality, which explodes as religious violence. however, the fact that religion is revealed, not to angels, but to imperfect human beings. it follows that whatever is revealed to him, will be received through the lens of his imperfection. also, the fact that no one has proven beyond reasonable doubt the existence or non-existence of god, none can conclusively claim to know his will as well, for now. it is this position that this paper tries to uphold. it tries to call for more openness as regards matters of faith among different religious sects in nigeria, particularly, the islamic sects. since faith is a matter of belief hinged solely on human interpretations, it is prone to error and its understanding will continually evolve. an understanding of this will lead to increased tolerance and whittle down religious tolerance. karl popper’s idea of verisimilitude is therefore a major vehicle for driving home this point. clarification of concepts religion etymologically, the word “religion” derives from three latin words; ‘ligare’ (to bind), ‘relegare’ (to link together) and ‘religio’ (relationship). from its etymology, we see that religion refers to a sort of relationship between two persons: a relationship between god and man. it is a strong belief that there is a being or creator superior to man; a being, responsible for man’s karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 61 being and existence. therefore, religion can be said to be a relationship that binds one to the divine. it is based on this that omoregbe (1999) opines that: "religion is essentially a relationship, a link established between two persons, namely, a human person and a divine person believed to exist” p. 3. this is confirmed by corrigan (2004) when he opined that religion is expected to vertically bind man to god and to horizontally bind man to his fellow man in pure fraternity and love. ede (2020) cites bouquet (1941) who defined religion as a fixed relationship between the human self and some non-human entity, the sacred, the supernatural, the self-existent, the absolute or simply god. william jones (1960, p. 50) defines it as “the feelings, acts and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine.” james (1901) cited in isomkwo & njor (2019) defines religion as the acts, experiences and feelings of the individual in their loneliness so far as they stand about anything they may consider divine. ejizu (2008, p. 7) defines it as “man's experience of the holy and ultimate reality, as well as the expression of that awareness in concrete life.” badaracco’s (2005) definition aligns with this when he defined religion as the belief in god or gods. his view about religion also encompasses the doctrines and the manner of worship of god or gods. he sees religion as part of a belief system, like science, magic and witchcraft, which are considered part of a society’s culture. for proctor (2005) religion is an attitude. it is an individual and community social or serious conduct or attitude towards the power or powers, which they conceive as having ultimate control over their interest and destinies. apata (2003) to summarize the various views of religion, asserts that it is the different way man formulates a dependent relationship with god, as a leeway to maintaining peace and unity among men and for the service of god. durkheim's (1915)’s popular definition of religion states that religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community and all those who adhere to them. however, it must be noted that there is no universally accepted definition of religion. there is no scholarly consensus on the definition of religion (isomkwo & njor, 2019). hence, any attempt to give a straightforward definition of religion will be problematic, just like an attempt to define philosophy, as there would not be a consensus on the definition. this is a result of the divergence in orientations and backgrounds of people who attempt to define it. this is confirmed by nigosian (1981) who opined: in modern usage, religion covers a wide spectrum of meanings that reflect the enormous variety of ways the term can be interpreted. there are diverse ways religion is understood including emphases on the intellectual function, emotional, worship, individual experience and social functions of religion. religion could therefore be defined as man’s attempt to commune with supernatural force(s) as part of man’s search for meaning, understanding and explanation of life. by defining religion as a sacred engagement with what is taken to be a spiritual reality, it is possible to consider the importance of religion 62 in human life without making claims about what it is or ought to be. it is not an object with a single, fixed meaning, or even a zone with clear boundaries. religion is an aspect of human experience that may intersect, incorporate or transcend other aspects of life and society. it cannot be reduced to any single aspect of human experience. it is a part of individual life but also of group dynamics. religion includes patterns of behaviour, thought and culture. (p. 2-3) a look at the above definitions shows that religion is essentially built on the foundation of belief and feeling. but the feeling in question here is a very strong one that often weighs even more than knowledge; moulding and controlling the life of man throughout the ages. this is confirmed by ediba et al., (2021) who cite gwamna dogara (2013) who in defining religion, states that: religion has influenced different forms of human civilizations such as in art, architecture, music, poetry, history, philosophy, politics, and other aspects of human engagements. understanding religion, therefore, requires a multidimensional overview of its essence and manifestation. religion has a forceful factor with the capacity to arouse deep emotions in man and passion towards obedience, commitment and total surrender. religion creates faith which could be revolutionary, that is, with the capacity to influence change and it could also be transformational in content and goal. however, when religion assumes extreme content in its belief and practice, it leads to fanaticism, extremism, intolerance and unguarded bigotry. (p.17) this view of gwamna dogara (2013) on religion strongly aligns with the context this paper intends to explore about religion. fanaticism/ religious fanaticism like religion, fanaticism and religious fanaticism are difficult to define. for ushe (2012) religious fanaticism is better described than defined. he cites iwe (2000) who asserts that: that religious fanaticism is coterminous with religious extremism and may be descriptively defined as …an irrational attitude to religion which leads the religionist to the practice of religion beyond the bounds of reason and therefore, without moderation (p. 143). on the other hand, the problematic nature of defining fanaticism is aptly encapsulated by chung et al. (2018) who opine that, “fanaticism and its cognates, ‘fan’ and ‘fanatic,’ have been defined in inconsistent, contradictory, and often, non-discriminate ways across disciplines…. there seems to be no consensus among perspectives on fanaticism, and a generally acceptable definition of fanaticism is difficult to find” (p. 3-4). this position is confirmed by cole (2021) who avers that: karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 63 across disciplines, the term “fanaticism” is a problematic category, primarily used negatively to designate human actions deemed irrational by the observer. therefore, a person who is regarded as a fanatic is perceived as someone who acts outside of prescribed social bounds. sometimes, fanaticism can be applied as a condition of occasional actions. irrational actions in protests can sometimes be seen as virtuous rather than as aggressive. philosophers like rousseau have considered this as civic fanaticism. however, to be conciliatory toward such acts of a less malignant fanaticism is to develop a high level of what the fanatics lack — tolerance. following this paradigm, it is rather difficult to agree on a particular definition of the word even though there are useful denotations which have furthered the understanding of the concept” (p. 3). cole (2021) goes further to explore the trajectory of the term fanaticism over the years. according to him: historically, the concept of fanaticism is usually featured within the context of politics or religion. however, recent decades have seen the description transformed into wider contexts, and now the term is commonly used in the areas of sport, and the social and economic conditions of consumerism. terms such as violent, excessive, harmful, irrational, etc., are negative emphases which dominate the description of fanaticism. these terms are often accompanied by paradoxical qualities like loyalty, commitment, and even at times martyrdom (p. 2-3). based on this, our conception of the term fanaticism is limited to the religious sphere. it is in line with this that fanaticism can be seen as enthusiasm, albeit, over-enthusiasm. a fanatic is an over-enthusiastic, overzealous, irrational, wild and dangerous person (omomia (2015) and asghar (1997) cited by okoro (2020, p. 55)). going from the above definition we can easily infer the meaning of religious fanaticism. we can say that religious fanaticism is the over-enthusiasm and zealousness about a religious belief or faith which may cross all the bounds of reason and may tend to become wild or dangerous. hence, one’s over-enthusiasm about his or her religious beliefs and practices, even to the detriment of others makes him or her religious fanatic. so, to become a religious fanatic is to be wild and excessive about matters that relate to one’s beliefs (onimhawo & ottuh, 2007). enweonwu et al., (2021) capture this well when they summarized the views of sulaiman (2016), balogun (1988) and sulaiman (2014) on religious fanaticism. they aver that religious fanaticism is violent and unreasonable religious enthusiasm; an excessive irrational zeal to defend one’s religion and consequently “become a destructive agent of religious disharmony in the society” (p.1378). oduwole and fadeyi (2013) were obviously in agreement with this view when they cited balogun (1988) who defined religious fanaticism as enthusiasm that has a religious undertone, is devoid of reason and is violent. it is a negative attitude to religion. this is because of the violence birthed by its chauvinistic approach to religion. iwe (1987 & 2000), in a nutshell, defined religious fanaticism as an: 64 irrational attitude to religion which leads the religionist to practice religion beyond the bounds of reason and, therefore, without moderation…. it is essentially a negative and vicious attitude to religion, characterized by exaggeration, excesses and violence. (p. 44 & 11) the over-enthusiastic nature of a religious fanatic makes his religious teachings a do-or-die affair. so, he goes to any length to proselytize others to join or accept his faith. he can even go to the extent of using violent means to promote their religious faith and teachings. verisimilitude verisimilitude, as a term, is an offshoot of two latin words, namely, ‘veritas’ (truth) and ‘similis’ (like something). verisimilitude is, therefore, ‘truth-likeness’ or ‘like the truth’ or ‘closer to the truth’. the term also has greek roots ‘eoikotos’, ‘eikotos’, ‘eikos’. the term implies ‘approximation to the truth, similar to the truth, or like the truth’, (http://www.vocabulary in science and philosophy). the term first came about as a result of karl popper’s attempt to solve the problem regarding the division between science and pseudoscience. it was a theory he developed as a reaction to some philosophical doctrines, especially the doctrines of manifest truth and the conspiracy theory of ignorance. the doctrine of manifest truth holds the position that man can discover, discern or know the truth and acquire knowledge. this is to say that the truth is out there for man to grasp or discover it (popper, 1972). the conspiracy theory of ignorance holds that ignorance is orchestrated by some sinister power, which poisons our minds and kindles the habit of resistance to knowledge. hence, for this school of thought, ignorance is not the mere absence or lack of knowledge. popper (1972) considers these theories as mere myths. for if the truth is out there for everyone to grasp, that is, if the truth is manifest, how then can we explain our tendency to fall into error? why it that what appears true to me is does not appear true to another person? so, whose truth then is the ultimate truth, since we see the truth from different lenses? so, what we have is a mere approximation of the truth. the truth is not clearly defined; we come to the truth through the process of trial and error. the history of the growth of any form of knowledge throughout the thousands of years of the history of man has often been that of trial and error, or from our mistakes (popper, 1972). religious fanaticism: a closer look at islamic fanaticism in nigeria a critical look at the definitions of religion underscores one undeniable fact, which is that religion is primarily anchored on belief and feeling. however, this feeling has such a domineering force which often flays off the power of knowledge; thereby moulding and controlling to a large extent, the bearing of an individual or a people. this was aptly captured by omoregbe (1999), when he opined that: religion has aided world progress, educational development, interpersonal and international cooperation as well as mutual understanding among people. on karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 65 the other hand, religion has also been the underlying force behind conflicts, civil as well as international wars, social stagnation or retrogression… it has also produced fanatics; men who have done incalculable damage to mankind, men who slaughtered their fellow men in hundreds and thousands in the name of the good god! (p. 1) this evidences the fact that religion has a lot of influence on man. nigeria is so much religious inclined, as revealed by the religiosity index released by the pew research centers forum on religion and public life (2019), which indicates that nigeria is a deeply religious country, committed to christianity and islam. evident in the outright exhibition of religious buildings, symbols, zeal, fervour, gestures and practices (ediba et al., 2021), nigeria is highly susceptible to the influence of religion. with individuals that are incurably religious, evident in a large number of adherents to the islamic, christian and traditional religions, fanaticism is a given. the two major dominating religious faiths in africa are christianity and islam, (okpa et al., 2018). these two faiths exist diametrically in nigeria; with christianity popular and highly practised in southern nigeria, likewise islam in the north, (ajah et al., 2017). these two faith groups are well-steeped in the practice of their faith. however, the malignant chauvinistic tendency among the adherents of these religions and other religions in nigeria to lay claim to the supremacy of their faith or religion over that of others is one of the sinister traits of religion, which leads to intolerance, fanaticism and finally violence (ede, 2020). ede goes further to aver that this tendency to perpetuate violence is mostly evident among the adherents of islam. this is because most adherents tethered to the islamic faith, often see their faith with an absolutist lens. they consider their faith as the authentic religion and the repository of all the revealed truths. it is with this myopic mindset that the truth of their faith is manifest, and as such, every “sensible” person should see and believe it, that births their desperateness in utilizing every possible means to proselytize others to join their faith. it is this situation that ede (2020) avers, degenerates into extremism and rigidity in religious beliefs, which eventually leads to violence. ede’s stance on the proneness of adherents of islam to cause violence is well captured by the qur’an (the holy book of the muslims) as translated by abdullah yusuf ali, if anyone desires a religion other than islam (submission to allah), never will it be accepted of him; and in the hereafter, he will be in the ranks of those who have lost all spiritual good… of such, the reward is that on them (rests) the curse of allah, of his angels and all mankind. (surah 3, al imran, 85/87) however, it must be noted that the above absolutist stance is not limited to the muslims and their qur'an, it is also found among radical christians who recognize the bible as the only source of salvation with the implication that other believers are discriminated against and ridiculed as well. those, for instance, who do not believe in yahweh, in the words of isaiah the prophet are, ‘the people that walked in darkness who need the light (is. 9:2). these absolutist views are what incensed religious fanaticism as it justifies all the acts performed in a bid to convert others who do not share these views. in nigeria this is most 66 evident in the religious conflicts that do spring up and the constant loggerheads between the adherents of the christian and islamic religion. this situation is aptly captured by andrew rutasi (2005) when he opined that "the cooperation of christians with islam and muslim leaders is not common because in some countries such as sudan and nigeria, muslims and christians remain unfriendly, suspicious of each other, and, at times, visceral enemies" (p. 325). the above goes to show that religious fanaticism is not a new thing in nigeria. according to ushe (2012), religious fanaticism has a long history that dates to pre-christian and pre-islamic eras. he lays credence to this by citing iwe (2000) who, given the enormousness of religious fanaticism in nigeria, opines that the history of religious fanaticism in nigeria can best be studied in seven perspectives, namely; overt religious fanaticism, covert or hidden religious fanaticism, mild religious fanaticism, violent religious fanaticism, personal religious fanaticism, group religious fanaticism and institutional religious fanaticism. going further, he cites russel (1963) who summarizes these perspectives by categorizing them into two groups, islamic fanaticism and christian fanaticism, which comprises the major religious sect in nigeria. however, our major focus is islamic fanaticism in nigeria, so we will proceed to have a closer look at it. a closer look at islamic fanaticism in nigeria religious fanaticism seems even worse with islam and its violent tenets. according to mark a. gabriel, a former professor of islamic history at al-azhar university, cairo, egypt, one of the most important islamic teachings is about fate. islam teaches that allah controls a person’s fate whether a person experiences good or evil, and the hour of death. no amount of human effort can change fate. the qur’an says, ‘no person can ever die except by allah’s leave and at an appointed term’ (surah 3:145). therefore, say the radicals, death is nothing to fear because it is under allah’s control (p. 108). and, driven by such ideology as the above, the radicals can fight with a type of courage that knows no fear. madumere et al., (2020) aver that terrorism, religious intolerance, crisis and violent demonstration and confrontation all come under the umbrella of religious fanaticism. nigerian history is littered with these incidents. going further they cite mezieobi, mezieobi and mezieobi (2013) who noted that in 1980 alone, about 4177 lives and property worth millions of naira were lost to religious extremism and its attendant terrorism. madumere et al., cite nwokoye (2006) who avers that it was the muslim move to introduce sharia law into the nigerian legal code in the middle and late 1970s that birthed religious terrorism. the northern political elites in a bid to make islam the national religion of the country, moved for the elevation of islam over and above christianity. historically, this is the major reason all religious crises are not unconnected to the sharia crises. sharia law was forcefully introduced into the legal codes of states like kano, sokoto and zamfara, with no consideration of how such a karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 67 decision affected non-muslims in those states. this was the major crux of the crisis that raged in northern states, which threatened national unity (madumere, 2020). according to ushe (2012) “the main goal of islamic fanaticism is to reform and revive the muslim community by education and force” (p. 145). this is the group that believes they have to revive the ancient glory of islam, which was lost due to the failure of muslim adherents to uphold the true bases of islam. rodney & finka (2002) as cited by ushe (2012) considers these bases to be the doctrinal teachings of the qur'an and the sunna of the prophet. it is these convictions that birthed reform movements comprising of young and old men who, believing they are privy to the truths of the sacred text, wrought violent acts of destruction on the pretext that god is on their side. the group’s “inflated sense of personal rectitude, moral certainty, and ideological purity is a tendency to dehumanize and even demonize those who oppose them” (ushe, 2012, p.145). ushe (2012) considers this, "religious fanaticism", a disorder. however, those with this disorder according to him, need not appear wild-eyed or deranged but can present themselves as thoughtful and responsible inspired by the loftiest of ideas. nevertheless, their absolute confidence in themselves, their cause, their willingness to create massive destruction for a supposed higher good and their dehumanization of their opponents all indicate the imbalance of a personality disorder. (p. 145) the boko haram sect and the recent ‘unknown gunmen’ have been linked to islamic fanatics due to their inhumane activities against religion, of which christians are major victims of its brunt. although their dastard acts show they are deranged they do not see themselves as such. however, many examples abound of varying degrees of violence meted out to non-muslims in nigeria, particularly christians. this is evidenced by madumere et al., (2020) who citing onukwusi, igbokwe & anene (2012) report how boko haram, an islamic extremist (fanatics) sect unleashed terror on residents of bauchi, borno, kano and yobe, particularly christians from 26-30 july 2009. this led to the killing and displacing of over 700 and 3,500 persons, respectively. in 2009 again, there was a resurgence of religious terrorism in jos, the state capital of plateau. this led to over 40,000 persons, who were mainly christians being rendered homeless. according to police records of the incident declared by the police, at least 320 persons were killed. however, the health workers and local leaders placed the death toll at over 550. in 2012, the boko haram terrorist attack at the bayero university in kano on catholic and protestant worshippers at the sports hall and open air theatre respectively led to the death of professor jerome ayodele and andre leo ogbonyomi and thirteen other christian worshippers, madumere et al., (2020). they go further to cite the report of tanu (2012) who reported how a photo journalist with independent newspaper, who covered a bokoharam terrorist attack in kaduna state, at christ the king catholic church, evangelical church of west africa and shalom church at trikania, wherein 68 24 persons were killed and 130 persons were injured was macheted to death because he professed christianity when he was asked to identify himself. on 24th may 2022, okediji prosper, through an article in the sun nigeria, reported how deborah samuel, a 200-level student of economics at shehu shagari college of education, sokoto, was on 12th may brutally murdered (lynched) by islamic extremists and set ablaze after she advised her classmates against posting religious materials on their whatsapp page. she was accused of blaspheming against the prophet mohammed and subsequently mobbed to death. if a mere whatsapp message in a group chat could rouse a certain group so much as to take another’s life, then one is left to imagine the magnitude of consequences that could erupt in graver situations. enweonwu et al., (2021) confirm this when they cited ugwuoke et al., (2021) who reports that in july 2016, a nigerian islamic cleric purportedly ordered his followers to kill a christian woman who does early morning preaching in her neighbourhood. they go further to cite sahara reporters (2016), which reported that although both religions are unique in understandings of god and the meaning of sanctity in human conduct, the cleric believed the ways of islam to be supreme and was deeply irritated by the christian woman’s understandings of god the cleric mounted light warnings and then proceeded to order the woman to death. enweonwu et al., cite world watch monitor, (2018) which reports that in the same local government in which the woman was killed that 15 predominately christian communities came under intense attack from an armed moslem group in august 2018. egbegi et al., 2018 and anthony et al., (2021) noted that in that attack, they were over 230 death casualties and more than 11,500 refugees who fled their homes. and also a christian reverend, his wife and children were particularly burnt alive in their church building. tales of violent attacks by islamic fanatics are inexhaustible. however, from the above one easily notices that even practitioners of islam are not always exempt from the attacks of the fanatics of islam. this goes to show that fanaticism is a privation, an irrational derail from the status quo. it now becomes pertinent to look at how karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude can serve as a cure for this irrationality. to do this, there is a need to have an understanding of what the principle of verisimilitude is all about. an overview of karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude according to karl popper (1972), as new problems confront us every day, solutions should be sought by establishing new theories which are a little closer or nearer to the truth than those of our forebears. popper’s concept of truth is not something we can stumble upon and recognize as such but as something that gradually unfolds as we continue to get closer through the process of conjectures and refutations. this then, is the fons et origo of his theory of verisimilitude. verisimilitude, as a term, is an offshoot of two latin words, namely, ‘veritas’ (truth) and ‘similis’ (like something). verisimilitude is, therefore, ‘truth-likeness’ or ‘like the truth’ or ‘closer to the truth’. this led popper to the rejection of the three traditional epistemological karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 69 theories of truth. verisimilitude, according to popper, is the best and surest path towards the growth of human knowledge since through it, we arrive at the falsification of other hitherto existing theories which, though they were wrong, have however been held as true. this process of constant overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement by better or more satisfactory ones is for popper, the secret behind the growth of scientific knowledge. the falsification of such theories brings us to the erection of new ones which are closer to the truth. hence, for popper, truth is not manifest and the growth of our knowledge cannot come by stumbling upon the truth but through the gradual process of conjectures and refutations karl popper developed this theory of verisimilitude as a reaction to some philosophical doctrines, especially the doctrines of manifest truth and the conspiracy theory of ignorance. the former makes an optimistic claim of man’s power to discern truth and to acquire knowledge while the latter interprets ignorance, not as a mere lack of knowledge but as the work of some sinister power, the source of impure and evil influences which pervert and poison our minds and instill in us, the habit of resistance to knowledge. the theory of manifest truth holds that truth may perhaps be veiled but it may reveal itself and if it doesn’t reveal itself, it may be revealed by us. unveiling the truth, for this theory, may not be easy but once the naked truth stands revealed before our eyes, we have the power to see it, distinguish it from falsehood and know that it is truth. according to spinoza, ‘indeed, as light manifests itself and darkness, so with truth: it is its standard and that of falsity’ (popper, 1972, p. 5) hence, truth, if put before us naked, is always recognizable as truth since we have been given the eyes to see the truth and the natural light of reason to see it by. descartes, according to popper, based his optimistic epistemology on the important theory of the veritas dei: what we clearly and distinctly see to be true must indeed be true; for otherwise, god would be deceiving us. thus, the truthfulness of god must make truth manifest. the question that confronts the above position is the question of the criteria for the judgment of truth. for what appears to be true for one person may not be so for another. hence, through whose lens can truth be aptly viewed and judged as such? and if such a thing as an objective truth exists, how do we recognize it when it appears before us? according to popper (1972): truth is often hard to come by, and once found, it may easily be lost again. erroneous beliefs may have an astonishing power to survive for thousands of years, in defiance of experience with or without the aid of any conspiracy. the history of science and especially of medicine could furnish us with several good examples. one example is, indeed, the general conspiracy theory itself. (p. 5) popper considers the theory of manifest truth a myth, just as the conspiracy theory of ignorance, which is a dangerous outgrowth of the former. for how can we ever fall into error if the truth is manifest? the answer to this question, according to those that hold the view is that it is through our sinful refusal to see the manifest truth or a result of prejudices which our minds harbor as a result of education or tradition or some other influences that may have corrupted 70 the originally pure and innocent minds. hence, if the manifest truth does not prevail, then it must have been maliciously suppressed, due to the evil will of an evil power. in its marxian expression, the conspiracy manifests in the form of the capitalist press which perverts and suppresses truth and fills the workers’ minds with false ideologies; prominent among which were the doctrines of religion. we equally find a similar idea in francis bacon’s doctrine of veracitas naturae (the truthfulness of nature) in which he sees nature as an open book which cannot be misread except by one whose mind is poisoned by prejudice. he refers to the prejudices as idols. the idols, for bacon, are the prejudices and preconceptions that colour and distort our view of things and the interpretation of our experience. the four idols namely; the idols of the tribe (gullibility or the tendency to take things as they appear at first sight without investigation), the idols of the cave (errors arising from the individual’s biases such as temperament, education, likes and dislikes), the idols of the market place (errors due to the influence of language which gives fixed meanings to things just as they are commonly perceived) and the idols of the theatre (the speculative systems of the past) blind our eyes and stop them from seeing the manifest truth. karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea to religious (islam) fanaticism in nigeria a critical reflection on karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude reveals the fact that it is not exclusive to the field of science. men have, over the years, claimed the knowledge of the existence of god and even the knowledge of his will and this has caused a lot of bloodshed. almost every religion claims to have this knowledge (of the truth) and naturally holds on tenaciously to what it believes as such. unfortunately, these claims have no standard of verification since they are often simply based on revelation (written or unwritten). these claims are anchored on belief, which is parallel to knowledge. more unfortunate even, is the fact that since belief is more of a personal view or feeling, it cannot pass for an objective standard, since there are bound to be as many perspectives as there are individuals in the world. how then can one validly make a knowledge claim on matters of belief? this is the primary cause of religious violence. according to nwanaju (2015) religious violence occurs: when the rational basis of any religious orientation is lost by any person or a group of persons, then disorder takes over the affected persons or people. eventually, the whole society is rendered barbaric through wanton killings of people and destruction of property, as is presently witnessed in nigeria with the issue of boko haram (western education is haram or forbidden). (p. 216) among the various religious sects in nigeria, the muslims undoubtedly are more vocal in their violence birthed by religious fanaticism. it is in line with this that dr sariah (2006) wrote that: everyone who objects to the judgments of islam or is not satisfied with them is an infidel; therefore all those who have written anything against the legal limits karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 71 of islam, by labelling the cutting of the hand of the thief or stoning of the adulterer, as regression or as degenerative and the likes of these descriptions, and those who demand the annulment of punishment by execution, and object to the prohibition of alcohol, or anything that might be considered an objection to the judgments of allah, are straight infidels, whose blood is spilt, his wife would be divorced from him, and he will not be prayed over and will not be buried in the graves of the muslims, and he does not inherit, nor is allowed to leave an inheritance (p. 82). they are major advocates of the manifest truths of their religion and can go to any extent to proselytize, defend and even persecute others who fail to do so. in his narrow-mindedness, the fanatic, according to omoregbe (1999): thinks that his own beliefs are the ‘true’ beliefs and his religion, the true religion. the religious fanatic is not broad-minded enough to realize that just as god has no favourite language, no favourite culture, no favourite race, so does he not have any favourite religion. (p. xi) mahatma gandhi seems to echo the same opinion when he declared that, ‘the soul of religion is one but encased in a multitude of forms' (nigosian, 1974, p. 1). ignorance is therefore the reason for the existence of such words as “pagan”, “idolatry”, “heathen”, "infidel" and “superstition”. they are nothing but derogatory terms for describing a belief that contradicts ours. given the menace of religious violence birthed by religious fanaticism in nigeria, especially among the islamic sect, a deep understanding of karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude will go a long way to ameliorate religious fanaticism. for karl popper, truth is continually unfolding, and as such, we cannot make an absolutist statement on truths we know within a particular moment, since there is every tendency that it will evolve beyond what we know at the present. popper developed the theory of verisimilitude as a rebuttal of the doctrine of manifest truth. he argues that it is the stance that truth is manifest that leads to all forms of fanaticism. this is because the doctrine of manifest truth gives an absolutist view of truth, thereby becoming unyielding to other truths that unseat the previously held truths. this is the leading cause of violence. on manifest truth, popper (1972) opines that: this false epistemology has also led to disastrous consequences. the theory that truth is manifestthat it is there for everyone to see if only he wants to see it this theory is the basis of almost every kind of fanaticism. only the most depraved wickedness can refuse to see the manifest truth; only those who have reason to fear truth conspire to suppress it. yet the theory that truth is manifest not only breeds fanaticsmen possessed by the conviction that all those who do not see the manifest truth must be possessed by the devilbut it may also lead, though perhaps less directly than does a pessimistic epistemology, to 72 authoritarianism. this is so, simply because, truth is not manifest as a rule. (p. 8) the problem with the manifest theology of islamic fanatics is the false assumption that what they see is the truth and must be perceived the same way by everyone. this erroneous chauvinistic assumption is coloured by nothing other than shallow-mindedness and cancerous ethnocentricity. this eclipses and beclouds their mind from recognizing the fact that there is nothing essentially different from their religion and that of others; that since they are all based on belief rather than knowledge, then none can make a knowledge claim as to which is the right one. popper’s principle of verisimilitude calls for a tentative approach towards truth. this will make us less absolutist in our views about the truths of our faith but open and more receptive to a newer truth, which falsifies our previously cherished belief. karl popper is not calling for a radical relativism, a situation where anything goes rather, he is calling for a prudent approach to our beliefs. hence, while we hold our beliefs, we should be conscious that it is not absolute or manifest, expecting everyone to accept them with open hands and see them from the same lens as us. it is only this approach that can cure islamic (religious) fanaticism. conclusion religious fanaticism is not primarily caused by religion but by a perverted understanding of religion or misinterpretations of its creed and doctrine. the different instances of religious fanaticism listed above clearly show that fanaticism has always stayed from misconception, which births erroneous assumptions that ultimately lead to violence. this is well captured by okpa et al., (2018) as cited by enweonwu et al., (2021) when they affirmed that: in each of these cases, nigeria was not at war and neither was islam at war with christianity. each was a case of a group of people who misconstrued the teachings of islam and were motivated by this error to behave violently against other people. (p. 1379) it is this error in assumption that their faith is the embodiment of manifest truth that divides nigeria and humanity along the volatile and fragile religious infidels and faithful. hence, those who practiced islam according to their dictates or terms are considered faithful and every other person is an infidel – christians, traditional worshippers, atheists, other muslims, et cetera (enweonwu et al., 2021). however, since the issue of the existence and nonexistence of god is yet to be proven beyond reasonable doubt, our major working tool in terms of religion are primarily beliefs and opinions but not knowledge in its true sense, since knowledge presupposes certitude? hence, the various beliefs we hold are conjectures which may with time, be falsified. hence, an understanding and subsequent implementation of karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude in matters of faith will offer a major reorientation, especially to islamic fanatics. this will not prevent them from believing in the revealed truths of their faith. however, since truths of faith are not something that is revealed or understood once, it will help them maintain a tentative attitude towards the truths of their faith. it will also curb their karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 73 tendency towards an absolutist view of the truths of their faith, widen their capacity for tolerance of other religious sects and finally lead to the growth of knowledge. references ajah, b. o., nwokeoma, b. n., & okpan, s o. 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(2008). between religion and morality: their inter-connection and significance in public life. an inaugural lecture series, no. 59, uniport, unpublished enweonwu o. a., ugwu i. p., onyejegbu d. c., areh c. e., & ajah b. o. (2021). religious fanaticism and changing patterns of violent crime in nigeria. international journal of criminology and sociology, 10, 1378-1389. isomkwo a. f. & njor o. e. (2019). a historic-phenomenological look at the new religious movements (nrms) in nigeria. world journal of innovative research (wjir) 6(4), 8287. omoregbe, j. (1999). comparative religion: christianity and other world religions in dialogue. joja press, 1999. popper, k. (1972). conjectures and refutations. routledge and kegan paul. madumere, a. & onu, c. psychosocial issues of religious fanaticism, insecurity and national development in nigeria. international journal of religion & human relations, 12 (1). mark, a. (2006). journey into the mind of an islamic terrorist. frontline publishers. nigosian, s. a. (1981). world religions. london: edward arnold. oduwole, t. a. and fadeyi, a. o. (2013). religious fanaticism and national security in nigeria. journal of sociological research, 4(1), 49-60. okpa, j. t., ajah, b. o & okunola, r. a. (2018). religious fundamentalism and sustainable development in nigeria: understanding the intricacies. journal of religion and theology, 2 (2), 12-18. onimhawo, j. a. and ottuh, p. o. (2007). religious extremism: a challenge to national unity and development. the nigeria journal of christian studies, 2 (3), 54-66 pew research centre. (2019). a closer look at how religious tensions have risen around the world. july 25, 2019 proctor, j. d. (2005). science, religion and the human experience. new oxford university press. nigosian, s. a. (1974). world religions. edward arnold. sahara reporters. (2016). how suspected muslim fanatics hacked female redeemed church preacher to death in abuja. retrieved from http://saharareporters.com/2023/07/11/howsuspected-muslim-fanatics-hacked-femaleredeemedchurch-preacher-death-abuja sariah. (2006). objectors to the islamic laws. quoted in mark a. gabriel, journey into the mind of an islamic terrorist. frontline publishers. karl popper’s principle of verisimilitude: a panacea … ratzinger e. e. nwobodo, phd aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 1, january 2024 issn: 2786-9792 75 the sun (2022). deborah samuel’s murder: a case of social injustice. retrieved from http://sunnewsonline.com/deborah-samuels-murder-a-case-of-social-injustice/ uche, m. o. (2012). religious fanaticism and civil education in nigeria: a paradigm for national development. journal of research in education and society. 3 (1). william, j. (1960). the varieties of religious experience. fontana books. http://sunnewsonline.com/deborah-samuels-murder-a-case-of-social-injustice/ aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr synthetic translations preventing indeterminacy of meaning and inscrutability of reference in language translations ikechukwu monday osebor, ph.d. department of philosophy university of delta, agbor, nigeria email; ikechukwu.osebor@unidel.edu.ng & rev. fr. dr. j.f mordi email: john.modrdi@unidel.edu.ng department of philosophy university of delta, agbor, nigeria abstract translation philosophy has played a key role in understanding thoughts and is a tool for effective communication in unfamiliar languages. language translations serve as intermediaries between the source and the target language text. without translation services, effective international relations would not be possible. the philosophy of translation helps build bridges across cultures, enabling individuals to experience and learn about cultural diversities that would otherwise be too alien and inaccessible to grasp through a single cultural lens. language translation (lt) is the manual or electronic conversion of a source language text to exactly match the target language text using signs and symbols. it is challenged by insufficient professional teachers or translators; it is cumbersome, wastes a lot of time, and does many other things. the gaps in traditional language translation have led to the embracement of web translation with the implication of its originality. using the method of hermeneutics, the paper maintains that traditional and weblanguage translations are affected by the indeterminacy of meaning and the inscrutability of reference. the study concludes with suggestions for the implementation of language proficiency in translation by policymakers, both in oral and written communication through synthetic language translation. synthetic translation involves integrating two or more pre-existing elements or translations to create the targeted text from a source text that would be epistemologically infallible. keywords: web, translation, synthetic, language, targeted, traditional, and source text introduction nigeria has diplomatic relations with many countries around the world. friendly relations involve foreign exchange in education, agriculture, and various other areas. currently, nigeria is thailand's fourth-largest trading partner in africa and a significant exporter of crude oil, rice, natural gas, and gemstones to thailand (วันที่ปรับปรุงข้อมูล, 2022). the diplomatic relations and agreements between these countries provide opportunities for addressing technical barriers to trade, promoting education, and fostering development (meyer, n. et al., 2010). the question is: can there be an agreement or relationship without effective communication? the bilateral relationship between nigeria and many non-english-speaking nations is challenged by cultural factors and differences in languages (fidrmuc and fidrmuc, 2016). the role of language translation in international politics is largely invisible; the science of translating and interpreting languages is interwoven with social, political, cultural, and economic communication, both in the 147 mailto:ikechukwu.osebor@unidel.edu.ng mailto:ikechukwu.osebor@unidel.edu.ng mailto:john.modrdi@unidel.edu.ng mailto:john.modrdi@unidel.edu.ng context of business negotiations among the parties involved. language translation acts as a mediating agent by re-contextualizing statements and documents across languages and cultures. (zanettin, 2016). the diplomatic relationship between nations requires smooth interaction across linguistic boundaries in inter-lingual relations. the relationship between nations would require the practices of giving meaning to language, "at least a minimum of shared meaning to mutual relations in order for inter-lingual relations to function smoothly" (wigen, 2015). currently, professional foreign language translators in nigeria show slow progress in the effort made, and the same is true for the english language in thailand, spain, or any other non-english country (amrita et al., 2016). this challenge discourages effective communication in foreign languages in nigeria. for this reason, language translation is an important determinant of effective communication. in trade, inter-human communication is crucial; even academic courses require proficient language translation. the term translation refers to an outcome (the translated text) or the process of production (the translation process). it involves translating a text, including the grammatical structure, lexicon, cultural context, and text analysis (duklim, 2022). translation is not just about replacing words, signs, or symbols but also about reaching the target market or audience. it involves transmitting the meaning or idea that the translator aims to communicate. considering the role of language translation in international business and communication, synthetic translation would be needed to produce proficiency in the source and target language text (hart-rawung& li, 2008). this includes applying the knowledge and talent obtained in written, traditional, electronic, or thesaurus dictionaries, as well as the translated field source, to achieve a meaningful translation (duklim, 2022). professional language translators assign characters or sets of linguistic meanings to signs or symbols that affirm the content of a source text in the target text. it is the act of reconstructing a text domain with different semiotic resources to present an exact match of the source text to the targeted text (tom, 2018). this approach is challenged by low self-confidence, carelessness, anxiety, and the "indeterminacy of translation, naturalistic language concepts, behaviorism, theory of meaning, and semantic holism" (jianghua, 2019; duklim, 2022). the translation of language is problematic in the conventional sense: the inability to arrive at a closed interpretation of the targeted text with the source language text because of linguistic variations in the targeted audience has continued as a problem in translation studies (vaughan-williams, 2005). this study argues for an alternative approach that embraces the radical indeterminacy of meaning in order to incorporate translation proficiency into analyses of the world of diplomatic relations (vaughan-williams, 2005). additionally, philosophers do use technical terminologies and jargon in business. sometimes, they invent their own terms, assign new meanings to old terms, or use ordinary words in a new way (gerald, 2004). these technicalities have far-reaching implications for the philosophical study of translations. material and method the origin of hermeneutics can be traced back to the works of gadamer, which contributed to developing the work of heidegger (dowling, 2004). modern hermeneutics began with the systematic hermeneutics of friedrich daniel ernst schleiermacher in the early nineteenth century (forster, 2007). hermeneutics is the science of the interpretation of texts, concepts, and words used in research (forster, 2007). hermeneutics is the study of interpretation and plays a role in a number of disciplines whose subject matter demands interpretative approaches, typically because the disciplinary subject matter involves the meaning of human intentions, beliefs, and actions, or the meaning of human experience as preserved in the arts, literature, historical 148 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 testimony, and other artifacts (george, 2020). this study adopts the philosophical method of hermeneutics. hermeneutics helps achieve an in-depth understanding of texts, concepts, and the challenges of language translation, with the aim of proposing solutions to the identified problems. in such contexts, hermeneutics is sometimes described as an "auxiliary" study of the arts, methods, and foundations of research appropriate to a respective disciplinary subject matter" (george, 2020). additionally, the science of interpretation can help understand the truth of translation approaches and how a source text is translated into a target text for exactness and precision. the fundamental goal of hermeneutical studies is to unravel misinterpretations of the source text in the targeted language and explore research from a scientific and philosophical standpoint that could led to post traumatic disorder (pringle et al., 2011;monday, 2020). although the science of interpretation may not solve all the problems confronting translation philosophy, we maintain that the act of interpretation would help to present well-ordered language translations for effective communication among diverse citizens language translations web translations use computer algorithms to translate text quickly and efficiently(groth, 1997). while web translations are convenient, they may not always capture the nuances and cultural context of the original text. it is important to consider the purpose of the translation and the intended audience when choosing between traditional and web translations (groth, 1997). there are two types of language translations: traditional (expert or individual) and web translations. the traditional method of language translation has remained unchanged for centuries." on the other hand, web translations use computer algorithms to translate text quickly and efficiently. while web translation is an experimental method of replacing the signs and symbols of a source text with those of another language or languages and this has led to misinterpretations of the text due to the emotions or background of the translator. western tradition began soon after its beginnings when a number of the basic words of the early greek thinkers were sometimes mistranslated into latin, and as a result, the thought of the pre-socratics and the classic greek philosophers, especially aristotle, has remained re convenient, they may not always capture the nuances and cultural context of the original text. it is important to consider the purpose of the translation and the intended audience when choosing between traditional and web translations. these gaps have led to the rapid adoption of web language translations. web translation language is a "modern method of translation through computer assistance, which is a sub-field of computational linguistics" (grace and paul, 2009). it is the act of using computer-based programs to translate text from the source language to the target language without the help of a human translator (john, 1995). web language translation uses tools to avoid the risk of employing mediocre, multilingual translators, displacement, and low-quality translations. it has been argued in some quarters that web language translation flips the meanings of words when the translation engines are unable to "understand" what the sentences mean. this type of error (incorrect terminology, omissions, and mistranslations) sometimes occurs no matter how fluent the translation machines are. this approach may not present perfect translations but provides the context, the basic grammatical structures, or both in the target language. a review of web and traditional language translations would show ambiguities, algorithmic bias, a lack of controlled language, and a lack of an exact match between the old and new translations. the boundaries between machine-aided translation (mat) and human-aided translation (hat) are often uncertain (john, 1995). this study argues that both methods are not sufficient to deal with the problem of indeterminacy of meaning and references (xiang, 2010). this study recommends the 149 osebor & mordi synthetic translations preventing indeterminacy of meaning and inscrutability... adoption of a synthetic language translation to fill the gaps observed between traditional and web translations. traditional language translation traditional language translation is manual. manual translation involves the linguistic replacement of signs across languages—interlingua translation. it consists of symbolic replacement across symbolic systems, such as in the case of translation from a full language into a narrow system of icons intersemiotic translation by a professional language translator (jakobson [1959]; 1992; gelavizh et al., 2012). however, manual language translations have been criticized for misrepresentations and cultural adaptation of thoughts due to vocabularies that recompose the source text (groth 1997). traditional language translation is manual. manual translation involves the linguistic replacement of signs across languages—interlingua translation. it consists of symbolic replacement across symbolic systems, such as in the case of translation from a full language into a narrow system of icons—intersemiotic translation by a professional language translator (jakobson [1959]; 1992; gelavizh et al., 2012). however, manual language translations have been criticized for misrepresentations and cultural adaptation of thoughts due to vocabularies that recompose the source text (groth, 1997).a thai-english translator also faces the barrier of cultures and communication because translation is one of the essential ways of transferring culture. the implication of traditional translation is the capacity to evoke the same response as the source in the targeted text without inserting irrelevant words into the target text (gelavizh et al., 2012). translators often run into a mental block now and then, where nothing sounds right and they just want to flip tables. although the traditional method of translation aids learning, this approach is not efficient in addressing the contemporary relevance of education. students might interact with one another, but they may not have the opportunity to access the online library, collaborate, or report information via electronic media. it is sad to know that translators may use this kind of method for power control, manipulation of translations, and gaining power over the targeted text. digital language translation with the growth of information and technology, translation studies have evolved from traditional paperwork genres to multisemiotic or multimedia texts. multimedia translation or web translation is an electronic translation of languages. it involves the rewording of the syntax and semantics of a source language text into the target language text via the electronic medium. it is characterized by concatenation, which saves time (mansoor, n.d.). web translation focuses on the use of technology, articulating content through online applications, and concordance translation across different cultures (sujit kumar et al., 2018). a translator can use professional translation software, such as redokun, which offers built-in web translation services. translation memories and ai-generated translations are provided as suggestions while the user is translating a document using the software's editor (duklim, 2022). web translation can be efficient in any context and at any time, regardless of the subject matter (amorighoye, 2020; n.d. oye et al., 2011). it assists in analyzing grammar, syntax, semantics, and word functions. the paradigm shift from traditional to modern language translations is good, but traditional language translation has been criticized as obsolete. however, it remains one of the best approaches to language translation because it involves a professional native speaker. web translation is a supplement rather than a replacement for traditional translation. there is an assumption that machine translation is here to replace human work. it is not. to save time, language schools must 150 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 make appropriate changes to aspects of their technological infrastructures, instructional methods, and resources for language translation (carmen, n.d.). although the totality of all possible empirical evidence cannot always determine whether a given translation, to the exclusion of other contrary translations, is right or wrong, even though the translations in question are incompatible and perhaps even contradictory (ranganathan, 2007), sceptics of web translation are forced to reconsider their views on text, genre, and meaning when faced with the web page. it is a multisemiotic object made up of written language (and occasionally spoken language), graphical elements (icons, images), graphic elements (layout, typographic features), and acoustic components (sounds, music). thus, meaning is produced by the combination of verbal and nonverbal cues. the web page genre can be characterized as a group of communicative events that interact verbally and non-verbally, serving a variety of communicative functions (such as informing the audience or influencing their behavior), and that can be further subdivided into subgenres, such as the web advert and the blog, which can both be misunderstood (pierini, 2007). translation theorists argue about the role of translation philosophy in general and normative questions. what is the rationale for translation? to what extent is translation culturally sensitive? "how to translate, in particular, is a red herring removed from the actual practice of professional translators who define norms in translation through their work" (ranganathan, 2007). one of the major challenges of language translation is the misinterpretation of the source text webcast, the lack of electricity to power translation machines, and low computer literacy among language operators in nigeria. in nigeria, more than 50 percent of rural schools have no access to electricity oye et al. (2011) argue that irregular and frequent interruptions in power supply in nigeria are a perennial problem affecting smart education and have been a major setback for sustainable development. corruption, economic recession, and poor school administrators affect the implementation of web learning mostly in public schools (mansoor, n.d.). the frequent policy changes also affect the learning of foreign languages and the translation of languages. web translation studies "display many myopic claims about meaning and language that philosophers of language are well trained to recognize and improve upon" (ranganathan, 2007). synthetic language translation different 'translational' approaches have been adopted in translation studies. the interpretive theorists, such as hayward alker, richard ashley, friedrich kratochwil, john ruggie, and robert cox (neufeld, 1993), dominate meta-theoretical discussions. these approaches are qualitative and not distinct from the traditional and web-inspired methods of language translation. the synthetic method embraces both the traditional and web methods of language translation (osebor & iwegbu, 2024). synthetic philosophy is one of the central themes in kant's philosophy (osebor et al., 2022). synthetic or localization of language translation is a technical translation that performs two roles: the synthetic translation is an act of adapting traditional and web translation to reinterpreting a particular locale or group of people who share a language, a writing system, and other properties. this could be a region, a country, or just a language community (sandrini, 2005). synthetic translation helps to avoid misunderstandings in the target text from the source text (sandrini, 2005). a critical review of web and traditional language translation shows that although both produce proficient or high-quality translations, they have failed due to the ambiguity of meanings between the source and the target text (irabor, & monday, 2021). synthetic translation "involves transmitting a meaning or idea from the source text to the target text, including rephrasing texts, messages, or meanings from one language to 151 osebor & mordi synthetic translations preventing indeterminacy of meaning and inscrutability... communicate meanings from the source language in the target language as precisely as possible to prevent misinterpretation or erroneous translation" (duklim, 2022). the practice of synthetic translation usually requires both outputs to be revised (post-edited) by a second translator to eliminate the ambiguity of meaning and reference before dissemination (john, 1995). collaborative translation follows the segmentation rules of the exchange (srx), crowdsourcing translations of ideas, whether they are universal or specific. it bridges the gaps between traditional and web translations. synthetic language translations can be viewed through the lens of radical hermeneutics and text analysis. source text analysis provides the necessary framework for the targeted jianghua (2019).this would help establish an exact match between the source and the target text. the synthetic translation uses an alignment tool to achieve optimal equivalence between the traditional and web-language translations and to balance the tension between accuracy and ease of reading to avoid ambiguity. localization of translation involves internationalizing translations for suitable and efficient diplomatic relations or business (sandrini, 2005). therefore, the linguist must compile a translation manual through observing both translations to ensure precision, clarity, quality control, and quality improvement (dave, 2011; xiang, 2010). the goal of synthetic language translation is to be culturally sensitive and create an equivalence known as word-for-word translation (zanettin, 2016). the attempt is to translate the source text as literally as possible, keeping the sentence structure and idioms intact through the implementation of synthetic translation (dave, 2011). although traditional and web translations are two sides of the same coin, with both contributing to the originality of the target text from the source text. these perceptions recognize the power of cognitive judgment, specifically intuitive sensibility, which generates sensations and conceptual understanding of thought (osebor et al., 2022) conclusion synthetic language translation involves recognizing human expertise, transcending the limitations of traditional and web translations, and embracing the necessity of crossing these boundaries. this study aims to recommend a pragmatic synthetic translation approach that can effectively convey the same referential and interconnected meanings between the source and targettexts. while translation indeterminacy may impact the originality of the target text compared to the source text, synthetic translation offers revisions and additions to enhance clarity and readability, thereby reproducing the pragmatic effects of the source texts in the target text. it involves borrowing parts of traditional and web-based translations and synthesizing them for originality. this would result in a pragmatic effect in language translation techniques and the proficiency of thoughts. synthetic language translation is literal for readers or audiences and is easier to evaluate and document. it affirms the literal recasting of a text from one language to another and "unites" both traditional and web translations, discouraging the insertion of new words into the target text and damaging the sources. overall, this approach encourages bilingual and bicultural, if not multicultural, translations. 152 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references amorighoyet (2020). covid-19 has exposed the education divide in nigeria. this is how we can close it. available from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/educationnigeria-covid19-digital-divide/ amrita, k. david, y., and robert, k. 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(2005, may). website localization and translation. in eu-high-level scientific conference series mutra (pp. 131-138). sujit k, marguerite w, and paul b (2018). e-learning, m-learning, and d-learning: conceptual definition and comparative analysis. e-learning and digital media 2018, vol. 15(4) 191–216. available from doi: 10.1177/2042753018785180 tom g (2018) heidegger in translation the routledge handbook of translation and philosophy. https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315678481-4 vaughan-williams, n. (2005). international relations and the problem of history'. 154 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 http://commons.pacificu.edu/eip/ millennium, 34(1), 115-136. wigen, e. (2015). two-level language games: international relations as inter-lingual relations. european journal of international relations, 21(2), 427-450. xiang x (2010) quine's indeterminacy of translation thesis. journal of language teaching and research, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 274-277, may 2010 © 2010 academy publisher manufactured in finland. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.3.274-277. zanettin, f. (2016). 'the deadliest error': translation, international relations and the news media. the translator, 22(3), 303-318. วันที่ปรับปรุงข้อมูล, (2022) ambassador of the federal republic of nigeria to the kingdom of thailand called on the permanent secretary for foreign affairs to strengthen bilateral ties. https://www.mfa.go.th/en/content/nigeria-call-2?cate=5d5bcb4e15e39c306000683e 155 osebor & mordi synthetic translations preventing indeterminacy of meaning and inscrutability... https://www.mfa.go.th/en/content/nigeria-call-2?cate=5d5bcb4e15e39c306000683e page 155 page 156 page 157 page 158 page 159 page 160 page 161 page 162 page 163 aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr african historiography and the challenges of european periodization: setting the records straight benjamin chukwunonso nwokocha department of religion and human relations faculty of arts nnamdi azikiwe university, awka bc.nwokocha@unizik.edu.ng & nnatuanya, emmanuel chinedu department of religion and human relations faculty of arts nnamdi azikiwe university, awka ce.nnatuanya@unizik.edu.ng abstract african historiography set by the europeans has claimed that there was little or no impact of the africans in creating africa's history. africa's history was said to have began with the history of the europeans in africa. with this mind-set, in creating what they called africa's history tended to focus on events that coincided with the intrusive european explorers rather than events antedating them. the brief paper, in the face of this problem, analyzes the thorny issue of african historiography. in doing this, it adopts the primary and secondary sources of data collection with historical method of data analysis. it submits that there seems to be a lacuna in the periodization of africa's history, especially with respect to the indigenous people's contributions. the structure of african historiography had more to do with the european expeditions than african experiences. it recommends that africa's history should be periodized in such a way that the multiple fragments of the african past, cultures, languages, religions, philosophies, and cosmology are taken into account in order to represent the peculiarities of the continent's history. introduction african historiography has been following divisions, schemes, and sequences set by the europeans who in the past claimed that there was no such thing as africa's history and that the history of africa began with the history of the europeans in africa. with this mind-set, in creating what they called africa's history, the early eurocentric historians periodized it in sequences as they thought fit and proper. thus, periodization in african history tended to focus on events that coincided with the intrusive european explorers rather than events antedating them. this appears to be a lacuna in the periodization of african history, especially with respect to the continent's past before western contacts. the structure of african historiography had more to do with the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade than with african experiences. africa's history should be periodized in such a way that the multiple fragments of her past, cultures, languages, religions, philosophies, cosmology, arts, aesthetics, music, dance, warfare, architectures, farming, astrology, rituals, navigation, crafts, industries, etc. are taken into account in order to represent the peculiarities of the continent's history. ihediwa (2022) asserts that the periodization along the lines of centuries has left a lot to be methodically captured, and this has created a gap in africa's historiographical scholarship. the paper intends to re-examine african historiography and reveal the gaps in the periodization 32 scheme of africa's history. it also makes a case for the restructuring of africa's historical periodization in line with aspects of africa's past not deeply investigated and structured in the scheme of history. we shall look at the process of recreating african history and its precursors and look at the periodization of africa's history and its shortcomings and make potent suggestions on the way forward. the pitfalls of africa's historiography africa as a continent is full of diversity, seen arguably in every facet of life; as a result, over time, diverse interpretations have been given to africa's realities and circumstances. archaeological finds in east africa posited africa as the cradle of human life, and historical evidence has shown that africa once stood as a gateway to “awesome civilization”. writing african history in general has been challenging and mostly difficult, due to a lack of both comprehensive written records and holistic archaeological evidence that covers all the zones of africa from past times. this has left africa's historical scholarship in the hands of foreign adventurers, sailors, writers, and amateur historians, most of whom never ventured beyond the coastal fringes of the areas of africa they visited. unfortunately, the history of africa tended to focus on the activities of two groups, the arabs and the europeans in africa. this situation produced a medley of confusion in african historiography, as african history was written merely from the bird's-eye view of aliens and, second, was sequenced following patterns of historical developments outside the continent. the consequence was that africa's historical sequences became jumbled, and externalities not congruent with trends in africa's past and realities shaped her historical timelines. (seligman, 1966). some european authors had assailed and even doubted africa's historical heritage; trevor-roper (1963) for instance even went as far as to say, “africa had no history prior to european exploration and colonization, that there is only the history of europeans in africa. the rest is darkness.” africa's past, according to him, consists of nothing but “unedifying gyrations of barbarous tribes in picturesque but irrelevant corners of the globe” (p. 871). even hegel (1956), in an apparent attempt to besmirch africa, once asserted that “africa is no historical part of the world; it has no movement or development to exhibit” (p. 99). denying the association of a whole continent with any kind of civilization, seligman (1966) wrote brazenly that the “civilizations of africa are the civilizations of the hamites, its history is the record of these peoples and of their interaction with the two other african stocks, the negro and bushmen” (p. 96). what he was positing here is that the other two “races” were incapable of achieving anything without the hamitic influence. his espousal of the myth of the superiority of light-skinned people was only a part of the european prejudice ubiquitous in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. these trenchant remarks about africa's past all arose as a result of the inclination of a section of humanity to debase and denigrate another. the absence of written records in much of africa posed a great challenge to the historical reconstruction of her past, and this was what spurred african scholars to evolve and insist on the use of oral history in reconstructing it, not minding the gaps inherent in this medium. it is common knowledge that colonialism had very negative effects on every conceivable aspect of africa's life. even before full colonialism, africa had suffered under the weight of the european rampage epitomized by the atlantic slave trade. this trade lasted for more than four centuries and saw the despoliation of the continent, denuding it of its future and prospects. there was no gap between slavery and colonialism; thus the ravage continued, leading to many distortions of africa's realities. the writing of africa's history by europeans initially meant that 33 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 they wrote from their perspectives on africa and what they thought would fit, and not essentially about africa's past realities. africa's indigenous historical scholarship did not emerge until well into the twentieth century, when some students from various african states, privileged to get higher education outside africa, began to return home and teach in a few institutions of higher education that had been set up by the respective colonial powers. it was through this medium that african history was rediscovered. in those few universities that existed in africa, african history was not taught and never existed in the curricula; it was simply overshadowed by european and american histories. african nationalists fought against this trend in higher education, and the intellectuals of african extraction who returned took up the challenge to develop courses on african history. the same was the case for african philosophy, which, according to western philosophers, had never existed. in this struggle to recreate african history, liberia had opened one university way back in 1864 and sierra leone opened one in 1876. these universities began to admit and train african students in the few disciplines existing back then, including history. the battle for the creation of african historiography thus began with the return of african intellectuals who had gone to study in europe and america and who now entered academia in their home countries. the first venture towards the “de-europeanization” or “de-westernization” of africa's history was the creation of courses on aspects of african history and the writing books on african history, thereby creating a platform for the development of indigenous african historiography. this first stage, to an extent, set the course for reordering african history, but did not completely restructure the existing timelines that had been imposed from outside. (ihediwa, 2022). reconstruction of africa's past afigbo (2004) in his work noted the european attitude toward african history which was shaped by exploitation and domination; to legitimize european despoliation of the continent, everything primitive was associated with the continent; even slavery and colonization were justified as means of “civilizing” or “christianizing” the “primitive people” (p. 46). hence, it is no wonder african nationalists and the pan-africanist movement worked toward the reconstitution of africa's heritage through the study and writing of africa's history by africans. in this sphere, nkrumah (1964) retorted that their “efforts marked a renascence of scientific curiosity in the study of africa and should be directed to an objective impartial scrutiny and assessment of things africa” (p. 10). in the beginning of african church historiography, for instance, leading african historians discovered that greeks, romans, and arabs had written about the emergence christianity in africa long before europeans and americans penetrated the continent. from a truly scientific impulse, they were insightful in understanding the realities in africa. but in the era of slave trade and colonialism, the europeans had the desire to denigrate the continent and justify exploitation, domination, and colonialism (afigbo, 1984). it was this distortion and exploitation of africa's realities and her past that actually birthed what we have today as african historiography. though handicapped by the availability of genuine written sources, particularly in places like south of the sahara, the african historians made frantic efforts in reshaping the of africa's past which detractors in the likes of hegel and trevor-roper, leveraged the absence of written sources to demean. to this end, nkrumah (1972) asserts that the wave of nationalist and africanist consciousness coming up in the 1940s and 1950s produced vibrant and articulate historians who championed african history and studies of africa, which eventually produced novel scholarship on africa's past and encounters. this movement was also supported by nationalist leaders in africa; 34 benjamin c.n. & nnatuanya e.c. african historiography and the challenges of european periodization ... prominent among them were kwame nkrumah of ghana, nnamdi azikiwe of nigeria, leopold seder senghor of senegal, kenneth kaunda of zambia, julius nyerere of tanzania, jomo kenyatta of kenya, and a host of others. interestingly, kenneth dike was on hand to direct the emerging struggle to recover and reshape the soul of africa's historical scholarship, among other peers in west africa and other parts of black africa. ihediwa (2022). azikiwe (1996) in his post-independence writings inspired many on african historiography, especially during the anti-colonial campaigns. dike (1956) on his part marked a turning point in the study of history in nigeria and indeed in africa in general. dike's writings blazed the trail for african studies and historiography, and constituted a major breakthrough in realizing his earlier dream of a rebirth of african historiography using oral history for the reconstruction of africa's past for the first time. in other parts of africa, the reconstruction of its past was also on-going. apart from north africa and east africa, where arab influence had permeated and where written records of the past existed on an appreciable scale, oral sources and archaeological evidence began to be aggressively deployed in africa's historical reconstruction. in this period, africanistics emerged, a radical new development in the study of african history and culture by africans themselves, a step forward toward a new african historiography. dike's role in rediscovery of africa's past dike's major role was on the rediscovery of africa's past, and a re-orientation of the world's attitude to african continent and its past. dike's research and publications had a deep impact on africanist scholarship; more like removing a veil and unlocking africa's door to her history. soon researchers began to publish wonderful accounts of various aspects of african history, through the use and deployment of oral evidence. the publication of dike's trade and politics in the niger delta inspired more than eight books dealing with aspects of both the pre-colonial and the colonial history of nigeria. it awakened the use of oral interviews as a substitute for written and archival records where these latter did not exist. the publication of dike's book and his other papers stimulated the study of history as a discipline among nigerians and, indeed, in many other african countries, especially at a time when africans had formulated their resentment of colonial domination. in nigeria, the study of history became so popular that the country had the highest number of distinguished africanist historians in africa at the time. thus, dike's publications marked the beginning of radical historical scholarship inside africa that took oral traditions as its source for the reconstruction of africa's past and redefined the study of the continent's church history without european endorsement or acceptance. in his work, dike looked at the relationship between european traders and the african middlemen in the niger delta area. he discovered that european traders and missionaries, who wrote about their trading and missionary activities, usually downplayed the role played by their african counterparts in their interactions. attempts made to discredit oral sources as useful tools for the reconstruction of the history of preliterate societies in africa collapsed under the weight of this new pan-africanist consciousness and movement of historical rebirth. dike believed that subjecting oral history to systematic criticism and supplementing the resulting residue with evidence from written documents after the fashion of western historiography, as well as with evidence derived from archaeology and other ancillary historical sciences would put old-style african history through a process of rebirth (afigbo, 1984). dike had developed a two-pronged approach from the purview that african history must be the history of african peoples and not merely the history of their invaders from europe and asia, and 35 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 studies of european contacts in africa, where european archival materials remain the major source, should focus on the role played by africans in the events that have shaped the continent (dike, 1965). dike's efforts as a pioneer in african history later yielded the desired dividend with the emergence of many africanist historians who pushed further the frontiers of african historiographical reconstruction. this led to the production of eight volumes of africa's history sponsored by the unesco. each of the eight volumes of unesco's general history of africa covered sensitive areas and timelines and was edited by specialists drawn from across the african continent. the chapter contributors were experts in the areas they wrote about, which gave the volumes the strength and authority they command. the authors of these chapters largely used oral evidence, archaeology and cultural and linguistic evidence to support their positions and arguments, thereby strengthening the new theory in african historical scholarship as championed by dike (ihediwa, 2022). it is not surprising then that mathar m' bow (1981) derided the eurocentric prejudices toward african history and how they concealed the true history of africa from the world at large. he further observed that “although the iliad and odyssey were rightly regarded as essential sources for the history of ancient greece, african oral tradition, the collective memory of peoples which holds the thread of many events marking their lives, was rejected as worthless” (p. 23). he went on to state that, since the european middle ages were often used as a yardstick, modes of production, social relations, and political institutions were visualized only by reference to the european past. martha m'bow's position was how to promote and sustain the tempo of historical research and documentation ignited by indigenous africans. here, the effort was supposed to deepen through access to archaeological excavations across africa and by restructuring existing periods used in african history, especially local indigenous history of african societies. african historians fell short of defining what historical periods should be conceived for africa and how events should be periodized to show radical departure from a western template on periodization. this has happened only in a very few areas of core african local histories. african historiography viz-a-vis european periodization periodization as a concept is a way of ordering ideas or events to fit into sequences of occurrence. according to shaw (2010), “periods and events are concepts that organize our understanding and knowledge of the past.” stearns (1987) sees periodization as a european construct created as a “conceptual tool that makes change over time a manageable topic, and therefore history teaching feasible. for bloch (1953), “periodization is a strategy historians use to represent change and continuity”; he sees it as a central challenge historians face. berkhofer (2008) has also observed that “historic time like all time must be divided in order to be told”. african historiography still has one more hurdle to cross, the hurdle of periodization. african history in the post-colonial order emerged as a result of a relentless struggle by indigenous african historians to restore it to its true status, and that struggle will continue until an acceptable timeline is created for events from the remote past of africa. after the unesco publications, more attention was directed to archaeological explorations across africa. this is very important, because a lot is still hidden under the surface of africa. prior to the atlantic slave trade, african states had had diplomatic contacts with some european states; examples include the kingdom of benin in nigeria and the chiefdom of warri in the present niger delta of nigeria. warri developed a relationship with portugal in the fifteenth century. this was over three 36 benjamin c.n. & nnatuanya e.c. african historiography and the challenges of european periodization ... hundred years before the british colonization of nigeria. there are incongruities in the periodization of african history, especially in this case. archaeological discoveries across africa since the 1960s have revealed much about africa's past. in nigeria for example, the 'igbo ukwu finds' in the 1960s show that a dynamic igbo culture and civilization based on a kinship system had flourished there since about 800 ad, long before the norman conquest of england. this is not captured in the current periodization scheme in african history. the pasts of many other societies in africa as revealed through archaeological excavations do not benefit from the current periodization scheme in africa (ihediwa, 2022). there is nothing specifically wrong in setting out periods or phases in history, but the challenge is when such a periodization is not autochthonous and does not incorporate the broad course of events in africa as a continent. there should be no hard and fast rule about periodization. african historiography still faces this challenge. examples abound where historical timelines for local history in west africa begin in 1800. by 1800, european contacts were established in many parts of the continent, but this was hardly the beginning of the local history of the people. in nigeria, there is a local course called igboland since 1800, which implies that the history of this people did not commence until 1800. it belies the struggle for the reconstruction of african history when the periodization of local history almost coincides with the informal engagement of the europeans with the indigenous peoples. therefore, the call for historians in africa, particularly south of the sahara and in the forest belt, is to intensify their efforts in archaeological research and the probing of the remote areas of africa to recover the hidden past. african history should be the history of events in africa and narrate the forces that shaped those events since antiquity; the idea of a periodical structure in african history should be worked out in line with the sequences of developments in the continent on a case-by-case basis, not necessarily following pre-existing european models. the indigenous calendars and numerical scales should be incorporated into the periodization of the different histories of groups in africa; this will create a departure from the existing periodization scheme that weighs more on eurocentric scales. conclusion this paper has examined the periodization of history in africa as overshadowed by european timelines and periodization scales. the paper notes that african historical scholarship cannot submit totally to the eurocentric format of historicizing events in africa; it opines that africa should devise her own scales and periods to accommodate her peculiarities and challenges. it also examined the emergence of african historiographical scholarship, particularly in africa south of the sahara, by looking at the roles of pioneer african historians like kenneth dike, who insisted that african history should be about events in africa and the forces that shaped those events. 37 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references afigbo, a . e. (1984), k. o. dike and the african historical renascence. nigeria: rada publishers, owerri). berkhofer, j. f. (2008). fashioning history: current practices and principles. new york: palgrave macmillan. bloch, m. c. (1953). the historian's craft, trans. by peter putnam. new york: knopf. dike, k. n. (1956). trade and politics in the niger delta. oxford: university press. dike, k. n. (1964). address of welcome to the first international congress of africanists in proceedings of the first international congress of africanists 11-18 december 1962 (northwestern university press). dike, k. n. (1965). forward to ajayi, j. f. a and espie, i. (eds.). a thousand years of west african history. ibadan: university press. hegel, g. w. f. (1956). the philosophy of history. new york: dover. ihediwa, n. c. (2018). african historiography and the challenges of european periodization: a historical comment. in trafo – blog for transregional research, 31.07.2018, https://trafo.hypotheses.org/11518. ihediwa, n. c. (2022). african historiography at the crossroads. enugu: snaap. m' bow, a. m. (1981). general history of africa i: methodology and african prehistory. (eds). paris: unesco. nkrumah, k . (1964). address delivered to mark the opening of the first international congress of africanists, in the proceedings of the first international congress of africanists, northwestern university press. shaw, r. b. (2010). events and periods as concepts for organizing historical knowledge. doctoral thesis. berkeley: university of california press. stearns, p. (1987). periodization in world history teaching: identifying the big challenges. the history teacher, 20, no. 4, 561. seligman, c. (1930). races of africa. london: davies. trevor-roper, h. (1963). “the rise of christian europe.” the listener, (28 november 1963), 871. 38 benjamin c.n. & nnatuanya e.c. african historiography and the challenges of european periodization ... aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr an evaluation of global warming and environmental ethics victor ogheneochuko jeko., ph.d department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of benin email: victor.jeko@uniben.edu and odigie ndidi joseph department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of benin email: joseph.odigie@uniben.edu abstract the phenomenon of global warming has become a concern about the safety of the environment. global warming has resulted in the destruction of the ozone layer and this is actually caused by environmental degradation. the fundamental problems of environmental degradation have resulted in the prevalence of over flooding and extinction of some plants and animal species. some of the causes of global warming include industrial pollution, deforestation, overpopulation, industrialization, urbanization, bureaucratization; the use of combustible engines, automobile vehicles and fossil fuels. the solution to the problems of global warming is actually international cooperation by all countries of the world to reduce the usage of gas emission. the objective of this paper is to unveil the potential dangers of environmental degradation to the world's ecosystems and its catastrophic consequences on humanity. global warming reveals that its impact reflects on a kind of catastrophe. this paper adopts the analytical framework in discussing the ethical implications of global warming and environmental nonsustainability on human existence. human existence has been bedevilled by certain existential burden due to human deliberate choices and actions. the findings of this paper are that international cooperation is fundamental in mitigating the challenges of global warming; nature is an integral part of human beings and sentient beings. this paper concludes that humanity will be doomed if necessary steps are not taken by countries all over the world in mitigating the menace of global warming. global warming has resulted in lethal solar radiation. keywords: ecologism, ecosystem, environmentalism, ethics, global warming introduction the phenomenon of global warming has become a concern about the safety of the environment. global warming has resulted in the destruction of the ozone layer and this is actually caused by environmental degradation. the problems of environmental degradation have resulted in the prevalence of over flooding and extinction of some endangered species. some of the causes of global warming include industrial pollution, deforestation, overpopulation, industrialization, urbanization, bureaucratization; the use of combustible engines, automobile vehicles and fossil fuels. the solution to the problems of global warming is actually international cooperation by all countries of the world to reduce the usage of gas emission. this paper argues that the potential dangers of environmental degradation to the world's ecosystems and its catastrophic consequences on humanity are immense. global warming reveals that its impact reflects on a kind of catastrophic consequences. this paper discusses the ethical implications of global warming and environmental non-sustainability on human existence. human existence has 174 mailto:victor.jeko@uniben.edu mailto:victor.jeko@uniben.edu mailto:joseph.odigie@uniben.edu been bedevilled by certain existential burden due to human deliberate choices and actions. the findings of this paper are that international cooperation is fundamental in mitigating the challenges of global warming; nature is an integral part of human and sentient beings. furthermore, the interrelatedness between environmentalism, ecologism and global warming has become a critical aspect of environmental ethics. ethics plays a pivotal role in mitigating the fundamental challenges of global warming. as hoffman and graham (2009, 365) rightly observed global warming is acknowledged by most, but not all, scientists as the most serious environmental problem facing the planet—the minority who challenge the consensus do not question the evidence of global warming, but question its causes, arguing that warming is not primarily caused by human activity. in concurrence with hoffman and graham (2009), leon baradat (2008, 281) asserts that “nature as a whole is central, and the value of all things is measured by their contributions to nature. if humans threaten nature, they reduce their own validity and worth”. hoffman and graham (2009, 365-366) argued that apart from global warming, there are other specific environmental problems such as resource depletion, localised pollution, decline in species and nuclear war. for hoffman and graham (2009, 366): some resources, such as fish, are, with careful stewardship, naturally replenished; other resources, such as coal and gas, are not. both types of resource are threatened by excessive demand and so overproduction. localised pollution may not cause a global crisis, but poor air in places such as mexico city can have a debilitating effect on inhabitants. decline of species may lead to species loss—or decline in biodiversity-the use of agricultural chemicals and genetic modification of crops are identified by some environmentalists as the cause of the decline in biodiversity. nuclear war will not, of course, be a direct environmental problem…scientists speculated that the use of intercontinental ballistic missiles could result in a 'nuclear winter': atmospheric pollution caused by dust, soot smoke and ash would prevent the 'sun's rays from penetrating for a period of time long enough to eradicate most plant life and create a new ice age. since the 1980s there has been a proliferation of states with nuclear weapons. environmental crisis does raise interesting question about the relationship between science and politics. ecologists are critical of scientific rationality, and yet employ scientific evidence to support their arguments. in the light of the above subscription, some group of scholars have argued that “scientific rationality” has paved the way for industrial revolution. accordingly, baradat (2008, 277) asserts that the “industrial revolution, the fount of modern political ideologies, has, for the first time in history, made it possible for humans to improve their material lives on a vast scale, but at the same time to so influence the natural environment as to actually threaten human existence itself”. baradat (2008, 266-267) further asserts that: focus on this paradox has fuelled the emergence of a new ideology. known as ecologism in europe and environmentalism in the united states, it is an idea system demanding fundamental philosophical reorientation demanded and mandating diametric political, economic, and social change; and humans should see themselves as only a part of nature, constituents of a universe that is composed of numerous interactive and interdependent beings, both living and nonliving. this new perspective is not only ethically right but essential for human survival, the ecologists argued. nevertheless, human beings, plants, animals, and other living and non-living beings are 175 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 actually confronted by the negative consequences of global warming. however, this paper is divided into four sections. section one is the introductory remarks. section two is the exposition, analysis and the ethical implications of global warming on human existence. section three focuses on the evaluation of the catastrophic effects of global warming on humanity. section four is the concluding considerations. this paper concludes that humanity will be doomed if necessary steps are not taken by countries all over the world in mitigating the menace of global warming. global warming has resulted in lethal solar radiation. expose of global warming and environmental ethics the conceptual clarification and contextual analysis of global warming and environmental ethics demonstrates the clarion call for the preservation of the world's environment or ecosystem from abuse and plunder by man. global warming has come to stay with humanity and it is as real as humanity itself. humanity is at cross roads due to the abuse and the plundering of the environment. the ethics of global warming showcases the preservation of the world's ecosystem. worthy of note is that sanctions ought to be melted out to countries that violate international treatises that are aimed at ensuring the preservation of the earth. human beings in their deliberate choices and actions must exercise caution in the way and manner they treat, manage and handle the environment. however, the ethics of the environment has become one of the most controversial and contemporary issues in the field of philosophy. for baradat (2008, 282), argues that “concern for the moral aspects of environmental degradation has spawned an entire field of philosophical inquiry called environmental ethics. broadly speaking, environmental ethics considers biocentric questions”. the ethics of the environment has become a contemporary issue that demands scholarly attention by scholars, researchers and philosophers. furthermore, the ethical dilemma that surrounds environmental ethics is that it has become an existential imperative that we cannot do without the natural environment. however, human beings, plants, animals and other living organisms and species depend solely on the environment for their continuous existence and survival. we are all inhabitants of the earth as far as environmental ethics is concerned. the ethics of the environment is actually concerned about the natural environment such as plants, water, sun, land, air, rocks, forests, animals and other inhabitants of the world's ecosystem. the ethics of environment has become a global issue or a universal phenomenon because some plants and animal species are going into extinction because of the evils of deforestation, urbanization, industrialization and other nefarious activities carried out by human deliberate choices and actions. as rightly observed by phillip isanbor and anthony bature (2018, 5), the quest for ecological or environmental sustainability, especially through its environment friendliness and consciousness is a philosophical engagement. industrial systems eventually will degrade and deplete the resources upon which its productivity depends, and thus, are not sustainable. industrialization is the physical manifestation of a specific concept of science, and a specific worldview. accordingly, hoffman and graham (2009, 370) in consonance with isanbor and bature (2018) argued that: industrialisation has changed the pyramid in a number of ways. first, by reversing evolution: evolutionary change lengthened the food-chain through the emergence of more complex life forms; industrialisation shortens the chain by the elimination of both predators and of seemingly useless organisms. second, by the exploitation, which puts geological and other formations, to new uses, such as the generations of energy, and removes them from the 'natural chain'. third, transportation disconnects the chain and introduces forms from one environment 176 jeko & odigie an evaluation of global warming and environmental ethics to a new, quite different, one, and with sometimes unintended consequences. in concurrence with the above theoretical position, isanbor and bature (2018, 5-6) argued that “the reflections on the humanity demand to be holistically philosophical, considering the freedom man has to change things around him and situation about him, combating challenges in order to have some comfortable environmental living, necessarily presupposes the employment of some ethical checks on all dealings or activities for environmental sustainability”. isanbor and bature (2018, 6) further heightened their theoretical position by asserting that “one of the major causes of global warming is environmental pollution and industrialization”. accordingly hoffman and graham (2009, 364) in consonance with isanbor and bature (2018) argued that: many people maintain industrialization, urbanization and population growths have either brought about, or threaten to bring about, irreversible changes to the natural environment such that the future of life on earth beyond more than one or two hundred years is in jeopardy. some writers maintain that the difference between ecologism and environmentalism rests, in part, on attitudes to the seriousness of this crisis, with ecologists being very pessimistic, and environmentalists being very optimistic. there is some validity in this characterisation of the differing attitudes, in that ecologists maintain that the causes of the crisis are not simply scientific-technical; the roots of the crisis lie in human attitudes to nature—we see nature as a resource to be exploited for our benefit. however, a human-centred approach to the environment could also explain the crisis; without condemning human attitudes to nature it could be argued that environmental degradation is the collective consequence of rational human behaviour. broadly speaking, apart from the problem of industrialization it has also been argued that overpopulation is one of the major causes of global warming. according to garrett hardin cited by hoffman and graham (2009, 365), overpopulation will have catastrophic consequences, and that food aid to the developing world should be ended so that population levels can be allowed to fall 'naturally'. hardin is often thought of as an ecologist, and his misanthropic argument is used against ecologism, but, in fact, hardin reasons from straightforwardly human-centred premises: human beings will suffer from overpopulation. baradat (2008, 278-279) in consonance with garrett hardin cited by hoffman and graham (2009) believe that “the question of overpopulation has long vexed environmentalists. overpopulation confronts the entire world with panoply of problems”. accordingly, baradat (2008, 279-280) argues that: one wonders what is in store for the world as the process of global warming accelerates over the next half century. one consequence is almost certain, however, as the earth warms, the ability of people in the tropical regions-where the human population is increasing most rapidlyto grow food will be significantly reduced. thus, famine among large population on earth is virtually inevitable. ironically, the temperate areas are those that produce the most greenhouse gases, but in the short run, they will suffer from global warming only marginally. in the light of the above, baradat (2008, 280) further heightened his theoretical position by asserting that “but global warming is only one important ecological problem. concentrations of mercury in marine fish from industrial discharges are growing in dangerous proportions. this very toxic metal causes serious and permanent declines in the physical and mental development of children whose mothers eat large quantities of seafood during pregnancy”. it is germane to 177 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 note that hoffman and graham (2009, 365) identified specific environmental problems such as global warming, resource depletion, localised pollution, decline in species and nuclear war. on the other hand, the ethics of ecological and environmental sustainability demands the need for what olagunju and ibiezugbe, (2018, 65) called global “community sustainability”. global warming has become part and parcel of the contemporary discussion of the ethics of environmentalism. accordingly, hoffman and graham (2009, 365) postulate that, “the most popular discussion of environmentalism and ecologism-takes place within the context of a discussion of the so-called environmental crisis”. ekwealo (2012, 13) in consonance with hoffman and graham (2009) argues that there are certain ethical guidelines provided to ensure normative responses that would best provide a better and safe environment for the existence, survival and living of man. we live in a world full of apparent contradictions and complexities, whose meanings and designs is made impossible by factors of shortness of human life, the linearmindedness of learning and knowledge. this theoretical discourse advocates the need for caution in the ways and manners we abuse and plunder the environment. the proper treatment of plants, animals and other non-living things should be part and parcel of our ethical behaviours and guidelines. this will bring about proper ecological and environmental sustainability. according to hoffman and graham (2009, 496), deep ecology is a form of ecologism, stressing both the interdependence of nature, and the need for fundamental human change; it is contrasted with 'shallow ecology', which is essentially environmentalism. on the other hand, hoffman and graham (2009, 496-497) assert that environmentalism refers to a movement which highlights the importance of preserving the earth's natural resources and guaranteeing a fair share of those resources for future generations. unlike ecologism it can be combined with many different ideologies. environmentalism and ecologism have become new forms of ideologies and global warming has become a contemporary issue in addressing the challenges of this environmental crisis humanity is currently facing. for isanbor and bature (2018, 55-56), respecting the environment as our “common home” ought to be one of the objectives of humanity. the environment remains our common heritage and it has to be protected by the rightness of human deliberate choices and actions. maathai (2009, 233-234) in consonance with isanbor and bature (2018), argues that climate change will bring massive ecological and economic challenges. in such a context, therefore, alleviating dehumanizing poverty-and achieving the un millennium development goals (mdgs) will become even more difficult. global warming is leading to food and water shortages. food security in africa is also increasingly in danger due to skyrocketing food prices in world markets. baradat (2008, 281) in consonance with isanbor, bature (2018) and maathai (2009) posits that ecologoism and environmentalism are contemporary ideologies that are geared towards “energy conservation”. hoffman and graham (2009, 362) in consonance with baradat (2008) argue that: the desire to protect the environment is based primarily on concern about the consequences of environmental degradation on human beings, whereas for ecologists, something called 'ecology', or 'nature', is the source of value. it follows from this distinction that whereas environmentalism can be combined with other ideologies, ecologism is distinct. in terms of political practice, politicians from across the political spectrum have embraced the rhetoric, and sometimes the policies, of environmentalism. nevertheless, global warming and environmental ethics presuppose the tendency for what hoffman and graham (2009, 364) called green movement. baradat (2008, 281) in consonance with hoffman and graham (2009) asserts that many political parties throughout the world associate themselves with the ecology movement and refer to themselves as “greens”. 178 jeko & odigie an evaluation of global warming and environmental ethics perhaps nowhere has the green party become so powerful as in germany. for hoffman and graham (2009, 364): the differing possibilities of ecologism, environmentalism and green (or green) thought—carry distinct ideological implications. in the view of those who called themselves ecologists, environmentalism denotes an attitude compatible with almost all the competing ideologies. environmentalists attach value to the 'environment' or 'nature' but only in relation to human consciousness and human concerns, and as such the environment is slotted in as a subordinate component of alternative ideologies, such as liberalism, socialism, or feminism. in the light of the above, hoffman and graham (2009, 364) argued that “environmentalism is anthropocentric—that is, human-centred. ecologists, on the other hand, assert that nature has intrinsic value, and that the task of ecologism is to engage in a critique of the anthropocentric worldview, which in socio-economic terms manifest itself as industrialism. ecologism is “eco-centred”. baradat (2008, 278) in consonance with hoffman and graham (2009) posit that: ecologism is a reaction against the predicament we have created through the combination of anthropocentricism and modernization (science, technology, industrialization, materialism). ecologists believe that humans have wrongfully violated nature by attempting to become its master. humans, they believe, feel themselves to be separate from nature. they see nature as an economic resource to be harnessed rather than a domicile to be nurtured and accommodated. as a result, humans have created an artificial, anti-natural world, one that fouls the air and water on which every living creature depends. we have accelerated the annual rate of species extinction 200-fold over the preindustrial rate; the great rain forests that do so much to regulate the climate and oxygenate the air are disappearing under the treads of giant earth movers; global warming due to the greenhouse effect caused by gases released into the atmosphere has begun the dangerous melting of glaciers and the polar icecaps; and the ozone layer depletion because of industrial pollution threatens us with lethal solar radiation. in concurrence with baradat's above theoretical position, hoffman and graham (2009, 363-364) further argued that “whereas environmentalists share a post-enlightenment belief in the uniqueness of the human perspective on the world—that is, they place human beings above, or outside, nature—ecologists challenge that philosophical position, maintaining that human life only has value insofar as it is a 'knot' in the 'net' of life, a net which connects together not only nonhuman animals, but non-sentient entities, such as trees, rivers and mountains”. for hoffman and graham (2009, 364), “indeed it is the net rather than the knots that is of ultimate value”. baradat (2008, 280-281) argues that “green spaces are shrinking, endangering unique wildlife like the panda bear. deep ecologists call upon people to abandon their anthropocentric view of the world and embrace the totality instead. this broader view is called holism”. in this connection, baradat (2008, 281) postulates that environmental ethics could be regarded as “environmental holism”. environmental holism is the comprehensive overview of how the environment can be sustained and protected from human abuse and plunder of the environment. as rightly observed by baradat (2008, 282-283), the british scientist james lovelock suggested in the late 1970s that earth was not simply an inert host of countless living and non-living things. instead, it was itself a living organism, with humans little more than certain cells in the earth's body. accordingly, hoffman 179 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 and graham (2009, 366-367) rightly observed that ecologism and environmentalism have led to green politics; and the possibility of green politics depends on the generation of surplus goods and therefore, the consumer society of which greens are so critical. ecologism is a distinct ideology, whereas environmentalism can be a strand in other ideologies, such as liberalism, conservatism, fascism, feminism, fundamentalism, nationalism, anarchism, multiculturalism, and socialism. as hoffman and graham (2009, 367-368) rightly observed: if we leave the world more degraded than we found it then we are violating the rights of future generations and hence there is the need for conservatism. at a simplistic level conservatives and environmentalists share a belief in conservation. although conservatives focus on the preservation and transmission of cultural traditions, respects for the environment--the maintenance of a sense of place –is also important. at a deeper philosophical level conservatives share with many ecologists a scepticism towards rationality. in the light of the above, hoffman and graham (2009, 368) argued that environmentalists oppose the exploitation—in the pejorative sense of the word-of the natural world. there is more than a metaphysical equivalence between socialist and environmentalist opposition to exploitation; and the people most likely to suffer the consequences of environmental degradation are the poor in society, especially the poor in the developing world. this is often the result of a deliberate policy of 'dumping'. for instance, nigeria is one of the countries in the african continent that is currently experiencing “a deliberate policy of dumping”. in other words, nigeria is a dumping ground for all sorts of expired goods and services due to the evils of poverty and hunger in the land. these goods include used kitchen utensils, clothes, shoes, electrical appliances, vehicles, rugs, furniture and other goods. worthy of note is that the nigerian government must put up viable economic policies in place to reverse this ugly scenario of dumping of expired goods from europe, united kingdom, united states of america and other parts of the world. nevertheless, ecologism and environmentalism are concepts that are closely linked with other ideologies. on the other hand, there is a theoretical affinity between feminism and environmentalism. as rightly observed by hoffman and graham (2009, 368), the links between feminism and environmentalism (and ecologism) seem more metaphysical than real. the idea of mother earth implies the femininity of nature. the ideas of growth and nurturing also summon up notions of motherhood and of the mother-child relationship. for baradat (2008, 283), the suggestion that women are more in tune with nature and less threatening to it than men has gained resonance among feminists. women claim that their biological role of giving birth and nurturing is more compatible with earth mother than is the male drive to conquer. as hoffman and graham (2009, 368-369) rightly observed: environmentalists and ecologists value cultural diversity; and so an environmentalist seeks to preserve an endangered species. environmentalism and ecologism draw a parallel with fundamentalism. if ecologism—rather than environmentalism –is viewed as a religion then it is not difficult to take the next step to describing it as fundamentalist. it is clear that there are links and affinities between these various ideologiesmulticulturalism, feminism, nationalism, fundamentalism, fascism, liberalism, socialism, conservatism and both environmentalism and ecologism. there is a distinctive core to ecologism which can be summed in the distinction between an anthropocentric ethic and ecocentric ethic. 180 jeko & odigie an evaluation of global warming and environmental ethics in addition, the concepts of anthropocentric ethic and ecocentric ethic identified by hoffman and graham (2009) in their theoretical position on ecologism and environmentalism are traceable to aldo leopold notion of 'land ethic'. for leopold (1978, 150) and hoffman and graham (2009, 369) the essence of 'land ethic' was that land was an interdependent system, and not a commodity; human beings were part of the 'land community' and not masters of it; for human beings to understand themselves they must grasp the 'whole' of which they are a 'part' and 'a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community…it is wrong when it tends otherwise. for hoffman and graham (2009, 369-370): what leopold called 'land' was what later ecologists would call the eco-system, biosphere, gaia, 'earth' ('spaceship earth'), and by 'community' leopold meant an interdependent whole, the members of which were not simply human beings, or even all sentient beings, but all the life forms. the extension of ethics to land is an 'evolutionary possibility' and an 'ecological necessity'. certainly, leopold argues, individual thinkers have condemned the abuse of the land, but 'society' has yet to embrace the land ethic. the conservation movement is the embryo of such social affirmation. individuals must change their motivations and this is a powerful and central claim of the ecological movement. nonetheless, burr and goldinger (2008, 232-233) emphasizes that more than forty years ago the american ecologist aldo leopold argues for the need for a new ethics; an ethics that deals with man's relations with the environment. deep ecology ethic will face problems similar to those we identified in considering the idea of the reverence-for-life ethic; and the reverence-for-life ethics with regard to the natural environment is deeply rooted in morally significant interests. accordingly, burr and goldinger (2008, 234) further heightened their theoretical position by asserting that: we are on surer ground if we confine ourselves to arguments based on the interests of sentient creature, present and future, human and nonhuman…the arguments grounded on the interests of present and future human beings, and on the interests of the sentient nonhumans who inhabit the wilderness, are quite sufficient to show that, at least in society where no one needs to destroy wilderness in order to survive, the value of preserving the remaining significant areas of the wilderness greatly exceeds the values gained by their destruction. accordingly, burr and goldinger (2008, 233-234) assert that the ecosystems lies some form of holism—some sense that the species or ecosystem is not just a collection of individuals but really an entity in its own right; and to seek intrinsic value in diversity or complexity is a mistake. in a more simplistic term, humans will validate their own existence, survival and worth if they protect and sustain their nature environment. evaluation having critically examined the challenge of global warming with regard to ecological and environmental sustainability, this paper observed that environmental ethics is the rightness and wrongness of human actions towards the wellbeing of the natural environment; and it demonstrates the need for the normative outcomes of a peaceable and healthy environment. for ikeke (2013, 404-405): 181 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 a clear affirmation of the right to a healthy and safe environment comes in the 1981 african charter on human and people' rights. by placing a duty on sovereign states and persons to conserve and protect the earth, the charter invariably and implicitly affirms a right to environmental wellbeing. the fundamental inalienable right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life are not possible outside a safe and healthy environment. this is why the enjoyment of fundamental human rights and liberties imply the right to a healthy environment. earth's life forms are to be allowed to flourish, the land and water are to be well managed and all of nature is to be used sustainably. in concurrence with the above assertion, ikeke (2013, 408-409) further stressed that the right to a safe and healthy environment has evolved from the last quarter of the last century to the present day. it is now well recognized that there is a human right to a safe and healthy environment. environmental problems certainly affect social order. deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, oil spillage, and pollutions of the waterways and land of the planet are already impacting negatively on the earth. accordingly, ikeke (2013, 403) further argues that environmental ethics deals with contemporary issues of how societies aggregates the interaction among people, social class relation with authority, the consequences of urbanization and industrialization on the cohesion of society, community and social control, the outcome of the disruption of traditional societies and their norms and the general instability that come with rapid social change. moreover, global warming is just one of the basic issues in environmental ethics. worthy of note is that apart from global warming, there are other environmental problems such as decline in species, depletion of natural resources, water shortages, food shortages, desertification, deforestation, urbanization, environmental pollution, industrialization and the proliferations of nuclear weapons by some nation-states. the proliferations of nuclear weapons have caused catastrophic and devastating consequences on humanity and the natural environment. for ekiyor and boro (2018, 159), a nuclear weapon is a lot of free energy but in the wrong hands it is a threat to humanity. accordingly, ekiyor and boro (2018, 162) further argued that the negative effect of our actions should be channelled to the attainment of order in the environment. the attainment of order in the environment boils down to the supreme question of man. global warming has demonstrated a contemporary call for the safety of the environment. the challenge of global warming is a very serious problem that demands concerted effort by humanity in order to mitigate the excessive abuse and plunder of the environment by man. global warming reveals an anthropocentric conception of man as a paradoxical being. man is a paradox and he remains a bundle of confusion. according to mondin (2007, 1) man is the supreme question for man. for hoffman and graham (2009, 377) human beings must place value on the environment because value does indeed depend on the human capacity to evaluate, but it does not follow that values are "human-centred”. worthy of note is that technological advancement has contributed to environmental degradation such as the testing of “intercontinental ballistic missiles”. we all have fundamental right to the environment both living and sentient beings. according to ikeke (2013, 404), the human persons have right to a sustainable, peaceful and healthy environment. for ikeke (2013, 398), the environment refers to the entire natural world, with human persons inclusive. some scholars have also asserted that technological advancement has also contributed to the degradation of the natural environment. for hoffman and graham (2009, 381-382), technology, on the other hand, dates back to the earliest human activityit is simply the marshalling of natural processes to serve human ends. of course, advances in scientific understanding have aided technological advance, and many ecologists will argue that neither science nor technology are in 182 jeko & odigie an evaluation of global warming and environmental ethics themselves to be rejected, but rather it is the degree of intervention in, and alteration of, natural processes which is at issue. moreover, hoffman and graham (2009, 381) further assert that: the danger with ecologism is that it fails to distinguish between human enquiries—the drive to understand the world—and human wants, that is, the desire to use the natural world for human ends. humancentredness is narrowly defined by ecologists as instrumental reason; nature is used as a means, or instrument, for human ends. but you do not need to be an ecologist in order to challenge instrumental reason; you can move completely within a humancentred view of the world and still raise rational objections to the idea that because we have the scientific knowledge to do something, such as clone human beings, then we should do it. in the light of the above, hoffman and graham (2009, 382) aver that ecologism's distinctiveness can be found in its emphasis on the interconnectedness of life on earth, and the demand for fundamental change in human relations to nature--where nature, of course, is part of humanity, and humanity part of nature. hoffman and graham (2009), in their theoretical position identified the inextricable nexus between humanity and nature and that human beings and nature belong to an interdependent whole (part-whole) analysis. we are all part and parcel of nature and our longevity, continuous existence and survival depends on the natural world. environmental ethics is based on human-centredness. as rightly observed by ikeke (2013, 405-406), human activities on the planet have altered it greatly, and political institutions are finding it difficult to cope with the rapid changes caused by environmental pollution and exploitation. for burr and goldinger (2008, 226-227), thus, a human-centered ethic can be the basis of powerful argument for what we may call “environmental values”. scholars have also suggested that the need to preserve the natural environment is an existential imperative for the sake of future human beings. the price to be paid by future human beings is too high. concluding considerations so far, we have made effort to present to our reader(s) the ethical dilemma surrounding the emergence of global warming as a result of the depletion of the ozone layer. it is pertinent to state here that global warming has become an existential burden to our humanity. the whole of humanity will be doomed if the necessary steps are not taken for the preservation of the natural environment. the normative outcome of environmentalism is deeply rooted in respect for nature. there is a serious need for us not to ignore the contemporary call for stemming the tide of global warming because this would spell doom for humanity. there are potential dangers ahead of humanity if the ethical question surrounding ecological and environmental sustainability is not being resolved as quickly as possible. 183 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references baradat., l. (2008). political ideologies: their origins and impact, ninth edition, new delhi: prentice hall of india private limited. burr., j. and goldinger., m. (2008). philosophy and contemporary issues, new delhi: prentice hall of india private limited ekwealo., c. (2012). applied and practical ethics: a simplified course text, volume 1, lagos: african environment ethics and values research group, a publication of the department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of lagos. hoffman., j. and graham., p. (2009). introduction to political theory, second edition, england: pearson higher education limited ikeke., mark. (2013). “the right to safe and healthy environment: a quintessential for a new social order: a philosophical enquiry” in george ukagba, des obi and iksnwankwor (eds.), the kpim of social order: a season of inquiry, meaning and significance in the modern world, usa: xlibris corporation. isanbor., p. and bature., a. (2018). “morality, integral ecology and development in francis' laudato si: a review” in professor. peter f. omonzejele (editor-in-chief), philectics benin journal of philosophy, a publication of the department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of benin, volume 1, no. 2, 54-64. leopold., a. (1987). a sand country almanac, and sketches here and there, new york and oxford: oxford university press. maathai., w. (2009). the challenge for africa: a new vision, london: heinemann publishing limited. mondin., b. (2007). philosophical anthropology, rome: urbanianna university press. olagunju., b. and ibiezugbe., m. (2018). “youth empowerment as a catalyst to environmental sustainability in nigeria” in professor. peter f. omonzejele (editor-in-chief), philectics benin journal of philosophy, a publication of the department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of benin, volume 1, no. 2, 65-70. welson., e. and boro., d. (2018). “kantian categorical imperative and composite thermodynamic imperative: implications for ethics” in professor. peter f. omonzejele (editor-in-chief), philectics benin journal of philosophy, a publication of the department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of benin, volume 1, no. 2, 153165. 184 jeko & odigie an evaluation of global warming and environmental ethics page 182 page 183 page 184 page 185 page 186 page 187 page 188 page 189 page 190 page 191 page 192 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr on the heavy burden of the development of africa nicholas onyemechi alumona, phd department of religious studies and philosophy, delta state university, abraka, nigeria. alumonano@delsu.edu.ng abstract developing africa has continued to be an issue that requires attention of development scholars, both indigenous and western. western scholars and development experts have accused indigenous african development scholars of being very ethnocentric as they uncritically localize issues of development, thus making development of africa a heavy burden. these indigenous africans are referred to as culture particularists while the western scholars in their acclaimed refined approach to development are called the culture universalists. it is the finding of this paper that both divides are laced with some forms of ethnocentrism and such orientations constitute the heavy burden of developing africa; the former is not dynamic enough to accommodate values from other cultures while the latter assumes so much culture superiority to the extent that the values of the so-called developing cultures are insignificant in the development agenda. adopting the methods of hermeneutics and analysis, this work argues that development agenda would be ineffective if african peculiarities are jettisoned in the name of one imagined and imposed global village. it concluded that lifting the burden of developing africa lies in advancing development policies, programmes and strategies that are rooted in the pristine and positive values of african cultures while accommodating the progressive ones from the west, not the reverse situation currently operational in development programmes and policies in africa. key words: african development, africa's development, heavy burden, ethnocentrism, syncretism, globalism introduction the need to develop africa has continued to generate ideas from scholars and policy makers alike. different approaches, policies and programmes have been suggested; many of which are being implemented yet africa is still at the lower rung of the world development ladder. this paper is a both an examination and a contribution towards addressing the development question of africa. the development approaches adopted are grouped into particularists and universalists. while the particularists who believe in african development see nothing wrong with an approach of development that is traditional to a people with certain peculiarities, the universalists who are advocates of africa's development support generality in addressing development problems confronting the entire human race, regardless of our different origins, cultures and orientations. this work is interested in both african development and africa's development. it is therefore a major goal of this work to critically appraise both kinds of development as they affect africa. selected policies of development meant to address development problems in africa are highlighted in our mission to show that they (both kinds of development) are not antithetical to each other in their goals on achieving development. 72 mailto:alumonano@delsu.edu.ng in view of the highlights above, this work aims to establish that ideas of a people cannot be wished away simply on the altar of the acclaimed superiority of some other extraneous cultural orientations and values. development does not even accommodate such cultural ontological destruction from any culture irrespective of the advancement made by such modernized culture. this therefore leads to showing that cultural syncretism is a way out but such approach needs a critical harmony of cultures rooted in the positive values of a people while discountenancing anachronistic ones. african development and africa's development: conceptual distinctions conceptually, african development is that type of development owned by africans themselves and which is dependent on traditional african values, assumptions and concepts that constitute the interpretations and understanding of their experiences. it shows that “africans have a world-view that is uniquely their own which is then contrasted with the scientific worldview seen as characteristically western …” (oladipo, 2000, pp. 33-34). any attempt to introduce the minutest western logic of development into this brand of development, perhaps on the grounds of cultural dynamism, is completely rejected because such activity raises questions on the status and ownership of such kind of development. in terms of policy and theoretical frameworks that explain african development, we can see the idea of panafricanism, senghor's negritude, nyerere'sujamaa, kaunda's african humanism, nkrumah's consciencism and ubuntu. detailed discussions on these african projects clearly show that all these are attempts at founding africa on african traditional principles and values with a view to advancing development that can best be christened african (makumba, 2007; mawere & mubaya, 2016). ogundowole emphasizing how indigenous they are to africa, describes them as the “fundamental theoretical principle of selfreliancism” (2011, p. 43). other attempts by african leaders and government, especially at post-independence showed how much africans wanted to own their development. this was demonstrated with the enactment of economic bodies to enhance development in africa on the basis of traditional african values. such bodies include the economic community for west african states, lagos plan of action, organization of african unity (now african union) and the new partnership for africa's development among others. whether these african values guided african leaders in the implementations of the goals of these bodies is a subject debate outside the purview of this work. the reason for mentioning them here is because of the priority accorded traditional african values and the subsequent promotion of african identity. africa's development is that type of development, mainly economistic, which is also significant to africa and africans. it is initiated and implemented by individuals (heads of state and government) and institutions on the basis of norms, principles and strategies which are assumed to be universal. this type of development is therefore not necessarily owned by africans in terms of the peculiarities of their situations and orientations but it encapsulates approaches designed based on global principles and applied on african situations with the conviction that humanity has the same ontological reality and the peculiarities of problems are only apparent and not real. in terms of philosophy, uduigwomen clearly states that “the universalist or professional school…is of the view that philosophy [of development] is the same everywhere, using the same methodology” (1995, p. 3). there is therefore no congenial cultural way to development; it is simply a universal phenomenon that all cultures should conform to by subscribing to “a philosophy that seeks to consider things in the significance of their singularity and not in the exclusiveness of their otherness” (asouzu, 2004, p. 39). the assumption that underlies this 73 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 universalist perspective of development was captured elsewhere by alumona (2022) thus: development takes place in any part of the world irrespective of the differences in social situations or circumstances. in other words, there are universal standards of development that any society or people should subscribe to whether there are variations in the understanding of certain values or not. this is what is termed homogenization of values in the arguments of development between the global north and the global south (p. 173). this sense of universalism of certain policies, programmes and strategies of development in africa gives birth to our idea of africa's development as distinct from african development. some of those policies and strategies would suffice in our explanations. at post-independence, when african leaders were poised to reclaim africa, they had the conviction that economic growth through industrialization according to colonial templates was the solution to the development woes in africa. on the strength of that conviction and in conjunction with their colonial benefactors, they began the first post-independence development plans in the african continent. we have quite a number of them but for want of space, we chose to highlight nigeria development plan of 1962-1968, kenya's first development plan of 1966-1970 and tanzania's first plan of 1964-1969 (see ake, 1996). the nigerian development plan of 1962-68 had priority in agricultural production of cash crops for local consumption and exportation to advance countries of the world. the plan also entailed provision of infrastructure and investment in education. however, to achieve all these, the country was to substantially depend on foreign assistance on needed resources, technology transfer and external expertise on planning and execution; and about 50% of the financing of all the proposed activities coming in as foreign aids and loans. the kenyan first development plan of 1996-70 was also drafted with concentration on the production sector, the provision of infrastructure and social services (heyer, 1966). to be able to finance all these sectors, 56% of kenya's capital should be from foreign aids and private investment. however, to increase domestic saving and finance, domestic assets held by public institutions must give way to foreign assets that are owned by private individuals who are non-africans. in the case of tanzania, attention was to be paid to agriculture (which is the mainstay of tanzanian's economy), industrialization and education. later, rural development had special attention after the 'arusha declaration' of 1967. the shift in attention from industrialization to agriculture and rural development was welcome by the europeans who felt that there was going to be huge returns on the investment made in training manpower from primary to post-secondary school education on agricultural productions. more loans were obtained than grants and so, servicing and repayment of such loans were for the interests of the foreign 'masters'. again, the primary agricultural products were to be exported abroad since africans lacked the industries for their processing and production into final consumable goods. to succeed in capital expenditure in the implementation of the plan, 78% of the expenditure for development comes from external sources by way of loan, aids and grants. in terms of policy thrust, the (saps) emerged in the structural adjustment programmes early 1980s from the international monetary fund (imf) and world bank to address the economic woes which sub-sahara african (ssa) countries inflicted upon themselves. a breakdown of the economic crises confronting the ssa countries include: overvaluation of local currencies of countries, restrictions on imports and exports/overprotection of infant/domestic industries, excess government spending, investment or budgeting on social services such as 74 alumona on the heavy burden of the development of africa subsidies leading to external debt burden, government involvement in price regulations and excess consumption and less production of goods and services. the multilateral institutions—convinced that they had the exclusive magic wand for solving the institutions' imposed problems on africa—reeled out the path to economic recovery and development that africa must necessarily follow which include: industrial incentive reforms, deregulation/divestiture/privatization, foreign exchange price flexibility (devaluation of local currency against the dollar abolition of tariffs and taxes/duties) and international cooperation ( ) (rono, 2002). in the 2000s, development programmes as usually determined by the united nations began with the introduction of the (mdgs). principally, there are millennium development goals eight goals which further split into eighteen targets to be implemented across the globe, especially in developing countries of the world. the millennium development targets were therefore subsumed under the . this is a global development plan which millennium development goals the entire african continent and all third world countries must necessarily be part of if they have to attain development. the (sdgs) as a development sustainable development goals programme is the successor of the mdgs. it is largely seen as a strategy of development that will accomplish achievements in certain areas the failed. and the millennium development goals expected achievements are supposed to be recorded within fifteen years, from 2015 to 2030. so far, it would not be a herculean task distinguishing between african development and africa's development. while the former houses policies that promote home grown strategies and approaches to solving development problems in africa and can therefore be characterized as particularistic, the latter advances external and foreign approaches and strategies as panacea to development problems in africa and as such termed universalists' solutions. identifying the heavy burden of african development approaches one major accusation of the burden of african development is that the proponents are often illogical and irrational in their arguments, especially as those arguments are related to vital forces in certain african ontological beliefs. this is very visible in the pan-african orientations like negritude, , and others which are the bases for those pan-african approaches ujamaa ubuntu to development. for instance, in environment related development challenges, the african belief of ecological monism where man is one with nature acknowledges the non-existence of subjectobject dichotomy and takes nature as part of a comprehensive existence with man, other beings in the ecosystem; all of which are inevitably linked with the operations of vital forces. tempels' seminal work on vital forces of the bantu people has become the precursor for most discourses on such invisible phenomenon being an active personal principle in the affairs of man. t.u. nwala, building on the foundation of tempels' african ontology, wrote of the potency of spirits' occupation of every object in existence among the igbo people of nigeria. kwame gyekye wrote of his akan people of ghana, explaining the four different categories of beings; three of which are defined by spirits while only one is seen as the world of natural and physical objects (ogbenika, 2011). such esotericism in african development is what has been adjudged as illogical and irrational and which constitutes a heavy burden of african development. africans have been accused of talking about immanent personalities without which certain pristine african and ethical values would lack potency and efficacy. ogbenika exposed this heavy burden of african development thus: “since the idea of spirits in african philosophy is tied to a particular environment milieu or a particular situation, it cannot…be seen as rational” (ogbenika, 2011, p.10). 75 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 another heavy burden of african development is the exclusivist thinking that the development of africa can effectively be conducted only by africans who have holistic knowledge of african cultures, their attendant values and how they can be linked to development. scholars who attempt to redefine african cultures and development because of their western training are viewed as influenced by foreign and alien mindsets and models of development, and cannot in anyway advance the authentic african development. this is because they do not know the cultural particulars in africa and as such become strangers to the way of life of the african. the thinking on development here is that every development programme is cultural and so african development must situate itself in african cultures. this is in tandem with anyanwu's explanation of culture to mean “the totality of knowledge, behaviour, ideas and objects that constitute the common heritage of a people” (anyanwu, 1983, p. 24). african development is therefore based on the totality of african mode of knowing, behavioural response to the following: environment, fellow humans, other beings, and issues that stimulate the mind; the idea of reality (which is unitary) and the person-nature of objects around every human being. this orientation is further seen as a burden of african development because “it frowns at any attempt to examine any aspect or element of [african] culture with the model of western philosophy and its logic of development” (azenabor, 2010, p. 92). cultural protectionism exhibited by african scholars in the quest to promulgate african development is hence viewed as an anathema to the realization of their goals. anachronism is also a very heavy burden of african development. most of the values promoted in african development discourses are adjudged as no longer relevant to addressing modern day problems. the functionality of those traditional ideas and institutions in the present day challenges in all facets of human existence is now called to question. the ideas of culture evolution and cultural dynamism account for the explanation of such concept as traditional to be old while the modern is new and both concepts are mutually exclusive. the classical rostowian example of the five stages of growth, beginning from the first stage he calls traditional societies where productivity was limited, social structure was hierarchical and family and clan were major determinants of social organizations (rostow, 1990) fundamentally explains how outdated africans can be described in terms of embracing new trends in development. for instance, it is extremely ridiculous seeing africans stick to their so-called value of covenant when nations are talking about and acting on bilateral and multilateral trade agreements that attract foreign investors and foreign direct investments to their countries. so the heavy burden of african development in this respect is the weird adhesiveness of africans to obsolete values that are overtly and surreptitiously antithetical to both human and material transformation. the last heavy burden of african development ensues from the lack of engaging all the actors and factors that define complementarity (asouzu, 2007) in development. actors here are human agents with their own contributions on the issue of african development while factors are ideas, programmes, policies and strategies. somewhere above, we talked about african scholars who hold that they are the only competent persons capable of insightfully contributing to issues advancing the development of africa. this means that some actors have been excluded from making their own contributions to development issues affecting the continent simply on the basis of their place of origin. the factors include ideas, strategies, policies and programmes which define african development. the pan-african ideas advanced by african political philosophers and thinkers were largely based on what they defined as african traditional values and could at best address limited development issues. 76 alumona on the heavy burden of the development of africa the heavy burden of africa's development approaches explained one major characteristic of africa's development agenda examined in this essay is that africa's development strategies, programmes and policies are universal. it is the opinion of the universalists that there is a basic ontological unity in all humans across cultures and as a result, all human beings irrespective of cultures have the same development problems and challenges. problems may be distinct in appearance but the reality is that they are not; all development problems are one with different perspectives. in order to address world development problems effectively, all continents of the world must adopt same development solutions led by the first world economies. the priority is for the first world to ensure that the third world understands that underdevelopment is a stage in the development process which has been overcome by the first world themselves. so, they are in a position to guide the third world on the journey of development (rapley, 1996). development therefore flows from the first world, albeit slowly, to the rest of the world. it is conceived as “racing from the west and will 'trickle down' to the masses of the underdeveloped people. it was in this thought-frame that the charter of the united nations organization was signed” (njoku, 2006, p. 229). the heavy burden of development from this perspective is the assumption of ontological monism of values across cultures of the world. another problem associated with africa's development, in the light of our discussion, is making development solely scientific. in this sense, development is economistic, technologically and industrialization driven and must be value-free. attempts to spiritualize development of africa and introduce esotericism into it are deliberately walking the wrong path towards africa's development. such spiritualization is unscientific and irrational, and unacceptable. the rational is the scientific and the scientific is the rational. as rational indices of development, they are verifiable, demonstrable, observable, specific, exoteric and objective. in the programmes and policies promulgated to aid african countries in raising their gdps, the first world countries through their institutional agents saw the inevitability of technology in order to catch up with the developed countries of the world. alumona (2017) exposes the opinion of the advanced countries that “the developing countries of the world, africa inclusive, lack scientific and technological knowledge, skills and techniques needed for their own development” (p. 51). the heavy burden here is the exclusive restriction of development to . scientificity market forces and competition are also another set of defining characteristics of the programmes of africa's development which we also view as burdens of africa's development. the classical views of adam smith and david ricardo are very germane to this approach of development from the west to africa. the emphasis is on the forces of demand and supply which obliterate any form government interference. the free market economy which started as the foundation for the modernization theory of development became the ideal for capitalist neoliberalism and has been canvassed as the only route to developing the third world countries. ekanola captured this when he avows that “proponents argue that capitalism is the most effective option in the quest for genuine socio-economic development…” (2006, p. 138). of market forces economy, he says: “prominent among these principles are the following: liberalization of national economies to reduce or abolish regulatory trade barriers, capital controls and foreign exchange restrictions” (p. 139). in the universalists' view, as individuals are allowed freely into the market, they would be in competition with one another in order to provide goods and services that are meant to ensure the total well-being of the consumers. two heavy burdens of development from this perspective of development suffice; first is the oversimplification of development to the point that it can be determined by the forces of demand and supply while the second, is the assumption that economic development can lead to the total well-being of both the individual and the state. 77 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 lifting the burdens: a more holistic approach to develop africa from our expositions above, it is clear that the criticisms levelled against certain invisible entities in african ontology that are deemed helpful in african development are on the basis of the scientific image of rationality. newton-smith captures this when he avows that: the image that the scientific community likes to project of itself, and indeed the image that most of us accept of that community, is that of rationality par excellence. the scientific community sees itself as the very paradigm of institutionalized rationality. it is taken to be in possession of something, the scientific method, which generates a 'logic of discovery' (1981, p. 1). it is this acclaimed universalist image that alumona had earlier identified as the “'metaphysic spirit', the 'hub spirit' which drives narrow conception” (2011, p. 141). this essay does not support the fact that any unjustifiable item could be brought in while trying to chart the course for african development through some homegrown policies but it is also averse to narrowing the matrices of being and intentionally foreclosing the potentialities of other cultures' capabilities of making inputs on issues of development. when africans are discountenanced for applying these non-empirical elements, the universalists should have asked what brands of rationality were applied by africans. ogbenika (2011) would see it as weak form of rationality while nickerson (2008) would call it practical rationality. in the dual forms of classifications explained by these scholars, neither is superior to the other; both are only geared towards the realization of the same end through different means that ought to complement each other. the apparent mutually exclusive relationship between the proponents of african development strategies and those of the africa's development ones, with their respective orientations of particularism and universalism, is another identified heavy burden of development in africa. in itself, cultural particularism is not an ethnocentric negativity since there are always what a people are known for which fill the gap when the question of identity is raised. what is discouraged is the promotion of peculiarities to the extent of culminating in culture isolationism. the necessity of cultural particulars cannot be over-emphasized in the planning of development. ikeke and alumona alluded to this culture indispensability when they posit that “no development can fully succeed if it does not take into consideration the cultural beliefs of the people. no development can succeed if the people do not own or believe in it. one thing that will make people to easily own the process of development is attentiveness to their genuine cultural beliefs and practices” (2016, p. 81). these cultural beliefs and practices must, however, make provision for cultural interactionism and interculturalism. this is the confluence point of cultures without a 'superiorto-thou' attitude from any one culture in order to genuinely embrace people-oriented development. this justifiably runs contrary to cultural universalism which does not recognize culture peculiarities. such culture universalism is an intended ethnocentric attitude against some peculiarities of values in the development of africa and an unnecessary showing of cultural superiority. many aspects of the touted universal values are also peculiar to the west but are exported to the so-called third world countries as applicable to all human beings in disguised eurocentric imperialist manners, especially in the form of globalization. what we continue to advocate for is a genuine mindset towards the development of africa where the so-called universal values do not assume perfection at the detriment of the potentials of the particular values. again, cultural interaction can play a key role in lifting this burden. another heavy burden of development already highlighted is the alleged attitude of 78 alumona on the heavy burden of the development of africa africans bandying obsolete values as appropriate for the development of africa. such anachronistic values cannot fit into the contemporary development space where science, technology and other practical market indices determine world economy and development. kwasiwiredu had earlier seen these as one of the three major development problems of any society that jettisons rationality. for him, african development problem in this respect is because africans fail “to perceive anachronistic things for what they are and to discard or modify them as the case may require” (wiredu, 1980, p. 1). wiredu's disjunctive submission of obliteration or modification of obsolete traditional values in africa provided a considerable way of handling such values that are deemed irrelevant in our present development situations. while there is no problem with modification, except for the of such activity, there is every reason to question how the advocacy for complete annihilation of so-called outdated african traditional values. historicists as philosophers of history are prominent critics of the destructive, rather than deconstructive, approach to african traditional values. okoro presents maurice mandelbaum's view of historicism as an attempt at explaining that historical change is defined by the historicity of values, an expression that signifies that cultural values are always indigenous to a particular age (okoro, 2011). most often, the standards applied in the annihilation of a people's traditional values are alien. this in turn undermines the people's entire way of life and negatively affects their mode of knowing, language, ontological relationships and their identity as a whole. while not admitting all kinds of values that are traditional to the african peoples in the quest for a critical endogenous development, values should be respected in such a way that even at the possibility of modification, we can know how they have evolved in order to also know how and what to further modify, or again what has been modified in the past. this way, we promote cultural revivalism in the midst of engaging other cultures of the world. finally, a very clear burden of africa's development is the claim that development could only be enjoyed by countries in africa if they allow the forces of demand and supply to determine their terms of trade. this means liberalization of the economies of african countries wherein there is no government interference with the progress of the market. it is suggested that the totality of africa's well-being depends solely on the market forces with their tina (there is no alternative) acronym. on this holistic well-being, the scholars of economic liberalism promoted the assumption that free market forces, following from adams smith's postulations, would guarantee effective and just production and distribution of not just the economic requirements needed for development but also the social, political and epistemological ones. this classical glorification of market forces in reality seems to be a deceptive one when compared to the economic and development realities in world economy, africa inclusive. the principle of competition which is the kernel of market forces carries the implication of inequality and unhealthiness in smith's market forces theory of development. certainly, the economic, social, political and epistemic advancement of the first world countries place them far above those of the african continent. in actual sense, there is no competition because they are not all taking off from the same departure point. “those who own the means of production see their incomes and wealth increase more rapidly than those who do not” (holcombe, 2021, p. 9). the market forces approach to development leaves out principles such as communalism, solidarity, reciprocity and covenant which are familiarly attached to africans. and this non-consideration of other cultures and possible alternatives is the reason the free market economy approach to development confidently and proudly assumes there is no other alternative to development. but development scholars are not unaware of what de rambures calls socialist market economy and 79 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 which he describes as the china model of development. it is a mixture of reformed government or state on the one hand and private market economy on the other hand. what is visibly unique about the model is that the confucius' virtues of honesty, generosity and a sense of duty which are all reflections of their own culture are significant aspects of development story (de rambures, 2015). so, there is at least an alternative to the western liberal model of development. such advocacy for critical hybridization of cultural values for development is not in short supply in africa. that is in line with the position of this paper on critical complementarity of african cultural values with those of the west which should save africa from being victims of the burden of monopolized development model from the west. conclusion development has paradoxically remained a desire and a burden in the african continent. it is a desire because there is need for improvement in both the material and spiritual aspects of lives of africans. it is, however, also a burden because many of the approaches to satisfying such desires have been viewed as ethnocentric as africans and scholars of africa's development are basically involved in cultural protectionism. but we have argued that cultural protectionism is not a negative phenomenon as long as it does not foreclose interculturalism and reception of values from other cultures leading to critical modification of values. on the flip side, we have also argued that universalism no matter how well intentioned is negative if it aims at cultural destruction, rather than encouraging complementarity. scholars and approaches have been classed into particularists/african development and universalists/africa's development. each of the divides has been presented in the light of their intended ethnocentric advocacies which constitute the burden of development in africa. the perceptions of both divides are antithetical to each other and mutually exclusive. this ought not to be the case because the ontology of values does not abhor cross-cultural interactions. to lift this burden of development, we therefore conclude that there must be critical complementarity of values from the different cultures of the west and africa rooted in african traditional values. in the traditional concept of (heavy load), an individual needs a complementary effort from ibuaru another to assist in lifting such a load. in such scenario, it is not really the helper that determines the nature of assistance because the owner of the load is more acquainted with the way the load is packaged than the helper. the helper would need to inquire from the owner to know the areas in which help is needed and even if he observes something the owner is oblivious of, he can at best make convincing suggestions rather than imposing his own strategies on his potential beneficiary. it is on this basis that we recommend complementary strategies, instead of imposing ones, to the development of africa. 80 alumona on the heavy burden of the development of africa references ake, c. 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(1980) . cambridge: cambridge university press.philosophy and an african culture 82 alumona on the heavy burden of the development of africa page 80 page 81 page 82 page 83 page 84 page 85 page 86 page 87 page 88 page 89 page 90 55 epistemicide and the challenges of development in africa: rethinking knowledge for progress aguinam, callistus c. nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. cc.aguinam@unizik.edu.ng & asadu, godfrey c. phd. bigard memorial seminary, enugu. asadugodfrey@gmail.com abstract the problem of underdevelopment is like a ghost haunting africa. in fact, in the social sciences, many developmental frameworks have been adduced as cure-all prescriptions to solve the problem of underdevelopment in developing countries—especially in africa—but to no avail. however, what is not contestable is the fact that, knowledge has a great implication in the development of any nation. this is predicated on the belief that knowledge serves as a basis for understanding reality. hence, there is no gain saying that, if reality is erroneously judged and conceived, developmental projects would wrongly be interpreted and approached. the truth about many african nations is that their knowledge banks are suffering from colonialisis, which is a manifestation of effects of epistemicide. it is on this note that, this work employs the methods of hermeneutics and analysis to investigate how a given people’s corpus of knowledge determines the level of their development. consequently, the work discovers among other things that the level of a people’s knowledge which informs their actions is the decider of which people are developed and which is undeveloped. again, what a people hold to be true and real goes a long way into determining the path of development they will follow. thus, the study recommended that for holistic development to be achieved in the developing world/countries there is the need to transform their worldview and liberate their thinking from the clutches of narrow mindedness and influences of eurocentric ideologies orchestrated by epistemicide. as such, government policies must urgently prioritize the reclamation and revitalization of indigenous african knowledge systems to foster genuine and sustainable development. keywords: epistemicide, indigenous knowledge, decolonization of knowledge, third world countries, worldview, development in africa introduction after several decades since the end of colonialism, most parts of africa are still grappling with problems such as high poverty rate, corruption, lack of basic infrastructural facilities across all sectors of the economy, unemployment, high mortality rate, political instability and insecurity of lives and property. global economic prospects reports that sub-saharan africa (ssa) saw a slowdown in growth, with estimates for 2023 showing 2.9 percent, 0.3 percentage points less than june's forecast. the three biggest economies in the continent, south africa, angola, and nigeria, had their growth decrease to an average of 1.8 percent in 2023, which restrained the region's overall growth. the other nations in the area had a decrease in growth to 3.9 percent, which was partially mailto:cc.aguinam@unizik.edu.ng mailto:asadugodfrey@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 56 caused by a steep fall in the growth of metal exporters and a drop in the price of metal globally. furthermore, protracted and severe conflicts hindered development in a number of nations. generally speaking, declining external demand and tighter domestic policy to combat persistent inflation delayed post-pandemic recovery (world bank, 2024). the above evidence goes to support the reason african states are used to depict and show what it means to be backward, that is, underdeveloped in the comity of nations. in addition, according to the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization as reported by africanews.com, there are approximately 244 million out-of-school children between the ages of 6 and 18. however, what is more worrisome is that more than 40%, or 98 million of them, live in sub-saharan africa, including nigeria (20.2 million), ethiopia (10.5 million), the democratic republic of congo (5.9 million) and kenya (1.8 million) (africanews.com, 2022). this indicates that sub-saharan africa is home to a significant proportion of the world’s poorest people. nevertheless, africa is a continent endowed with rich natural and human resources. however, these have not metamorphosed to development. it is based on this that kutor (2014, p.14) affirmed that the continent has remained largely underdeveloped regardless of the presence of huge natural resources (gold, cocoa, bauxite, oil, diamond, timber) and human resources based. the contention of this work is that africa lacks neither human resources nor material resources. but, the issue lies in her inability to use her god given resources to better herself, which to an extent is caused not only by epistemicide and eurocentrism that have made her to denigrate her mental capacity. thus, see herself as not an authentic participant in the production of knowledge but also some internal factors which we shall discuss within the work. the puzzle that begs for answer is how can one who sees herself not only as inferior to the west but also sees anything therefrom as authentic, chart a course different from the one dictated to her by those who surreptitiously arrogate to themselves the birth right to knowledge creation? secondly how can africa overcome her state of under development with this self-doubt and dependency inclinations? finally, how can africa achieve development when proper investment in education, research, technology, and rampant governance is treated with mere lip service? causes of under-development in africa many scholars have tried to suggest reasons to establish why africa is the way it is, or rather the root causes of underdevelopment in africa. in order to deal with this, they inferred reasons from different perspectives. some from the colonization perspective and others from the political set up of the continent. in this way the causes of african underdevelopment could be categorised into external and internal factors, what some scholars regard as exogenous and endogenous factors the first school of thought attributes africa’s underdevelopment to colonialism. for them, africa is the way it is because of its colonial experience. however, one may inquire, if african continent is the only continent colonized and, if not, why is her situation different from other colonized nationalities. secondly, if colonial experience is the cause of why africa is the way she is (underdeveloped), why is ethiopia not the envy of other nations, since she was not colonized? aguinam, callistus & asadu, godfrey epistemicide and the challenges of development in…. 57 the second school of thought argues that africa is the way she is because of some internal factors. these internal factors include corruption, weak institutions, political instability, insecurity, etc. the truth is that the problem of africa’s underdevelopment cut across internal and external factors. nevertheless, the main claim (or central argument) of this write upis that africa is the way she is today not only because of lack of proper investment in education, technology, research, good governance, but more so, due to excessive dependence on the west which was necessitated by epistemicide and eurocentricism. the effect of epistemicide and eurocentricism has made africa always look up to west for direction in both economic and social life. the next section would examine how this mentality was developed through destruction of african knowledge. african knowledge as the victim of epistemicide over the years, western philosophers have tended to consider knowledge to be strongly tied to a universal truth. western philosophers such as rene descartes, francis bacon, augustus comte, david hume, john locke, bishop george berkeley, etc. have all sought to attain absolute certainty in knowledge. in their obsession for absolute certainty, they adjudge whatever they ‘clearly’ conceive as knowledge or the right means of attaining knowledge to be indubitable and universal truth. significantly, the deep seated quest among western philosophers for certainty was realized with the scientific revolution in the seventeenth century ce. the heralds of the emerging science, such as francis bacon (1561-1626), sir isaac newton (1643-1727), pierre simon de laplace (17491827), etc. laid great stress on observation, experiments and mathematical reasoning as the right means of obtaining information about reality (copleston, 1963, p. 89). science has yielded (and continues to yield) tremendous effect in our world. an intellectual fanaticism grew in the western world acclaiming science as having utmost authority in the interpretations of life over other forms of interpretations such as philosophical, religious, mythical, spiritual, humanistic and social (franz, 1953, p. 822). if we are to attain any true knowledge at all, the scientific method of inquiry is considered the only means of attaining genuine knowledge and the best way of explaining reality meaningfully. with the passage of time, this scientific view has continued to hold subtle and implicit sway in western epistemological and academic discourses. through western expansionism, scientific epistemological and academic traditions have been imposed and universalized as the proper means of attaining valid knowledge. any form of knowledge that does not conform to scientific standards is considered delusory and unworthy of consideration in the academic milieu. through the colonial relationship between africans and westerners in particular, western-driven scientific epistemology came to predominate the education and epistemological discourses in africa and across the globe. traditional african view and rationality regarding what constitute adequate knowledge became dislodged for those prescribed by western powers. interestingly, stephen theron, in his work entitled africa, philosophy and the western tradition, contends that rationality and spirituality is common to humans but westerners developed this aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 58 tradition first. hence, it is their (westerners) prerogative to share those riches with others (theron, 1995, p. 16).as insisted by theron, westerners “having a variety of gifts” must help others in “the dissemination and appropriation of philosophical and scientific culture”. thus, africans, as well as other people with non-western views, should strive to adopt and imbibe the prototypic western way of life and scientific epistemological views. for theron, western rationality, views and judgments are supreme and universal. using their resources e.g. wealth, ideas with universalizing tendencies, and technologies, the west who wield power and influence over other people coerce them to accept their views and rationality as true. in accord with dare arowolo (2010) “colonialism, slave trade and missionaries are the bastions of western civilization and culture in africa” (p. 1). intentionally and unintentionally, colonialism and western civilization suppressed african ways of life and thought processes. marais rogas argues that the colonialists did not only find raw materials in lands, they also found raw materials in human beings who they could impose their structures and ideologies on. african ways of life and epistemological views became considered as archaic, obsolete, primitive, savage and unworthy of academic pursuit. colonially imposed western systems gradually permeated the socio-economic and political aspects of africa (dennis, 2008). in line with martin, odei ajei (2007) argued that “western science has portrayed itself as the only universally valid framework for the explanation and prediction of natural and social phenomena” (p. 112). any form of knowledge that does not meet the standards of science is deemed irrational, nonsensical and unworthy of being referred to as knowledge at all. the consequence of this is the rejection and bastardization of everything african especially african epistemology. alluding to this bastardization okere discusses the enormous consequences of the role of christianity on african traditional religion (atr). he argues that the “monolith” that was christianity abolished the mainstay of atr – its pantheon of gods, goddesses, deities and divinities – insisting that they were idolatrous and devilish. the ministers of atr – its priests and diviners – were no more than sorcerers; what is worse, its rites, rituals, and feasts were characterized as stinking orgies. african medicine was but unorthodox and magic, and no more! not even our languages – they were considered “cacophonies of unspeakable gibberish. in sum, all was one irredeemable massa damna (okere, 1996, pp. 20-22). accordingly, nothing african was good enough, and nothing good could be african. without a history, culture and civilization, how human could the african be? thus, the most arresting impact of africa’s negative history is, arguably, not the pillage and its various dimensions that the african had sustained. rather it is its influence on the african psyche, the fact that the african was forced to perceive himself in the light of that negative history and, above all, came to accept that image as exquisitely his/hers. this is precisely what ayittey (as cited in bbc news, 2007) considers the most detrimental effect of africa’s history. he writes, “it was probably this, rather … that wrenched the heart from the inner psyche of blacks and assailed the very cultural soul of their existence”. the humanity of the african was, thus, heavily contested. all through life, the african had it as his self-imposed task, to prove this humanity of his. this outlook has marked the african through and through. aguinam, callistus & asadu, godfrey epistemicide and the challenges of development in…. 59 hence, there is the competition to outdo one another in imitating the european. the inferior african aspires to be like the european. in terms of language, the african prefers the colonial masters’ language. to speak any african language is a sign of inferiority. but one is a ‘been-to’ once one speaks one of the languages of the erstwhile colonizers. in admiration of the european, the african suffers identity crisis. the european is a “bekee,” “oyibo,” “agbala.” whatever is not from the west is deemed inferior; and this includes what is roundly african; what the west does not produce. the values of the west become assumed as african values, while the core african values become rejected in preference to west.the dehumanization so affects the african that he/she is led, even, to deny himself or herself. this is the horrible aspect of the african condition. of his aspect, owomoyela (1996) writes: africans have not been the only people overrun by rampaging europeans but africans are unique in their belief that their future lies in becoming, in thought, speech, and habit, like their erstwhile colonizers. (p. 37) the impact of epistemicide on african development research and recounted experiences have ubiquitously revealed that colonialism brought about a rupture in every aspect of life in africa, from the traditional political institutions and indigenous economic developments to socio-cultural norms and values, all for its own benefit. today, despite the fact that colonialism is no longer the order of the day, the west, through education, continues to insidiously determine the trajectory of african thought and action. the level of miseducation going on in africa is nothing to write home about. its influence is greatly felt on the african psyche what some scholars refer to as mental colonization and colonization of the method of knowing. little wonder, today there is a rising interest in unravelling and addressing epistemic injustice in the continent. epistemic injustice is a form of injustice done to one in his/her capacity as a knower (fricker, 2007, p. 1). african knowledge was greatly disfigured with its contact with the west. through the instrument of colonialism, africans were made to perceive themselves and their heritage from a negative light. it is so endemic that africans rather than take pride in themselves and their output would rather prefer anything and everything western. this has affected the level of creativity and originality in africa. from the foregoing, one sees immediately that knowledge plays a crucial role in a nation's development. when we examine nations across the world, it is crystal clear that their level of development reflects the depth of knowledge they possess. sadly, one may argue that it is the level of african knowledge that kept africans in the situation of being underdeveloped. one may ask: how is this so? effects of knowledge on development the position advanced in this work is that there is a relationship between development and the level of knowledge in every nation. in fact, the level of development in a nation is a manifestation of its level of knowledge. it is in line with this belief that, socrates eboh (2018) asserts that “the aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 60 way a nation interprets matter gives rise to its ideology or worldview” (p. 2). it is important for us to note that whatever interpretation of matter one does is always influenced by the conceptual framework (hacker, 1996, p. 291) (ways of organising experiences) which the individual or a nation operates with. the arguments of the cultural conceptual scheme advocates the belief that to understand the thought of a culture, one must understand their categories of thought and the quite different forms of explanation and interpretation which they impose upon reality as they conceive it (hacker, 1996, p. 291). it is this peculiarity in ways of approaching reality that establishes obvious difference in a people’s ideology. a nation’s ideology defines its values, its goals and its overall attitude to life. this ideology so to speak is its mission statement. little wonder some people believe that the ideology of a nation charts its path to development (eboh, 2018, p. 2). thus, to understand the kind of development being pursued by any nation one needs to analyse her ideology. this is because the ideology of a people informs her concept of, and approach to development. in addition, it is noteworthy to underscore that what a people hold to be true(truth) significantly determines the path of development they will follow. it follows that the knowledge people possess determines the development or aspects of development that will be given more attention in their society. knowledge they say plays out in one’s action. one cannot act outside his knowledge jurisdiction; hence, one acts based on what he or she knows or have in mind. the problem is that when this knowledge is informed by parochial colonial contents, the people more or less view the former colonialist’s ideals as the only route to development. little wonder some scholars has established that africans are not the only nation colonised but she is the only nation with the unique belief that her future lies in becoming, in thought, speech, and habit, like her erstwhile colonizers (eboh, 2018, p. 2). the way forward the relationship between knowledge and development in africa is a complex and multifaceted issue that encompasses various challenges. however, what has been established so far from the data presented in this write up, is that africa is having crisis of development. thus, for holistic development to be achieved in africa, several factors both internal and external must be addressed. the need to exorcize african corpus of knowledge from undue influences of eurocentricism cannot be overemphasised. to achieve this, efforts need to be made not only to rescue the african academia from its eurocentric bent but also to cure african academia from her outdated approach to issues. these have become an urgent project. it cannot be excused that after sixty-four years of independence, nigeria academics and indeed most african nations are still following and imitating sheepishly their colonial educational heritage. it is in line with this ugly scenario that budd l. hall and rajesh in their article regrets that university knowledge systems in nearly every part of the world are derivations of the western canon, the knowledge system created some 500 to 550 years ago in europe by white male scientists. the contemporary university is often characterized as working with colonized knowledge (hall & tandon, 2017, p. 9).there is no effort to develop home aguinam, callistus & asadu, godfrey epistemicide and the challenges of development in…. 61 grown curriculum that would solve the peculiar problems of the 21st century african man hence, the increasing calls for the decolonization of our universities. in addition, there is need for africans to liberate their thinking from the clutches of narrow mindedness and influences of eurocentric ideologies orchestrated by epistemicide. it is still fashionable among africans to think themselves as second rate humans. this to an extent is a manifestation of epistemic injustice. epistemic injustice orchestrated by epistemicide which is destruction of alternative sources of knowledge has made it possible for africans in spite of being politically free to still consider themselves and anything african as inferior to its european alternative. it is on this note that asadu (2022) in his work, epistemic freedom: the foundations of development for africa, provides the following analogy to establish the narrow and eurocentric influence of most africans. he sates, “taking the economic sphere as a case in point, when a nigerian is made to choose between nigerian made product as against the western product, an average nigerian would choose the western product over the nigerian product not minding the fact that the said nigerian made product may be of a higher quality to its western counterpart. in fact, africans regard anything western not only as superior to its african equivalent but more as the standard. similarly, there is the need to transform african worldview. world view mirrors a people’s perception of reality which is informed by their belief. african worldview today is coloured with so many foreign ideologies. today, it is still fashionable among africans to see the west as their messiah with regards to development. colonialism, through the instrumentality of epistemicide, instilled in africans the notion that for her to develop she needs to monkey western system. this was orchestrated by epistemicide which destroyed african knowledge and ideologies and imposed western models of development. this has hindered the ability of africans to leverage their own rich heritage of knowledge and wisdom for sustainable development. thus, africans can hardly think from their own unique perspective. hence, for african to develop the need to change the status quo cannot be overemphasised. on the other hand, african nations should take interest in research and education. the fact that most academic projects end up in waste bin in most african institution nigeria being a prime example, is a manifest show of high level of unseriousness and a clear indication of poor vision of most of her leaders. most african leaders show little interest in the research findings produced by academic institutions. as a result, many ideas generated in universities across the continent are neither tested nor applied in society. this, to a great extent, creates disconnect between education and african reality. one may ask: what is the use of such education that is not applied to solve human problems? today, many africans pursue education solely for certificate acquisition rather than for knowledge and practical application. again, there is need for african nations to start electing their best brains into political position. in the republic, plato enumerated the qualities a leader should possess, insisting on the need for either philosophers to become rulers or for rulers to become philosophers. this is on the background that a philosopher is a lover of wisdom. the wisdom in this sense is not just academic wisdom but also practical wisdom. most times the people holding executive political positions in very many african nations are the intellectually poor but rich individuals. thus, the truism of latin adage, nemo dat quo non habet (no one gives what he has not), is not farfetched in the political aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 62 corridors of power. the policies they champion lack depth, rigor and often times good ideologies are not properly implemented. thus, there is need for african leaders to combine wisdom and power as advised by plato in his the republic. most times we have leaders who wield enormous power yet lack wisdom. conclusion the truth is that the reasons for africa’s underdevelopment cut across internal and external factors. it is largely on the knowledge base. africa’s underdevelopment hovers around african’s mode of perception of reality. this too, to an extent, is a consequence of both internal and external factors. with the coming of colonial administration on african soil, african mode of knowing was grossly damaged to the tune that africans now see themselves as second-rate citizens. on the other hand, some african nations pay less attention to research and the intellectual capacity of their political office holders. at any rate, if africa must develop, she needs to eschew dependency inclinations and intentionally elect knowledgeable leaders who would prioritize infrastructures development vis-à-vis human development. the need to develop her human capital cannot be overlooked. history has shown that enhancing people’s knowledge will always have a ripple effect in the level of development of any society. thus, for africa nations 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(2015). on the classical theories of development: modernisation and dependency. pisa university press. okere, t. (1996). african culture: the past and the present as an indivisible whole. in identity and change: nigeria philosophical studies, 1, 20-22. owomoyela, o. (1996). the african difference: discourse on africanity and the relativity of culture. frankfurt am main: peter lang. theron, s. (1995). africa, philosophy and the western tradition: an essay of selfunderstanding. berlin: peter lang. world bank. (2024). global economic prospects, january 2024. washington, dc: world bank. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/661f109500bf58fa36a4a46eeace67860050012024/original/gep-jan-2024.pdf https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/661f109500bf58fa36a4a46eeace6786-0050012024/original/gep-jan-2024.pdf https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/661f109500bf58fa36a4a46eeace6786-0050012024/original/gep-jan-2024.pdf aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr 1 jacques derrida and the deconstruction of christianity in southeastern nigeria modestus anyaegbu, phd peter university achina/onneh anambra state modesny@yahoo.com abstract the people of southeastern nigeria are very much enterprising and industrious. their industry is felt in every aspect of life including the religious. one of the signs is the array of churches present in the region. recently however, there seems to be a growing tendency among the younger and some middle-aged generation to question, abandon and de-convert to alternative faith beliefs and to african traditional religions once abandoned by their forebears for christianity. with the growing revival of festivities and shrines dedicated to traditional deities, and the public defence and preaching of traditional forms of worship with deep ties in social and cultural heritages, we have the impression that what jacques derrida called deconstruction is already taking place on christianity in the southeastern part of nigeria. the manifest attempt in the public space to supplant the christian god of jesus christ with a certain cult of chukwu abiama points to the movement of dechristianization which may be one of the negative effects of deconstruction. as derrida would insist, deconstruction is “not a negative operation.” it opens to the acceptance of the other and has the potency of leading to a rediscovery of what authentic christianity is all about. keywords: deconstruction, religion, christianity, deconversion introduction the presence of churches in nigeria and especially in the southeast, would tend to suggest at least on the surface, the progress of faith and practice and the increasing number of converts to christianity. this progress manifests in the cultural, spiritual and social life of the people of the southeast, with deep roots in igbo communities. lately however, there is a growing tendency among the younger and some middle-aged generation, to abandon the christian faith of their birth and to look for alternative faith systems, in some cases, to reject everything to do with the christian god and its worship. they are beginning to challenge the traditional christian narrative as a harbinger of good news and a way of salvation. a greater part of this tendency is the willingness to de-convert from christianity and convert to african traditional religion. the process that brought about this movement has been gradual culminating in what we have come to identify as the deconstruction of christianity in the southeast nigeria, and especially among the igbo communities of the southeast. it is the objective of this article to explore this deconstruction using the templates of the french philosopher jacques derrida while examining the factors driving it and the implications for the future of christianity in the region. our method here is to expose and analyse the so many signs of deconstruction that have recently become rampant in the southeastern part of nigeria. 2 deconstruction: getting a grasp any follower of modern philosophy will acknowledge that heidegger's works—being and time; and the basic problems of phenomenology—made major impact on his colleagues and followers and introduced some terms that have become permanent in philosophical dictionary of western philosophy. one of such words is “destruktion” a german word that entered the public space through “being and time” and “abbau” which was introduced by “the basic problems of phenomenology.” in their ordinary signification, the words refer to deconstruction, destruction, decomposition, dismantling, dismounting of machines or structures of thought. heidegger's usage of “abbau” was to signal his intention of clearing out, dismantling or destroying the layers of traditional metaphysical thinking that have thrown into hiddenness, or obscurity, the fundamental question of being. he accused western philosophy of the 'vergessenheit'—the forgottenness of being. thus, 'abbau' was a method employed by heidegger (1982) to 'take apart' the centuries of metaphysical tradition in the wrong direction, to bring about a recovery of the original meaning and experience of being (p.23). this heideggerian quest and objective struck a permanent chord with the french philosopher jacques derrida. derrida (1991) in his “letter to a japanese friend,” acknowledged the influence of heidegger's word “abbau” on his choice or use of “deconstruction.” in his own words: among other things i wished to translate and adapt to my own ends the heideggerian word destruktion or abbau. each signified in this context an operation bearing on the structure or traditional architecture of the fundamental concepts of ontology or of western metaphysics. (pp. 270-1) as used and intended by heidegger, destruktion according to derrida (1985) “is not a destruction but precisely a destructuring that dismantles the structural layers in the system, and so on” (p. 86). derrida's attempt to translate the same word in french as “destruction” produced a meaning he never intended and so he abandoned it. the other word 'abbau' has a similar meaning: “to take apart an edifice in order to see how it is constituted or deconstituted” (p.87). the word “deconstruction” came to him in a flash. in the french language, this word in both its grammatical and linguistic senses have a mechanical significance. as a noun, he (derrida, 1991, p. 271) observes that “deconstruction” in french refers to an action of deconstructing or disarranging the construction of words in a sentence. as a verb -déconstruire—means to disassemble the parts of a whole…to transport it elsewhere. though this mechanical model is a sense of deconstruction, it is not the only one and must not be limited to this or any other model of meaning. that mechanical air got ingrained in its signification because of the environment of structuralism which preceded and enabled the emergence of deconstruction. good as it may be, derrida's deconstruction is neither an analysis nor a critique nor even a method. it is also not an act nor an operation. deconstruction as meant by derrida (1991), “takes place, it is an event that does not await the deliberation, consciousness, or organization of a subject, or even of a modernity” (p. 274). in some parts of our southeastern nigeria environment, it is our assumption that deconstruction is taking place, and it is taking place on christianity as the latter has suddenly become the object of questionings by various parties; it has become the focal point of criticisms both from within and from without; its cultural, social, religious and educational contributions are being subjected to re-examination. and in a dramatic turn of events, there is a growing wave of voices calling for the rejection of christianity and a return to traditional forms of worship or even to nothing at all. these voices have gradually started dismantling their previously held beliefs about christianity aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 3 and moving towards alternative forms of faith and belief. it is this new process or new awareness taking place in our society especially among the igbos, that has confirmed a commencement of the gradual process of deconstruction of christianity and gradual openness to alternative faith systems or even total rejection and abandonment of everything that has got to do with belief and practice of religious faith. one of the tidal effects of this gradual deconstruction badly applied will be a conscious dechristianisation of the region. the other effect, as deconstruction demands, will be a re-engagement with christianity, a rediscovery of its deeper meaning and value, and a renewal of its significance and an openness to the “other.” as derrida (1997) observes in a roundtable conference with caputo and others: [a] deconstruction does not shut things down; it opens them up. it releases a thing from being riveted to itself. it does not consign a thing to its past; it gives it back its future. (p. xxxviii) our engagement with deconstruction is to interpret what we think is already happening in the present, though gradual it may be, and to point to the possibility of what the future of christianity may be and may hold in our region. dechristianization means a gradual process of eliminating the influence of christianity from societal, cultural and individual lives. it involves replacing the christian god with an alternative god and creating a cult for it. in our circumstance, it has seen the rise of a certain 'chukwu abiama' today interspersed as 'chukwu okike abiama' that is gradually replacing the holy name of jesus christ, the incarnate god of the christian worship. those that are going through this process of de-constructing their faith and belief systems, may have been victims of some nasty experiences of deception by religious men or women, or they may have become conscious of certain historical or cultural realities that have implanted the seed of doubt in their believing mind, as a result of which they have to question what christianity means for them. others could be as a result of societal changes in moral values for example, the increasing acceptance of different sexual orientations traditionally considered as abnormal, but which has become accepted by the church. african traditional religions, they argue, keep sexual distinctions and roles as sacred and consider anything contrary to that as taboo. such and many others could be the reason for their deconstruction of their faith. features of deconstruction of christianity 1. rejection of christianity as foreign this is a factor that resonates with a lot of young intellectuals and cultural advocates who are becoming more and more conscious of the importance of indigenous cultural affiliations for the development of any society. having seen christianity as a colonial importation and imposition, there is a growing call for the people to rise in abandonment or even a total rejection of the “foreign religion.” the multiplication of churches, the insensibility of the ministers of churches in making financial demands laden with false promises of divine reward for struggling families and adherents, the significant lack of opposition from the churches against poor governance are some of the contributing factors which as some would argue, rightly fuel the discontentment against christianity in the area. they associate christianity with the exploitative arm of the government which dulls the sensibilities of the people by preaching obedience to constituted authority as a divine command with heaven as reward attached to it. these critiques are getting into the public spaces and fuelling a movement or at a least a desire to reclaim cultural identities modestus anyaegbu. jacques derrida and the deconstruction of... that were disrupted and destroyed by colonial imposition of christianity. unfortunately, the younger generations influenced by their exposure to secularism and modernity, are buying into this. the outward sign of the impact of this movement is the gradual rejection, in some quarters, of the bible as a major tool of enslavement of the indigenous people. apart from the seemingly jovial rhetoric that the book should be returned to those it was written for—the corinthians, the galatians, the romans, the ephesians etc—the argument that it was quickly translated into the local language for the continual manipulation and exploitation of the indigenous people, is getting traction among the youths. they reason that those who brought the book and quickly translated it never thought of bringing their science and technology books and still less of translating them into indigenous languages. what was their major interest in transmitting their way of faith and practice without transmitting the secret of their knowledge that has helped in their rapid scientific and technological development as a society? the decline of christianity in the west seems to be playing into the hands of these younger generations calling for a rediscovery of traditional beliefs, practices and cultural identities. with vehemence and curses, some had in the past resorted to the public desecration of the sacred book by tearing it into pieces and daring the so-called christian saviour to manifest his power if he could. we know that such act would never be made of the quoran at the risk of engendering the safety of innocent people. however, the major proponent of the smear campaign against the bible is uchechukwu obiajulu, a young man who goes by the social media name maazi_dibia (2024). that is the name on his facebook page where he has posted his campaign discrediting the bible as false and inauthentic book which plagiarized ancient sources without acknowledging them. he stopped short of doubting the existence of the jewish state of israel whose name came from the patriarchal lineage of abraham, isaac and jacob. these names contained in the hebrew scripture told the foundations of judaism and the emergence of the jewish nation and the eventual birth of christianity through a jew named jesus christ of nazareth. maazi dibia casts a sceptical aspersion on that patriarchal lineage and ipso facto built his argument that christianity and the bible are scams. imagine the circle of his influence in the social media and the growing number of young christians assimilating his teaching and abandoning the bible and christianity. like the apostle paul told his spiritual son timothy and the elders of ephesus, (ii timothy 4: 14-15), uchechukwu obiajulu (a.k.a maazi dibia) has in our times, taken the position of the biblical alexander the coppersmith, going about doing harm to the body of christ the church and discrediting the works of the ministers of the gospel tradition. 2. trivialization of christian objects, and symbols of worship one of the major marks of deconstruction is the trivialization of sacred objects used for religious worships or cults. trivialization as the name suggests, involves the process of reducing something of high spiritual or religious significance, to the level of insignificance. it is a way of bringing a religious object or ritual to disrepute by stripping it of its value and presenting it as if it is of less importance than it is. the intention behind trivialization is to caricature, downgrade the value, and bring to shame what is held in high esteem by a group or section of the society. where it is accepted by the public, the religious object or ritual undergoes a gradual stripping of its meaning with the attendant loss of respect. has this not been going on for far too long in southeastern part of nigeria? the major perpetrators or the willing tools of this deconstruction of christianity are screen artists, actors and comedians. they willingly overflood the social media with caricatures of christian 4 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 religious rituals, practices and objects of cult in a manifest show of disdain. we remember, as reported in the vanguard newspaper (2022), what happened at the inauguration of the anambra state government of his excellency, professor chukwuma c. soludo in 2022 where, a suspected misunderstanding led to some form of physical squabble between the ex-governor's wife mrs. osodieme obiano and the wife of the late ikemba nnewi ambassador bianca ojukwu. it was said according to some videos in the social media and some national dailies, that a physical slap took place from one to the other. later, the social media was awash with a caricatural recitation of the catholic litany where actors quickly turned the traditional prayer into a joke. the simplest form read like: “bianca di aso, mabara anyi ura!” which translated means—"holy bianca, pray for us!” we have also seen where the traditional catholic prayer of the stations of the cross was turned into a satire by a group of young comedians to remind non-performing politicians of the fate that awaits them after their poor service. these and numerous others are specific instances of intentional and deliberate trivialization of symbols, rituals or objects of religious belief and cult as if they do not really matter. were any of these instances of trivialization been done with islamic prayers or symbols of cult, it would have been seen as outright disrespect and desecration leading to fatal consequences for the perpetrators. we know that sacred objects, symbols and rituals often carry deep religious meanings often not conveyed by the objects or the rituals themselves. those who use them as favourite pastime comedies should better desist unless they want to confirm that they are agents of deconstruction by the seemingly harmless avenue of comedy. the desecration has long reached even the subjects of religious cult like priests and other men of god. the random and frequent kidnapping of priests for monetary ransom, is but an indication of the project of deconstruction. those who were regarded as the agents of the gods in former days and ipso facto regarded as sacred and untouchable because of whom they represented and serve, have today become the easiest of preys for some form of organized criminality in the southeast. if their god does not defend them nor bring their kidnappers to justice, they reason that whom they serve is impotent and therefore, should be done away with. 3. rise of traditional evangelism by traditional evangelism, we mean the direct efforts being made by practitioners of african traditional religions to spread their belief and practices to those who hold contrary faiths, in the hope of winning them over to traditional religious practices. this evangelism can take the form of direct preaching or teaching of african traditional religions in public spaces; organisation of outreach where specific forms of practices involving the invocation of intercessory prayers to ancestors and offering of religious cults to deities are done. even transmission of these practices to children in systematic ways is also part of the evangelism. in recent times, there has been a noticeable rise in this form of african traditional evangelism, which is a conscious attempt at winning and convincing people to rediscover, reconnect with and reembrace the religious affiliations, cultural identities, spiritual heritages and practices of their ancestors. these are believed to be victims of the christian importation and imposition upon the people of the southeastern nigeria. it is this that explains the resurgence in ceremonies, festivals, and practices that honour traditional deities, and give pride of place to the cult of ancestors. this evangelism has been making the rounds in our towns and villages. we have seen it take place at awgbu, at agulu, at umunze, at nkpologwu, at achina, at awkuzu, to mention but a few. unknown and dilapidated shrines are getting face-lifted, with new deities installed in them. ancient festivals dedicated to local deities are coming back in full force and becoming town carnivals. known examples include ada achalla festival of achalla town, ikeji festival of aro-ndizuogu, uchu 5 modestus anyaegbu. jacques derrida and the deconstruction of... festival of umuchu to mention but a few. the formerly quiet deity haaba agulu has become a thriving spot for those who believe in its potency. the common characteristic of these evangelical outreaches we have witnessed from the practitioners of african traditional religions is the use of various religious insignia but most especially ofo, oji, nzu, and omu in the invocation of the spirits and the ancestors. they call on the various deities of their towns to protect them against modern day evils like kidnapping for ransom, and against murderers and other perpetrators of crimes. another major mark in most of the instances cited is the systematic closure of their invocations and prayers in the name of a certain chukwu okike abiama, the god we shall return to later in this work! the biggest propagators of a new form of evangelism with emphasis on a return to african traditional religion, apart from uchechukwu obiajulu, are matthias ezeaku and his accomplices. like alexander the coppersmith of paul's epistle to timothy, these guys have been bitterly opposed to christianity and her message. (ii timothy 4: 15) these men have weaponised the social media for the purpose of attacking and caricaturing the holy name of jesus christ, the religion of christianity and christians themselves, a group they originally belonged to until their disillusionment pushed them into rejection of their first love and a deconversion and rebirth into traditional religion. some of them today address themselves as “born-again traditionalists.” 4. labelling christianity a scam one of the major problems of christianity today is the seeming inability to present a uniform model and authentic interpretation of christianity that does not give divergent and conflicting messages in the name of goodnews. it is this divergence in the understanding and interpretation of the goodnews, that makes it difficult, to say the least, to receive god as he has manifested himself in jesus christ. with the eruption of new wave of christianities led by the upsurge of pentecostalism, the kernel of the goodnews has drastically been altered. this has led to the grouping into old-fashioned christianity and the new progressive christianity. the oldfashioned christianity with its traditional faith, still believes in the words of the lord who invited his disciples to carry their crosses and follow him, that it is only through the cross that the crown of victory and glory will be won. as against the traditional faith in jesus christ who bore the cross, suffered, died and rose again, the new progressive christianity champions the teaching that only faith in jesus christ, makes us possessors of the glory, success, health and wealth obtained for us by jesus christ through his death. thus, christians do not need to suffer because that has been done once and for all by jesus christ. the only thing remaining is to claim by faith, these riches. this teaching appeals and has appealed to thousands of young christians who have followed and adhered to this new form of progressive christianity. after the false elation by the “spirit” and the belief in the power of their “faith” to effect “miracles” and bring visible financial changes in their lives, the hour of reality has shown that many feel disappointed the promised “changes” have not materialized while the pastor blames them for not having enough faith in god. weak and discouraged, many of these new progressive christians tend to be turning their backs on the christianity of their dream and looking for alternatives. most are becoming “new converts” into native traditional religions, hence the title “born-again traditionalists” gaining traction in our land. let us make bold to say that the group that has been clamouring for a change or for a deconstruction of christianity falls into two: the fallen or lapsed christians of all denominations and the disenfranchised pentecostal christians. their common feature is the loss of faith in the christian project and the search for alternative faith ideal. some of them have fallen into 6 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 traditional religions and are identifying as “born-again traditionalists.” some have simply identified as “realists” meaning that they now believe that the experience of the world is a better teacher than a doctrine from a so-called man of god or from a sacred writing called the bible. these born-again traditionalists have been carrying a smear campaign against christianity through the various media handles. some youths of unstable affiliations have quickly bought into that cliché and tend to be following sheepishly the trend towards a rejection of christianity. are they really correct in their assertion that christianity is a scam? i would argue that it depends on what or which type of christianity they are referring to. where there are variegated forms of worship under the umbrella of christianity, it gives room for the fallacy of hasty generalization when something goes wrong. a christianity that promises you success without work, and riches without employment cannot be anything but a proper scam. a wishy-washy type of christianity that uses the name of jesus as a magic formular for success, victory, health and wealth cannot but produce wishy-washy christians who have no solid foundation in their practice of christianity. the emmaus experience of the gospel of luke (24:13-45) can help us understand this phenomenon better. the two disciples on the way to emmaus could be understood as the first two “fallen disciples,” who already left jerusalem understood here as the church and were headed to emmaus understood as traditional worship of their ancestors. their reasons for leaving jerusalem are likened to the exact reasons why christians today are longing to get back to fetishism. the most worrying reason was that they felt let down by jesus whom they considered to be a liberator that would pull them out of the rulership of their enemies and bring them to a prosperous, strong and free nation. jesus was unfortunately killed, and those dreams were quashed and destroyed. the disciples were disappointed and lost their faith, their confidence and their trust in the jesus project. that was why they decided to leave jerusalem and move towards the city of emmaus until they were arrested by jesus along the way and made to return to jerusalem after having been enlightened by the truths of the scripture. young people that await for open doors and miracle money in their bank accounts years unending; the sick and the bedridden that have been waiting for the promised miraculous healing without seeing any materialize in their flesh; those duped of their riches under the so-called “seed-covenant” with the lord in the hope of getting multiple folds of their riches by god of riches, while in reality there is nothing in return; these aggrieved but deceived christians have the right to think that christianity is a scam. most of them belong to the group of disenfranchised pentecostal christians. we totally and completely agree with douthat (2012) that the major cause of the rapid disenfranchisement with a lot of young people in our climes today is “bad religion: the slow-motion collapse of traditional faith and the rise of a variety of pseudo-christianities that stroke our egos, indulge our follies, and encourage our worst impulses (p. 3).” apart from this group of disenfranchised pentecostal christians, the increase in the number of lapsed or fallen christians is becoming a worry. in our society of today, the latter group of christians-the lapsed or fallen christians, have found a culminating point in mr. matthias ezeaku who has shone to fame through the social media handles especially the facebook where he has popular page by the title 'gospel of truth.' he proudly preaches the religion of realism and identifies himself as a realist. his major teaching is that people should be more practical and factual in their approach to situations of life and living. this teaching includes abandoning and rejecting every religious promise of help coming from any higher being in the form of so-called miracles that never happen or even true. societal problems should be addressed to the government whose responsibility it is to solve them, and not businessmen parading as pastors, priests or prophets. mr. matthias ezeaku 7 modestus anyaegbu. jacques derrida and the deconstruction of... was himself a christian, and an ardent follower and believer in the theatrics of the pentecostalized-catholic priest, fr. ejike camillus mbaka. in one of his recent video posts, mr. matthias ezeaku confessed to being an ardent believer in fr. mbaka's adoration ministry and a strong financial contributor to fr. mbaka's projects. he boasted of having fr. mbaka's first bank account number by heart as it was where he, matthias ezeaku, sheepishly deposited his hard earnings while believing that “mbaka's god” would validate the promises of his prophet-servant, fr. mbaka. he publicly challenged the priest and others like him, to mention one authentic name and address of the beneficiaries of their purported healings. he accused the catholic priest of engaging in the business of deception and falsehood as all his purported healings in the name of jesus, were mere arranged healings, i.e., fake and untrue healings. while we do not certify the accusations by ezeaku, we would imagine if they were to be true, the disappointment this young man and others like him, the number is increasing on daily basis, would feel about the project of christianity and the holy name of jesus christ! this is the background which explains their movement or their transition from christianity back to african traditional religions where they claim, the truth in the name of chukwu okike abiama, would set them free. proper christianity is the christianity that preaches christ and him who is crucified. this christ has urged his followers to carry their respective crosses of suffering and follow his footsteps. it is in the knowledge that unless there is a cross of suffering, there can never be the crown of glory and success and victory. the gospel of matthew 7: 21-27 describes the two groups of christians as—tap-rooted and shallow rooted christians. those who hear the word and practice it as against those who only shout the name of jesus without practicing the tenets implied by that name. the former withstand all forms of wind of deception and treachery and remain solid in faith like a house built on a solid foundation. the latter are described as having no foundation and are subjected to all forms of wind and erosion carrying them to and fro. these are the lazy generation of christians who do nothing serious but idly pray and wait for open doors, divine blessings, miracle money; they erroneously believe the false blab and grab it gospel; they wait and claim others' favours unending and they wait endlessly for the fruits of their seed covenants. did the apostle paul not warn the church at corinth “to keep away from all believers who are living a lazy life and who do not follow the instructions that we gave them?” (2 thess. 3:7) after years of waiting and expectation and nothing told them by their false prophets comes to be realized, they become frustrated and dejected. the next thing would be to begin venting their anger and disappointment on christianity by branding it a “scam religion.” pentecostal christianity and the brand of it in catholicism have produced and continues to produce, dejected, deluded, disillusioned, and disappointed droves of young nigerian men and women, who are turning their backs on the christian religion and god, and embracing any and everything that would seem to offer them some anchor and realistic hope. they are the group who feel they have lost out and are today, carrying out a major campaign, to first deconstruct, and finally de-christianise the land. they are unfortunate victims of bad religion that has taken hold of nigeria for quite some time now. 5. institution of a new cult of “chukwu okike abiama” the traditional form of evangelism we discussed above has a new object of worship that the adherents are trying to propagate. this new object of worship is called chukwu okike abiama. the replacement of the authentic subject of belief in chukwu okike with the hybrid and pseudo god chukwu okike abiama, is a proof that chesterton was correct when he held that 'when people turn from god, they don't believe in nothing—they believe in anything.' this is a cult being promoted 8 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 to replace the name of god who became manifest in jesus christ, a reminder of the presence of his power and authority in the affairs of men and the world. the christological statement in the acts of the apostles must be reemphasized again and again in the face of the growing opposition to christianity and its founder: “there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved.” (acts 4:12). as robert cardinal sarah (2015) avers: “in the name of truth we must proclaim and announce jesus christ, the only savior of the world, to all nations. this proclamation is in no way an obstacle to dialogue among different religions.” (p. 134) propagators and agents of deconstruction of christianity, wish to replace the christian god with the hybrid god of their imaginations. unfortunately, ignorance is the reason for the seeming and growing acceptance of this hybrid god chukwu okike abiama. i call it hybrid because it is a combination of the real supreme being of igbo religious thought—chukwu okike—the creator god, and the idol of arochukwu town known as chukwu abiama formerly identified as “ibini ukpabi” or the long juju of arochukwu by the colonial masters. it is on record that aro people, according to metuh (1981): sacrilegiously renamed their oracle chukwu to enhance its prestige among the other igbo groups. it had previously been known as ibiniokpabi. the aro, who originated from a mixture of ibibio and igbo, had a different name for god. they call him obassi di n'elu. by adopting the name chukwu for their oracle, they wanted to convince the igbo – and to a large extent succeeded – that they could communicate with god in arochukwu. (p. 160) having examined historical, and ethnological evidence available, anyaegbu (2023) came to the conclusion, in an earlier written article, that: chukwu abiama is the name for the scam god of the oracle of aro, while chukwu okike is the name of the supreme being, god the creator, the great spirit of the universe accepted and worshipped by all the peoples of the world who accept an all-powerful and allknowing being, god. to even go the way of chukwu okike abiama would suggest an effort towards hybridizing the two different and irreconcilable entities into a new form of an inexistent god. (pp. 84-5) the trend today is to silence all those questioning the identity of this god and to impose it upon the people as the supreme god of igbo religious thought. one of the endgames is surely to get rid of the so-called christian god and religion from our culture, language, education and societal heritage. the other is to gradually push us back to african traditional religions while reinstalling the culture of heathenism, fetishism and fear. however, the history of western cultures should not be quickly lost to us in our attempt to deconstruct christianity in our land. the elimination of god within western cultures according to sarah (2015), led to unlimited consequences – “the cynicism of atheistic communism in eastern europe and then its brutal replacement by unfettered materialism (p. 107).” we may not have come to atheistic communism in our climes, but the unhindered pursuit of “unfettered materialism” is the major fall out of the attempt to eclipse and eliminate god where possible, from our cultures. the illegal and unethical means like ritual practices involving the use of human parts to gain wealth and become successful, are some of the signs of the pursuit of “unfettered materialism.” how much damage this has done and continues to do to the collective psyche of the younger generation is yet to be measured. the belief in the assistance and influence of supernatural forces in the acquisition of wealth is gradually rendering the region into a marketplace for all sorts of fake spiritualists or herbalists parading themselves as having the golden key to wealth and success. 9 modestus anyaegbu. jacques derrida and the deconstruction of... conclusion the events taking place with reference to christianity in our society of the southeastern nigeria—among the igbo communities—are what we have tried to identify and justify as the deconstruction of christianity. some of the major features of this event have been identified and discussed above. perhaps, this could be an eye opener to most people that do not pay attention to social changes happening around them. one of the endgames of deconstruction is to replace the status quo with an alternative and in our own case, the replacement of the christian cult and object of worship with the pre-christian indigenous beliefs, traditions and cultural identity usurped by colonial imposition of christianity. we have seen enough questioning of christianity itself and its doctrines, practices, rites and rituals, to be convinced that there is a conscious process aimed at reestablishing the religious ways of our forefathers in the form of african traditional spiritualities, customs and heritages. those at the forefront of this process, feel they are contributing to the mental and spiritual liberation of a people held down by colonial chain of christianity. as for the two major protagonists of this movement of deconstruction, the alexander the coppersmiths of our time whom we have identified as matthias ezeaku and uchenna obiajulu known as mazi_dibia, both formerly professed christians, we can on the one hand, apply to them the words of chesterton (2008): they cannot get out of the penumbra of christian controversy. they cannot be christians, and they cannot leave off being anti-christians. their whole atmosphere is the atmosphere of a reaction: sulks, perversity, petty criticism. they still live in the shadow of the faith and have lost the light of the faith. (pp. 10-11) on the other hand, looking constructively at their quest, we can also intuit that their whole effort is aimed at introducing or calling for a deconstructive approach to christianity and its practice in the southeastern part of nigeria. the flourishing of new forms of spiritualities having their roots in indigenous practices is evidence of the ongoing effects of deconstruction. the christian monopoly of supernatural power is being weakened by the availability of new forms of spiritualities offering access to supernatural powers. other aims of deconstruction could be resistance to the commercialization and exploitation of christianity by churches and pastors who command wealth and influence in the society. other non-christian avenues are beginning to provide influence and leadership in the society. these have come to provide the counter coin of deconstruction which does not really stop at destruction. according to caputo in a roundtable conference with derrida (1997): deconstruction is not-we will repeat this again and again-a destruction or demolition, but a way of releasing and responding, of listening and opening up, of being responsible not only to the dominant voices of the great masters, but also to other voices that speak more gently, more discreetly, more mildly in the texts of dead white european males and in quite a few other texts too… (p. 57) eventually, for the survival of christianity in our land, it will be very important to reengage with evangelisation methods, create new avenues for serious dialogue between faith and culture that would promote religious tolerance and respect for indigenous beliefs. this can only bring positive assurances leading to the mutual coexistence of christianity alongside other spiritualities. with the evangelical model of cooperation rather than opposition, societal ills associated with religious practice like ritual killing for wealth, can be effectively defeated and sanity installed. this new reality is in fact what deconstruction tends to achieve, the “invention of the other, of something to come, something absolutely unique and idiomatic, the invention, the incoming, of an absolute surprise” (derrida, 1997, p.70). 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references anyaegbu, m. (2023). is chukwu okike abiama the supeme god of igbo religious thought? questioning the assumptions. ochendo: an african journal of innovative studies (oaajis), 4,2, pp. 67-86. chesterton, g. k. (1925). the everlasting man. (reprinted 2008). san francisco: ignatius press. derrida, j. (1991). letter to a japanese friend. in p. kamuf (ed.), a derrida reader between the blinds (pp.270-276). new york: columbia university press. derrida, j. (1997). deconstruction in a nutshell. a conversation with jacques derrida with an introduction by j. d. caputo. new york: fordham university press. douthat, r. (2012). bad religion: how we became a nation of heretics. new york: free press. ezeaku, m. gospel of truth home [facebook page]. facebook retrieved june 20, 2024. from https://www.facebook.com heidegger, m. (1982). the basic problems of phenomenology. a. hofstadter. transl. revised edition. bloomington & indianapolis: indiana university press. heidegger, m. (1996). being and time: a translation of sein und zeit. j. stambaugh. transl. albany: state university of new york press. maazi_dibia. home [facebook page]. facebook. retrieved september 25, 2024, from https://www.facebook.com/reel/453002357576705 metuh, e. i. (1981). god & man in african religion: a case study of the igbo of nigeria. london: geoffrey chapman. nan reporter. updated: ex-gov. obiano's wife, bianca ojukwu fight at soludo's inauguration. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/03 retrieved august 20, 2024. sarah, r. (2015). god or nothing. a conversation on faith with nicolas diat. m. j. miller. transl. san francisco: ignatius press. 11 modestus anyaegbu. jacques derrida and the deconstruction of... https://www.facebook.com/reel/453002357576705 https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/03%20retrieved%20august%2020 107 stoicism: origins, evolution, and relevance in contemporary society modupe ola jumoke adu department of religious studies & philosophy, redeemers university, ede, osun state. dupeadu@gmail.com adum@run.edu.ng abstract stoicism is a hellenistic philosophy which was founded in athens by zeno of citium around 300 b.c.e. its focus on reason, self-control, and fortitude provides insightful guidance for negotiating the challenges of modern life. stoicism has seen a resurgence in modern discourse, especially in disciplines like mindfulness practices, cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt), and resilience training, where its focus on emotional control, logical thinking, and accepting what is out of one's control provides useful strategies for overcoming contemporary obstacles. by examining stoic principles through critical analysis, this research argues that stoicism offers a practical framework for the well-being of individuals and society. this research will explore the historical evolution of stoicism, its core tenets, and its relevance in addressing contemporary societal challenges, including mental health, ethical decision-making, as well as social resilience. keywords: stoicism, ancient philosophy, ethics, hellenistic period. introduction ancient philosophies frequently provide valuable insights for negotiating the complexity of human existence in an era characterised by rapid change, widespread fear, and an endless flow of information. a particularly prominent and robust school of thought among the ancient philosophies is stoicism. stoicism, which flourished in the roman empire, originated in ancient greece. it offers a thorough framework for moral behaviour, emotional fortitude, and the search for inner peace. its practical application, which provides resources for people to develop virtue, deal with adversity, challenges, and find purpose in the face of life's unavoidable obstacles, makes it an enduring legacy. this essay seeks to offer a critical analysis of stoicism by tracing its roots in the hellenistic era, outlining its important advancements throughout the roman imperial era, and evaluating its complex applicability in modern philosophy. this examination will show how stoicism remains a strong and practical philosophy for psychological well-being, moral decision-making, and personal flourishing in the twenty-first century by examining its fundamental ideas and their historical development. historical trajectory of stoicism: hellenistic foundations stoicism is one of the dominant schools of thought in the hellenistic period. stoicism was derived from the greek words “stoa poikile,” meaning “a painted porch.” stoa means“porch.” zeno and his disciples were said to have taught their ideas from the painted porch at the marketplace. after alexander the great's conquests, this era, known as the hellenistic period, saw the breakdown of the traditional institutions and structures of the city-state institutions and the rise of a new focus on universal individual well-being and universal citizenship. several mailto:dupeadu@gmail.com modupe ola stoicism: origins, evolution, and relevance in.. 108 philosophical traditions, which include epicureanism, scepticism, and stoicism, attempted to offer guidance on how to lead a moral life in this era of political unrest and cultural fusion. early stoicism, often referred to as the old stoa, was systematically developed by zeno's successors, most notably cleanthes (c. 331–232 bce) and chrysippus (c. 280–207 bce). in particular, chrysippus was known as the “second founder” of stoicism because of his extensive writings and mastery of logic. he is credited with organizing stoic philosophy into three interrelated fields of ethics, physics and logic.  logic: for the stoics, logic was an essential instrument for determining truth and avoiding error, not just an abstract discipline. it included dialectic, grammar, rhetoric, and epistemology (the study of knowledge). since the stoics held that rational and clear thinking was necessary for both comprehending the world and leading a moral life, they constructed complex theories of propositions, arguments, and fallacies. their focus on consent and impressions prepared the way for later conceptions of cognition.  physics: stoic physics maintained that matter made up the entire universe, including the soul. it was a type of materialistic monism. they held that the universe was organised and permeated by a logical, active element known as the logos, or divine reason. the logos, which was identified with god, fate and nature, implied a deterministic nature of the universe in which events occur according to a rational plan. the stoics believed that since living "according to nature" required coordinating one's will with the universal reason, an understanding of this natural order was essential to stoic ethics.  ethics: eudaimonia, or human flourishing, attained by leading a life of virtue (aretē), was the ultimate goal of stoic philosophy.the stoics believed that vice was the only e vil and virtue the only good. everything else was viewed as adiaphora, or indifferent, with no inherent moral value, including riches, reputation, health, suffering, and poverty. some indifferents were "preferred"; for instance, health is preferred over illness, but virtue should never be sacrificed in the name of pursuing them. this emphasis on internal moral excellence, regardless of external conditions, formed the foundation of stoic ethical practice. the four cardinal virtues—temperance, justice, courage, and wisdom—were viewed as interrelated aspects of this one good. by highlighting the connections between logic, physics, and ethics and proposing virtue as the highest human good that may be attained via reason and harmony with the natural order, the old stoa laid the foundational ideas that would characterise stoicism. stoicism's evolution: the roman imperial period stoicism's emphasis changed when it moved from the greek-speaking world to the roman empire, focusing more on practical ethics and the application of philosophical ideas to everyday life rather than on theoretical physics and logic. some of the most significant and extensively read stoic thinkers came from this era, which is sometimes called the new stoa or roman stoicism.  lucius annaeus seneca (c. 4 bce – 65 ce): seneca was a well-known statesman, playwright, and advisor to emperor nero. his works are distinguished for their profound psychological insights and elegant prose. he provides helpful guidance on how to deal with wrath, grief, fear, and the pursuit of virtue in his letters from a stoic aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 109 (epistulae morales ad lucilium) and essays like on the shortness of life and on tranquility of mind. his life, which was characterised by great wealth, political influence, and forced suicide, offers a complextestamentto the difficulties of upholding stoic ideals in a corrupt society.  epictetus (c. 50–135 ce): epictetus, born a slave in hierapolis (now turkey), eventually gained his freedom and became a revered stoic teacher in rome. his teachings, preserved by his student arrian in the discourses and the enchiridion are practical and direct guides on his ideas. central to epictetus’ thoughts is the dichotomy of control; distinguishing between what we can control, such as our opinions, impulses, desires, aversions and things that are not within our power, such as body, possessions, reputation, and external events. he maintained that the only way to truly achieve freedom and happiness, in other words, the only way we can truly be free and happy, is to accept everything else with composure and concentrate only on the things we can control, such as our opinions and responses. his ideas are a powerful call to moral autonomy and radical self-sufficiency.  marcus aurelius (121–180 ce): the last of the five good emperors of rome, marcus aurelius is arguably the most prominent stoic. in his meditations, a collection of personal reflections and philosophical exercises written for his own guidance, he offers a unique view into the thoughts of a stoic ruler. his writings revealed a man who, in the face of the tremendous demands of running an empire, commanding armies, and suffering personal grief, is always trying to live according to stoic principles.marcus’smeditations focused on duty, humility, the transient nature of existence, the interdependence of all things, and the significance of preserving inner serenity in the face of external chaos. his writings are a powerful example of how stoicism may be applied in real-world settings at the highest levels of authority. stoicism was transformed by the roman stoics from an academic system to a very personalised and useful manual for daily life. they concentrated on honing the moral precepts so that everyone, regardless of their status, could understand and apply them to their daily challenges. the emphasis on character development and emotional fortitude makes stoicism made it a timeless philosophy. marcus believed that all humans have the same status; they are citizens of the world and none is superior to the other. no culture is above or sophisticated than the other. all humans are fellow citizens of the world; this idea is known as cosmopolitanism, meaning citizens of the cosmos (robertson 2022). marcus opines that anger or hatred should be avoided towards anyone, and this includes one’s enemies (robertson 2022). core principles of stoicism although stoicism evolved over centuries, there are certain core principles that remained consistent. these core principles are the bedrock of its philosophical system. they offer a coherent approach to life, emphasising reason, virtue, and harmony with nature. virtue as the only good the idea of virtue is a central concept in stoic thought. for the stoics, the only good thing is virtue, and the only evil is vice. all other things, such as health, wealth, poverty, pleasure, pain and so on, are considered amoral. in other words, they hold no moral value. the stoics referred to the amoral things as “adiaphora”, that is ‘indifferents.” some indifferents are preferred, but they have no moral worth. for instance, health is preferred over ill-health. the indifferent should, however, never be sought after or avoided if doing so will compromise one's morality. modupe ola stoicism: origins, evolution, and relevance in.. 110 in other words, a good person can be content even in the worst situations since their happiness is based only on their internal moral status and not on external factors. the stoics identified four traditional principles which they derived from plato’s thought. they, however, interpreted these principles differently.  wisdom (sophia): the capacity to distinguish between good and bad as well as indifferent. it includes prudential behaviour, sound judgment, and sound decisionmaking.  courage (andreia): not only physical courage but also moral strength, perseverance in the face of hardship, and the determination to do the right thing even when it is challenging or unpopular.  justice (dikaiosyne): fairness, kindness, and treating people equally are the components of justice. it encompasses one's obligations to all of humanity, embodying the stoic notion of cosmopolitanism. temperance (sophrosyne): control, restraint, and self-discipline over one's inclinations and cravings. it entails leading a balanced life free from excess. these virtues together reflect a single state of moral excellence that leads to a consistent and logical method of living; one cannot have one without having the others. the control dichotomy epictetus is credited with defining the dichotomy of control. according to this doctrine, certain things are within our control and other things are outside our control. in other words, we can control some things but not others. this principle is the most popular and practical principle of the stoics. things that are within our power and control include: opinions, judgments, desires, aversions, and actions. these are internal to us and therefore within our control. things that are outside our control include: our body, reputation, possessions, behaviour of others and external occurrences such as the weather, illness and death. according to the stoics, much of human suffering arises from the attempts to control things that are beyond our power. a way out to achieve freedom, calmness and invulnerability is for us to concentrate our attention solely on what we can control; our reactions and decisions. this idea emphasizes personal accountability while promoting acceptance of external realities. living in harmony with nature (logos) in stoicism, nature has a dual meaning: the universal nature (the rational order of the cosmos, the logos or divine reason) and human nature (our capacity for reason). living according to nature means living in accordance with reason within oneself and as it exists in the universe. this implies:  rationality: using reason to understand the world, make sound judgements and guide one’s actions.  acceptance of fate: acknowledging that the universe follows a deterministic, rational plan and allowing things to happen naturally. this is an active alignment of one’s will with nature’s will rather than a passive resignation.  harmony: this is living in harmony with the natural inclinations of human beings, such as sociality, rationality and the pursuit of virtue.this idea underpins stoic physics and ethics. it holds that a virtuous life is one which is consistent with the inherent rationality and order of the universe. apatheia and eudaimonia aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 111 although apatheia is often misunderstood as apathy or emotional suppression, it does not, however, mean that all emotions are suppressed. instead, itrefers to freedom from irrational and disturbing feelings such as excessive fear, grief, anger or desires. these pathe result from incorrect assessments of what is right or wrong. one can eradicate the illogical emotions that lead to sorrow by rectifying these assessments. for example, realising that riches are an indifferent rather than a good. the stoics made a distinction between pathe and "good feelings" (eupatheiai), which are sensible emotions that result from sound judgments. examples of these feelings include joy, caution, and wishing. the ultimate goal for the stoics is “eudamonia” or “flourishing.” eudamonia is attained through a constant and consistent practice of virtue and cultivation of apatheia, which leads to a sense of inner calm and contentment that is dependent on external events or circumstances. it is the state in which a rational human being is fully alive and operating at their best. cosmopolitanism cosmopolitanism is the belief that all people are members of a single, universal community. the stoics were among the first philosophers to express a strong sense of cosmopolitanism. their idea of cosmopolitanism comes from their doctrine that the universal logos permeates all humans, making them rational and connected. for instance, marcus aurelius, a prominent stoic, reflected on his dual in rome, his home city and in the “city of the universe.” this idea promotes kindness, fairness, and a sense of justice to all of humanity, regardless of race or nationality. cosmopolitanism laid the groundwork for universal human rights and a global ethical perspective. cicero argues that, “since reason exists in man and god, the first common possession of man and god is reason. and since right reason is the law, we must believe that men have law also in common. further, those who share the law must also share justice, and those who share these are to be regarded as members of the same universal commonwealth” (stupf 1971). premeditatio malorum premeditatio malorum, or the premeditation of evils, is a practical exercise that is essential to stoic thought and practice. this is a deliberate thinking about possible future tragedies such as death, illness, poverty, loss, and public shame. it is not to cause anxiety, but to mentally get ready for them. by visualising these unfortunate events, one can develop an attitude of gratitude to reduce their shock value if they eventually materialise. this exercise aids in internalising the duality of control, reaffirming that one's response is the only thing that matters and that other events are irrelevant. it cultivates resilience and makes one less susceptible to fear. objections to stoicism despite its enduring appeal, stoicism has attracted several criticisms. one of the most common criticisms of stoic thought borders on the perceived idea of emotion. the stoic ideal of apatheia, which is sometimes misunderstood as apathy, is criticised for promoting an unhealthy disengagement from normal human emotions such as joy, grief, and rage. the stoic philosophy of indifference seems unnatural to human beings. for instance, it seems unreasonable to tell a person who is bereaved of a loved one to act with indifference to the situation is ridiculous and can even be termed as immoral. to show how humane humans are, they must show emotions and sensitivity to events around them. in the courtroom, for instance, some criminals are said to have shown no emotion or remorse for crimes committed, which makes them appear even more dangerous to the human community. in the therapy of desire, martha nussbaum argues modupe ola stoicism: origins, evolution, and relevance in.. 112 that "radical extirpation of the passions" results in a reduced human experience and instead calls for a nuanced interaction with emotions rather than their total elimination (nussbaum, 1994). another challenge with stoicism is the idea that we should accept things that are outside or beyond our control. some critics contend that if our primary concern is to focus on internal virtues while letting go of things that seem to be beyond our control, this can lead to passive resignation with regard to societal injustices. critics argue that this kind of thinking can discourage people from making efforts to advocate for the oppressed and change oppressive regimes. although stoics like seneca did provide guidance on public service, others have argued that the focus on personal inner peace could jeopardise collective efforts to improve society (nussbaum, 1994). another problem with stoic philosophy has to do with human freedom and moral responsibility. the stoics argue that human nature is fixed by god according to somealready determined plan. if the above is true, we may infer two things: on the one hand,it means that humans are unable to choose their actions. if humans are unable to choose their actions, then we cannot talk of moral responsibility. in other words, we cannot hold people accountable for their actions, nor can we talk of improving or developing one’s character. on the other hand, if individuals cannot choose their actions but can only choose how they react to them, thismeans humans are free and not free at the same time. (uduigwomen, 2006). then, the challenge that arises borders on how one can choose one action and not the other. if we can choose how we react, we should be able to make other choices too. and if god rules over everything, it should include our attitudes as well. in other words, if events that happen to us are already determined, our reactions to them should be determined as well. conclusion the stoic thought continues to have an enduring influence in contemporary philosophical discourse, especially in the sub-discipline of ethics. in spite of its criticisms, the stoic philosophy of indifference can help one to face life's unpredictable challenges. unchecked emotional reaction to unpalatable situations has resulted in fatalities such as suicide, murder and mental disorder. in contemporary philosophy, stoicism continues to generate discussions and debates. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 113 references beck, a. t. (1976). cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. international universities press. ellis, a. (1962). reason and emotion in psychotherapy. lyle stuart. epictetus. (2004). discourses and selected writings (r. dobbin, trans.). penguin classics. hadot, p. (1995). philosophy as a way of life: spiritual exercises from socrates to foucault (m. chase, trans.). blackwell publishing. inwood, b. (1985). ethics and human action in early stoicism. oxford university press. long, a. a. (2001). epictetus: a stoic and socratic guide to life. oxford university press. long, a. a., & sedley, d. n. (1987). the hellenistic philosophers, vol. 1: translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary. cambridge university press. marcus aurelius. (2006). meditations (g. hays, trans.). modern library. nussbaum, m. c. (2001). the therapy of desire: theory and practice in hellenistic ethics. princeton university press. pigliucci, m. (2017). how to be a stoic: ancient wisdom for modern living. basic books. robertson, d. (2019). stoicism and the art of happiness: ancient wisdom for everyday living. teach yourself. robertson, d. j. (2022). a guide to marcus aurelius and stoicism. st. martin’s press. seneca, l. a. (1969). letters from a stoic (r. campbell, trans.). penguin classics. stumpf, s. e. (1971). philosophy: history and problems. mcgraw-hill. uduigwomen, a. f. (2006). ethics: trends, problems and perspectives. jochrissam publishers. aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr the spirit of christianity and the socio-spiritual transformation (animation) of the world in the light of gaudium et spes (gs) 43 mark omorovie ikeke, phd department of religious studies and philosophy, delta state university, abraka, nigeria drikeke@delsu.edu.ng abstract despite the many scientific and technological advancements of humanity especially in the modern age, the world is still filled with anxieties, pains, turmoil, and miseries. the scientific and technological advancements include biotechnological interventions, reproductive technologies, the rise of artificial intelligence, the growth and rapid increase in information technology, agricultural advancement, etc. while not all that have been invented in the above domains are ethically acceptable, there is hope in the good aspects of the inventions. human history and civilization should be guided by the spirit of god, the supreme being who created the world and loves the world. the role of the church emanating from god and christ is to be a pastor and moral guide to humanity as god leads people to heaven. this paper argues that the world needs to be transformed, animated, and renewed with the spirit of christ and christianity. the catholic church's document: gaudium et spes (pastoral constitution of the church in the modern world) provides a guide on this. the paper uses critical analytic and hermeneutic methods to unravel the issues at stake. the paper finds that the church has a role to play in the earthly city (the world). the paper concludes that when the church animates the world with the spirit of christianity the world becomes a better earthly city and place. keywords: christianity, christ, social justice, socio-spiritual transformation, animation, the world, gaudium et spes. introduction this research comes from a paper delivered at a warri pastoral regional event which was organized by the catholic diocese of warri as an aspect of the catholic church's year of prayer. a look through the world or the global community reveals that it is plagued by myriads of socioeconomic, political, cultural, environmental, and many other problems. the problems in these various areas of life include terrorism, banditry, climate change, inept leadership, cyber fraud, human insecurities, modern-day slavery, wars and violence, violent struggles over natural resources, herdsmen-farmers clashes, religious fundamentalism, intolerance, oppression and injustice, violation of human rights, broken homes and marriages, youth restiveness and unemployment, etc. specifically, you see these problems in different countries. in many african countries, there is massive underdevelopment and poor social infrastructure. a country like nigeria is experiencing epileptic power supply, constant electoral violence, internet fraud, and rising cost of living. boko haram violence is raving nigeria, and so also are killer herdsmen. as this paper is being sent out nigeria is experiencing protests over bad governance. the democratic republic of congo has been embroiled in war and violence for many decades now. there is a civil war raging in sudan. in the middle east, there is an ongoing war between israel and hamas. many nations in the middle east and north african region are raved by poverty and lack of democratic values. illegal migration is a serious problem that is facing many regions of the world such as the mexico-us border, the mediterranean region, the english channel, etc. there is a war going on in ukraine. it 114 should be clear to all from a religio-spiritual perspective that these problems confronting human beings and the planet are not divine nor god's will. the divine will is that beings who are created excellent should flourish and live meaningful lives. the divine will is that human beings should have life, abundant life (cf. john 10:10). jesus came into this world to ensure that abundant life as encapsulated in the message of the kingdom of god that jesus preached is established on earth (cf. matthew 6:9-15, luke 4:18-19). the followers of jesus on behalf of jesus must take his spirit and message and use it to transform, animate, and make this world a better place. the problems and troubles confronting the world, and various countries all show the need for it to be animated by christian values that can help the world to heal. the world cannot heal itself. the institutions of the world cannot heal themselves. they need a higher power, such as the power of the supreme being and his christ. it is through the followers of christ, but not only them that god operates in the world, and by the power of his spirit that operates in the world. the task of this paper precisely is to argue that amid the myriads of problems confronting the world, it should be animated or transformed with the spirit of christianity or the spirit of christ. in examining the thesis of the paper it will be discussed from the perspective of the document of the catholic church coming from the second vatican council called gaudium et spes (joys and hope). terminologies and conceptual explications there are some terms or concepts that undergird this work. they are spirit, christianity, sociospiritual, transformation, animation, world, and gaudium et spes (gs). the word, “spirit” refers to the non-physical dimension of a being or thing. it is the pervading principle or what distinguishes a thing. the spirit is the unseen essence and invisible substance of which a thing or being is made. the encyclopedia britannica (2024) writes that a spirit is “the force within a person that is believed to give the body life, energy, and power....the inner quality or nature of a person.” the spirit of a thing or person is the animating principle that guides, propels, and motivates the thing. a person, place, thing, entity, etc can be imbued with a spirit. having explained spirit, it is important to explain what christianity is. christianity is the religion that emanates from the life, ministry, and teaching of christ. benz et al (2024) write that: christianity, major religion stemming from the life, teachings, and death of jesus of nazareth (the christ, or the anointed one of god) in the 1st century ce (sic). it has become the largest of the world's religions and, geographically, the most widely diffused of all faiths. it has a constituency of more than two billion believers (p.1). at the heart of christianity is the message of the kingdom of god that jesus preached. when jesus gave his first homily at the synagogue in nazareth he declared: the spirit of the lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. he has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the lord (luke 4:18-19, rsv). to separate the message that jesus preached from his life and ministry and the essence of christianity does christianity a great disservice. the life and ministry of jesus are not to be separated from his death, resurrection, ascension, and second coming. all make the christ event. macy (2007) writes that christianity is a monotheistic faith tradition that affirms the role of jesus in redemption with beliefs, customs, practices, and rituals centered on jesus. christians proclaim jesus as the jewish messiah that was prophesied and promised in the old testament. from christianity has emerged the christian faith, christian religion, christian institutions such as christian education, christian monasteries, christian books, christian libraries, etc. 115 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 gaudium et spes—the three words derived from the latin: gaudium (joy), et (and), and spes (hope)—is one of the documents of vatican ii that was released in 1965 by pope paul vi on behalf of the world catholic bishops. it was the last document presented by the second vatican thcouncil on 7 december 1965. nickoloff (2007) recognizes that the document aims to scrutinize or appraise the signs of the times in the light of the gospel and these signs include psychological, intellectual, moral, religious, and spiritual changes in the world. nickoloff (2003) writes further that part 1 of the document concerns human existence and its meaning in a changing world, the role of catholics and the church arising from the dignity of the human person, while part 2 looks at issues in family and marriage life, cultural development, politics, socio-economic life, and peace in the world. nickoloff (2007) is also clear that it is not a dogmatic document like dei verbum, or lumen gentium that defines doctrine, but it is authoritative when it comes to catholic social teaching. this document has influenced the catholic social teaching of the popes and regional catholic bishops all over the world since its inception. from the document, it is now clear that catholics must be socially, economically, politically, and environmentally engaged in the world. from this document, we learn that the church is not a fortress apart from the city. the life of the sacristy and sanctuary must affect the streets. in this document, the ecumenical dimension of the church is brought to the fore. forell and childs (2013) note that gaudium et spes recognizes the dignity of all humanity and the church is to be engaged with all humanity by showing love amidst the threatening changes in the world. the importance of gs lies also in what mich (1999) helps us to see: that of the 16 documents of the second vatican council, only this one, gs deals with the relationships of the church to the world( the first document from a church council addressed to the people of the world); the others deal with internal matters such as liturgy, the role of the laity, priestly formation, etc. mich (1999) helps us to realize that the cry of brazilian bishop, dom helder camara that we should not simply concern ourselves with internal church matters while the world is dying of hunger and underdeveloped was a similar concern shared by bishops such as montini of milan (later pope paul vi), cardinal suenens of belgium, leger of montreal, and lercaro of bologna. gs is a warm and loving document with unconditional positive regard for humanity. in gs, prusak (2004) writes that the church acknowledged “a dynamic and more evolutionary concept of nature” and history moving away from a static one. amid world problems and darkness in this world, there is hope. it acknowledged the freedom in the world, but freedom should be ethically moderated. the church's mission is to be a leaven in society on behalf of christ transforming it into the family of god” (gs 39). the role of the church is to humanize. prusak (2004) rightly interprets the council saying: “to say that the church was not given a mission in the political, economic, or social order does not mean that the church has no function to fulfill in those areas”(p. 319). christians are to animate the world with the spirit of christ or christianity. what does animate or animation mean? to animate is to give or put life into a thing, person, or place. to animate is to fill with a principle or what makes a thing what it is. spiritual animation is putting the spirit into a thing, person, or place. the word animation will be used here interchangeably with the word, transformation. aniagwu (2011) writes that social transformation is to bring about desirable change in creating a good society, this is a society that serves the common good of all citizens by rendering social services for the people in terms of shelter, employment, security, freedoms and other social amenities of life. socio-spiritual transformation as used in this paper ties the two concepts of spiritual animation and social transformation together. both of them are interrelated and needed. they should not be separated. it implies that in this world, a spiritual transformation or animation is not enough. what is spiritually transformed should also have influence and impact on the society and earthly realms. the world is to be spiritually and socially transformed 116 mark omorovie ikeke the spirit of christianity and the socio-spiritual ... with the spirit of christ. the final term that requires definition here is “world.” the term world is used to describe the physical planet called earth, with all its peoples, cultures, politics, economies, ideologies, beliefs, etc. the world is the world inhabited by people and every other thing in existence. it is the world created by god, the supreme being. the world created by god was originally good but fallen. but it has been redeemed by christ. the fruits of that redemption must be used to animate the world and that is one of the vital reasons why the church has been left behind here and is still on earth. the spirit of christianity and socio-spiritual transformation (animation) of the world the spirit of christianity is what makes christianity what it is. it is an enlivening principle and essence that drives and motivates christianity. if you remove the spirit from a thing or person, the person or thing is dead. according to jesus, “it is the spirit that gives life” (john 6:63). without the spirit of christianity, christianity is dead. christianity is a “thoroughly” earthly religion based on heavenly hope and reality. one of the dangers that christianity has faced throughout history is from those who want to domesticate and privatize christianity as simply personal piety, personal salvation, and going to heaven. this myth that tries to privatize religion has been debunked throughout church history, especially in the social teachings of the church. the lord jesus in his life and ministry taught that his followers are “the light of the world” and “the salt of the earth” (matthew 5:13-14). believers are not simply the light of the church or the salt of the church. they are empowered sacramentally and liturgically in the church but their mission is also in the mundane world or secular city. this is why christians make a big mistake when they cut themselves away from the life of the city. earthly concerns must be the concerns of every believer. it is because the temporal order is so important, though not more important than the heavenly domain that there are commissions in the catholic church called: justice, development and peace commission; family and human life; education, etc all under church and society in nigeria. in different countries, they may be called other names but there are always apostolates that relate to christians' duties in the world. christianity does not exist for itself. and it does not just exist for people to go to heaven. it has a purpose in this world. what does the socio-spiritual transformation of the world involve? it means that christians work for change in the temporary order, change that is in line with justice, peace, and authentic social development. the world needs to be animated because it is a fallen world. though redeemed by christ, the full effects and fruits of that redemption need to be spread and promoted. this is the function of animation. it is to fill the world with the spirit of christ and the spirit of christianity. in the catechism of the catholic church, the church teaches that whenever we pray the lord's prayer and listen to the story of the rich man and lazarus, we are reminded of our duties. what we pray for in one of the most beautiful catholic prayers, “come holy spirit,” and renew the face of the earth is what animation is all about. the prayer categorically states that the holy spirit comes to renew the earth. the work of renewal is what animation and transformation are all about. think of the first work of the holy spirit in genesis 1:1-13. it was by the power of the holy spirit that creation was brought into being. the holy spirit creates and renews. all through the holy bible, we see the power of the holy spirit in passages such as ezekiel 37, 47, isaiah 61, acts 2, etc. to animate or transform is to make the world a better place. it is to spread the gospel message. christ came into this world with a mission for both spiritual and social redemption. 117 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 the call and the needed response to gaudium et spes 43 the catholic bishops (1965) enunciated: “the joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the men of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted, these are the joys and hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers of christ. indeed, nothing genuinely human fails to raise an echo in their hearts” (par 1). the beginning of anything matters. the statements with which gaudium et spes begins are crucially important. “the church” in the above statement identifies with humanity. the church cannot ignore the plights and problems of humanity especially the poor, the marginalized, the vulnerable, etc. this identification with humanity did not begin with this document. the biblical tradition, teachings, and praxis of the church ground the call of gaudium et spes. in the exodus event (exodus 3 and 14), the exile and return, the ministry of deacons directed towards widows, the church's ministry to the poor, orphans, etc; god shows concern with people. in the last century in which the council took place, colonialism had wrought oppression and injustice, denied people their human and cultural rights, and exploited their natural resources. the 1960s were notable for the rise of the modern environmental movement. the plight that the earth was facing was coming into people's consciousness. the world was experiencing great technological and scientific advancement. yet, the church enunciates that amid this advancement, god should not be forgotten. california catholic conference (2015) writes that: “…in these transforming times, the second vatican council sought to clarify the role of the church in the world by turning to scripture in the church's social teachings” as the church mainstreams human dignity of people created in god's image and likeness; and human beings created with a rational soul are called to live in communion in the light of christ's message of universal love. the church has no earthly ambition but to carry forward the spirit of christ in transforming the world (gs 3). gaudium et spes must also be studied in light of the dynamics and turmoil that the world was facing in the 1960s. this was the time when many countries in africa and colonized territories were gaining independence from their former rulers. gaudium et spes is a pastoral constitution of the church in the modern world. by itself, the designation “pastoral” speaks of the work of a pastor or shepherd. the church is to play the role of a shepherd not only to her children, but to all humanity. all people are children of the church whether they acknowledge it or not. the church is a mother to all humanity. mccaughey (2023) writes that the church has a positive openness to the world, the world was created by god and god never abandons his world, and jesus because of god's love came into this world to redeem and break the power of satan and sin; we are to identify with the world in what is good while working to transform it. some of the basic things that we find in gaudium et spes 43 are the following: v we are citizens of two cities (the earthly city and the heavenly city) v we have duties in conscience towards the earthly city v we should not neglect the duties to the earthly city because of heaven v there are earthly responsibilities to be carried out. v our faith commits us to the earthly city (faith without works is dead) v each person has its own proper vocation. v religion does not consist of acts of worship alone v it is a serious error to split faith from daily life. v the prophets of the old testament railed against this error (this scandal). jesus also opposed this split. v social and professional life should be imbued with the spirit of the religious life. 118 mark omorovie ikeke the spirit of christianity and the socio-spiritual ... v to neglect one's temporal duties sins against neighbour and god and endangers his/her eternal salvation v we must see the noble example of jesus who worked as a carpenter. v the world should be animated with the spirit of christ v secular duties belong to lay people though not exclusively v lay people should ensure divine law, the spirit of christianity pervades the earthly city. v priests have to form laypeople with a strong christian conscience able to operate in the christian city. v the role of laypeople is crucial in animating and transforming the earthly city. v in participating in earthly affairs, the opinions and positions of the christians should not be equated with the gospel message or the teaching of the church v laypeople should engage in honest discussion, foster christian charity, and promote the common good. v lay persons are to witness to christ in all areas and things in this world. v pastors of souls should ensure the face of christ is seen in this world by their presence, their speeches, and daily conduct and exercise of their gifts. v dialogue with the world is necessary. foster unity among people. we must respect even those who are different from us in political religious, economic, social, and cultural matters (gs 28). we must not be indifferent to truth and error should be repudiated (gs 28). v we must struggle against failings and defects that have happened in the church in history. v we should be open to the holy spirit in this mission of spiritual renewal of the world. v though not in number 43, it is important to remark that in engaging in the world all that opposes human dignity is to be shunned such as deportation, slavery, prostitution, subhuman living conditions, human trafficking, unjust working conditions, arbitrary imprisonment, etc. we are called to serve god in this life. the fundamental vocation of the human person remains. the holy see (1994) in the catechism of the catholic church (ccc), no 1721 states that: “god puts us in this world to know, love and to serve him, and so come to paradise” (p. 428). knowing, loving, and serving god remains our primary vocation. serving him entails not just religious worship and rituals in church, but also what we do towards our neighbour and living ethical lives amid secular or earthly vocations. our engagement in political, economic, and cultural activities should be taken more seriously than ever before. gaudium et spes gives impetus to do this. jesus refuses to see loving god as the only commandment that matters. to the scribe who asked him which is the greatest commandment, he answers love your neighbour also. we should see our engagement in the daily business activities of life such as working in supermarkets, serving as teachers in school, being civil servants, transporters, etc as aspects of building the kingdom of god on the earth and spreading god's love. the apostle saint paul admonishes that in all we do we should see it as working for christ (colossians 3:17). the spirit of gaudium et spes is the spirit of christianity. the temporal order is not evil or sinful. christians must participate in it with zeal and allow the values of the kingdom to rule it. in the lord's prayer, the lord jesus taught believers to always pray for god's will to be done on earth and for god's kingdom to come here on earth. earthly activities done morally—even when geared towards profit—are inscribed with the 119 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 spirit of christ. we should not cede the earthly plain to the devil or the power of evil, if not the ministry of christ becomes useless. the holy see (1994) in ccc, numbers 1887-1942 is very clear on the need for christians to participate in the temporal plane. this call comes from the vision of gaudium et spes and other social ecclesial documents. in the above sections of the ccc, the holy see (1994) teaches that human beings are social by nature and are called to exchange, serve, and dialogue with one another. human beings are to participate in social life. participation in social life requires working for the common good of society, political participation, promotion of social justice, and exercising the virtue of solidarity. for the christian, all these should be done to bring the spirit of christ jesus, the liberator, and saviour of the human race to bear on all of them. the world is to be animated or transformed with the spirit and values of the gospel such as the beatitudes, the sermon on the mount, the message of love and forgiveness, the message of generosity and charity, and carrying out the corporal works of mercy. it is in imitating jesus and following his mission that we are truly his followers. ewherido (2013) rightly notes that: as far as love and justice are concerned, and indeed, in every aspect of our lives, jesus remains the paradigm for the church amidst our struggles with the ugly realities of social injustice and multiple crimes against humanity. it is in the imitation of christ that the church continues jesus' mission: seeking out those lost and offering them salvation (p. 95). in the previous quotation, ewherido (2013) cites some ideas from hays's moral vision. the point to be made is that for the christian to truly animate the world that is bedevilled by darkness and ugliness, the christian should follow the benevolent love of jesus that emancipated the poor, the vulnerable, the marginalized, and traumatized. christianity is not just about going to heaven. it is inundating and flooding this world with gospel values and the light of christ. living and engaging in social and political affairs for the good of society is part of being christian. it is not an extra-curricular activity. it is essential to christianity. lebechi (2014) writes that in gs the church enunciates that “…the church must be in alliance with suffering humanity. it could not stay aloof but should be engaged in dialogue with the social life of people in order to be able to serve humanity in love” and the church is to spread the message of christ to console and repair agonizing and suffering humanity (p.24). human beings in a special way are co-creators with god. not just in giving birth to offspring, but also in participating in human labour. in the garden of eden, it was god who first laboured and worked in creating human beings and planting a garden. through economic activities and human work, human beings prolong and continue the work of creation in “subduing” the earth (ccc 2427). gaudium et spes is cited by the ccc in number 2426 to affirm that economic activities should be done within the limits of the moral order and in line with just social principles. work is so crucial to human existence. without work, there can be no human civilization. the holy see (1994) teaches rightly that work is a duty, work honours god and enables humans to exercise their talents; through work, we carry our daily crosses and the hardships and burden of work are to be received joyfully, work is redemptive and in a unique way: “work can be a means of sanctification and a way of animating earthly realities with the spirit of christ” (p. 583). linking our religious spirituality to our daily work and business is one of the vital lessons we derive from gs. participation in the social, cultural, economic, and political life of the earthly city is divine and holy. politics is not a dirty game and christians should actively participate in it no matter the risks and permeate it with the spirit of the christian gospel. christ lived in this world and participated in human activities. he did not cut himself away from people. he attended a wedding feast in cana. he sat down and drank wine with people. he enjoyed celebrating with people. he critiqued the false economic system that turned the temple into a market. he was not angry with 120 mark omorovie ikeke the spirit of christianity and the socio-spiritual ... buying and selling but with the injustice in the system. jesus had a treasurer of the jesus movement indicating that they did financial exchange with others. christians on behalf of christ are to make the world holy, not by cutting themselves from the world but by shining the light of christ. jesus told his disciples clearly: “you do not belong to the world, but you are in the world.” jesus did not pray for his disciples to be taken out of the world but for their protection. they have work to do in the world. recommendations in light of the call and mandate that gs provides, this paper makes the following recommendations. to concretize how priests and lay people in the church are to respond to gs, we spell out our recommendations in seven ways: (1) there is a need to re-write some so-called christian songs for they can make us ignore our duties on earth. the song, “this world is not my own, i am just passing through….” it can give the impression of not bordering on working for the good of the earthly city. while bother to work for its good when we are just passing through? it can also make us fail in our environmental duties. we all especially pastors of souls have a duty to critically and analytically look at songs that are sung in liturgy or church gatherings. the melody and sweetness of the song are not enough. the social message that the song passes should also be studied. does the song make us better christians who are earthly-wise and heavily conscious or does it make us abdicate our responsibilities in this world? an author may have written a song with good intentions, but it may have a different influence on people. (2) social teaching and justice education: there is a need to do more on this. not only is catholic social teaching the best-kept secret of the catholic church, but many catholic lacks a sound knowledge of catholic social teaching (cst). aniagwu (2011) shares this view also when he states that: “the social teaching of the catholic church has been described as 'the church's best kept secret.' this is because it is little known to the generality of the public, even within the catholic church herself” (p.270). since many catholics before receiving the sacraments go through catechism classes, catechists, seminarians, future priests, and sisters must have many more courses in cst. i acknowledge that having more courses is not enough. these teachings should be mainstreamed in catholic education. it was john chrysostom who said the worship of the body and blood of christ should be connected to helping the poor. the church's mission and identity cannot be separated from the prophetic tradition of the holy bible and the promotion of justice. howson (2011), ehusani (1996), ukwuegbu (1995), byrne (1988), kamoga (2017) and ugwu (2017)all corroborate this trend. here we cannot forget the constant social teaching of the nigerian bishops brought to us most often in their communiques after their meetings. (3) the relationship between liturgy, sacrament, and justice needs to be more talked about. a liturgy that does not promote faithful citizenship leaves much to be desired. catholics should make themselves actively engaged in social justice issues, work ethics, voter education, etc. in the parable of the last judgement in matthew 25, jesus enunciated, “as long as you did it to one of the least of my brothers and sisters, you did it to me”(matthew 25:40). the items that jesus mentions include feeding the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and imprisoned, sheltering the homeless. this is not just about charity but asking critical questions about why these conditions prevail in human society. beyond love and charity, christians must work for social justice and the social transformation of the human condition. structures that perpetuate injustice need to be confronted and destroyed. anagwo (2013) writes that the mass leads us to the mission, a mission that helps us to create a just society in a hopeless and darkened world, a world in which people are reconciled, live in love, where workers are paid 121 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 just wages, and there are harmonious human relationships. (4) let us be attentive to the prayer of the faithful on sundays and weekdays which often spells out our earthly and civic duties. there is hardly any prayer of the faithful in the church that does not mention the transformation of the earthly city. in general, outside the prayer of the faithful, the entire liturgy is a place for formation in life, social justice, and participation in the th temporary affairs of the world. koester (2002) writes that from june 18 to 21 2001, the 29 annual liturgy conference of the notre dame center for pastoral liturgy demonstrated that “…gathering to worship and striving for justice are not separate compartments or unrelated endeavors in the christian life; rather, liturgy and justice together are constitutive of and expressive of the church itself” (p. ix). the compartmentalization of liturgy as separate from the other realms of daily life is common among many catholics. they rarely see any relationship between the daily masses they attend and their daily tasks, yet painfully they pray about these tasks in their prayers. (5) pray over your earthly duties and work. there is a special mass for human labour in the catholic missal. this mass should not just be there in the missal, it should be celebrated often. whenever this mass is celebrated it should provide an important moment for the priest to lay out the purpose of gs, the importance of the earthly terrain, the need to bring holiness to bear in the world, etc. there is also a mass for justice and peace that we should emphasize here. it should be celebrated often. it provides an opportunity to educate people on justice and peace issues (6) the importance of our daily work in economic and business life should be highlighted more than ever before. some people tend to see daily work as a burden and something to be ignored and neglected. enterprise and entrepreneurship are crucial to fulfilling our christian vocation in this work. we must find joy in our work no matter how challenging it is. gaudium et spes calls for a new attitude towards human work and labour. work is not cursed. it has been redeemed in christ who laboured as an artisan. this is one of the reasons why praying over our work is very important. at every prayer of the faithful at sunday and daily mass, an intention for our labours and enterprise should not be forgotten. it is becoming common nowadays in parishes to especially pray for the work of the week at morning masses on mondays. this is good and should be continued. (7) it is true that admonition and precepts are not enough. fellow christians should help people find work. help encourage one another to participate in the temporal domain. (8) stewards of creation. god the creator has entrusted this world to his children (humanity) to care for and protect. after all, the original command in the second story of creation in genesis 2 is “to till and cultivate the garden.” (9) we are our brothers and sisters' keepers. we cannot be silent in the midst of the pain and plights that our people are going through. we must challenge injustice and oppression. we must speak up in the faces of the structures that intimidate and silence our people. conclusion the foregoing shows vividly that there is no doubt that priests and laypeople have a role to play in making this world a better place by animating it with the spirit of christianity and the values of the gospel. the paper was written from the perspective of gaudium et spes (the pastoral constitution on the church in the modern world). gs as the paper showed was the final document of the second vatican council written amidst the turmoil and changes in the world of the 1960s. amid these changes, the catholic church affirmed the value of human dignity and the common humanity of all people. she affirms human beings as social by nature and created by god. in human joys, hopes, and griefs, the church identifies with humanity and carries the light of christ to all humanity. in the truest sense, the church is a pastor or shepherd to the world and 122 mark omorovie ikeke the spirit of christianity and the socio-spiritual ... this is one reason why the church addresses the document to all humanity and people of goodwill. catholics and indeed all christians should see their faith inspired by the prophetic social justice tradition of scripture and the liberatory message of jesus as an impetus to engage in the temporal or earthly realms. they are not to set themselves apart from the world in terms of demarcating themselves into the sacristy but are to permeate the earthly realm with the spirit that comes from the sanctuary. imbued by the holy spirit, the animating power of christ, they should fill the world with the values of the gospel, thus they will act to transform or animate this world to become a better place, while on their pathway to the fullness of the kingdom to come. references anagwo, e.c. 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(2007). gaudium et spes. in orlando o espin and james b nickoloff (ed.), an introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies (p. 483. collegeville, minnesota: liturgical press. prusak, b.p. (2004). the church unfinished: ecclesiology through thecenturies. new: paulist press. ugwu, b.i. (2017). christianity, human rights and national integration. african journal of contextual theology, 7, 47-70. ukwuegbu, b. (1995). confrontational evangelization: foundations, features and prospects. onitsha: effective key publishers. 124 mark omorovie ikeke the spirit of christianity and the socio-spiritual ... https://www.cbcew.org.uk/gaudium-et-spes-joy-and-hope/ https://www.cbcew.org.uk/gaudium-et-spes-joy-and-hope/ 66 democracy as a system of governance in nigeria: a critical analysis justus isaac ph. d interim joint matriculation board unit university of jos plateau, nigeria justusisaac33@gmail.com abstract the aim of the study is to critically analyze democracy as a system of governance and the influence that affects its application in nigeria. in order to achieve this, a qualitative research method was employed. in this research, a philosophical and descriptive approach was adopted in analyzing the data gathered through secondary source. the objectives of the work are discussed in the following headings: the meaning and nature of democracy, scope and principles of democracy, the doubts and fears regarding democracy, democratic requirements for nigeria system, and challenges of democracy in nigeria system, and the researcher recommended the ways for handling the challenges of democratic governance. key words: democracy, governance, politics, nigeria. introduction man by nature seeks to rule over his fellows. he lives in a social web that is hierarchically structured. the act of humans governing or ruling their fellows has being in existence from origin. the system of governance may be monarchy, oligarchy, military, or democratic system. all these forms of governance have its peculiar challenges. however, in considering human rights, dignity, worth, freedom and responsibility, democracy stands out among other forms of governance, though the human instinct for sensory satisfaction and unguided quest for power have often frustrated the principles and practice of the democracy in its ideal form. the framers of democracy faced many democratic issues. democracy is complex, but balanced system that needs thought citizens, limits on power, rule of law, and human and civil rights. this implies that, not every country that calls itself a democracy is one, and not every country is capable of becoming one (roskin et al, 2010). moreover, nigeria is young in democratic system of governance when compared with british, america or france. this, of course is not to console or excuse nigerians from embracing the ideal principle and practice of democracy, on this light prompted the study: ‘philosophical analysis of democracy and the nigeria system governance’. the meaning and nature of democracy the word ‘democracy’ originated from two greek words ‘demos’ meaning ‘the people’, and ‘kratein’ means to ‘rule’. thus, democracy originally mean rule of or by the people. however, this simple and soft translation of democracy obscures the fact that rule means rule by some over others. as plato and aristotle, for example, used the term, the demos were not the whole people. rather they thought that the ‘people’ include at least two groups: the demos and the aristoi. demos mean the many. aristoi mean the best. demos came to mean the many who are not best; that is, the great majority of men who are poor, perhaps uneducated and thus unfit to rule well (martin, 1998). mailto:justusisaac33@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 67 according to abraham lincoln conceived democracy as ‘government of the people, by the people, and for the people’ (ishaya & jirapye, 2023, p. 50). however, the democratic system of nigeria propels omoregbe (2007, p. 3) to avert that ‘democracy is not really a government for the people; rather, it is a government for the rich and powerful who fund the parties and control them’. coming from another angle hall sees ‘democracy as that form of political organization in which public opinion has control’ (ishaya & jirapye, 2023, p. 51). for franklyn roosevelt ‘democracy was not a mere matter of universal suffrage and unhampered expression of the popular will. it must be a positive and constructive force in the daily lives of the people and provide not merely for political but economic needs also’. the conviction is that, if men were forced to choose between liberty and bread, they would choose bread (ishaya & jirapye, 2023, p. 51). according to seymour m. lipset’s democracy in a complete society may be defined as a political system which supplies regular constitutional opportunities for changing the governing officials, and a social mechanism which permits the largest possible parts of the population to influence major decisions by choosing among contenders for political office (haralambos & holborn, 2004, p. 526). moreover, schumpeter argues that democracy is a method by which decision-making is transferred to individuals who have gained power in a competitive struggle for the votes of the citizens (ishaya & jirapye, 2023, p. 52). encyclopedia america international defined democracy as a form of government in which the major decisions of governmentor the direction of policy behind these decisionsrest directly or indirectly on the freely given consent of a majority of the adults governed. democracy has many characteristics. dictators misuse the word to convince subjects that they live in a just system. the soviet union used to claim it was the best democracy, and mainland china calls itself the “people’s republic”. democracy does not always equal to freedom. elections, even free and fair ones, can produce regimes that ride roughshod over rights and freedoms, what is called illiberal democracy. nevertheless, democracy is a complex and carefully balanced system that needs thoughtful citizens, limits on power, rule of law, and human and civil rights. not every country that calls itself democracy is one, and not every country is capable of becoming one. the term democracy indicates both a set of ideals and a political system, a feature it shares with the terms communism and socialism. democracy is harder to pin down, however, than either “socialism” or “communism”. for democracy has never become identified with a specific doctrinal source, it is rather a by-product of the entire development of western civilization. democracy is difficult to define, not every political system claims to be a socialist system, but even communist systems claim to be democracies (international encyclopedia of social science 1972). the transition to democracy is delicate and happens best slowly and gradually, as it did in britain with a series of reform arts during the 19th century. typically, during the first decades of democracy, only the better-off can participate, a pattern called ‘whig democracy’. modern democracy is representative or indirect democracy. the people govern through representatives periodically elected by them. the ordinary citizen’s part in government is limited. periodically he may vote to choose a member of parliament from his constituency. if he has the necessary qualification, he has the right to stand as a candidate for election and to apply for executive and judicial posts; but in practice only a very small, proportion of citizens justus isaac democracy as a system of governance in… 68 can ever hope to be elected to the legislature, or chosen for executive or judicial office (appadorai, 2004, p. 187). scope and principles of democracy 1. democratic legitimacy: democracy is to begin with a principle of legitimacy. from the democratic view point nobody denies that power is legitimate only when it is derived from the authority of the people and based upon their consent. however, for democracy as a legitimizing principle lends itself to two diverging interpretation; (1) that the consent of people can be a mere presumption, an untested assumption; or (2) that there is no democratic consent unless it is verified through ad-hoc procedures. and these opposing views are related to an even more fundamental disagreement over the very meaning of the term ‘people’. the ‘people’ can be understood as a singular term or as a plural, that is, as a singular entity or as ‘everybody’. and, clearly, it is only the latter notion that calls for a legitimacy ascertained by means of reliable procedures, for ‘the people’ conceived as an entity, or as an organic whole, easily combines with a legitimacy assumed on the sole basis of acclamations and plebiscitary approbations. 2. the normative focus: the normative view democracy is encapsulated in the popular definition of democracy as the ‘rule of the people’. we may say that the ‘ought’ of democracy amounts to the etymology of the term. taking off from this, there are, three different normative approaches: oppositional, realistic, and perfectionist (or utopian). used as oppositional concept, democracy indicates what ought not to be; realistic normativism points to what could be; while utopian normativism presents the image of the perfect society that must be. moreover, since the normative attitude is basically future-oriented, it is easily converted into “futurism” in the sense that “democracy” becomes a long-range projection unrelated to current deeds. the use of undemocratic means to achieve democratic ends finds it justification precisely in this attitude. 3. the descriptive focus: as dahl (1956) puts it, in actuality democracies are “poliarchies”. and the standard definition that describes democracy as a system based on competitive parties, in which the governing majority respects the rights of minorities. 4. the typological focus: democracy is also one type of political system among others, and from this view point the problem becomes to define the properties that distinguish it from nondemocratic politics. hence, attempt is often made to qualify democracy with ought rather than to the ‘is’. democracy literally means ‘power of the people’. according to appadorai (2004, p. 187) democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of a state is legally vested not in a particular class or classes but in the members of a community as a whole. this is known as direct democracy. nevertheless, in the nineteenth century thinkers accepted the ancient greeks criticism of direct democracy as mob rule. it is difficult to carry out because of the size factor. john seldon as quoted by roskin et al. (2010, p. 97) that “the room will not hold all”. a nation government that submitted each decision to millions of voters would be too unwieldy to function. however, representative democracy evolved as the only workable system. democracy today is, in lipset & joson’s (2004) words, “a political system which supplies regular constitutional opportunities for changing the governing officials, and a social mechanism which permits the largest possible part of the population to influence major decisions by choosing among contenders for political office.’’ constitutional means that the government is limited and can wield its authority only in specific ways. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 69 the doubts and fears regarding democracy in nigeria, like in any other country, the long term viability of democratic governance has being in doubt since the advent of democratic regime. it is on this ground, the question of democratic fundamental nature rests. moreover, democracy works on the principle of the constitution. the constitution may be democratic or undemocratic. for example, if the constitution is undemocratic and one believes in democracy, then the most important practical task is to alter the constitution or get round it somehow (martin, 1998). however, many other modern political scientists depreciate the significance of the constitution as an influence upon behaviour. they believe that, despite the undemocratic constitution, the political system gradually became democratized. the political process is thus treated as radically distinct form, in conflict with constitutional form. according to this view, for example, the extra-constitutional development of mass political parties and presidential popular leadership short-circuited the resistance to democracy of the 18th century. on this view, history has to repeat itself every day. the constitution is seen as still the archaic undemocratic document of 1787 (in america). thus, the political short circuiting must occur daily to permit the modern democratic system to function (martin, 1998). socrates challenged the idea of democracy. what he asked was the peoples’ claim to rule? governing or ruling, he argued, was an art like the art of navigation. yet in peril at sea, it made no sense to take a poll of all the passengers. the sensible thing, he suggested, was to seek and follow expert guidance in such matters. why then in government, should power be given to the inexpert many instead of the expert few? the question is acute. indeed the history of the democratic idea can be seen as a series of responses to the socratic challenge. moreover, the framers of democracy did not need ancient writers to teach them the dangers. thus, it is easy to find quotations vividly demonstrating their fears regarding democracy. for example, in the 1787 convention, martin (1998) asserts that elbridge gerry warned that “the evils we experience flow from the excess of democracy” and edmund randolph complained of “the turbulence and follies of democracy” may 31. what distinguish the framers from the predecessors was that they agreed on democracy’s weakness and dangerous tendencies, but they did not reject democracy. they knew that whether they like it or not they had to conform to the “popular genius” of country institutions. they accepted democracy and sought to guide against its “turbulence and follies”. james madison stated their view perfectly: they wanted to eliminate or lesson “the inconveniencies of democracy”, but in a manner “consistent with the democratic form of government”. hence, the framers wanted to “make democratie safe for the world” (martin, 1998). democratic requirements for nigeria system there are three basic democratic requirements for nigeria to adhere judiciously, if democratic system of governance must survival. 1. democratic tradition: it is obvious from our experience of democracy, that many africa countries, if not all, including nigeria of course lack democratic traditions. perhaps, democracy is still young in africa and there are no close advanced democratic countries near africa. consequently, due to the lack of democratic traditions, some africa countries that has democratically elected leaders were overthrow by military system of governance; for instance in mali, burkina faso among others. therefore, the lack of democratic tradition paves the path to dictatorship governance. democratic tradition helps in preserving democracy (edward, justus isaac democracy as a system of governance in… 70 1939, p. 241). democracy system is dynamic but attainable. eventually, nigeria can turn democratic, but it is a matter of time, for democracy develops in the process of time. however, the qualities for building a democratic tradition are enshrined in the constitution. nevertheless, democratic tradition in current nigeria system of governance would remain a mirage if the provisions of the constitution do not reflect in our customs, beliefs or ways of doing something with respect to humanity, no matter the diversity of ethnicity, religion or regional affiliations. 2. embracing the tradition of pluralism: the nigeria democratic systems need to embrace or re-embrace the tradition of pluralism in her socio-political context; if a just democratic atmosphere must be achieved. imo (2000, p. 3) describes “pluralism” as the result of social transformation which gives rise to people of different beliefs, values, and customs being brought together by the forces of history in social relationship. nigeria is a pluralistic society. there is hardly any state within nigeria you will not find people of diverse tongues, beliefs or regions living together. hence, democracy cannot function without due considerations necessary for balancing the compromise between people of diverse classes. when electing candidates for public positions, merits should be considered against class, ethnicity or religious sentiments. then, democratic tradition can flourish in the spirit of pluralism. 3. openness to religious/philosophical evolutionary ideas: when democratic tradition is establish and practice in the spirit of pluralism, then, evolutionary ideas would no longer be attached to psychological disenchantment or as sources of threat. for instance, the word “restructuring” used in the 2015 and 2023 presidential political campaigns had a parallel means to people of southern and northern regions in nigeria. religious or philosophical ideas that positively shape political landscape should not be subject for democratic battle. for just democracy have no room for fight, democracy doesn’t fight. democracy is process of electing the competent and rightful candidate to pilot the affairs for the benefit of the society. historically speaking, religious ideas has not only obstructed the advancement of democracy, but have altered the principles of democratic governance and peace in nigeria. for nigeria is religious by nature, and carries it into the parliaments. it is not all religious ideas that can result to democratic backwardness. however, within the framework of modern society, any idea that cannot endure and survive sound logical processing, should be discarded. therefore, objective ideas should be evolutionary ideas workable in the socio-political context of a particular country. challenges of democracy in nigeria system 1. illiteracy and poverty: democracy can actually come too soon in the political life of a nation. stable democracy has historically taken roof in countries with large educated middle classes. as barrington moore observed in 1996, “no bourgeoisie, no democracy”. people in poor countries care more about survival than democracy. in a 2004 un survey of latin america, a majority said they preferred a dictator who puts food on the table to an elected leader who does not. middle classes bring with them moderation, tolerance, and the realization that not everything can be fixed at once (roskin et al, 2010). without that, elections can undermine democracy. however, the large number of uneducated and poor masses outnumbers the better-off. eventually, when the broad masses of citizens suddenly get the vote, the system can break down. newly enfranchised and unsophisticated voters often fall for the extravagant promises of demagogues, who offer simple solutions to get the votes of the gullible. they vow to “share the wealth” or advocate aggressive nationalism or religious fundamentalism. attempting democracy too soon can lead to rule by demagogues (roskin et al, 2010). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 71 2. potentiality of demagogues: apart from the large number of illiterates in society, another concern is the potential for demagogues to exploit the democratic system. the charismatic leaders have the power to manipulate the populace by appealing to their desires and prejudices rather through rational argument, leading to decisions that were not in the best interest of the community (world history encyclopedia, 2024). 3. tyranny of the majority: the tyranny of the majority is a situation in which a group of people are treated unfairly because their situation is different from the situation of most of the people in a democratic country (meriamwebster, 2025). it also implies to a situation in majority rule where preferences and interests of the majority dominate the political landscape, potentially sidelining or repressing minority groups and using majority rule to take nondemocratic actions (levitsky & ziblatt, 2025). a tyranny of the majority can ensue when democracy is distorted either by an excess of centralization or when the people abandon a wider perspective to rule upon numbers, not upon rightness or excellence. tyranny of the majority is when the will of a majority population group exclusively prevails in a system of governance it results in the potential for tyranny over minority groups (www.masterclass.com, 2022). in social choice, a tyranny of the majority scenario can be formally known as a situation where the candidate or decision preferred by a majority is greatly inferior to the socially optimal candidate or decision according to some measure of excellence such as total utilitarianism. to reduce the risk of majority tyranny, modern democracies frequently have counter majoritian institutions that restrict the ability of majorities to repress minorities and stymie political competition (levitsky & ziblatt, 2025). 4. war or social crisis: petrie as quoted by appadorai (2004, p. 240) that the outbreak and the continuance of war or social crisis, and the suffering which followed, helped to shake men’s faith in democratic principles. men had thought that democracy and peace were synonymous, but the events of august 1914 (world war ii), russian and ukraine war, and even the pockets of social crisis within nigeria destroy this illusion. again, the war left legacy of misery and depression in nearly every country. men looked for a better and happier world after the war; the world that did result was not only not better, but worse. it was freely contended that parliaments were bankrupt and that democratic civilization had outlived its usefulness. 5. the weakness of democratic governance: the faith in democratic principles was undermined by the inability of democracy to solve adequately the problems which it had to face. the deficiencies, weaknesses and of course great mistakes of democratic leaders, played a specially role in the downfall of european democracies. there were excuses, of the party system, its mistakes and exaggerations; the slowness and inefficiency of democratic methods of work and leadership, during times of crises and at moments when quick actions and quick decisions were nessecery; the partiality, corruption and incapacity of bureaucracy, subjugated very often to the exaggerated party spirit; the deficiencies, mediocrity and mistakes of the democratic leaders (edward, 1939, p. 61). ways for handling the challenges of democratic governance 1 electing only the competent to power: man naturally drive for power in order to control his fellow. thus, power and functionary positions are greatly in want by people. perhaps, due to the privileges and recognition it incurs. however, not many understand the principle of power and its responsibility. many are not even sophisticated enough to lead themselves let alone to govern others. socrates used the analogy of a ship to drive home this point. he asked whether one would entrust the navigation of a ship to anyone or someone who is expert in seafaring (world history encyclopedia, 2024). http://www.masterclass.com/ justus isaac democracy as a system of governance in… 72 2 restricting pre-election debate on fundamental issues: aristotle thought that man was by nature a political animal. humans alone possess speech, which enables them to debate issues. to be human, one must live in a community, in which one exercises the powers of one’s speech, debating the collective choices that a community must take (the concise encyclopedia of democracy, 2000). the strategic organization of debate is part of pre-election activities especially in advanced countries. moreover, democracy is still young in nigeria, even though debates are sometimes organized, but there are times that candidates boycott the process. however, pre-election debate is crucial aspect, that exposes the degree of logicality of the aspirants, this is fundamental in handling complex challenges that the nation must face. 3 public and systematic scrutiny on candidate’s manifesto: all candidates no matter their class, ethnicity, religion, region or political affiliation must have their respective manifesto. the candidates must be responsible and ready to respond to the questions that may arise from their manifestos. in addition, all aspirants’ expressions of interests and motive for a certain office must have working alignment with their manifestos. the general public equally has the right to the plans, motive or strategies each candidate employs in tackling the economic, social or political issues bedeviling the nation. among other things, political debates expose each candidate’s degree of criticality and mental soundness, necessary for national development. in fact, critical ideas are the driving power for national advancement and political stability. 4 background check of aspirants: the background check of all aspirants of political offices is very paramount, as long as good governance is concerned. the role of checkmating all candidates for political functions can never be overemphasized, for democracy have the potency to give power to the unfit, for evil doers and fraudsters’ wants power. thus, nigeria as a young democratic nation should develop her unique and objective machineries for cross checking and examining every candidate that presents him or herself for any political position. all aspirants should undergo psychological therapeutic process, to ascertain if they have the mental capacity to govern or to lead. nigeria is so complex that it is difficult or even impossible for mentally unstable person to lead. secondly, all aspirants should undergo the procedures for moral check. they must pass the examination that consists of these questions: do they have any criminal record? are they convicts? previous record of work? how do they relate to others? for the moral state a leader reflects in the way he or she leads. 5 examining the educational status of aspirants: democratic system of governance needs train and skillful individuals so as to effectively diagnose and also treat the complex issues. these complex issues can only be properly handled by people with technological knowhow. when issues overwhelm an individual, this may be an evident that such individual is not well prepared to face the issues. moreover, socrates believed that not everyone had the knowledge and wisdom necessary to make informed decisions. according to socrates, voting is a skill that requires education and wisdom, and allowing uneducated individuals to vote could lead to poor governance and societal instability (world history encyclopedia, 2024). education has a political face. among other things, the principle of education is to carefully prepare individuals as to be able to govern themselves and even others (dependence or subjects) in their respective society. hence, the place of education in democratic governance is not negotiable. credentials are testimonies that people have undergone such and such institutions of learning, in diverse categories. credentials are the evidence that certifies that one has fully justifies the course of study, and he or she is educated in a particular specialization. as such, pre-election check on the academic background of aspirants is very crucial. therefore, the educated or enlightened leaders are in the position to govern well than the illiterate ones. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 73 conclusion democracy is dynamic in nature, from its meaning to practice. thus, any country that is not progressing intellectually, materially or socially can never fit into modern democracy and its civilization. intellectual progress is the by-product of education. democracy need to be practice with knowledge and wisdom. educated people are mostly useful to themselves than to be used to violate the principles and practice of democracy. they are also in the position to distinguish the right from wrong. this is basic sustaining the principle of distributive justice and respecting human rights as engraved in the constitution of nigeria. justus isaac democracy as a system of governance in… 74 references appadorai, a. (2004). the substance of politics. oxford university press. bloom, l. and otten, j. g. (1987). change africa: an introduction to sociology. macmillan. dahl, r. (1956). 1963: a preface to democratic theory. university of chicago press. dahl, r. (2003). the democracy sourcebook. mit press. democracy encyclopedia britanica http://www.britannica.com/ebchecked/topic/157129/democracy dibie c. c. (2008). essential government. 4th edition. tonad publishers. edward, b. (1939). democracy today and tomorrow. oxford. encyclopedia americana international edition. (1979). no.8 vol. 2. macmillan. haralambos, m. and holborn, m. (2004). sociology: themes and perspectives. 6th edition. harper collins publishers ltd. imo, c. (2000). religion and the pluralistic society. development studies review, 4 (1&2). sills, d. l. international encyclopedia of the social sciences. (1968-1972). crowell and macmillan inc. ishaya, j. and jirapye m. i. (2023). the ramifications of democracy and the politics of a nation. in moral issues in the practice of modern democracy, human rights and personhood. edited by onwochei p. exodus publishers, 2023. mill, j. s. (1986). on liberty. edited by elizabeth rapaport. hackett publishing company inc. lipset, s. m. and joson m. l. (2004). the democratic century. university of oklahoma press. martin, d. (1998). the founding of the democratic republic. peacock publishers, inc. omoregbe, j. (2007). socio-political philosophy and international relations: a systematic and historical study. vol. 1. joja publishers. the columbia encyclopedia (2000). 6th edition. columbia university press. roskin g. m. (2010). political science: an introduction. 11th edition. pearson education inc. world history encyclopedia (2024). https://www.worldhistory.org/video/1223/why-socrateshated-democracy http://www.britannica.com/ebchecked/topic/157129/democracy https://www.worldhistory.org/video/1223/why-socrates-hated-democracy https://www.worldhistory.org/video/1223/why-socrates-hated-democracy 64 “entering through the narrow gate” (matt. 7:13): towards reinvigorating the spiritual commitment of the nigerian catholic knights evaristus ifeanacho, phd department of religion and human relations nnamdi azikiwe university, awka eo.ifeanacho@unizik.edu.ng abstract the universal call to holiness demands that one gains his/her salvation through one’s state of life. the state of life into which one finds himself/herself is naturally established through the family process that eventually culminates into the church affiliation, and finally into the larger society. there are various states of life within the catholic church which is classified into the clergy, consecrated men and women and lay faithful. the clergy refers to the ordained ministers that exercise the ministerial priesthood. the lay faithful though they share in the common priesthood through baptism live out their christian life in their various areas of work. within the catholic church, they form statutory bodies like catholic women organization, catholic men organization, catholic youth organization, and holy childhood association; which are all enveloped in the laity council. there are other particular associations like the catholic knights and other sodalities that exist in the church. this research is concerned with the nigerian catholic knights who often times help in promoting the growth of the church through their generous financial contributions in various church projects and more so, in carrying out charitable works. on the other hand there is need to get them reinvigorated in their spiritual commitment so that eloquent testimony to the faith with soar higher this ugly side of deficiency in proper witnessing often times stain the corporate image of the group. the research uses the qualitative methodology to sift out the causes of this lack of proper witnessing and ways of addressing it. the researcher makes some recommendations on ways of ensuring more spiritual commitment among the catholic knights in order to be more active promoters of the gospel message. keywords: laity, catholic church, knighthood, spiritual commitment, evangelization. introduction the human life is replete with making of choices. in the spiritual architecture of each individual, there is an obvious desire to choose the good but like st. paul most often one does not do the good he/she wants but the evil he/she does not want (rom. 7:19). as one begins his day he is faced with a barrage of activities or routine events seeking his/her attention. that calls for an inevitable choice-making. there is a choice of time to get up if the night is well spent; what to eat for breakfast if one is lucky to have options; which clothes and pair of shoes to put on, if one has an over-brimmed wardrobe and shoe rack; which car to use if one has many; what to eat for lunch and supper if one is privileged to complete the circle of meals for the day; and a plethora of other limitlessly related activities. the choice is surely more demanding if one has accumulated an excess of what he/she actually needs. it then becomes a time guzzling mailto:eo.ifeanacho@unizik.edu.ng evaristus ifeanacho “entering through the narrow gate”… 65 exercise. that goes to say that one is lighter in task of choice making if one is guided by the virtue of temperance in his way of life. one is therefore encumbered by excess luggage in his earthly life if one is consumed by intemperance which could be sequel to an exaggerated desire to accumulate for the sake of accumulating; thereby giving credence to the latin adage “amor habendi, habendo crescit” (the love of having increases by having). in our spiritual life the same is applicable because it is our desires in the everydayness of our existence that go to impinge on our spiritual life. the pertinent questions then are: what effort could be made towards unloading the excess luggage that obstructs one’s entering through the narrow gate? is it possible to invent gates designed according to one’s own idiosyncrasies? what effort should members of the different orders of knights do in order to be fit to enter through the narrow gate? there is therefore need for spiritual dietary. such dietary requires making the right spiritual choices in life in order to be worthy to enter through the narrow gate. but does it really have to do with spiritual dietary? it does seem to do more with spiritual commitment in weathering the storms of spiritual challenges that if subdued could thrust one into realm of eternal life. this witnessing is to be done by the knights as part of the laity. the laity and its inner components the word laity comes from the late latin laicus, which is a transliteration of the greek laikos (of the people; λαϊκός) from laos (people; λαός). according the fathers of the second vatican council, the term laity refers to “all the faithful except those in holy orders and those in the state of religious life specially approved by the church. these faithful are by baptism made one body with christ and are constituted among the people of god; they are in their own way made sharers in the priestly, prophetical, and kingly functions of christ; and they carry out for their own part the mission of the whole christian people in the church and in the world” (lg 31, catechism of the catholic church, 897; christifideles laici 8). in fact, their activity is so necessary within the church communities that without it the apostolate of the pastors is often unable to achieve its full effectiveness (aa. 10). in the same vein, pius xii (1946: 149) states that, “the faithful, more precisely the lay faithful, find themselves on the front lines of the church's life; for them the church is the animating principle for human society. therefore, they in particular, ought to have an ever-clearer consciousness not only of belonging to the church, but of being the church, that is to say, the community of the faithful on earth under the leadership of the pope, the head of all, and of the bishops in communion with him. these are the church .... on the basis of that, the laity remains a formidable force in the life of the church and in the spreading of the gospel among people of every tongue and nation. it is clear that “the church has not been really founded, and is not yet fully alive, nor is it a perfect sign of christ among men, unless there is a laity worthy of the name working along with the hierarchy. for the gospel cannot be deeply grounded in the abilities, life and work of any people without the active presence of laymen. therefore, even at the very founding of a church, great attention is to be paid to establishing a mature, christian laity. for the lay faithful fully belong at one and the same time both to the people of god and to civil society. (ad gentes, 21) aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 66 the laity within the local church in nigeria is formed into statutory bodies through which they live out their mission of bearing eloquent testimony to the gospel in the everydayness of their lives. among them are: catholic men organization (c.m.o), catholic women organization (c.w.o), catholic youth organization of nigeria (c.y.o.n), the mary league girls’ association (m.l.g.a) and the holy childhood association (h.c.a). the knights and their ladies belong the cmo and cwo respectively. they make every effort towards the good of these bodies through the contributions in the growth of the parishes in particular and the diocese in general. however, serious effort must be made to avoid tendencies of protectionism and auto-referentiality. the knights’ attitude of protecting their group or seeing themselves as reference point in terms of good conduct and financial wherewithal must be completely frowned at and totally thrown overboard for the greater good of the church. they have to be regularly aware that, “in fulfilling this mission of the church, the christian laity exercises their apostolate both in the church and in the world, in both the spiritual and the temporal orders” (aa n.5). these two orders – spiritual and temporal – are encapsulated in the fields of the lay involvement in the mission of the church as delineated in vatican ii’s decree on the apostolate of lay people: the mission of evangelization and sanctification; and the mission of renewing the temporal order. the mission of evangelization and sanctification the mission is founded on christ’s mandate: “go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the father and of the son and of the holy spirit, teaching them to observe all that i have commanded you; and lo, i am with you always, to the close of the age” (mtt.28,19-20). it is a divine mandate that is consolidated with divine assurance of god’s companionship. in fact, “the apostolate of the church and of all its members is primarily designed to manifest christ's message by words and deeds and to communicate his grace to the world. this is done mainly through the ministry of the word and the sacraments” (aa n.6). the lay faithful have the obligation to respond religiously and consistently to the demands of the sacraments received. by so doing, he or she participates in the salvific mission of the church. “through their baptism and confirmation all are commissioned to that apostolate by the lord himself. moreover, by the sacraments, especially holy eucharist, that charity toward god and man which is the soul of the apostolate is communicated and nourished” (lg. 33). therefore, the life of the laity has to radiate christ in all its fullness. in this way, the name and love of christ is proclaimed in a more concrete manner. in the words of john paul ii (2001), “those who have come into genuine contact with christ cannot keep him for themselves; they must proclaim him. a new apostolic outreach is needed, which will be lived as the everyday commitment of christian communities and groups” (novo millennio ineunte, 40). in this regard, paul vi (1975) maintained that, “there can be no true evangelization if the name, the teaching, the life, the promises, the kingdom and the mystery of jesus of nazareth the son of god are not proclaimed” (evangelii nuntiandi, 22). it is this proclamation that transforms culture. the laity must evangelize every culture in which they find themselves. in fact, “evangelization of culture cannot take place without the full and active responsibility of the laity. it belongs to them to make the church present in the world.” (catholic bishops’ conference of nigeria, manual of the laity, n. 37). following from this, since knights form part of the laity, ogunu (2021) affirms that, “a knight is expected to be a good christian and a good citizen, a true and faithful witness, witnessing by a life resplendent in faith, hope and charity evaristus ifeanacho “entering through the narrow gate”… 67 to the truths in which he believes, and witnessing in a practical manner through a brotherhood that is truly lived and through an honest and persevering effort for true and greater justice.” the mission of renewing the temporal order the laity are expected to witness to their faith in the temporal order namely, “the good things of life and the prosperity of the family, culture, economic matters, the arts and professions, the laws of the political community, international relations, and other matters of this kind, as well as their development and progress, not only aid in the attainment of man’s ultimate goal but also possess their own intrinsic value.” (aa n. 7). they must be part of the system in order to purify it with the life of witnessing. corruption cannot be eradicated if good men remain passive to the moral decadence that is staring them in the face. the lay faithful and particularly the knights must respond in a manner commensurate with their capacity or position. therefore, “the laity are called in a special way to make the church present and operative in those places and circumstances where only through them can it become the salt of the earth. thus every layman, in virtue of the very gifts bestowed upon him, is at the same time a witness and a living instrument of the mission of the church itself “according to the measure of christ's bestowal” (lg 33). catholic knighthood: unravelling its origin according to okafor (2001) “the word knight in english is equivalent to french chevalier or german ritter, which is a title of honour bestowed for variety of services, but originally in the european middle ages a formally professed cavalry man” (p. 60). it was traceable to the duties of household retainers who not only performed their mapped out functions but also fought in defence of their masters should such occasion arise. ogunu (2021) opined that knighthood attained a high practical value with the growth of the vassal-lord relationship in the feudal system in europe during the middle ages. it is obvious that under the feudal system exchange of land for services was common. part of such services was the provision of fighting knights who were charged with defending the lord from military attack. in the same middle ages there arose soldiers of the cross who took part in the war against the muslims. such soldiers were admitted into knighthood not minding the paucity of their qualifications in order to help in the crusade. summarily, ogunu (2021) maintains that, [d]uring the crusades the great orders of monastic knights sprang up. prominent among these were the knights hospitallers of st. john of jerusalem founded in 1113, the knights templars, organized in 1118 and the teutonic order of knights, begun in 1190. these orders of knighthood were actually religious orders which were at the same time military in character. as such, the knights took the three vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and shared the immunities of monks. they were directly under the holy see. however, although knighthood was not of ecclesiastical origin, it was rather adopted in the church as a way of rewarding those who have distinguished themselves in performing good services in church and society. consequently, a knight should be one that is marked by love of god and the church and one who is zealous and committed in fidelity to the church and in christian witness. shiweobi (1992) rightly adds that a knight is “a man who intends to place himself at the service of a noble and difficult cause, a pure and arduous ideal; fighting evil, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 68 promoting good, defending the weak and the oppressed against injustice. becoming a knight does not merely mean receiving title of honour, even though it is well deserved, it presupposes a solemn commitment” (p. 10). furthermore, it is important to note that for the purpose of this research, we have to consider two orders of knights namely papal knights and those of diocesan order. the papal knighthood has no set method of nomination. the holy see is free to nominate and award in any manner in which she sees fit. however, it is normally done through recommendation of diocesan bishops or archbishops or nuncios for special merit or service. if it is processed through the local bishop, then the usual procedure is for that bishop to nominate the candidate through the appropriate apostolic nuncio, who then forwards the recommendation to the cardinal secretary of state in rome (https://www.papalknights.org/syl.html). under the papal orders of knighthood as presented by mbaeri are: 1. supreme order of christ; 2. order of pius ix; 3. order of st. gregory the great; 4. order of st. sylvester; 5. order of the golden militia or spur; 6. order of the holy sepulchre. the last may be conferred on clerics and women. whereas the papal knighthood remains the prerogative of the holy see, the diocesan order of knights refers to those that are recruited based on an approved constitution and with the aim of uniting them together in the service of god and the church. such category of knights is found within the whole catholic world under various names. within the catholic church in nigeria we have the knights of st. mulumba and knights of st. john international. on that note, amuh (2023: 113) without mincing words extolled the order of the catholic knighthood as a “sacred order where true and faithful witnessing to the christian faith is expressed in their services to the church as they live their married and civic responsibilities. the 1979 inaugural conference of the international alliance of catholic knights acknowledges the indispensable services knights and ladies render to the church. as lay faithful, they live the virtues of true witnesses of christ in their defense of the church. that international alliance of catholic knights stipulated the aims of the individual orders within the alliance. ogunu (2021) presented them as follows:  to bring the message of christ to all men  to support in every way possible our holy father the pope and all bishops, priests and religious throughout the world.  to use our individual and joint influence to eliminate injustice from society.  to strengthen our individual and distinct orders by corporate action.  to unite our brothers throughout the world in prayer. in sum, ohanehi (1989) highlights the fact that knights are ordinary men or women who feel called upon to come forward in the open to bear witness to christ by the way they relate to others, by the way they react to leadership or followership at all times, in all circumstances, more so in times of adversity. in fact, okafor (2002) maintains that “the knights if properly directed, remain veritable assets for the defence of the interest of the church and for the service of the catholic men organization” (synod acta, 108). https://www.papalknights.org/syl.html evaristus ifeanacho “entering through the narrow gate”… 69 spiritual commitment: making right choices there are several biblical evidences that reflect the necessity of choice at different phases of a spiritual journey. what calls to mind immediately is the context of the old testament where moses urges the people of israel to choose between life and death, prosperity and destruction, blessings and curses. however, in a fatherly disposition he advised them to choose life and live. (deut. 30: 15-20). further still, when joshua that took over from moses was coming to the end of his headship role, he manifested an acute spiritual leadership. there was a moment of choice making at shechem which joshua left as totally free for the people of israel. however, regardless of what could be the decision of each and every one of them, he took the bold step of announcing his commitment and that of his family in serving god (joshua 24:15). on another note, in our commitment towards healthy living, attention is paid to the basic necessities of life. in the scale of the basic necessities of life, food proudly occupies the primary position. in fact, food is vital for sustaining life. without proper nourishment, the human body becomes weak and cannot function properly. people must take care of their bodies through eating right and consuming key nutrients, so they not only live but thrive in healthiness. the same principle applies to one’s spiritual life. a proper diet of spiritual food is needed so that christians do not become weak and weary, but rather thrive spiritually in their relationship with god. regular nourishment for the soul is vital for the christian life, just as physical food is for the body. (what is our spiritual food? in https://www.gotquestions.org/spiritual-food.html) such spiritual nourishment anchors on making relentless effort to do good and avoid evil always. it is a constant struggle. furthermore, expatiating on the necessity of material food, an atheist german philosopher, ludwig feuerbach said that “man is what he eats” meaning that in man there is no qualitative difference between matter and spirit, but that everything boils down to the organic and material component. drawing from that, cantalamessa (2022) observed and rightly too that an atheist, without knowing it, gave the best formulation of a christian mystery. thanks to the eucharist, the christian is truly what he eats! in the same token, leo the great (1997) wrote a long time ago that “our participation in the body and blood of christ tends to make us become what we eat.” using this principle of dietary founded on the philosophical materialism of feuerbach that dissolves everything as matter or that what is not matter does not exist, cantalamessa was able to analogously draw it into the deeper meaning of the sacrament of eucharist. sharing in the table of the eucharist should make us one with christ and living in unity with one another. that is the sense of the word communion. that calls for making right spiritual choices in our lives. it therefore abhors self-deceit or hideand-seek with what touches our spiritual lives. decisive decision is called for at each point in time. in the same vein, leo the great (1997a) questions thus: which of the faithful does not know what virtues he ought to cultivate, and what vices to fight against? who is so partial or so unskilled a judge of his own conscience as not to know what ought to be removed, and what ought to be developed? surely no one is so devoid of reason as not to understand the character of his mode of life, or not to know the secrets of his heart. let him not then please himself in everything, nor judge himself according to the delights https://www.gotquestions.org/spiritual-food.html aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 70 of the flesh, but place his every habit in the scale of the divine commands, where, some things being ordered to be done and others forbidden, he can examine himself in a true balance by weighing the actions of his life according to this standard. (sermon 63) it calls for serious examination of conscience and being always aware that all people, and particularly the knights, are called to holiness of life in this our earthly pilgrimage. the catholic knighthood: a track to holiness the fathers of the second vatican council affirmed that “all the faithful of christ of whatever rank or status, are called to the fullness of the christian life and to the perfection of charity; by this holiness as such a more human manner of living is promoted in this earthly society” (vatican ii, lumen gentium 40). the principal goal for every catholic knight of whatever rank should be the salvation of his/her soul. to miss this target will be tantamount to running very well but outside the track. holiness remains one though it is differently pursued in the various states of life. holiness does not require any special rank in the church; it rather calls for personal and sincere effort to live out the gospel message in our individual lives. this involves a constant struggle. for as leo the great affirms, [n]o one is so holy that he ought not to be holier, nor so devout that he might not be devouter. for who, that is set in the uncertainty of this life, can be found either exempt from temptation, or free from fault? who is there who would not wish for additions to his virtue, or removal of his vice? seeing that adversity does us harm, and prosperity spoils us, and it is equally dangerous not to have what we want at all, and to have it in the fullest measure. (sermon, 49, 1) one has to bear eloquent witness in season and out of season. according to augustine, one becomes “a futile preacher outwardly of god's word, who isn’t also inwardly a listener. nor are we, who have to preach the word of god to his various peoples, such strangers to common humanity and faithful reflection, that we are unaware of our own danger when we do so.” it demands constant vigilance. francis (2018) gives a strong fatherly advice thus: to be holy does not require being a bishop, a priest or a religious. we are frequently tempted to think that holiness is only for those who can withdraw from ordinary affairs to spend much time in prayer. that is not the case. we are all called to be holy by living our lives with love and by bearing witness in everything we do, wherever we find ourselves. are you called to the consecrated life? be holy by living out your commitment with joy. are you married? be holy by loving and caring for your husband or wife, as christ does for the church. do you work for a living? be holy by labouring with integrity and skill in the service of your brothers and sisters. are you a parent or grandparent? be holy by patiently teaching the little ones how to follow jesus. are you in a position of authority? be holy by working for the common good and renouncing personal gain. (gaudete et exsultate, 14) and in addition, a knight or lady of the order of the knight of st. john international, st. mulumba or papal knight has always to bear witness to the truth not minding whose ox is gored just as st. john the baptist did. remember always that it is not quantity that matters but quality. for, john xxiii (1959), evaristus ifeanacho “entering through the narrow gate”… 71 the sheer number of christians means little if they lack virtue; that is, if, while enjoying the name of catholic, they do not stand firm in their determination; if their spiritual life does not flourish and fails to produce wholesome fruits; if, after being reborn to divine grace, they do not excel in that spirit of vigorous and sensible youthfulness which is always ready to perform generous and useful deeds. their profession of faith must not only be a statistic in a census, but must create a new man. (the prince of shepherds n. 29) a knight: called to enter through the narrow gate the gospel periscope centres on the two ways namely the narrow road that leads to life, i.e., to the consummated kingdom and the broad road that leads to destruction. it is a definitive destruction, not merely in the sense of the extinction of physical existence, but rather of an eternal plunge into hades and a hopeless destiny of death (gaebelein, 1984). the narrow way is the christian way marked with persecutions that need to be surmounted with perseverance. according to the catechism of catholic church, “the way of christ ‘leads to life’; a contrary way ‘leads to destruction’ (mt 7:13). the gospel parable of the two ways remains ever present in the catechesis of the church; it shows the importance of moral decisions for our salvation” (n. 1696). this way is not reserved for only a chosen few; rather everyone may enter life. nobody is privileged instead the door remains narrow for all; “but it is “narrow” because it is demanding: it requires commitment, self-denial and the mortification of one’s selfishness” (benedict xvi, 2007). there is no preferential treatment. “and do you know who is the first person we are sure entered paradise? do you know who? a “ruffian”: one of the two who was crucified with jesus. and he turned to jesus saying: “jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom”. and he responded: “today you will be with me in paradise” (lk 23:42-43). god’s grace is offered to everyone; and many who are the least on this earth will be the first in heaven (cf. mk 10:31)” (francis, 2020). all in all, believing in jesus is the only way. all knights and ladies of every order of knighthood are called to make a choice of the right way. “how do i want a homeless man to treat me? what do i want my neighbors to say about and think about me? am i treating others, speaking about others, and thinking about others the way i wish they would treat, speak, and think about me? do i recognize jesus in others? am i willing to do anything it takes and leave anything i have to follow jesus through the narrow gate?” (garvey, 2024). our individual responses to these questions and other related questions will indicate the degree of our individual commitment in our spiritual life. conclusion through his suffering, death and resurrection, jesus purchased for us the universal salvation. the condition for entering upon this universal salvation and gaining heavenly life is also one and universal. it entails following and imitating him who is the “way, the truth and life” (jn. 14:6), taking up one’s cross daily and following in his footsteps and engaging in life of service to others. our life is an ongoing spiritual journey in pursuit of holiness. it is not entirely aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 72 accomplished at any point in time while in this mortal frame. therefore, it is a quest that doesn’t go on holidays. it is a struggle through which we navigate all through life. it is always necessary to bear in mind that as we swim in the boundless ocean of life, we must be ready to encounter thorns and thistles, “weeds and wheat” (matt. 13:24-30). it is amidst such towering challenges that one’s spiritual commitment blossoms unimaginable. it is good to remember that the church is made up of saints and sinners. all the same, within the church every ingredient necessary for growth in holiness is found in abundance namely scripture, sacraments, lively communities and evident witnessing to the gospel. therefore, one can say that ejuna kpulu isi wọlụ onwe ya nri (a blind snail has deprived itself of food). there is no need of dillydallying in the matters that pertain to our spiritual life. on the contrary, in the words of the roman poet horace, it is a matter of carpe diem (seize the day)—punctuated with acute urgency. what can be done today should not be postponed for tomorrow. the time is now. one needs to be always careful not to take the lord’s patience for granted and thereby continually postpone a serious evaluation of one’s own life. he constantly assures us of his grace and knows us in and out. it is left for christians especially the knights to take advantage of his graciousness. it is only through such spiritual commitment that we can joyfully enter through the narrow gate. recommendations 1. knights should always be ready ever ready to live out their faith in season and out of season. 2. in this era of widespread neopaganism, knights should always be above board in the practice of their christian faith and avoid all forms of syncretism. 3. knights of the church need to always be fully involved in party politics with the aim of making the church present in the nigerian political sphere. 4. they should always be exemplary in living out the virtues of married life. 5. they should be defenders of truth and promoters of justice especially for the less privileged in their various communities. evaristus ifeanacho “entering through the narrow gate”… 73 references amuh, u. 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https://www.gotquestions.org/spiritual-food.html aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract politically, nigeria is divided into six geopolitical zones: southeast, south-south, southwest, north central, northwest and northeast. of these six geopolitical zones, the southeast had been consistently rated the most peaceful part of the country. however, in the recent past, these ratings have changed as the zone has become a theater of different type of security challenges perpetuated by different actors including: unknown gunmen, kidnappers, killers' herdsmen and nigerian security agents themselves. this sudden turnaround in the security situation of the southeast has generated a lot of scholarly and institutional debates bothering on establishing the causes and evolving possible solutions to these myriad security challenges in the zone. so far, none of the proffered solutions have succeeded as the insecurity in the zone has continued to escalate. this study applies the documentary method of data collection, content analysis for data interpretation and state-centric security theory to investigate the causes and possible solutions to the problem of insecurity in the southeast. the research discovered that the root of insecurity in the zone is the feeling of marginalization, especially by the youths of the zone. based on this, the study argued that the current approach of using security agents to kill, maim and harass the youth of the zone will end up alienating the people and worsening the security situation. to avoid this scenario, the study proffered massive infrastructural development, youth empowerments and political inclusiveness as the elixir to current southeast's security challenges. keywords: southeast, state-centric, insecurity, security agents, unknown gunmen, nigerian government. introduction the states in southeast nigeria both individually and collective, have on several occasions been named the most peaceful part of the country (anieke, 2021). however, the security and peace once enjoyed by the zone is gradually fizzling away as the geopolitical zone has in recent years become the epicentre of different forms of security challenges such as killings by armed herders, political assassination and kidnapping. others include killing of security agents and burning down of state institutions by unknown gunmen and retaliatory killings, harassments and arson by security agents. this state of affair has prompted proposals from sons and daughters of the zone; heads of security agencies, well-meaning nigerians and men of goodwill on how the zone can exit its current security challenges. for example, the vice-chancellor of godfrey okoye university, prof. christian anieke in an exclusive interview with the gong magazine application of state-centric security approach to the security challenges in the southeast c. n. ogugua & p. c. okoli, phd department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university awka. 118 (2021), identifies massive unemployment among the youths of the zone as one of the causes and suggested youth empowerment as the most viable way of making the zone once again secure. the current governor of ebonyi state, dave umahi, (2021) blamed the insecurity on the activities of criminal elements and hoodlums in the zone who according him hide under the umbrella of biafran agitation. he therefore urged the federal government to make robust security deployment to tackle the security challenges. umahi's position was shared by other governors of the zone who in union with him as their chairman formed the ebubeagu security outfit to help other security agencies in the zone tackle the menace of the escalating insecurity (summit, 2021). overtime, various governments of the southeast zone have embarked on different youth empowerment programmes, especially in the area of digital skill acquisitions (gong, 2021). the abubeagu security outfit has been established in the five states of the zone and there have been massive deployments of security agents, particularly the military to all the states of the zone. nevertheless, the security situation in the zone has continued to worsen. farming communities are still regularly attacked by killers' herdsmen; incidences of kidnapping are still rampant, security agents are still attacked and killed by unknown gunmen and state security agents are still killing, harassing, abducting and committing arsons in the zone. all these, point to one thing, the correct cause of the insecurity in the southeast has not been identified and the correct solution has not been applied. this study is an attempt to look at the problem from a new perspective. the study uses the documentary method of data collection, content analysis and state-centric theory of security to investigate the cause and evolve possible solutions to the insecurity in southeast geopolitical zone. the study is structured into the following outlines: introduction, conceptual framework and theoretical framework. others include, insecurity in the southeast, application of state-centric security theory to the insecurity in the southeast and evaluation, conclusion and recommendations. conceptual framework the following terms will be conceptualized in this section: southeast nigeria and security and insecurity: southeast nigeria until 1967, when gen. yakubu gowon was forced by military necessity to reorganize nigeria into 12 states, the country operated four regional governments: the northern, western, eastern and midwestern regions. the southeast was carved out of the eastern region. it comprises the states of abia, anambra, ebonyi, enugu and imo. apart from few non-igbo tribes on the fringes of the zone, the aborigines of the southeast are the igbo. this is why the zone is called the home of igbo people (slattery, 2016). however, igbo land is not limited to the southeast. according to slattery, besides the five southeast states, igbo land also includes northern delta and rivers states and small parts of akwa ibom state. udenta, et al (2015, p. 2) also states that: “… there are igbos in the southsouth region as well as in parts of the middle belt.” while the dichotomy between the southeast and igbo land is obvious, in literature the two terms are often used 119 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december interchangeably. this practice is not adopted here because the scope of the study is limited to the southeast not igbo land. culturally, the southeast is considered the most industrious zone in africa (udenta, et al 2015, p. 4). because of this, it is often characterized by the great personalities that have decked the history of the zone. udenta et al (2015, p. 4), describes the southeast as the land of the great zik of africa nigeria's first indigenous governor general, first president and first president of senate. the land of the great chinua achebe, the land of ogbunigwe, the land of dr. michael iheonukara okpara, mbadiwe, odumegwu chukwuemeka ojukwu, dr. okechukwuikejiani, dr. akanu ibiam, christopher okigbo, the aba women of the 1929 riot and many more. educationally, the zone is the most advantaged in nigeria. it is among the zones with the highest number of professionals in almost every field of human endeavours. it produced the first indigenous vice chancellors of the university of ibadan, university of nigeria and university of lagos. the situation was the same with the armed forces and the federal public service, where her sons and daughters held sway before the civil war. in view of the civil war (1967-1970) and the aftermath, the people are marginalized in the scheme of things, and many see the marginalization as one of the reasons for the current insecurity in the zone (udenta et al. 2015, p. 4), in terms of population, density, nwajiuba (2005), observes, that four states in the southeast (anambra, imo, abia and enugu) are among the seven most densely populated states of nigeria, implying that the southeast is the most populated area in country. it has in fact been stated that apart from the island of mauritius, the southeast is the most densely populated part of sub-saharan africa (government printer, abuja, 1998). as a result of this increased human pressure on finite resources, there is intense competition for the available natural resources in the zone leading many southeasterners to view emigration as an alternative option of securing a livelihood. in addition, when the population pressure is combined with the marginalization the people of the zone are suffering in the hand of the government at the centre, the result is disaffection and agitations to pull out of nigeria by the youth. this principally is at the root of the insecurity in the zone. likewise, as already observed above, the zone has on several occasions been identified as the most, peaceful and secure place in the west africa sub-region. as a way of explaining this, it is often claimed that commerce requires a secure environment to thrive and since the people of the zone are mostly business people, they do everything to create secure and peaceful environments to grow their businesses (anieke, 2021). thus, the recent spate of insecurity in the geopolitical zone has been a source of worry to many and a lot has gone into looking for the causes and the ways to resolve the problem. security and insecurity the main focus of this study is insecurity but insecurity is derived from the word, security. therefore, an appreciation of the former requires a little insight into the latter. nevertheless, defining security is not a straightforward task because there is no universal definition of security. e. kolodziej (2005, p. 11) has compared it to a tower of babel. r. paris (2004, pp. 370-372) views it as “in the eye of the beholder.” scholars normally 120 application of state-centric security approach to the security... c.n. oguga & p.c. okoli approach the definition from two ways: contemporary and traditional ways. while contemporary security regards everything as a security matter, the traditional approach focuses on state actors and their military capacities to protect national security. the prevalence of traditional security reached a peak during the cold war. for almost half a century, major world powers entrusted the security of their nations to a balance of power among states. in this sense international stability relied on the premise that if state security is maintained, then the security of citizens will necessarily follow (bajpai, 2000, p. 29). security then meant protection from invasion. over the last decades the definition of security has been extended to cope with the 21st century globalized community, its rapid developments and global threats that emerged out of this process. one such comprehensive definition is proposed by f. al-rodhan (2007, pp. 67-69). what he calls the “multi-sum security principle” is based on the assumption that in a globalized world, security can no longer be seen as involving states alone. global security, instead, has five dimensions: human, environmental, national, transnational, and trans-cultural security, and therefore, global security and the security of any state or culture cannot be achieved without “good governance at all levels that guarantees security through justice for all individuals, states, and cultures.” each of these five dimensions refers to a different set of substrates. we shall concentrate briefly on the first since it also enshrines the other dimensions. the first dimension is human security. the un development program (undp, 1994) originated the concept of human security as an alternative to the traditional concept of national security. it is security as applied to people rather than territories. it includes “…freedom from pervasive threats to people's rights, safety or lives,” involving both “…safety for people from violent threats, such as organized conflict, gross violations of human rights, terrorism and violent crime” and “…safety from non-violent threats, such as environmental degradation, economic crises, illicit drugs, infectious diseases and natural disasters.” according to the undp (1994) it includes economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. a common feature of these threats to human security is that they cannot be addressed by security forces alone, no matter how powerful an army is. human security needs justice, cooperative interaction between states and peaceful existence between cultural groups and civilizations. when the recent upsurge in insecurity in the southeast is examined within the framework of this understanding of security, one sees the reason why the current approach by the buhari administration has failed so far and the need for an alternative approached that will be proposed in this paper. theoretical framework as noted above, this study is based on state-centric or realist theory of security. this theory represents the earliest approach to security studies. its emergence was influenced by both philosophical and historical factors. philosophically, the theory has its root in the ancient political philosophical postulations as espoused by political theorists like thomas hobbes, nicole machiavelli among others. according to ogugua (2021) the central concern of these philosophers was the questions of “what accounted for the prevalence of insecurity in the ancient society and what should be done to ensure or guarantee security 121 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december in human society”. they believe that man was selfish and that insecurity is caused by this selfish inclination that pushes man to pursuing his selfish interests. hobbes (1946, p. 112) believed that man's life was short, nasty, brutish and poor. this shows how insecure the society was. the idea of social contract as they propounded, was to the effect that security in human society can be better guaranteed if the citizens or individuals traded off some of their natural rights in return for safety or protection on the part of the state. impliedly, the state was conceived as the custodian of human rights and by extension human security. they were concerned with that regulatory mechanism which will ensure greater protection for every citizen. in this regard, the state was identified as that entity and to enable the state to discharge this function, theorists like hobbes insist that the state represented by the government must have monopoly of coercive force. historically, state-centric theory of security was consolidated in the treaty of westphalia. the treaty which ended the thirty years' war in europe was signed in 1648. after that war, major continental european states – the holy roman empire, spain, france, sweden and the dutch republic – agreed to respect one another's territorial integrity (barwick, 2017). the most significant part of this treaty was the emergence of the modern state system. the modern state system created out of this treaty has some necessary attributes. among these attributes were defined territory, population, government, and most importantly sovereignty which conferred on this entity effective control over its territory and over its people. in order words, such entity was free from external interference in the administration of its territory. before westphalia, intervention was a common policy instrument for the foreign affairs of states. it was used to achieve territorial expansion by the roman empire. in the middle ages, it was particularly applied to enforce impartial and papal rules (wakoko, 2018). the peace of westphalia therefore, ended attempts to impose supranational authority on european states (wakoko, 2018). consequently, wakoko (2018, p. 12) opines that “westphalian sovereignty is violated when external factors influence or determine domestic authority structures.” as european influence spread across the globe, the westphalian principles, especially the concepts of sovereign states and non-interference became central to international law and to the prevailing world order. thus, the outcome of westphalia has become an international customary law and is incorporated into many international treaties. hence, the state was conceived as a monolithic entity, that is, an indivisible entity, with the life of its own. as a result, the security of the state becomes equated with the security of the individual citizens and the common nomenclature of national security of a state, as an inviolable security structure. this approach to security is based on a number of assumptions which are itemized below: ·that societal security revolves around the institution of the state. to that extent the state is conceived as an indivisible entity or monolithic entity comprising the security interests of the various individuals and groups within the society. ·that the monolithic state has monopoly over the legitimate use of physical force · the legitimate control of society's physical force implies the primacy of the military institution in the security architecture of the society. this is basically 122 application of state-centric security approach to the security... c.n. oguga & p.c. okoli because the military trusted with the onerous responsibility of protecting the territorial integrity of the state in any society. ·under the state-centric perspective, the issue of the territorial integrity and the political independence of a state, become paramount in the security calculation of any state. this is based on the fact that the state-centric perspective assumes that the protection of the territory of a given state from external attacks is the hallmark of the security status of such state. this idea is anchored or dovetails into the doctrine of the sovereignty of state. ·the state-centric perspective also assumes that the protection of state boundaries ultimately leads to the protection of individuals. ·and finally, on the ground of the last assumption, the individuals develop a sense of protection tied to the security of the state. in order words, these individuals overtime, came up with a feeling that one cannot divorce the security of the individuals from the security of the state based on the monolithic nature of the state as perceived by the traditional perspective to security. application of the theory the recent upsurge of insecurity in southeast nigeria is better appreciated in the light of the theory of realism. this is because the theory unravels why the nigerian government in spite of its effort to stem the rising tide of insecurity in the zone has so far failed. this point which would become clearer, cumulatively in subsequent sections is consequent on the fact that the nigeria state like any other state that operates within the framework of state-centric security architecture prioritizes territorial integrity over, especially normative principles such as justice, human rights, freedom etc. first, the theory will unearth that nigerian governments effort to promote security in the southeast, especially, through the deployment of the military is done in the understanding that such effort would help it to protect its territorial integrity which it believes is threatened by biafran agitators and other non-state actors in the zone. second, the theory will show why this policy has so far not worked. principally, it will demonstrate that the people of the southeast, who have been marginalized and excluded from key political positions in nigeria, felt that the nigerian government has failed to keep its part of the social contract and thus are not giving the necessary support that is required to solve the security challenges in the zone. insecurity in the southeast all societies, even the so called most secured societies in the world have their own fair share of security challenges. in other words, when we say that until recently, the southeast used to be the most secured part of nigeria, we do not mean to say that the zone hadn't its fair share of security challenges. however, what is been emphasized here is that the security challenges in the southeast have worsened. this worsening security situation is obvious from a number of empirical indicators. the indicators we would use here include: killers' herdsmen attacks, kidnapping, high profile assassinations, attacks by unknown gunmen and reprisal attacks and abductions by state security operatives. 123 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december i. killer-herdsmen's attacks skirmishes between herdsmen and farming communities in the southeast were not entirely new but these occurrences were far between, rarely led to casualties and almost always easily resolved. however, these turned into a full-blown massacre beginning from 2016 when men believed to be fulani fully armed killers' herdsmen started to roam the zone slaughtering people at will. the first large scale killings by these ak47 wielding killers' herdsmen occurred in ukpabi nimbo and uzo-uwani communities in enugu state, where more than 50 people were believed to be massacred by herdsmen who swooped on their communities in the dead of the night (vanguard, 2018, p. 18). after this first occurrence, killings by fulani herdsmen became very common. day in, day out, from anambra to abia, enugu to ebonyi and imo states, there were reports of killings and sacking of communities by killer-herdsmen. idp camps were established in some communities in anambra and ebonyi states to accommodate and cater for those driven from their home by these herdsmen (ogugua, 2021). in addition to being bloody, the conflicts have spawned dangerous political and religious conspiracy theories. one is that the attacks are part of a longer-term fulani plot to displace indigenous populations and seize their lands (crisis group, 2016). in march 2016, the prelate of the methodist church of nigeria, dr. samuel uche (the authority, 2016, p. 24) said: “we are aware there is a game plan to islamize nigeria, and they are using the fulani herdsmen to initiate it.” also, biafra separatist groups describe the attacks as part of a northern plot to overwhelm the peoples of the south and forcefully convert them to islam (crisis group commentary, 2017, p. 17). some southeast leaders accused president buhari of deliberately failing to stop herders' aggression, pointing to his pastoral fulani background and his position as life patron of the miyetti-allah cattle breeders association of nigeria (macban) to buttress their charges. based on what many saw as the lack of political will by politicians, especially president buhari to tackle the menace of the killer-herdsmen, many communities in southeast have formed self-defense vigilante groups, some of which have threatened organized reprisals. following the april 2016 attack on nimbo, in enugu state, the separatist, movement for actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob) ordered “fulani herdsmen to leave biafra land or ... face our wrath.” massob accused buhari of protecting the attackers and called on all igbo youths and pro-biafra groups to “wake up and let us unite and face our enemies” (vanguard, 2016, p. 14). the attacks by fulani herdsmen was what led nnamdi kanu's faction of biafran agitators to form eastern security network (esn) who many, including the nigerian government and security establishments blame for the worsening security situation in the region. ii. kidnapping another indicator of the rising insecurity in the southeast is the level of kidnappings going on in the zone. in a recent research conducted by amuche (2021), the numbers of kidnappings occurring in the zone have tripled from what it used to be. the worst of it according to him is that the incident is no longer restricted to business people as security agents, traditional rulers and even priests are in the recent past also victims. 124 application of state-centric security approach to the security... c.n. oguga & p.c. okoli iii. high profile assassinations just before the anambra governorship election last year, dr. chike akunyili, the husband of late professor dora akunyili, the former director general of nafdac and minister of information, was gunned down in most the brutal manner in anambra state.before this occurrence, an apparent assassination attempt was made on the life of the current anambra governor, prof. charles chukwuma soludo (vanguard, 2021). in enugu state, prof. sam ndubisi, the chairman and managing director of scientific equipment development institute (sedi) enugu was assassinated in broad day light in the capital of the state. in imo state, a chieftain of the apc, ahmad gulak was gunned down in owerri (bbc. news, 2021). in fact, there is no state in the southeast which did not record at least a high profile assassination in the past one year. iv. attacks by unknown gunmen most of the high profile killings and kidnappings are carried out by men who the news media have popularly come to call unknown gunmen. these daredevil who most times operate in broad daylight have also attacked the security agents and government institutions including police stations, military posts, inec offices, etc. security agents have pointed accusing fingers on esn, the armed wing of nnamdi kanu's indigenous people of biafra (ipob). however, the group has consistently denied any wrongdoing accusing igbo politicians as being behind the chaos and killings in the zone (ogugua, 2020). v. reprisal attacks and abductions by state security operatives most of the attacks on security formation in the southeast have in turn triggered reprisal attacks by the security agents, especially soldiers. communities are set ablaze by soldiers each time their colleagues are killed or attacked in such communities, innocent youths are abducted, killed or taken away to unknown destinations on accusation that they are the unknown gunmen or members of esn. in fact, intersociety (2022) has accused the nigerian security agents of killing not less than 1, 400 igbo youths within 2021 alone. causes of insecurity in the southeast two things can be deduced from the foregoing, firstly, that the causes of the current insecurity in the southeast are many and secondly, that these causes have their origin in one source, namely, the disaffection of the people of the zone against the government at the centre for injustice and exclusion meted on the people of the zone. as could be seen, the security situation is contributed by the activities of herdsmen, kidnappers, assassins, unknown gunmen and security agents themselves. however, at the root of all these, was the inability of the nigerian government to secure lives and properties in zone. it was this situation expressed in the form of herdsmen attacks and the inability or lack of political will to stop it that led to the degeneration of the security situation that has today involved multiple actors. application of state-centric security theory to the insecurity in the southeast according to the state-centric security approach, there is a contract between the state and the individual. in this contract, the individuals ceded their right to defend themselves by whatever means they can to the state. in return, the state gives the individual the guarantee 125 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december of protection and is therefore saddled with that responsibility. what this implies is that the state has monopoly of violence in every part of the state as every individual is banned from defending themselves. the contract also imposes on the state, the responsibility of protecting the territorial integrity of the country both from internal and external aggressors. however, these rights which the state enjoys over the individual are not without conditions and the condition here is that the state secures the lives and properties of the individual. in a situation where the state fails in this obligation, it losses the right of the contract, including the rights of territorial integrity and monopoly of violence. the individual returns to the state of nature where the onus is on him to defend himself by whatever means necessary. this is the situation playing out in the southeast. the moment the government at the centre fails to protect the people from killers' herdsmen, it losses the rights of the contract and the people started resorting to self-help to protect themselves. the situation is further complicated by the fact that the people of the zone are already feeling marginalized and excluded by the federal government. this is why in spite of the killings associated with the unknown gunmen, the group are still more popular in the zone than security agents who many from the zone see as occupying forces. based on the foregoing, to solve the security challenges in the southeast under the framework of realism, the nigerian government needs to reestablish its territorial authority in the zone. this would involve disarming every armed group and dealing with criminal elements in the zone. however, this cannot be achieved in a hostile environment where individuals feel they have been unjustly treated. the first step to solving the insecurity must consist in dealing with the grievances of the people of the zone, especially in the area of political inclusiveness and youth empowerments. evaluation, conclusion and recommendations evaluation a number of scholars believe that realism as a theory of security is outdated and has no place in the current world of complex security challenges. in the place of realism which emphasizes territorial integrity, these scholars place emphasis on protection of human rights and preventing states from abusing the rights of their citizens. for instances, francis deng (1996, p. 1) argues that “sovereignty carries with it certain responsibilities for which governments must be held accountable. they are accountable not only to their national constituencies but ultimately to the international community.” the essence of the idea lies in the suggestion that the sovereignty of states should no longer be understood as the unimpeachable or absolute control of a given territory by its government. all states, now have responsibilities to protect the rights of their citizenry and sovereignty is ceded if a state fails to act according to these responsibilities. this set of responsibilities, which is enforceable by the international community, is “normatively grounded in the fundamental values of human dignity.”drawing upon the post-wwii successes in the promotion of universal human rights as well as the “evolution of increasing demands for democratic values, institutions, and practices,” deng (1996, pp. 6-10) argues that increased interference in the affairs of other states in the post-cold war world reflects “the growing resolve of the international community to 126 application of state-centric security approach to the security... c.n. oguga & p.c. okoli override sovereignty in support of international human rights and humanitarian intervention.” such arguments have since remained at the centre of efforts to bring about a normative transformation of state sovereignty to allow greater intervention in the domestic crises of states. the influence gained by deng's notion of sovereignty as responsibility was further reflected in kofi annan's 1999 speech on what he termed “two concepts of sovereignty.” speaking in the wake of the nato intervention in kosovo and the australian-led intervention in east timor, annan pursued the idea of “individual sovereignty” as a foundation for the amelioration of the absolute sovereignty of states, arguing that: state sovereignty, in its most basic sense, is being redefined—not least by the forces of globalization and international co-operation. states are now widely understood to be instruments at the service of their peoples, and not vice versa. at the same time, individual sovereignty—by which i mean the fundamental freedom of each individual, enshrined in the charter of the un and subsequent international treaties—has been enhanced by a renewed and spreading consciousness of individual rights (pp. 49-50). overall, all the opponents of realism believe that security and peace thrive better in an environment where human right is respected by sovereign states. realizing this in their opinion requires a redefinition of sovereignty that allows the international community to take action within the territory of a sovereign state with or without the consent of that state to protect human rights and prevent atrocities. this argument notwithstanding, it is pertinent to underscore that realism still remains the dominant theory of security in international relation and politics. this is because it is not just true that states remain the key actors on the international arena, but also that human rights can hardly be protected outside the nation state. protection of human rights and protection of territorial integrity are the opposite sides of the same coin. thus, the protection of human rights and territorial integrity in the southeast can both be achieved as suggested in this study. conclusion specifically, this study applied the theory of state-centric security to investigate the causes and explore the solutions to the insecurity in the southeast. the study discovered that the primary cause of the problem is the inability of the nigerian government to fulfill its obligations of protecting lives and properties in the southeast. the situation was further complicated by the fact that the people of southeast felt and rightly so that they have been marginalized both politically and economically by the nigerian government. to ameliorate the situation, the study will proffer the following recommendations: recommendations 1. the nigerian government should embark on massive economic development of the southeast to give the people a sense of economic belonging. 2. the present nigerian government should also ensure that southeasters are justly 127 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december represented in national decision making bodies. particularly, efforts should be made to see that somebody from the zone is included in the high echelon of the security architecture of the country. also, ensuring that a southeasterner becomes a president of the country will help to heal the wounds of past injustices. 3. and finally, these other recommendations have to be combined with robust law enforcement to ensure that hoodlums don't hide under the genuine grievances of the people to perpetuate criminality. references al-rodhan, f. 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(2021). 30 nov. ……….. 2022). 15 jan. 128 application of state-centric security approach to the security... c.n. oguga & p.c. okoli page 126 page 127 page 128 page 129 page 130 page 131 page 132 page 133 page 134 page 135 page 136 150 transcolonialism and the politics of knowledge production in africa: a philosophical inquiry oviemuno wilfred egara directorate of general studies, southern delta university, ozoro, delta state, nigeria. egaraovie@gmail.com vincent gerald onwudinjo department of philosophy/religious studies, tansian university umunya, anambra state, nigeria. vincentgerald58@gmail.com isaac ikechukwu onoyima department of philosophy/religious studies, tansian university umunya, anambra state, nigeria. onoyimaikechukwu2019@gmail.com blessing oboli (phd) directorate of general studies, southern delta university, ozoro, delta state, nigeria. obolib87@gmail.com abstract this article undertakes a critical philosophical examination of transcolonialism and its implications for knowledge production in africa. transcolonialism, as a theoretical framework interrogates the enduring impact of colonial legacies on epistemological structures while also addressing contemporary forms of global interconnectedness that perpetuate asymmetrical power dynamics. the study critically examines how coloniality persists in shaping african intellectual traditions, methodologies, and institutions, often marginalizing indigenous knowledge systems. by interrogating the complex power dynamics and epistemological hierarchies that underpin transcolonial relations, this inquiry uncovers the ways in which colonial and neoliberal forces have shaped the production, dissemination and validation of knowledge on the continent. the analysis underscores the importance of reclaiming african epistemic agency by fostering trans-disciplinary approaches that bridge indigenous and global knowledge systems. thus, drawing on african philosophical perspectives and critical theory, and using the descriptive and the analytic methods of inquiry, this study challenges western epistemologies and highlights the urgency of decolonizing knowledge production in africa. through a nuanced analysis of transcolonialism’s cultural, economic, and political manifestations, this research demonstrates the need for african-centered knowledge systems and epistemological diversity. ultimately, this article contends that reclaiming africa’s intellectual sovereignty is crucial for reconfiguring the politics of knowledge production and fostering inclusive and equitable knowledge ecosystems. this article therefore, advocates for a paradigm shift towards inclusive and context-sensitive frameworks that can contribute to sustainable intellectual and social-political transformation in africa. mailto:egaraovie@gmail.com mailto:vincentgerald58@gmail.com mailto:onoyimaikechukwu2019@gmail.com mailto:obolib87@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 151 keywords: transcolonialism, knowledge production, african philosophy, decolonization, epistemological diversity. introduction the politics of knowledge production in africa has long been shaped with the historical and structural forces or legacies of colonialism and the continued epistemic dominance of western paradigms. this issue persists in contemporary discourse through the phenomenon of transcolonialism, a conceptual framework that interrogates the lingering colonial and neocolonial influences shaping african intellectual traditions, institutions, and epistemologies. however, the concept of transcolonialism, which is a term that transcends the temporal and spatial boundaries of traditional colonial frameworks, offers a new lens through which to examine the on-going politics of knowledge production on the continent. philosophically, transcolonialism highlights the contested terrain of african knowledge systems and the struggle for epistemic sovereignty in the face of hegemonic global knowledge structures. transcolonialism refers not merely to the persistence of colonial power structures but to the dynamic, cross-temporal, and cross-spatial interactions that continue to influence how knowledge is created, validated, and disseminated in africa. this philosophical inquiry delves into the intersections of transcolonialism and knowledge production, drawing on african philosophical traditions, postcolonial theory, and critical epistemology to interrogate the power dynamics at play. this article will explore the concept of transcolonialism and how it shapes the politics of knowledge production in africa. it will analyze the historical contexts, contemporary structures of knowledge domination, and efforts by african scholars to reclaim and reimagine indigenous knowledge systems. methodology to unravel the complexities of transcolonialism and knowledge production in africa, this study employs a multi-faceted research approach. the methodology encompasses a thorough review of existing literature on decolonial theory, postcolonial studies, and african epistemologies. by triangulating diverse sources of information, this research seeks to construct a nuanced understanding of how power operates in knowledge systems across africa. the concept of transcolonialism transcolonialism, unlike postcolonialism which often assumes a linear progression beyond colonial rule, emphasizes the fluidity and continuity of colonial influences across time and geographies. scholars like ngugi wathiong’o argue that colonialism was not a singular event but a process that embedded itself into the epistemic fabric of colonized societies (wathiong’o, 1986). mignolo (2012) emphasizes the “decolonial turn” and the need to move beyond eurocentric knowledge production. quijano (2000) highlights the concept of “coloniality of power” as a structure that continues to shape global hierarchies. burawoy et al (2000), examines the “ethnography of modernity” and how colonial categories continue to operate in the postcolonial world. spivak (1999) studies the subaltern voice and the challenges of representation in the postcolonial world. chakrabarty (2000) investigates the concept of “provincializing europe” and the need to decenter eurocentric narratives. mcclintock (1992) explores the concept of imperial nostalgia and the ways in which colonial legacies continue to be imagined and redeployed. mbembe (2017) analyzes the concept of “postcolonial condition” and the enduring violence and inequalities in the postcolonial world. transcolonialism extends this idea, suggesting that contemporary global systems, economic, cultural, and intellectual, perpetuate colonial hierarchies in ways that are not immediately visible. in africa, this oviemuno, vincent, isaac & blessing transcolonialism and the politics of knowledge.. 152 manifests in the dominance of western epistemologies, the marginalization of indigenous knowledge systems, and the unequal power relations between african scholars and their counterparts in the global north. the term “transcolonialism” goes beyond a simple notion of “after colonialism” and it highlights the continuities, predicaments, and reconfigurations of power relations established during colonial periods. the term transcoloniality is composed of two words trans and coloniality. the prefix “trans” signifies “across,” “beyond,” or “through.” in the context of transcoloniality, it emphasizes the ongoing and evolving nature of colonial power structures that extend beyond the formal end of colonial rule (okeke & dimonye, 2024). okeke and diomonye, citing agbakoba, opined that “trans” here precisely implies moving beyond pre-colonial and colonial phases in africa. coloniality, on the other hand, refers to the broader system of domination established by european empires, encompassing political, economic, cultural, and epistemological dimensions (okeke & dimonye, 2024); thus encapsulates both the historical weight of colonial domination and the modern mechanisms such as globalization, neoliberalism, and academic gatekeeping that sustain epistemic inequality. philosophically, it raises questions about agency, authenticity, and the possibility of decolonizing knowledge in a world where coloniality remains pervasive. transcolonialism, as a theoretical construct, extends beyond postcolonial critiques by addressing the ongoing transnational and cross-temporal influences that colonial histories exert on contemporary african knowledge systems. unlike postcolonialism which focuses primarily on the aftermath of colonial rule, transcolonialism accounts for the fluid and evolving dynamics of epistemic control in a globalized world. this framework critiques the ways in which african knowledge production remains subordinated to eurocentric epistemologies, thereby maintaining a knowledge dependency that undermines indigenous intellectual agency. colonial legacies and epistemic hegemony the colonial project in africa was not merely an economic or political enterprise but also an epistemological one. colonial powers systematically marginalized indigenous african knowledge systems while privileging western modes of inquiry. walter rodney (1972) argues that colonialism deliberately underdeveloped africa, not only in material terms but also intellectually by eroding local epistemic traditions and replacing them with alien frameworks of thought. the consequences of this epistemic violence persist in contemporary academia, where african scholars often have to engage with knowledge structures defined by western institutions, methodologies, and theoretical paradigms. the politics of knowledge production in africa in africa, colonialism brought with it not only written forms of knowledge, but also brought a perspective, its imported ideas. for instance, the well-rehearsed idea of colonialism is that african systems are archaic and have to be replaced by colonial notions of innovation and advancement (zegeye & vambe, 2006). knowledge production in africa has been a contested terrain since the advent of colonial rule. european colonizers imposed their intellectual frameworks, dismissing african ways of knowing as primitive or unscientific. this epistemic violence, as articulated by gayatri chakravorty spivak, sought to erase indigenous ontologies and epistemologies, replacing them with eurocentric paradigms (spivak, 1988). the legacy of this imposition is evident in the structure of african universities, where western languages (english, french, portuguese) are prioritized in scholarship, and the reliance on foreign publishing industries to legitimize african research, as it is in most of our nigerian https://www.tandfonline.com/author/zegeye%2c+abebe https://www.tandfonline.com/author/vambe%2c+maurice aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 153 universities, where emphasis is laid on publishing in “high impact journals” (as so-called), journals indexed in scopus, web of science, thompson reuters, etc. transcolonialism complicates this narrative by highlighting how contemporary knowledge production remains tethered to global power structures. for instance, african scholars often face pressure to publish in western journals, which are gate-kept by editorial boards unfamiliar with african contexts. this dynamic reinforces a hierarchy where knowledge produced in the global north is deemed universal, while african knowledge is relegated to the status of the particular or untrustworthy. as valentin-yves mudimbe notes, the “invention of africa” by western discourse continues to shape how african intellectual contributions are perceived and valued (mudimbe, 1988). moreover, funding for research in africa frequently comes from international donors, whose agendas may prioritize western interests over local needs. this creates an absurdity as african scholars are compelled to align their work with external frameworks, undermining the autonomy of indigenous knowledge production. transcolonialism, in this sense, is not just a historical residue but an active process that sustains epistemic dependency. neocolonialism and the reproduction of epistemic inequalities while political independence was achieved in the mid-20th century, the decolonization of knowledge remains an ongoing struggle. the persistence of neocolonial influences manifests in various ways, including the dominance of western academic publishing, the marginalization of african intellectuals in global research networks, and the preference for western theories to interpret african realities remains. wathiong’o’s concept of “decolonizing the mind” underscores the need for epistemic liberation, arguing that knowledge systems should be reclaimed and centered on african realities and languages (wathiong’o, 1986). in addition, the structural inequalities within global academia reinforce epistemic hierarchies. taking a look at our educational system in africa and nigeria in particular, you discover that our universities continue to operate within frameworks established by former colonial powers, with academic curricula predominantly shaped by western intellectual traditions. very recently, the national universities commission (nuc) introduced what is called core curriculum and minimum academic standard (ccmas), a new curriculum for all nigerian universities to follow, of which 70% of the curricula is modeled according to the western frame work, and only 30% reflects what could be added, referred to as local content. as mahmood mamdani critiques, african higher education remains trapped in a colonial epistemic framework that prioritizes western validation over indigenous knowledge production (mamdani, 1996). transcolonialism and global knowledge networks in the contemporary era of globalization, transcolonialism examines how epistemic control is maintained through global knowledge networks that dictate what counts as legitimate knowledge. the dominance of western academic publishing houses, funding agencies, and ranking systems perpetuates an asymmetry in knowledge production. african scholars often face the challenge of engaging with research that is valued based on western academic standards rather than indigenous knowledge validation. moreover, research agendas in africa are frequently influenced by foreign donors and institutions, leading to a form of intellectual outsourcing where african scholars produce knowledge that aligns with external interests rather than local needs. the politics of research oviemuno, vincent, isaac & blessing transcolonialism and the politics of knowledge.. 154 funding further exacerbates these disparities, as african academics rely heavily on western grants that often come with predefined thematic and methodological frameworks (mkandawire, 2005). african perspectives of philosophical pathways to epistemic liberation to grapple with the implications of transcolonialism, a philosophical approach rooted in african thought is essential. african philosophy, as articulated by thinkers like kwasi wiredu and paulin hountondji, emphasizes the importance of indigenous conceptual frameworks while engaging critically with universalist claims (wiredu, 1980). wiredu (1980), for instance, advocates for “conceptual decolonization,” a process of rethinking african intellectual traditions outside the distortions of colonial categories. this involves reclaiming oral traditions, communal epistemologies, and non-western modes of reasoning as valid sources of knowledge. hountondji (1997), on the other hand, critiques the romanticisation of indigenous knowledge, arguing that it must be subjected to rigorous scientific scrutiny to remain relevant in a globalized world. this tension between preserving authenticity and embracing modernity lies at the heart of the transcolonial dilemma. how can african knowledge systems assert their legitimacy without being subsumed by the very structures they seek to resist? from a metaphysical standpoint, transcolonialism prompts questions about the nature of knowledge itself. if knowledge is inherently tied to power, as michel foucault contends, then the transcolonial framework reveals how african epistemologies are doubly marginalized, first by colonial domination and then by the global knowledge economy (foucault, 1980). yet, african philosophers like mogobe ramose offer a counterpoint through the concept of ubuntu, which posits a relational ontology where knowledge emerges from communal interdependence rather than individual mastery (ramose, 1999). philosophy therefore offers critical tools for challenging transcolonial epistemic hegemony and fostering intellectual sovereignty in africa. the resurgence of indigenous african philosophies such as ubuntu, igwebuike, and ethno-philosophy, demonstrates a growing recognition of african epistemic agency. these philosophical traditions emphasize communal knowledge production, holistic reasoning, and the integration of indigenous methodologies in academic discourse (kanu, 2017). furthermore, the rise of afrocentric and decolonial perspectives seeks to reposition african knowledge production within its rightful intellectual traditions, thereby challenging the asymmetries imposed by transcolonial structures (hountondji, 1997). reclaiming intellectual autonomy (decolonizing knowledge) the project of decolonizing knowledge production in africa is both a practical and philosophical endeavour. practically, it requires dismantling the structural inequalities embedded in global academia, reforming publishing practices, prioritizing african languages, and fostering south-south intellectual collaborations. philosophically, it demands a reimagining of what constitutes knowledge, moving beyond the binaries of western versus indigenous to embrace hybridity and multiplicity. many african scholars, along with those of african descent in the diaspora, have undertaken extensive research to highlight africa’s contributions to human civilization. a remarkable collection of african intellectuals, both within the continent and abroad, has significantly aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 155 enriched knowledge production and played a crucial role in advancing african studies on a global scale (owoahene-acheampong & gordon, 2015). however, transcolonialism underscores the limits of decolonization in a world where power remains asymmetrically distributed. as achille mbembe (2001) argues, the “post-colony” is not a clean break from the colonial but a space of entanglement where old and new forms of domination coexist. the rise of digital technologies, for instance, offers opportunities for african scholars to bypass traditional gatekeepers, yet it also exposes them to new forms of surveillance and commodification by global tech corporations. hence, a concerted effort toward reclaiming intellectual autonomy necessitates structural and institutional reforms. african universities should prioritize the development of curricula that reflect indigenous knowledge systems while promoting multi-lingual scholarship to challenge the linguistic dominance of colonial languages. additionally, the establishment of africancentered academic journals and publishing platforms is crucial for breaking the monopoly of western academic gatekeeping. collaborative knowledge production through intra-african scholarly networks can also serve as a countermeasure to transcolonial epistemic dominance. by fostering south-south intellectual exchanges, african scholars can create independent spaces for theoretical innovation and critical discourse that align with african realities rather than western paradigms (zeleza, 2009). conclusion transcolonialism reveals the persistent epistemic challenges faced by african knowledge producers in a world where colonial legacies continue to shape intellectual landscapes. addressing these challenges requires a philosophical commitment to decolonizing knowledge production, advocating for methodological pluralism, and fostering indigenous intellectual agency. transcolonialism reveals the complex interplay between history, power, and knowledge production in africa. it challenges us to move beyond simplistic narratives of colonial legacy and toward a deeper understanding of how epistemic inequalities are reproduced in the present. philosophically, it invites a dialogue between african thought and global discourses, seeking not just to resist but to reimagine the terms of knowledge itself. while the path to epistemic liberation remains fraught, the inquiry into transcolonialism offers a vital starting point for rethinking africa’s place in the world of ideas. africa’s experience of transcoloniality calls for breaking free from past constraints and embracing a future driven by self-determination, cooperation, and cultural renewal. as the continent moves beyond its colonial legacy, it is positioned to emerge as a strong global force, actively contributing to the creation of a more just and equitable world. by reclaiming epistemic sovereignty, african scholars can disrupt the politics of knowledge production and establish a more equitable global intellectual order. oviemuno, vincent, isaac & blessing transcolonialism and the politics of knowledge.. 156 references burawoy, m., blum, j. a., george, s., gille, z., & thayer, m. (2000). global ethnography: forces, connections, and imaginations in a postmodern world. university of california press.https://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&lr=&id=9umodbyd8jac&oi=fnd&pg=pr 9&dq=info:qvdbessifvgj:scholar.google.com/&ots=c5mxvosqle&sig=r2jknuzvkovm dc19d_pr2p9wyxy&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false chakrabarty, d. (2009). provincializing europe: postcolonial thought and historical difference. princeton university press. doi:10.2307/2692957 mcclintock, a. (1992).“anachronism and the aesthetics of infinity.” in imperial leather: race, gender and sexuality in the colonial contest. routledge foucault, m. (1980).power/knowledge: selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977, ed. colin gordon. new york: pantheon books hountondji, j. p. (1997). african philosophy: myth and reality. bloomington: indiana university press. kanu, i. a. 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(1988). “can the subaltern speak?” in marxism and the interpretation of culture, ed. cary nelson and lawrence grossberg. university of illinois press. wiredu, k. (1980). philosophy and an african culture. cambridge university press. zegeye, a. and vambe, m. (2006). “knowledge production and publishing in africa”pages 333-349 | taylor and francis published online: 20 novhttps://doi.org/10.1080/03768350600843010 zeleza, p. t. (2009). “the study of africa, volume 1: disciplinary and interdisciplinary encounters”. codesria. https://www.tandfonline.com/author/zegeye%2c+abebe https://www.tandfonline.com/author/vambe%2c+maurice https://doi.org/10.1080/03768350600843010 38 judith butler's gender performativity and technological advancement: a critical analysis jude emeka odoh, phd state university of medical and applied sciences, igbo-eno, enugu state, nigeria e-mail: jude.odo@sumas.edu.ng florence eke adejoh, phd department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state. e-mail: adejohflorence@gmail.com jetty joe odey, phd department of philosophy, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state. e-mail: jettyjoeodey@gmail.com abstract butler's gender performativity holds that gender identities are socially constructed and maintained through repeated performances and acts. in this digital age, the rapid advancement in technology has impacted the conception of gender identities. consequently, online platforms and algorithmic systems mediate and reinforce dominant gender norms via mechanisms like digital surveillance and algorithm bias. the aim of this paper is to examine critically the relationship between butler’s theory of performativity and the ongoing technological advancements with particular reference to how gender identities are created and regulated in the digital age. employing the critical analytic method of philosophy, this paper argues that digital activism, resistance, and systemic transformation have enormous transformative power for changing normative frameworks and promote equitable digital space and inclusiveness. keywords: performativity, identity, digital surveillance, algorithmic bias, digital activism, resistance, systemic transformation. introduction the era of digital communication has rewritten dramatically the script for the construction, performance and reception of gender identities. with a more integrated global world, digital media have privileged positions in speaking and negotiating identity. building on the work of judith butler's highly influential theory of gender performativity, which suggests that gender is not a natural, biologically coded quality but instead a series of iterated social acts governed by power and discourse, this paper examines how late modern technological infrastructure mediates and reconfigures gender expression. butler's model illuminates the ways in which gender is being perpetually reproduced and reinscribed through performative acts, situated within the generalized institutional and cultural context. under the era of the internet, such contexts are increasingly created by platform topology, algorithmic thinking, data surveillance, and content moderation regimes. mailto:jude.odo@sumas.edu.ng mailto:adejohflorence@gmail.com mailto:jettyjoeodey@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 39 consequently, gender performance is not achieved through interpersonal contact but it is carried out through coded form, digital footprints and mediated communication. the focus of this paper is to analyse the relationsp between digital technology and gender performativity. the details of how digital platforms reify and challeng patraichal gender norms is also critically examined. this paper argues that in as much as algorithmic architecture and platform governance replicate dominant heteronormative forms, they also serve as spaces where minority identities serve as sites for subversion, active resistance, systemic transformation and rearticulation. hence, active resistance, systemic change, digital activism and performative agency and have to potential to severely change normative paradigms and promote inclusive digital space. the paper contributes to the current literature on gender, identity and digital culture. furthermore this paper argues that digital activism, resistance, and systemic transformation have enormous transformative power for changing normative frameworks and promote equitable digital space and inclusiveness. gender performativity butler is especially famous for her use of the term "gender performativity." her work over decades has refined this model. the volumes that deal most directly with it include gender trouble (1990), bodies that matter (1993), and undoing gender (2004). butler wishes to refute "essentialist" notions of gender which claim that male and female bodies should play roles which the other should not, these bodies have a natural attraction to each other, and masculinity and femininity are innate biologically or naturallybutler, 2004. butler had witnessed firsthand how such assumptions often made life unbearable for those who could not fit into gendered norms, even within feminist circles themselves. but butler grew up into homosexual and lesbian groups. she accordingly embarked on contesting the view that representations of contemporary masculinity and femininity also serve as norms for acceptable gender conduct. butler proceeds to outline the miscommunication that exists between what "is" and what "should be" regarding gender "norms",anna, 2022 which malcommunication prevents one from conceptualizing or even imagining other ways of living possibilitiesanna, 2022. butler thus set about challenging the view that contemporary masculinity and femininity are represented as guidelines for correct gender behavior anna, 2022. butler accounts for this ambiguity between what "is" and what "ought to be" regarding gender "norms" butler, 2015. due to this ambiguity, some individuals cannot even think about or consider possibilities of living differently. "masculinity and femininity" determine a married couple as an individual who is viewed positively by the society butler, 2015. butler saw gender function in this way: "when a child is called a 'girl' or a 'boy' it is already situating the child in a certain relation to cultural norms" butler, 2015. when we refer to ourselves or others with terms like "man" or "woman," we are, in part, outlining and constructing such categories. whereas most theories of gender distinguish between biological and social "gender," butler does not think it is worth the trouble. she considers it absurd to refer to biological "sex" in any way that does not have something to do with its social meanings. if it exists, we cannot perceive such a thing because we are socialized in a culture that ascribes gender to everything—like physical characteristics—and then interprets retrospectively those things butler, 2015. we cannot even know ourselves independent of those social connotations. butler's writing does, indeed, often remind us that we are never really aware of who we are butler, 2015. jude, florence & jetty joe judith butler's gender performativity and.. 40 here, butler is frequently accused of believing that gender can be chosen at birth, or at least that gender is only a matter of words and has nothing to do with the body. butler however does not think this at all. she states that behaviour is one component in the definition of gender, but also greatly embedded speech patterns butler, 2015. the ways in which we dress in specific ways, exercise in specific ways, display specific body language, visit specific doctors, and on and on butler, 2015. put another way, layer upon layer, the statement of gender occurs over and over and again until it seems obvious. she continues to reiterate the idea that gender norms are, indeed, fluid across time and that gender definition and construction can never be completed because they must continually be reiterated butler, 2015. that would suggest we can never perform them precisely "right," and that when we stop doing them or do them in other ways, we contribute to their changing, which, she says, opens up possibilities for gender transformation butler, 2015. these are, indeed, hard ideas to think with because they run against some of our most deeply held assumptions regarding language, gender, and identity butler, 2015. part of why butler's work is thought to be "complicated" but nonetheless part of some of the most favored reads on gender butler, 2015 has been because of this. according to michael foucault, power functions through subtle mechanisms, shaping the behaviours of individuals. this aligns with gender performativity in the sense that power dynamics can influence how individuals perform and express their gender (1977). similarly, gillespie deleus's conceptualization of identity as a means or process of becoming that enables individuals to constantly negotiate and define their identities. this view further clarifies how technology enhances new forms of gender expression and identity construction (1994). furthermore, julia kristeva's subject-in-process which holds that the subject is in a constant state of flux and negotiating between varied identities and positions demonstrate how technology can facilitate multiple gender and fluid identities (1984). in the digital age, the concept of gender performativity has become important, particularly in digital environment were acts of performativity are usually molded and limited by technological systems. technology and the construction of identity the construction of identity occurs as soon as one participates in digital space. at this instance, the individual begins communication. the question that arises naturally at this point becomes, who is the communication being done with is the communication done with another person or a virtual identity? as soon as we begin using digital content we come to the chatterbot – the human principle, versus the digitally recorded one, this brings a novel perspective of research, particularly at the level of the formation of digital identity deh  glođović, 2018. in the digital space, the division between mind and body becomes accepted in the digital space. the whole idea of bodiless principle of digital space divides the personality of the person participating in the digital space in a way. this is because, apart from the profile of the person uses to participate in the digital space, the person could be using a life that is poles apart that may be conscious of that fact or not deh  glođović, 2018. digital space affords one the opportunity to perform oneself through the creation of content such as information, images, representations of oneself, interests, activities, in other words. in the process of creating this virtual identity, one experiences loneliness. the creation of this virtual identity can activate the design of an identity that renounces its authenticity. the relation between online and offline identities is truly the key to defining oneself in digital time, which would in the psychological terms be co-construction of oneself. in as much as this virtual space is very rich in information and durability it attacks the intimacy of the individual, leaving a smaller space for intimacy and secrets which are very relevant areas of vulnerability of each individual deh  glođović, 2018. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 41 for haraway, technology has brought about novel forms of identity and expression. this automatically blurs the lines between humans and machines. this concept of cyborg can be understood as a symbol of the fluid and hybrid nature of gender identity in this digital age (1991). in another sense, the idea of simulation that holds that technology has created a world of simulation that makes it possible for identities and realities to be constructed and manipulated. this shows how technology is both a tool that can empower and disembowel individuals in their gender performance or expression baudrillard, 1994. lacan on the other hand, argues that identity is created through what he refers to as the mirror stage which helps individuals recognize themselves as unified and coherent. however, technology can distort this process, bringing about opportunities for identity formation and expression (1977). as for de beavior, embodiment is relevant in shaping how we understand gender and identity. in other words, technology can challenge traditional conceptions of embodiment, enhancing new types of gender expression and identity formation (1949). current performative stages are digital platforms where identity is curated and demonstrated. but these platforms are not neutral. the algorithms of these digital platforms are constructed based on cultural and historical datasets that usually show dominant norms techtranslator, 2024. for instance, social media platforms such as tiktok, instagram, facebook, and x formerly twitter advance some visual aesthetics and behavioural patterns, ingeniously reinforcing binary gender roles. furthermore, digital surveillance activities promote what foucault refers to as panopticism. this happens when users are conscious that they are being monitored usually conform to the digital platform anticipation in order to stay visible or to avoid penalization conrad, 2009. algorithmic bias and the reproduction of norms algorithms are central to all computer systems, most especially autonomous ones. generally, algorithms form the mind or engine room of autonomous systems. autonomy demands capabilities to adapt and respond to new, usually ill-defined environments and contexts. without algorithms the operations of hardware and other software components of technological systems would be impossible. in particular, we focus here on learning, context detection, and adaptation algorithms for autonomous systems, despite of whether the algorithms are used in training and development, or in real-time system activity, or in both regimes david danks & alex john london, 2017. in countless circumstances, our focus has been on autonomous systems specifically because they lack some of the imperfections that are common to humans. for instance, a self-driving vehicle cannot fall asleep at the wheel, or become distracted by background music. if autonomous systems are to be better versions of us (at least, for some tasks), then we should reasonably seek to employ the most impartial algorithms that we can david danks & alex john london, 2017. notwithstanding this desire, several sophisticated issues have provoked a mounting debate about the possibility, or probability even inevitability, of algorithmic bias: generally, this means that an algorithm is, in some sense, not simply a neutral transformer of data or extractor of information. there has been growing concern about algorithmic bias on public discussion on technology as well as prevalent concerns about “bias” (of one form or another) in google searches, facebook feeds, applications such as faceapp, and other algorithmic systems. jude, florence & jetty joe judith butler's gender performativity and.. 42 furthermore, there is a swiftly growing scholarly literature about algorithmic biases, as well as technological techniques to attempt to lessen it david danks & alex john london, 2017. the likelihood of algorithmic bias is predominantly irritating for autonomous or semiautonomous systems. this is because it does not necessarily need a human “in the loop” who can find out and pay off for biases in the algorithm or model. since the workings of systems are becoming more complex it is gradually becoming impenetrable to users. this will become a challenge to the very idea of human monitoring for bias. in as much as autonomous systems could be said to be unbiased they could however use impartial algorithms that do considerable do some harm and get unobserved and uncorrected david danks & alex john london, 2017. according to virilio, technology has brought about a world of speed and control, creating room for individuals to be regulated and surveilled. this demonstrate the capacity of technology to constrain individual expression and reinforce traditional power dynamics (1997). as for lyotard, (1984) technology has created a postmodern situation that allows for grand narratives and meta narratives are challenged. this shows how multiple and fluid gender identities can be facilitated by technology. several study which have demonstrated that algorithmic systems can unconsciously create replica of structural inequalities. for instance, facial recognition systems have greater possibility of error rates for women and people of colour owing to biased training data techtranslator, 2024. in the same vein, virtual assistants such as alexa or siri which were feminized and designed to be submissive, helpful, polite, and reinforcing conventional gender stereotypes. the fact is that, these artifacts not only reflect societal norms, they actively mold and create identities that are considered intelligible, the ones that are marginalized, and the ones that are methodically barred from digital participation. the intersection of gender identity and digital technology there is a need for an ethical and political response to the dynamic change happening with the co-production of gender identity and digital technology. this co-production of gender identity and digital technology is a mix of how digital technology influences the expression and perception of gender identities and how social practices form the development and use of digital systems. this reciprocal interaction is encrusted with digital infrastructures that encode, reinforce and challenge sometimes current gender standards. consequently, any attempt to critically engage with this interplay demands the consideration of the complex interplay of power, identity, agency, and technological blueprint wajcman, 2007. the facts as demonstrated above show that biometric technologies, ai-driven personalization tools, recommendation algorithms, and social media platforms are not neutral. they usually mirror the assumptions, priorities, and biases of the developers, founded in dominant sociocultural contexts. specifically, gender standards are usually fixed in the logics of these systems, perhaps, through binary classification of users, removal of non-normative identities, or the strengthening of label-content through algorithmic curation noble, 2018; d’ignazio  klein, 2020. these limitations can stop self-expression, perpetuate exclusion, and strengthen current hierarchies. notwithstanding the fact that these technologies create numerous limitations, they also provide new ways of creating resistance, subversion and redefinition. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 43 resistance, subversion, and digital activism since the nature of digital space is fluid, it can enhance individuals to investigate, negotiate, and perform gender in ways and means that confront the unchanging nature of traditional categories. for instance, fake online profiles, digital art, online avatars, and virtual communities afford platforms for experimenting with identity further than the limitations of the human body or biological essentialism or the expectorations of the society banet-weiser, 2018. furthermore, gender-noncomforming individuals such as trans, non-binary individuals have, in several occasions, taken advantage of digital spaces to seek solidarity, voice, visibility, and oppose removal while also asserting their presence. digital spaces can also promote resistances. in recent times, there were different movements such as the #metoo and #niunamenos which have demonstrated how marginalized group employ platforms to fight dominant narratives and organize collective actiontoxigon, 2024a. these campaigns online employ performative tactics such as storytelling, hastags, digital art to reconstruct the visibility of oppressed identities and to contest algorithmically maintained silences. through the creation of different narratives, digital activism reflects the subversive potential butler associates with performance. this is where butler’s theory of perfromativity becomes very relevant. she conceives gender as unstable identity but repeated acts of performance. these acts according to her produce the appearance of a consistent gender identity, nevertheless, this identity is usually vulnerable to disorder. furthermore, she argues that that performance embodies the seeds of subversion. similarly, in digital spaces where bodily presence are usually hidden and self-presentation is made possible through text, image, and code, the capacity for such rebellious or subversive performances is escalated cover, 2003. nonetheless, subversion as proposed by butler is not enough as a single solution to gender essentialism. individual resistance and creative expression can oppose standards, they do not immediately transform into structural change. as a matter of fact, digital platforms usually coopt and commodify dissent or rebellion by packaging countercultural aesthetics into trends that are marketable without changing the foundational systems of control and exclusion dean, 2010. this fact highlights the necessity for broad-spectrum structural reforms in how technologies are created, governed, and experienced. in other words, ethical engagement with gender and technology has to go beyond individual empowerments to systemic transformation. systemic transformation and reforms a major reform that could go a long way in the creation and deployment of inclusive data sets. it is common knowledge that machine learning and ai systems rely serious on data employed to train them. the data enable algorithms to categorize, predict, and respond. as far as these datasets are impartial either through underrepresentation of marginalized groups or the addition of discriminatory historical data, the system produced from these datasets perpetuate injustice. for instance, facial recognition technologies have been proven to misidentify people of colour and gender-nonconforming individuals at a very high rate than white users buolamini gebru, 2018. such inequalities are not simply technical errors; they are reflections of deeper knowledge and social exclusions. to create inclusive datasets, there is need for adding diversity to current pools as well as rethinking the classifications, assumptions, and values that bring about data collection. there jude, florence & jetty joe judith butler's gender performativity and.. 44 is need for participatory ways of dealing with the problem that is focused on making heard the voices of the people most affected by algorithm harm costanza-chock, 2020. for instance, communities of trans and non-binary have to be actively part of determining how gender is represented in technological systems. apart from training ai systems with impartial datasets, there is need for transparency and accountability in algorithmic governance. presently, several algorithms operate as ‘blackboxes’ making their decision processes opaque from public examination pasquale, 2015. this obscurity creates challenges as regards resisting biased results or challenging to understand how systems reinforce particular standards. it also weakens democratic control and informed consent. transparent governance has to do with opening up algorithmic systems for examination, helping users and auditors to follow through the process of how inputs bring about outputs. it demands clear means for addressing harms whenever they take place. furthermore, this transparency should reflect ethical reflexivity and social accountability rather than being reduced to technical and legal documentation and disclosure benjamin, 2019. the end users particularly, marginalized groups have to be carried along in the processes of conception, design, and examination of technologies. this is in order to avoid treating users as passive recipients of innovation. participatory design identifies them as co-creators with relevant knowledge and experience bodker, 1996. this aligns with the view of haraway 1988 on feminist epistemologies that highlight contextual knowledge, mutual respect, and collective agency. conclusion butler’s concept of performativity provides a robust framework for unpacking the complex dynamics and interplay between gender identity and technological advancement. even though digital technologies and platforms usually reproduce dominant gender norms through algorithmic bias and surveillance, they also open spaces for resistance and self-assertion. going forward, digital gender identity depends on both performative agency and collective rethinking of technological systems that enhance different expressions of self. consequently, this paper argues that performative agency, digital activism, resistance, and systemic transformation hold enormous transformative power for changing normative frameworks and promote equitable digital space and inclusiveness. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 45 references banet-weiser, s. 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(2007). from women and technology to gendered technoscience. information, communication & society, 10(3), 287–298. tel:1981 tel:1984 tel:1977 tel:1984 tel:2002 https://theconversation.com/judith-butler-their-philosophy-of-gender-explained-192166 https://theconversation.com/judith-butler-their-philosophy-of-gender-explained-192166 tel:2014 tel:641-656 tel:1997 aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr does international law ban the right to self-determination? a philosophical appraisal cn ogugua and ike odimegwu abstract the right to self-determination (sd) is one of the most contested right today both in international law and moral philosophy but especially in international law. this is because the right to sd and the right to state sovereignty (ss) are both ambiguously codified in international instruments without specification on which of the two should be prioritized when both come into conflict. the result is that international lawyers and jurists have defended at least four major theories as the correct representation of international law on the right to sd, namely, that international law bans the right to sd, international law supports primary right to sd, international law maintains remedial right to sd and that international law is neutral on the right to sd. using both the historical and hermeneutical methods, this study interrogates the specific claim that international law prohibits the right to sd. after conceding that the jurists and international lawyers who advocate this position do so for obvious reasons of international peace and stability, the study argues that the position cannot be sustained either legally or morally as it has no specific solid support in law and practice and does not meet the basic prerequisites of justice. above all, the study argues contrary to the proponents of the theory, that the theory is not suitable for international stability and peace and therefore recommended the need for further study to develop a theory that satisfies global need for justice, peace and stability. keywords: self-determination, state sovereignty, secession, international law, peace, stability. introduction the rise in agitations and conflicts of sd across the globe has led to renewed interest among international lawyers and jurists on the position of international law on the right to sd. the major reason for this renewed interest is that the agitations for sd is in part fueled by the tension between the principles of sd and ss in international law. the tension itself is the consequence of the imprecise and conflicting codifications of the two principles in international protocols. for instance, sd and ss are both codified as fundamental principles of jus cogens (peremptory norm”) and erga omnes in international law. on the one hand, sd is a cardinal principle in modern international law, binding, as such, on the “united nations [un] as an authoritative interpretation of the norms” (mcwhinney, 2007, p. 8). charter's the very first article of the un in fact, as early as charter (1945, 1(2)), it is stated that one of the purposes of the un is “to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples.”thus, sd is not just a human right, “it is the fundamental human right from which every other human rights is derived and to protect it is the very aim and purpose of the united nations” (zayas, 2014, para. 15).as such, there is an international consensus that the principle of and the right to sd have become jus cogens and applicable erga omness (para. 15).in article 1 (2) of the un charter, sd is a measure to strengthen universal peace. and sd as “a cornerstone of peace” and as “a vector of peace” is as well claimed by the un independent expert alfred-maurice de zayas (para. 15). on the other hand, opposed to sd but codified as well in both the un charter and other international instruments is ss. ss, for the past several hundred years is recognized as the defining principle of interstate relations and a foundation of world order. the concept: 151 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/international_law https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/charter_of_the_united_nations lies at the heart of both customary international law and the united nations charter and remains both an essential component of the maintenance of international peace and security and defense of weak states against the strong (chesterman, 2001, p. 13). the sentiment of defending weak states against the strong was captured by algerian president boueteflika, who, as president of the organization of african unity (oau), addressed the un general assembly (unga) in 1999, immediately after the secretary-general (sg), and called sovereignty “our final defense against the rules of an unjust world” (tharoor and daws, 2001, p. 25). article 2(7) of the un charter states that “nothing contained in the present charter shall authorize the united nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the members to submit such matters to settlement under the present charter.” therefore, the nucleus of the conflict between the principles of sd and ss is not just that one principle logically cancels what the other proposes but principally that both are codified and opposed to each other in international instruments. many ways, the debate around the thus, in right to sd is the result of the clash between the charter's definitive articles 2(7) and 2(4), which respects the exclusive and overriding sovereignty of a state over its internal affairs, and the human rights agenda and laws developed subsequently, which erode the sovereignty of the state. the result of this contradictory codifications is that in conflicts of sd, both the rump state and the secessionist group use the same instruments to mobilize and justify their actions. for instance, in nigeria, both the federal government of nigeria (fgn) and indigenous people of biafra (ipob) use international law to defend the inviolability of ss and sd respectively. in the bid to resolve this tension and by extension influence international policies on conflict of sd, international lawyers and jurists have proposed four competing theories delineating the position of international law on the question of the right to sd: international law is opposed to the right to sd; international law supports primary right to sd; maintains remedial right to sd and international law is neutral on the right to sd. using the historical and hermeneutical methods, this study interrogates the specific claim that international law bans the right to sd. after conceding that the jurists and international lawyers who advocate this position do so for obvious reasons of maintaining international peace and stability, the study argues that the theory cannot be sustained legally and morally as it has no specific and solid support both in law and practice and does not meet the basic requirements of justice. above all, the study argues contrary to the belief of the theory's advocate, that the theory is not suitable for international stability and peace and therefore recommended further studies to develop a theory and framework that meet the global need for peace and stability. the study is divided into five parts. the introductory part clarifies the problem and purpose of the study outlining the procedure for achieving them. the second part conceptualizes the concept of secession, sd and ss. in third part the theory that sd is prohibited in international law is presented and discussed. using the criteria of international practice, judicial precedence, scholarly opinion and moral consistency the study tries to expose the vacuity of the theory in the fourth part. the fifth and final part is the conclusion and recommendation. this part, argues contrary to the theory's advocates, that it is not suitable for international stability and peace and therefore recommended the formulation and promotion of a theory that promotes global stability and peace. 152 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 clarification of concepts self-determination self-determination is a very complex concept. however, the various strands of meanings in the concept will not be explored here. our purpose is strictly to operationalize the concept for use in this study. hence, toft (2012, p. 584) defines sd by claiming that “one can understand selfdetermination as the notion that ethnic groups have the right to determine their own fate, either by opting for a degree of autonomy within the borders of an undivided state, or by seceding. thus, there are two types of sd, internal and external sd. while internal sd is the quest of a group fighting for greater autonomy within a country, external sd refers to the right and demand of those who want to form their own country or merge with another country. in international law, there is broad consensus on the meaning and existence of the right to internal sd. what is contested is the existence of external sd and that is the version of sd that this research is interested in. secession secession is the act of breaking away from a rump state to form a new state or to join another state. in this regard, secession is a form of external sd and the two terms are almost always used interchangeably in literature. this study will follow the same pattern. nevertheless, there is still a tacit difference between secession and external sd. whereas sd is the right of a people to pursue their political future, secession is the attempt to realize that right through complete withdrawal from the parent state (raymond, 2014). therefore, while all successful sd does not lead to the breakup of states, all successful secessions result in the breakup of states. on the whole, secession and sd are used interchangeably in this study. state sovereignty according to academic american encyclopedia (1981), ss refers both to “the supreme powers exercised by a state over its own members”, and “the powers exercised by an autonomous state in relation to other countries.” based on these two aspects, ss is usually said to have both internal and external dimensions. according to (2024) internally, ss is “the encyclopedia britannica ultimate authority in the decision-making process of the state and in the maintenance of order.” externally, ss refers to full legal equality with other states and the freedom from any external control with regard to the independent rights of the state to enter into transaction with other states. specifically, and most importantly, ss immunizes the state from balkanization by both internal and external actors (malcolm, 2014, p. 12). therefore, as seen above, the conflict between the two principles is that what one (sd) approves (breaking up of a state) the other (ss) opposes. international law bans the right to self-determination this theory claims that international law prohibits sd or that sd was only legal in international law during decolonization. after decolonization, every attempt to balkanize a sovereign state is illegal in international law. this claim was elucidated by pei-ling hu (2014, p. 3): many post-1945 examples of movements of [sd] especially those unilateral and outside of the context of decolonization—the only un practice where [sd] achieved the stature of an applicable legal right—are largely contested and gain little recognition or support from the world community and the un. therefore, post-colonial secession is significant because, while the first introduction of the right of [sd] in the international law set it up as a universal right for all 'peoples,' it is only practiced as a binding, legal right in the context of decolonization. he added also: from this perspective, for the un, the right of [sd] of 'peoples' only constitutes a right under the context and condition of decolonization. outside of this colonial 153 cn ogugua and ike odimegwu does international law ban the right... context, throughout the past decades, the un has largely blocked the establishment of every new state especially in the previously colonial world, arguing that these demands for [sd] are 'redundant' as such right has already been addressed in the process of decolonization. the un reacted to postdecolonization secessionist movements either with active military intervention in a separatist conflict (for example, in the katanga vs. congo case), or with passive denial of the breakaway nation's nationhood, thus withholding any international recognition to the new state and effectively rendering the independence invalid (for example, in the biafra vs. nigeria case) (p. 6). in view of these claims, joshua castellino (2011, p. 18) remarks that “[sd] was thus viewed as the concept that exclusively freed people from 'salt-water' colonialism.” similarly, paković and radan (2007, p. 22) also conclude that in this right of sd sanctioned to colonial countries, there is a general insistence that “newly independent states inherited the territories and borders of the former colonial entities from which they emerged.” secessions that are outside of the specific colonial setting or that threaten to break down colonial borders are generally not considered legitimate, or legal, under international law. the right of sd of the “people” seeking postcolonial secession is not considered one of the inalienable “human rights” that “derive from the inherent dignity of the human person”, or a right “of all peoples, and of universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion (1960 declaration)” (pei-ling hu, 2014, p. 3). this theory is defended on four premises. premise one, argues that secession is not mentioned in any international document and hence is considered illegal by international law. on this account, the various places sd is mentioned in international protocols outside decolonization are taken to mean internal sd and thus, cannot be used to justify postcolonial secession. majority of international lawyers and jurists who hold this opinion start by making a distinction between internal and external sd and identifying sd with the former and secession with the later. from this position, they go ahead to claim that there is no recognition of a right to secede in international law (christakis, 2011, p. 77).tancredi (2014, p. 80) has on this ground argued that the exercise of an external right to sd is confined to processes of decolonization. the argument he used to support this claim is that the word secession did not appear in any international legal document, including the un charter. the initial effort to include secession in the charter was rejected by the drafters: in fact, although it was debated during the preparatory sessions preceding adoption during the san francisco conference, the term 'secession' in the end did not figure in the text of the un charter as a clear expression of the decision taken by the drafters (p. 82). after acknowledging that art. 1 of the un charter can be interpreted as authorizing the right to secession, tancredi bluntly rejects such reading insisting that it is not possible to conclude that the right to secede is reflected in the text of the original precept. secondly, in many ways, the claim that international law bans secession centres on the provisions of articles 2(4) and 2(27) of the un-charter which respect the exclusive and overriding sovereignty of a state over its internal affairs. article 2(4) on prohibition of threat or the use of force in international law asserts that: all members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the united nations. and article 2(7) of the “purposes and principles” of the charter of the un states that: 154 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 …nothing contained in the present charter shall authorize the united nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the members to submit such matters to settlement under the present charter. it is argued that under these provisions, the deciding factor in the un's (and/or its members') involvement in any secessionist movement depends on whether the matter is considered domestic or international affairs. a secessionist war that takes place on the territory of a recognized nation-state is only considered an international affair if the aggression on either side amounts to the degree of genocide—an international crime against humanity—or if the unrest spills over the borders of the affected state, hence violating its neighboring states' right to territorial sovereignty and affecting international peace and security, the most common example of this being the refugee problem. other than these few exceptions, the international community typically upholds article 2(7) over any other international or human rights law. as the determination of genocide proves to be anything but clear-cut despite the signing of the genocide convention in 1948, and as the refugee problem generally receives more humanitarian response—emergency reliefs operated by unhcr, for example—than military action directly addressing the secession conflict, in most unilateral, post-decolonization secessionist war the un silently gives the host government its legal license to carry out “police action” targeting part of its own people (pei-ling hu, 2014, p. 9). the third claim is based on the provision of the various un instruments where sd is not only restricted by but also trumped by ss. a typical example of this is the un charter itself where after declaring in article 1(2) that one of the purposes of the un is “to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and [sd] of peoples”, article 2(7) quickly interjects that “nothing contained in the present charter shall authorize the [un] to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the members to submit such matters to settlement under the present charter.” another important document usually cited in this regards is the declaration on the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples in 1960, where the declaration of article 2 that “all peoples have the right to [sd]; by virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development,” was counterbalanced by clause 6 which emphasizes that “any attempt aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national unity and the territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the charter of the [un].” the contention therefore is that international law has always prioritized sd over ss. the fourth argument is based on the history of secession. it is claimed that since the formation of the un in 1945, no country has gained independence through post-colonial unilateral secession. in this context, james crawford makes the observation that “since 1945 the international community has been extremely reluctant to accept unilateral secession of parts of independent states if the secession is opposed by the government of that state” and that “since 1945 no state which has been created by unilateral secession has been admitted to the [un] against the declared wishes of the government of the predecessor state” (crawford, 2006, p. 390). crawford lists all cases of secession and dismemberment after 1945 in non-colonial context here to demonstrate this claim: since 1945, the only new states emerging from situations which were not formally recognized as colonial, i.e. as covered by chapters xi or xii of the charter, have been: senegal (1960); singapore (1965); bangladesh (1971); the three baltic states: latvia, lithuania, estonia (all 1991); the eleven successor states of the former soviet union: armenia, azerbaijan, belarus, georgia, kazakhstan, 155 cn ogugua and ike odimegwu does international law ban the right... kirgizstan, moldova, tajikistan, turkmenistan, ukraine, uzbekistan (all 1991) the five successor states of the former yugoslavia: slovenia, macedonia, croatia, bosnia-herzegovina, federal republic of yugoslavia (serbia and montenegro) (19912); czech republic and slovakia (1993); and eritrea (1993) (p. 391). similar point was made by vidmar (2015, p. 370) who argues that the fact that international law prohibit secession outside the context of decolonization is evident in customary international law since 1945. he notes that while 28 new states have emerged outside any decolonization process since 1945, cases such as senegal (1960), singapore (1965), eritrea (1993) and south sudan (2011) involved consent between the parties concerned prior to independence. in other instances, for example the baltic states, latvia, lithuania and estonia (1991), it was a question more of the re-emergence of states, since they recovered the independence that had earlier been seized from them. in yet other cases there were states that came into being as a consequence of the collapse of communism: armenia, azerbaijan, belarus, georgia, kazakhstan, kirgizstan, moldova, tajikistan, turkmenistan, the ukraine and uzbekistan emerging from the former soviet union in 1991; slovenia, macedonia, croatia, bosnia-herzegovina, federal republic of yugoslavia (fry), that arose from the former yugoslavia in 1991 and 1992, followed in 2006 by montenegro; and the former czechoslovakia, which split into the czech republic and slovakia in 1993. in reality, in international practice there are only the cases of bangladesh (1971) and kosovo (2008) that are new states arising as the result of a process of unilateral secession. in view of this, vidmar concludes that the recognition of a right to secession in international law by the international community would hence not appear to find the necessary and sufficient precedents in reality. vidmar view would be reinforced by the occurrence of cases like those also cited by james crawford: tibet (china, 1959), katanga (congo, 1960), biafra (nigeria, 1967), kashmir (india, 1987), east punjab (india, 1970), the karen and shan states (burma, 1949 and 1960), the turkish federated state of cyprus (cyprus, 1975), tamil eelam (sri lanka, 1983), bougainville (papua new guinea, 1990), somaliland (somalia, 1991), kosovo (fry, 1991), chechnya (russia, 1991), nagorno-karabakh (azerbaijan, 1991), kurdistan (iraq/turkey, 1992), republika srpska (bosnia-herzegovina, 1992), abkhazia (georgia, 1992), south ossetia (georgia, 1992), the democratic republic of yemen (yemen, 1994), and more recently crimea. in all these the attempts at secession by groups or territories within an independent state, according to crawford failed to gain recognition as new states from the international community (crawford, 1998, p. 105). therefore, for the proponents of this theory as clearly represented by peters, if there is no recognition for a right to secede, then secession is not permitted, in other words, it is prohibited by international law. some comment, in addition, that this is so because there is a presumption in favour of stability, rather than an acceptance of secession (peters, 2011, p. 99). appraisal of the theory that self-determination is banned in international law as stated above, this section will examine the claim that sd is prohibited in international law from both moral and legal perspectives. morally, two objections are raised against the theory: objection from human right and objection from justice. legally, two objections are also raised against the theory: objection from international practice and objection from judicial precedence. moral objections objection from human rights the most important moral objection against this theory is that the claim that international law bans sd treats sd as a territorial rather than a human right as provided by many international and regional instruments. these international provisions make the claim of international ban on sd 156 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 arbitrary since human rights inheres on persons and cannot be banned. for instance, following the 1960 declaration, in 1966 the un adopted international covenant on civil and political rights (iccpr), as one of the documents under the international covenants on human rights, which, though not binding, officially viewed sd not only as a human right, but the first and fundamental human right. it states that it recognizes “the inherent dignity and the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world” and also enshrines the right of [sd] in its very first article with the same words: all peoples have the right of [sd]. by virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development (art. 1(1)). joshua castellino and jérémie gilbert (2003, p. 155) are therefore right to point out that shortly after the establishment of the un, with the drafting and adopting of these documents concerning basic human rights, the un has made the right to sd “essential before any other rights can be recognized.” this message resurfaced again in the vienna declaration of 1993 adopted by the world conference on human rights. the declaration states in its first article that “human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birth right of all human beings; their protection and promotion is the first responsibility of governments,” and then in its second article, when affirming that the denial of the right of sd is a violation of human rights, it states: in accordance with the declaration on principles of international law concerning friendly relations and cooperation among states in accordance with the charter of the [un], this shall not be construed as authorizing or encouraging any action which would dismember or impair, totally or in part, the territorial integrity or political unity of sovereign and independent states conducting themselves in compliance with the principle of equal rights and [sd] of peoples and thus possessed of a government representing the whole people belonging to the territory without distinction of any kind. the proponents of the ban on sd are yet to provide evidence of what changed in human nature that made colonial people to have the right to sd while post-colonial people do not. objection from justice this second objection derives directly from the first objection on human right. the objection questions the justice of ascribing the right to sd to colonial people who were treated unfairly why denying the same right to post-colonial people who live under the same condition of unfair treatment. for instance, one searches in vain to find the grounds upon which sd which is a human right can be justified for people living under colonial domination but denied to post-colonial people. why is sd good for african living under colonial rule but not good for africans in postcolonial time who still live under similar conditions? therefore, it is argued that if sd is a human right, it does not appear reasonable to say that colonial people have it why non-colonial people do not. this refutation was made by lee buchheit who while acknowledging that many jurists and international lawyers often seem to favour ss over sd under the claim that the principle of sd was originally intended to apply only to colonized peoples and territories. however, buchheit points out that even if this interpretation is correct, it does not mean that it could not plausibly be extended to apply to secessionist claims. his reasons is that the situation of some national minorities in existing multinational states is strikingly similar to that of colonized peoples under alien rule prior to decolonization: “domination by a foreign government, lack of political autonomy, economic exploitation, and human rights violations.” if this is the case, it is unclear 157 cn ogugua and ike odimegwu does international law ban the right... why such minorities should not be able to invoke the principle of sd to free themselves from such rule. as buchheit (1978, pp. 17-18) puts it: one searches in vain for any principled justification of why a colonial people wishing to cast off the domination of its governors have every moral and legal right to do so, but a manifestly distinguishable minority which happens to find itself, pursuant to a paragraph in some medieval territorial settlement or through a fiat of the cartographers, annexed to an independent state must forever remain without the scope of the principle of [sd]. international law is thus asked to perceive a distinction between the historical subjugation of an alien population living in a different part of the globe and the historical subjugation of an alien population living on a piece of land abutting that of its oppressors. the former can apparently never be legitimated by the mere passage of time, whereas the latter is eventually transformed into a protected status quo. thus, while it is understandable that the restricted use of the principle of sd endorsed by some legal scholars is motivated mainly by the fear of the chaos and violence that would likely ensue were every secessionist claims are satisfied, this fear should not lead to the outright claim that secession is prohibited in international law. legal objections objection from judicial precedence while scholars have used a number of judicial precedence to make case for non-prohibition of the right to sd in international law, the landmark case that connects all the cases together is the advisory opinion (ao) of the international criminal court (icj) on the legality of the declaration of independence by kosovo. on 8 october 2008, through resolution 63/3, the unga issued a request for an ao to the icj. serbia through this resolution sought to have the court's opinion on whether the declaration was in breach of international law and also to reopen the negotiating process for determining the future of kosovo. the question was framed as follows: is the unilateral declaration of independence by the provisional institutions of self-government of kosovo in accordance with international law? the question that the ga posed to the icj was to assess the accordance of the declaration of independence of 17 february 2008 with international law (resolution, 63/3, 2008). to address the question, the icj underlines the substantial relevance of the principle of territorial integrity in international law and interprets its subjective scope using as a basis two relevant texts: the ga resolution 2625 (xxv) of 1970 and the final act of the helsinki of 1 august 1975. the conclusion of the icj (2010, p. 80) is that “the scope of the principle of territorial integrity is confined to the sphere of relations between states.” the interpretation of the court is held as balanced on the basis of the traditional view that international law remains neutral in regard to secession (christakis, 2011, p. 82). upholding the strictly inter-sate character of the territorial integrity principle, the court refused to challenge the “legal neutrality” thesis (corten, 2011, p. 89). the answer to that question turns on whether or not the international law prohibited the declaration of independence. the court chose to focus its answer in terms of non-violation. taking this less demanding approach, it declares that the declaration did not violate any applicable rule of international law. in order words, it will be preposterous to go contrary to the ruling of the highest judicial organ in the un and say that international law prohibits sd. objection from international law and practice another strong objection against the claim that international law prohibits sd is that such claim 158 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 has no specific support in international law and practices. for instance, nowhere in international law is it clearly stated that secession or sd is prohibited. the general references usually made by scholars to articles 2(4) and 2(7) of the un charter and the so called safeguard clause in para. 6 of the 1970 declaration on friendly relations (ungar, 2625), in no way specifically outlawed or specifically stated that sd is illegal in international law. specifically, the safeguard clause states that: nothing in the foregoing paragraph shall be construed as authorizing or encouraging any action which would dismember or impair, totally or in part, the territorial integrity or political unity of sovereign and independent states conducting themselves in compliance with the principle of equal rights and [sd] of peoples as described above and thus possessed of a government representing the whole people belonging to the territory without distinction as to race, creed or colour. every state shall refrain from any action aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national unity and territorial integrity of any other state or country. while this paragraph clearly states that ss is sacred and protected by international law, it does not in any way state that sd is prohibited. rather it implies that sd trumps ss for states who do not conduct themselves in compliance with the principle of equal rights and sd of peoples and possess a government that represents the whole people. also, although, there has been many failures of attempted sd since the un charter came into force in 1945, there has also been few successful ones that at least passed through the auspices and recognition of the un such as bangladesh, kosovo and south sudan. these though few, are indications that it will be difficult to justify the claim that there is general prohibition of sd in international law. evaluation and conclusion from the foregoing, it appears that there is no basis both in international law and moral philosophy to legitimize the argument that international law prohibits the right to sd. what is somewhat obvious is that scholars who propound this argument do so as a policy wish and then scout for international legal backing to support their policy proposition. their aim as hinted above is that they feel that sd expressed in the form of secession is globally destabilizing and therefore dangerous for peace. hence, they propose prohibiting sd as a way of maintaining global stability in this regards, christakis (2011, p. 80) reasons that the recognition of a right to secede would be dangerous for any state with racial, linguistic, political or religious minorities. furthermore, he claimed that it would lead to a progressive fragmentation of the international community through the creation of numerous unviable mini-states. moreover, higgins (1993, p. 35) maintains that each new state might incorporate a minority that would in its turn seek a new secession thereby disrupting global peace and stability.similarly, heraclides (1991, p. 28) claims that there would be a negative effect for democratic states in which any minorities would always have the opportunity of blackmailing the majority by threatening to secede if its wishes were not satisfied. therefore, the argument that international law bans sd is more or less a peace theory and hence, stands or falls on its ability to guarantee peace and this raises the question, will banning secession make the world more or less peaceful? this question has been addressed by a number of scholars. akpan (2016) for instance argues that secession is a fact of life that will occur irrespective of whether it is prohibited or not in international law. according to him, saying that international law bans sd does not stop it from happening rather it takes it away from the ambiance of law where it can be regulated and makes it a question of power which is the reason it has become the greatest source of violence in modern 159 cn ogugua and ike odimegwu does international law ban the right... times. in other words, prohibiting secession rather than discouraging it orients it towards violence, makes it more dangerous and therefore unsuitable for international peace. similarly, noted that the world community of states has almost tripled caterina malavolti (2016) between 1945 and 2012, meaning that nearly two new secessions occurred yearly. according to her, therefore: what normative moral theories do not consider is that there will always be separatist movements and ultimately secessions are likely to occur anyway, even illegally. the need to morally justify secession is trumped by the necessity of domesticating separatist claims while avoiding violence and political instability. therefore, we should adopt a pragmatist approach and focus on the procedures that ought to be established to control what appears to be an inevitable phenomenon. as miljenko antić (2007, p. 153) suggests, the appropriate question is not whether secession should be allowed, but under which conditions and which procedures should be set to handle it in the most peaceful and effective way. it is obvious therefore that banning the right to sd is a risk to international peace and stability. even if peace and stability of borders were guaranteed, it would not be just peace, since this would not be “peace by satisfaction”, but “peace by power” or, more precisely, “peace by impotence” which as seen above is not peace at all. president wilson (1927, p. 244), the widely acclaimed author of the modern concept of sd believed that the prevention of future wars was linked to the establishment of a just peace, peace founded on respect for the principle of sd. an “imperative principle of action, which statesmen will henceforth ignore at their peril”, he warned. therefore, while the debate on whether or not, the right to sd is prohibited in international law is important and commendable, the more important question should be, what moral theories and legal framework should be set to help the international community handle sd most peacefully and effectively. this study recommends further studies in this direction. references academic american encyclopaedia. 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(2014), “promotion of a democratic and equitable international order”, report to the un general assembly (a/69/272). 161 cn ogugua and ike odimegwu does international law ban the right... https://www.britannica.com/topic/sovereignty https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/edward_mcwhinney https://www.academia.edu/14067607/the_right_to_secession_in_modern_constitutionalism_a_case_study_of_separatist_movements_in_quebec_scotland_and_catalonia https://www.academia.edu/14067607/the_right_to_secession_in_modern_constitutionalism_a_case_study_of_separatist_movements_in_quebec_scotland_and_catalonia https://www.academia.edu/14067607/ https://www.e-ir.info/2014/10/26/balancing-the-rights-of-sovereign-states-with-those-of-secessionist-movements/ https://www.e-ir.info/2014/10/26/balancing-the-rights-of-sovereign-states-with-those-of-secessionist-movements/ https://www.e-ir.info/2014/10/26/balancing-the-rights-of-sovereign-states-with-those-of-secessionist-movements/ aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr moral realism and same sex marriage debate ahana chukwuebuka e. department of philosophy, religion and peace studies, ebonyi state university, abakaliki. corresponding email id: ahanaebuka@gmail.com abstract this paper reflects on the obnoxious act creeping into the world today and gaining more grounds. this obnoxious practice is called same sex marriage. conscious of the fact that there are always mind-independent moral facts in the world, and people can make statements about them which are true or false, it will never negate the fact that procreation is natural and sacred and must not be ridiculed. this paper stands against the immoral act called same sex marriage noting that the two major aims of marriage which are companionship and procreation are lacking in it. it also noted that from the ethical standpoint of the moral realist, that same sex marriage is intolerable and as such is both morally and logically unacceptable. it violates the natural order of life. the paper uses expository and historical method to communicate its findings. having found out that same sex marriage is not beneficial to man in any way, it recommends outright abolishment of it, since there is nothing beneficial about it. introduction traditionally, marriage is a legally and socially sanctioned union, usually between a man and a woman that is regulated by laws, rules, customs, beliefs, and attitudes that prescribe the duties and rights of partners and accords status to their offspring (if any). the universality of marriage within different societies and cultures is attributed to the many basic social and personal functions for which it provides structure, such as sexual gratification and regulation, division of labour between the sexes, economic production and consumption, and the satisfaction of personal needs of affection, status, and companionship. perhaps, its strongest function concerns procreation, the care of children and their education, socialization and regulation of lines of descent. this traditional understanding of marriage as a legally and socially permitted union between a man and a woman, or even between a man and several women, or a woman and several men (depending on type) is now threatened by the forays of homosexuality leading to talks about same sex marriage. hence, in most parts of europe and america and very few areas in america, same sex marriage has either been fully legalized or its legalization is being deliberated. the unconventional nature of same sex marriage has arisen concerns and controversies about the practice leading to several arguments for and against it. this paper exposes the historical issues surrounding the development and practice of same sex marriage across the universe. it presents the existing arguments for and against the practice. more importantly, the paper evaluates the ontological worth and morality of same sex marriage from a moral realist perspective. from the moral realism perspective, the paper argues that same sex marriage is morally bad and indefensible because it cannot fulfill 'mindindependent facts' of the 'marriage reality' simultaneously which are the twin-ends of 58 mailto:ahanaebuka@gmail.com companionship and procreation. it hence concludes that same sex marriage is a modern perversion of the age-long traditional practice and understanding of different-sex marriage. early beginnings the idea of legally recognizing same-sex relationships began in scandinavia. in 1989, denmark was the first in the world to enact registered partnership law. the danish government commissioned a national study on the situation of gays and lesbians in 1984, aimed at eliminating discrimination and facilitating permanent relationships for this sexual minority (lee, 2010, p. 16). before a report was published in 1988, denmark had already attempted to establish a level-playing field by reducing inheritance tax payable by homosexual couples to put it on a par with that of married heterosexual couples. at the same time, the government amended the penal code making “vilifying behaviours” and differential treatments in commercial activities based on sexual orientation a criminal offence. in 1989, the parliament finally passed the registered partnership act. the law applies exclusively to same-sex couples with the stated purpose of equalizing the social and legal status of same-sex and heterosexual couples who wish to marry. gays and lesbians, upon registering their relationships with official registries, are entitled to the same rights and responsibilities once only enjoyed by their heterosexual counterparts (lee, 2010, p. 16). nevertheless, registered partners are not free to adopt children or hold official wedding ceremonies in the state lutheran church. the law also requires one of the partners to be a danish citizen and hold current residency (kulow, 2002, p. 12). some of the restrictions were relaxed in 1999. the introduction of a parliamentary bill in march 2009 may see same-sex couples jointly adopt in future. first same sex marriage changes continued to sweep across europe as new institutions recognizing same-sex relationships came into being. starting november1999, france began registering both same-sex and heterosexual couples under the civil solidarity pact. owing to the lack of political support, the status did not offer rights and benefits comparable to a marriage. germany has had the regime of “life partnerships” in place since 1 august 2001. same-sex couples, upon registration, are entitled to a limited range of rights and obligations. the real breakthrough came from the netherlands. although the netherlands only started to recognize registered partnerships in 1998 – nine years after its debut, it did not take too long before it caught up and outstripped denmark. the netherlands was the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage in 2001, giving full legal rights to married same-sex couples including the right to apply for stranger adoption for domestic children. (kulow, 2002, p. 433). the netherlands was among the very first countries in europe to decriminalize homosexual activity in 1811, after france in 1791, belgium and luxembourg in 1794 (lee, 2010, p. 18). in fact, as far as the legal protection given to homosexual citizens is concerned, the dutch have never been much behind. in the late 1980's, two test cases were brought to court where the homosexual couples claimed that the state ban on same-sex marriage violated their human rights. these legal challenges arose because the marriage statute in the netherlands contained gender-neutral language, which made it possible to argue that marriage could be between people of the same gender. while the cases made no legal breakthrough at a time when the link between marriage and procreation was unquestioned, both the district court and the supreme court held that the matter was one for the legislature. the tenacity of those eager to tie the knot did not falter. rather, subtle progress was 59 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 achieved on the sidelines. as dutch law permits municipalities to maintain an unlimited number of registers, it later provided an opportunity for same-sex couples to demand the setting up of “marriage registers” to officially record their relationships (maxwell, 2001, p. 142). in the years following 1991, over 130 municipalities started registering same-sex couples. despite the lack of a legal status, the willingness of the municipalities to register same-sex relationships carried significant political and symbolic values, paving the way for a sequence of legislative initiatives favorable to homosexual citizens. in 1992, the same year when the dutch government amended the penal code criminalizing discrimination on grounds of homosexuality, a state commission issued a report which recommended adopting denmark's registered partnership law (maxwell , 2001, p. 147). in 1994, the government enacted the general equal treatment act which contains comprehensive legal protections for gays and lesbians. (maxwell, 2001, p. 149). the momentum of change then took on a dual track. progress continued to made until 1 april 2001, the netherlands became the first country to legalize same-sex marriages (lee, 2010. p. 19). the practice has since gathered momentum and received state recognition across many countries in europe including belgium, spain, england, switzerland and france. the situation in canada and usa compared to europe, decriminalization of homosexuality is a recent phenomenon in canada. in 1969, canada decriminalized private homosexual activities between consenting male adults (the criminal law amendment act, 1968. p. 69) the removal of the legal stigma unleashed the yearning for equal treatment on the part of homosexual rights activists nationwide. in 1996, canadian government, adopting the canadian\human rights commission's recommendation made in 1979, inserted “sexual orientation” into the human rights act 1985, marking another leap of equality for the country's gay and lesbian citizens (canadian human rights commission, 1996. p. 12). this preliminary scene follows the european incremental pattern of achieving one breakthrough after another. what sets the canadian experience apart is that the momentum for legalizing same-sex marriage originated from the court instead of the parliament. in 1995, the canadian supreme court unanimously read “sexual orientation” into the canadian charter of rights and freedoms (the canadian charter) as an analogous ground of discrimination (lee, 2010, p. 23). the landmark judgment immediately negated any law which discriminated between heterosexual and homosexual relationships. what followed was a plethora of homosexual litigants fighting for equal rights across the country which culminated in the 1999 decision of m v h. this case arose from ontario's family law act which restricted spousal benefits to heterosexual couples (lee, 2010, p. 23). the majority of the supreme court held that excluding homosexual partners from the meaning of “spouse” violated the equality guarantee under the canadian charter. it perpetuated the disadvantages suffered by homosexual couples by degrading their relationships as “less worthy of recognition and protection” (lee, 2010, p. 23) and was “not demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society.” this sparked serious of litigations, constitutional amendments and civil toleration individual differences and rights in canada. the climax was the recognition of same sex marriage in the canadian supreme law in 2005. the unified action taken in federalist canada was a far cry from that of its southern neighbor. in the u.s, the legal regimes regulating same-sex relationships are rather fragmented amid court battles, federal law constraints, and other legal complications. to date, not all the states in the u.s. recognize same-sex marriage. those that have given full recognition to it include massachusetts, connecticut, iowa, vermont, maine, and new hampshire. legalization 60 ahana moral realism and same sex marriage debate of same-sex marriage in the u.s. is in a state of flux. california provides a case in point. having ruled in 2004 that the city and county of san francisco acted unlawfully by issuing marriage certificates to same-sex couples without a judicial green light, the supreme court of california declared unconstitutional the state marriage law restricting marriage to heterosexual couples in may 2008. after same-sex marriage had been officially legal since 16 june 2008, things took another sharp turn. on the same day as the u.s. presidential election on 4 november 2008, californian voters approved a state constitutional amendment entrenching the status of heterosexual marriage, which in effect reversed legalization of same-sex marriage in force for only four months. in recent times however there is greater clarity of the law and state or even national support for same sex marriage in america. the nigerian experience same sex marriage and all forms of homosexual activities are forbidden before the law in nigeria, in 7 january 2014, nigerian president jonathan goodluck signed his assent to the same sex marriage (prohibition) act (ssmpa), 2013. several elements of this legislation contravene nigeria's constitution as well as its binding international obligations, which guarantee fundamental rights to dignity, equality, nondiscrimination, privacy, freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention and freedom of expression and association, some have complained. under preexisting law, nigeria already criminalizes consensual same sex sexual activity in private which attracts a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment (criminal code act, chapter 77 laws of the federation of nigeria, 1990. sec. 352.). the ssmpa provides that: · only marriages contracted between a man and a woman shall be recognized as valid in nigeria. · any marriage contract or civil union entered into between persons of the same sex is prohibited. · a marriage contract or civil union entered into between persons of the same sex is invalid and illegal and shall not be recognized as entitled to benefits of a valid marriage. · marriage contracts or civil unions entered into between persons of the same sex by virtue of a certificate issued by a foreign country is void in nigeria, and any benefits accruing therefrom by virtue of the certificate shall not be enforced by any court of law in nigeria. · marriage or civil union entered into between persons of the same sex shall not be solemnized in any place of worship either church or mosque or any other place whatsoever called in nigeria. no such certificate shall be valid in nigeria (nigeria: same-sex marriage (prohibition) act, 2013). the same sex marriage debate according to the pew research center (masci and sciupac 2015), there are twenty-three countries in which same-sex marriage is legal: argentina (2010), belgium (2003), brazil (2013), canada (2005), colombia (2016), denmark (2012), england/wales (2013), finland (2015), france (2013), greenland (2015), iceland (2010), ireland (2015), luxembourg (2014), the netherlands (2000), new zealand (2013), norway (2009), portugal (2010), scotland (2014), south africa (2006), spain (2005), sweden (2009), the united states (2015), and uruguay (2013). for those who believe that same-sex couples should have the right to marry, in less than twenty years we have seen an extraordinary amount of progress on the issue of same-sex 61 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 marriage and gay rights more generally, at least in these twenty-three countries. it is still the case, however, that most countries in the world do not grant same sex couples the right to marry. some of those nations (e.g., italy, germany, and chile, to name a few) allow for various legal designations for same-sex couples that offer some, but not all, of the rights and recognition that different-sex married couples enjoy. moreover, according to the international lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and intersex association (ilga), seventy-five nations have laws criminalizing same-sex sexual activity (carroll &itaborahy, 2015); nigeria and the majority of african nations are in this group. in some countries where same-sex marriage is legal, such as the united states, opponents of same-sex marriage insist that the issue is not settled. for example, sherif girgis (2014), one of the most outspoken critics of same-sex marriage, has compared the debate to the debate over abortion, claiming that continued argument and advocacy on the whole range of marriage and family issues, including same-sex marriage, remain crucial. not only does social action make long term defeat less likely, it also serves the broader value for which legal victory is just a component and condition: the shaping of hearts and minds and lives in line with the truth” (girgis, 2014). the following two sections, effort is made to summarize the emerging arguments for and against same sex marriage. arguments against same sex marriage the definitional objection anyone who has followed the same-sex marriage debate is familiar with what is called the definitional objection to same-sex marriage. the definitional objection goes something like this: marriage just is the union of one woman and one man, and no law can change that any more than a law can make a shark a wombat (arroyo, 2017, p. 5). of course, the “just is” motivating the definitional objection needs some explaining. the most philosophically sophisticated explanation appears in the writings of the new natural law theorists. natural law is the name given to a host of related ethical, legal, and political theories that find their origin in the writings of aristotle and plato. although it is difficult to identify a set of characteristics that all natural law theories share (buckle, 1993, p. 161), natural law theories of ethics are ones that purport to demonstrate that we can discover objective ethical standards by examining human nature and the nature of the world. perhaps the most well-known classical natural law theorist is thomas aquinas (c. 1225–1274). new natural law theorists are so named because they claim to have developed their own interpretation of the natural law theory found in the writings of aquinas. by drawing on this interpretation they have developed a sophisticated sexual ethic that forms the basis of their definitional objection to same-sex marriage. recently, (sherifgirgis, ryan t. anderson, & robert p. george, 2012, p. 48) have developed their version of the definitional objection. they insist that marriage is a basic good with an “objective core,” which is fixed by our nature as embodied, sexually reproductive (and, hence, sexually complementary) beings. marriage, they go on to argue, is not reducible to a changing and changeable societal conception of the institution. true marriage, according to girgis, anderson, and george, possesses three essential and related features: marriage should be understood as “a union of will (by consent) and body (by sexual union); inherently ordered to procreation and thus the broad sharing of family life; and calling for permanent and exclusive commitment, whatever the spouses preferences” (2012. p. 6). same-sex couples cannot marry, according to this view, because same-sex couples are incapable of achieving the comprehensive union of persons that is characteristic of true, “conjugal marriage.” girgis, anderson, & george 62 ahana moral realism and same sex marriage debate regard bodily union as a necessary component of a genuinely comprehensive union of persons, and their definitional objection turns on this conception (2012. p. 99). according to them, bodily union occurs when different-sex couples engage in coitus because only in this activity do the woman and man join to form an organic whole. they explain their position by way of an analogy with the human body: “your organs are one body because they are coordinated for a single biological purpose of the whole that they form together: sustaining your biological life. just so, for two individuals to unite organically, their bodies must coordinate toward a common biological end of the whole that they form together” (2012. p. 25). in their view, only one biological (i.e., bodily) activity can unite two people in this way, namely, coitus, since “in coitus, and there alone, a man and a woman's bodies participate by virtue of their sexual complementarity in a coordination that has the biological purpose of reproductiona function neither can perform alone.” since, according to girgis, anderson, and george, two men or two women cannot achieve this kind of organic, bodily union, two men or two women cannot form a comprehensive union of persons, which is just to say that same-sex couples cannot marry. objections based on marital norms and the harms of same-sex marriage closely related to the definitional objection is the argument that tries to establish that legalizing same-sex marriage will harm the marriages of different-sex couples. this argument is often misunderstood by defenders of same-sex marriage, since they take the harm at issue here to be material harm. according to this argument, however, the harm of same-sex marriage is much subtler and pervasive than mere material harm. proponents of this argument, such as david blankenhorn (2007) claim that it is not that same-sex marriage will cost different-sex married couples money, or result in damage to their property, or keep different-sex married couples from owning a home or starting a family; rather, the central harm of same sex marriage is the erosion of marital norms. the thinking here is that just as reading trashy novels can erode one's capacity to identify, appreciate, enjoy, and produce great literature, so, too, bad marriage laws sap one's ability to identify, appreciate, enjoy, and achieve the goods of true marriage (arroyo, 2017. p. 6). john finnis (2008), another proponent of the harm argument, for example, argues that marriages “are factual realities whose coming to be and lasting depends upon people's grasp of marriage's truth (“reality,” “worth”) as an ideal” (p. 401). finnis (2008. pp. 398–399) insists that “concern for one's own people as a lasting community linking past, present, and future, justify and indeed mandate the defense even of modern marriage against such evacuations of [marriage's] meaning and intelligibility as an ideal and a summons to a thoroughgoing commitment for a non-illusory common good.” same-sex marriage, according to this argument, would amount to such an evacuation. girgis, anderson, & george, (2012. pp. 1-2) also predicted that legalizing same-sex marriage will undermine what they take to be the central norms of true marriage. they hold that defenders of same-sex marriage want to replace true, conjugal marriage with “the revisionist view of marriage.” in their telling of the revisionist view, marriage becomes nothing more than an intense emotional (loving) bond that distinguishes itself from other kinds of relationships by virtue of its intensity and that lasts only so long as both “married” partners feel this intense bond. were such a conception of marriage to become the norm, girgis, anderson, and george believe that marriage would no longer be understood to be a sexually exclusive and permanent bond. in their view, the revisionists have no grounds for asserting such exclusivity and permanence (2012. pp. 18–21), since, according to girgis, anderson, and george, procreation and the raising of children are the reasons why marriage is permanent and sexually exclusive. consequently, 63 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 according to this argument, different-sex couples would have to persevere in the hard and permanent work of true marriage surrounded by the bad example of elective and merely transient bonds. there are, however, further harms to marriage, at least as far as this line of reasoning is concerned, ones that are based on the erosion of true marital norms. for example, some proponents of this way of thinking predict that legalizing same-sex marriage will result in a threat to moral and religious freedom, insofar as such legalization threatens to make defenders of conjugal marriage falsely appear to be bigots, which, they fear, will result in society outlawing “traditional” marriage (girgis, et al. 2012. pp. 62–64). they claim that legalizing same-sex marriage will also undermine genuine friendships, insofar as the revisionist view of marriage provides no clear way to distinguish a marital relationship from other kinds of committed relationships (pp. 65–66). additionally, they argue, to redefine marriage law to allow for samesex marriage is to threaten limited government, since redefining marriage will do away with the kinds of protections conjugal marriage provides for children, and this withering away of such safeguards will require the government to step in to play the role of protector (pp. 57–58). objection to same-sex marriage based on the harm done to children this last point about the threat to limited government brings me to one final harm alleged by opponents of same-sex marriage, namely, the harm that same-sex marriage will do to children. the strongest proponent of this line of argument is maggie gallagher (2012). although gallagher does not self-identify as a new natural law theorist, she endorses many of their arguments. for example, she agrees with their conception of marriage as a comprehensive union of persons, and she endorses their version of the definitional objection (2012. pp. 95-102). in particular, she shares girgis, anderson, & george's conviction that the united states needs a strong marriage culture in order to promote the values and norms of conjugal marriage. central to gallagher's account of a strong marriage culture is her claim that the norms of 'traditional' marriage “stem from centuries of experience in the always-evolving, ever adapting task of reconciling male and female in a way that is satisfying to both and most likely to protect the children they create” (2012. p. 142). gallagher grounds her argument about the importance of marriage for the wellbeing of children in what she takes to be three persistent truths about human beings everywhere: (1) “the overwhelming majority of us are powerfully attracted, and not by reason, to an act that makes new human life”; (2) “society needs babies”; and (3) “children ought to have a mother as well as a father” (2012. pp. 108–109). gallagher defends this third point by invoking the results of certain social scientific studies that conclude that children are better off when they are raised by their respective biological mothers and biological fathers. quoting a child trends research brief from 2002, gallagher claims that “research clearly demonstrates that family structure matters for children, and the family structure that helps the most is a family headed by two biological parents in a low-conflict marriage” (p. 110). according to gallagher, a child wants to be raised by his biological mother and father, which stems from his “desire to experience both male and female love and to experience his own creation as an act of love by both his parents” (p. 113). in other words, according to this way of thinking, differences between the way mothers and fathers love their children are real and not merely socialized, and a child needs both kinds of love in order to have the best chance of developing into a mature, flourishing adult. this is the case, according to gallagher, because of basic, natural (i.e., not socially constructed/learned) differences between women and men. “we need a cultural mechanism,” gallagher summarizes, for attaching fathers 64 ahana moral realism and same sex marriage debate to the mother-child bond and for communicating to young adults in the middle of erotic, romantic, psychological, and emotional dramas that they need to act with restraint and even selfsacrifice if they are to obtain this great good for their children (p. 113). arguments in support of same sex marriage the equal treatment argument the equal treatment argument comes in a variety of forms, each of which draws the same basic conclusion: to allow different-sex couples to marry but not allow same-sex couples to do the same is unjust, since there are no morally relevant differences between different-sex and same-sex couples that can justify such different treatment (arroyo, 2017. p. 12). hence, according to this line of reasoning, to allow different-sex couples the right to marry while denying this right to same-sex couples is discriminatory, plain and simple. three versions of this kind of argument deserve attention: the analogy with anti-miscegenation, the sterility objection, and the sexual orientation caste system argument. however, consideration the scope of this paper, only the first two shall be exposed. the analogy with antimiscegenation: this argument concerns an analogy between race and sex; just as race is irrelevant when it comes to whether two people may marry, so, too, is sex. the key legal precedent in the united states, where this argument has particular sway, is loving v. virginia (1967) (cited in arroyo, 2010. p. 18), the united states supreme court case in which richard loving (a white man) and mildred jeter (a black woman) challenged the virginia court's ruling that their marriage entailed a violation of virginia's racial integrity act of 1959. the court, in a majority opinion written by chief justice earl warren, judged that antimiscegenation laws are unconstitutional and that different-race couples enjoy the right to marry as much as same race couples. proponents of the analogy between antimiscegenation laws and laws against same-sex marriage invoke loving v. virginia, arguing that the position of those who would outlaw different-race marriages and the position of those who would outlaw samesex marriages share a number of formal similarities. as william eskridge (1996) explains: those defending the prohibitions in both cases relied on arguments that deny marriage's social and contingent features. specifically, the supporters of antimiscegenation statutes made the same kind of definitional and natural law arguments that supporters of statutes barring same-sex marriage now make. loving rejected all those arguments and exposed them as pretexts for a discriminatory race-based classification for which the state could advance no compelling interest (pp. 153–154). since discrimination with respect to race is wrong when it comes to the issue of who may marry, it is equally wrong, according to this line of reasoning, to discriminate with respect to sex. the sterility objection: the second equal treatment argument emerges directly as a response to the definitional objection. just like the analogy with antimiscegenation, this argument relies on the formal notion of consistency. although he did not invent the phrase, the strongest proponent of the sterility objection is stephen macedo (1996). macedo develops the sterility objection within the context of his more general critique of the sexual ethics of the new natural law 65 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 theorists. according to macedo, opponents of same-sex marriage such as the new natural law theorists are committed to an “unexplained inconsistency” in their position. they insist that an essential condition for morally good sex is the organic (biological) unity that is achieved in coitus, which is open to procreation, yet these same people also insist that different-sex couples who are sterile can and do achieve the kind of unity requisite for genuine marriage, despite the impossibility of procreation. in macedo's own words, what is the point of sex in an infertile marriage? not procreation: the partners know they are infertile. if they have sex, it is for pleasure and to express their love or friendship or some other shared good. it will be for precisely the same reasons that committed, loving gay couples have sex. why are these good reasons for sterile or elderly married couples but not for gay and lesbian couples? and if, on the other hand, sex detracts from the real goods shared by homosexual couples, and indeed undermines their friendship, why is that not the case for infertile heterosexual couples as well? (macedo. 1996. p. 36). the crux of the definitional objection to same-sex marriage is that same-sex couples cannot achieve the kind of bodily union available to different-sex couples in the form of coitus, the socalled reproductive-type of act. according to macedo and those who agree with him, if we allow sterile different-sex couples to marry despite being unable to procreate or to engage in sexual acts that are open to procreation, then we should, on pain of contradiction, allow same-sex couples to marry, too. the benefits of same-sex marriage just as a number of opponents of same-sex marriage argue that granting same-sex couples the right to marry would cause a number of significant harms, a number of defenders of same-sex marriage argue that legalizing it would in no way cause the harms alleged and would, in fact, lead to a number of goods. for example, william eskridge & darren spedale (2006) examined almost twenty years of data concerning same-sex domestic partnerships in scandinavia and found no evidence to support the harm claims and predictions of opponents of legalizing same-sex marriage. indeed, they argue that legalizing same-sex domestic partnerships has had a significant positive impact on many different aspects of scandinavian society, and not merely for gays and lesbians (pp. 131–167). for example, they argue that legalizing same-sex domestic partnerships tends to foster closer relationships between embers of same-sex couples and their respective friends and family members (pp. 149–154). additionally, defenders of same-sex marriage are quick to point out, these kinds of benefits extend to the children of gays and lesbians. for example, contrary to the view of someone such as maggie gallagher, defenders of same-sex marriage can cite social scientific evidence that purports to show that children who are part of gay or lesbian families are not thereby harmed, and, in fact, seem to do as well as children raised by parents who are in a different-sex relationship, even though the sample sizes tend to be small in these studies (meezan and rauch, 2005). jonathan rausch (2004) has made his case for expanding the institution of marriage to gays and lesbians on the grounds of the alleged benefits of same-sex marriage. rauch argues that despite the various functions marriage has had throughout history and across cultures, one of the main points of the institution today is caregiving (p. 18). in other words, marriage is good for married people because “they have someone to look after them, and they know it” (p. 23). on his view, there is, therefore, no good reason to deny this good to same-sex couples. actually, he argues that such a denial positively harms gays and lesbians, particularly in our marriage-positive 66 ahana moral realism and same sex marriage debate culture. he argues, “with all due respect to opponents of same-sex marriage, discriminating in order to pin a badge of inferiority on some group or another is not a legitimate use of law….the law's job is not to punish the disadvantaged by excluding them but to help them make the most of their lives, or at least to give them the same benefit of doubt which is accorded everyone else” (rauch, 2004. pp. 100–101). the benefit of allowing same sex couples to marry, according to rauch, goes well beyond granting these couples the same rights and legal benefits of differentsex married couples. as he puts it: sex, love and marriage go together. each works better in conjunction with the other two; each gives shape and direction to the others. sex without love and love (at least romantic love) without sex both tend to be hollow, unstable, and difficult to integrate into healthy emotional life. and marriage is just as important as the other two. from early adolescence, the prospect of marriage and the expectation of marriage (and the knowledge that society expects marriage) condition the meaning of love. every kiss, every passion, from the first crush and the first date, has a different, deeper meaning in the context of possible marriage (rauch, 2004. p. 59). according to rauch, legalizing same sex marriage would signal an important cultural change for gays and lesbians, one that would allow them to embrace and enjoy the rights, responsibilities, and norms of marriage. in other words, the norms of married life, as they currently exist, would have a knock-on effect, creating more stability for lesbians and gays communities and their families, particularly as they get older. standing behind these arguments is the conviction that same sex relationships and same sex sexual activity can be every bit as good as different-sex relationships and different-sex sexual acts. that is, the foregoing proponents of the good of same sex marriage insist that homosexuality (i.e., engaging in same-sex sex acts) is not immoral. argument from history: marriage is a changing institution part of the argumentative strategy of the conservative case is to use the idea of “traditional” marriage to its advantage. this strategy emerges because some opponents of the right of same sex couples to marry claim that they are merely defending 'traditional' marriage-that is, the idea that marriage is between one woman and one man and has procreation and the raising of a family as its essential ends. but some defenders of same sex marriage are quick to respond that there is no such thing as “traditional” marriage. the institution of marriage, so the argument goes, is an invention of humans, one with no natural purpose or structure (arroyo, 2017. pp. 17). historian stephanie coontz (2005) has done significant work to document the history of marriage. according to her, the history of marriage is the history of an ever-changing and evolving institution, one whose purpose and structure was shaped by, and helped to shape, the societies in which it existed (p. 24). according to coontz, “for most of history marriage was not primarily about the individual needs and desires of a man and a woman and the children they produced. marriage had as much to do with getting good in-laws and increasing one's family labour force as it did with finding a lifetime companion and raising a beloved child” (p. 6). the reality is that for much of human history the institution of marriage was primarily a way for families (i.e., the male heads of families) to build political alliances and gain economic security (coontz, 2005, part two). only in the seventeenth century did we begin to see the changes take place that result in the idea of marrying for love (coontz, 2005. pp. 145–154). actually, some thinkers would contest the idea that legalizing same-sex marriage signals a new development in human history. william eskridge (1996) gives a detailed history of the 67 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 ways in which a variety of culturesincluding western european, christian culturesat various points in history have allowed for same sex unions and marriages. for example, he describes the ways in which certain civilizations (such as those in classical greece, the roman empire, medieval china, and certain native american tribes, to name a few) recognized same sex marriages or at least recognized some same sex relationships as equivalent to marriages (eskridge, 1993, pp. 1437–1469). accounts such as eskridge's are not trying to say that same sex marriage was the norm in those cultures and societies. rather, eskridge's point is to provide what he calls a “social constructionist history of marriage,” which is one that “emphasizes the ways in which marriage is 'constructed' by society over time, with 'exclusions' from the institution being viewed as reflecting larger social power relations” (1993. pp. 1421–1422). if marriage is a social construction in eskridge's sense, and if throughout history there have been various ways in which the institution has functioned and been understood, then proponents of this line of argument contend, there is no such thing as “traditional marriage,” and there is no prima facie reason why the institution of marriage cannot change yet again to include same sex couples. moral realism: basic concept moral realism (also called ethical realism) is the ethical stance that argues that there are mind-independent moral properties/facts. moral realists maintain (1) that in making moral judgments – for instance, that cruelty is wrong or generosity required or justice a virtue – people are purporting to report moral facts (and not just expressing their tastes or preferences) and (2) that there are such facts to report, so that some such claims are actually true and the world is, really, in those cases as claimed (sayre-mccord, 2013. p. 4369). jonathan dancy (2003. p. 1) notes that if one is a full-blown moral realist, one probably accepts the following three claims. first, moral facts are somehow special and different from other sorts of fact. realists differ, however, about whether the sort of specialness required is compatible with taking some natural facts to be moral facts. take, for instance, the natural fact that if we do this action, we will have given someone the help they need. could this be a moral fact – the same fact as the fact that we ought to do the action? or must we think of such a natural fact as the natural 'ground' for the (quite different) moral fact that we should do it, that is, as the fact in the world that makes it true that we should act this way? second, realists hold that moral facts are independent of any beliefs or thoughts we might have about them. what is right is not determined by what i or anybody else thinks is right. it is not even determined by what we all think is right, even if we could be got to agree. we cannot make actions right by agreeing that they are, any more than we can make bombs safe by agreeing that they are. third, it is possible for us to make mistakes about what is right and what is wrong. no matter how carefully and honestly we think about what to do, there is still no guarantee that we will come up with the right answer. so what people conscientiously decide they should do may not be the same as what they should do. the morality of same sex marriage: a moral realist position in this section effort is made to examine the stance of proponents of same sex marriage from the ethical standpoint of moral realism. recall that moral realists make moral judgments based on the following foundational assumptions: · that there are mind-independent moral properties/facts; · that moral facts are independent of any beliefs or thoughts we might have about them; · that in making moral judgments (for instance, same sex marriage is right or wrong) 68 ahana moral realism and same sex marriage debate people are purporting to report moral facts (and not just expressing their tastes or preferences). · that there are such facts to report, so that some such claims are actually true and the world is, really, in those cases as claimed. · that (judgments) express s that refer to features of the world (that ethical thought objective is, features independent of subjective opinion), some of which may be true to the extent that they report those features accurately. all the arguments put forward by the proponents of same sex marriage fall short of the moral foundations of moral realism. what are the issues in contention in the same sex marriage debate? the issues specifically concern whether same sex marriage fits in with the ends of marriage as it were in different-sex marriage. what are these ends? there are basically two of them companionship and procreation. every marriage relationship aims at fulfilling these purposes. marriage is meant for companionship. marriage is meant for procreation. in moral realist terms or expression, these two are the mind-independent properties/facts concerning marriage. these two are the intrinsic good and worth of marriage. for every marriage to be considered morally sound or good, it must have the inherent capacity to fulfill these two ends. these ends are not imposed on marriage; they are not the subject of artificial creation. they are automatically implied in the act of marriage. companionship and procreation are moral facts of marriage that are independent of any beliefs or thoughts we might have about them. that is why in every culture and religion since adam, these ends of marriage are naturally perceived and honoured among men. hence, when a child is born outside marriage, he or she is considered a bastard; and when a man and woman live together outside marriage and enjoy sexual intimacy such is condemned and described as concubinage. this moral disposition is common among all cultures irrespective of differences in believes and customs. therefore, companionship and procreation as ends of marriage are what every union expects. hence any moral (judgments) to be made on the worth of marriage must refer to these features of the world of marriage. these features thus become the ultimate criteria to test the morality of any marriage? for the moral realist therefore to determine the morality of any marriage; check if the bond is between persons capable of enjoying each other's company; check if the bond is inherently (naturally) endowed with the capacity for procreation. these are mind-independent variables, devoid of cultural, parochial and religious sentiments. every marriage must have the inherent capacity to fulfill these two needs, not one or the otherboth. moral realism is therefore totally opposed to same sex marriage. the practice is a pervasion of the natural norms of marriage which is supposed to be a union between a man and a woman in other to fulfill the needs of companionship and procreation. same sex marriage cannot fulfill both needs. the use of the term 'inherent' is intentional. some may argue that same sex marriage can fulfill both needs since the couple can also be of company to each other and they can use other means (ivf, surrogacy, etc.) to procreate. yes, companionship is possible in same sex marriage; but procreation is inherently impossible. no same sex marriage has the inherent biological capacity to procreate. some can also argue that there are different-sex couples who are not capable of procreating, therefore, the 'inherent procreation' argument being made here is not logical. this is not true. inherence here means that the marriage bond must be between persons of different gender (male and female). only a man and woman has the capacity, the natural capacity to produce a child. this capacity is inherent (inborn); not artificial. a man or woman may lose it due to some existential challenge; this does 69 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ethical https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/proposition https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/objectivity_(philosophy) not however suggest that such a person is born without such inherent capacity. such inherent capacity and the loss of it (accidentally) cannot be said of in a same sex union. there are some fundamental questions proponents of same sex marriage need to deal with. if different-sex marriage is a mere creation of culture and culture is changeable; therefore, contemporary man can decide to reconstruct the marriage culture to permit same sex marriage, why then do we have two gender-type, two sex types in every species? is the law of opposites and reproduction – male and female meeting to have a new bornea myth in the human instance? if every man decides to marry a fellow man, every woman decides to marry a fellow woman, what becomes of the human race in the future? wouldn't such threaten the continuous existence of mankind? if companionship is so important to same sex bonds to the extent they don't consider marrying their opposite sex in order to procreate naturally, why do same sex partners still use artificial means to bear children? why wouldn't they stay alone and enjoy their childless companionship? at the end, it is obvious that the same sex marriage ideal is merely a perversion of the true marriage tradition. it is not ethical, customary or natural to man or even the lower animals. conclusion this paper made rigorous attempt to expose the historical development and controversies related to same sex marriage. effort was also made to access same sex marriage from the ethical standpoint of moral realism. notice that in the course of the discourse in this paper, careful attempt was made to avoid using arguments from religion to negate same sex marriage. this is because while this paper does not consider such arguments to be facile; it is motivated by the awareness that most proponents of same sex marriage are not inclined to religion. hence, the desire to use only philosophical and commonsensical arguments founded on moral realism to argue against same sex marriage. same sex marriage is the fullness of the clamour to legalize homosexuality in the contemporary world. the two practices are closely related; for the ones in a same sex marriage union is incontrovertibly a homosexual. homosexual sexual orientation birthed same sex marriage. this paper is aware of this. nevertheless, it paid attention specifically to the issues surrounding same sex marriage. the conclusion here is that from the ethical standpoint of the moral realist, same sex marriage is intolerable and both morally and logically unacceptable because it cannot fulfill the twin-ends of marriage which are companionship and procreation. proponents of same sex marriage can provide arguments to justify it and hence nullify the 'companionship' end of marriage. however, no argument whatsoever can undo the 'procreation end and hence seek the justification of same sex marriage on those grounds. references arroyo, christopher (2017), kant's ethics and the same-sex marriage debate an introduction. gewerbestrasse: springer international publishing. blankenhorn, david (2007). the future of marriage. new york/london: encounter books. buckle, stephen (1993). natural law. in a companion to ethics, ed. peter singer, 161–174. malden: blackwell publishing, ltd. carroll, aengus & lucas paoli itaborahy (2015). state-sponsored homophobia: a world survey of laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition of same-sex love. 78 ahana moral realism and same sex marriage debate http://old.ilga.org/ statehomophobia/ilga_state_sponsored_homophobia_2015.pdf. coontz, stephanie (2005). marriage, a history: how love conquered marriage. new york: penguin books. criminal code act (chapter 77 laws of the federation of nigeria 1990), section. 214. d a n c y , j . “ m o r a l r e a l i s m ” r o u t l e d g e e n c y c l o p e d i a o f philosophy. . accessed https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/moral-realism/v-1 01/04/2023. eskridge, william n. jr., and darren r. spedale (2006). gay marriage: for better or for worse? what we've learned from the evidence. oxford/new york: oxford university press. eskridge, william n. jr. (1996). the case for same-sex marriage: from sexual liberty to civilized commitment. new york: the free press. finnis, john. 2008. marriage: a basic and exigent good. the monist, vol. 91, no. 3, 388–406. gallagher, maggie (2012|). debating same-sex marriage (point/counterpoint). new york: oxford university press. girgis, sherif. 2014. why fight for marriage? the public discourse, february 6, 2014. http:// www.thepublicdiscourse.com/2014/02/11982/. girgis, sherif, ryan t. anderson, and robert p. george. 2012. what is marriage? man and woman: a defense. new york: encounter books. karen lee m. y., (2010), equality, dignity and same sex marriage: a rights disagreement in democratic society. netherlands: martinusnijhof publishers. kulow, marianne delpo (2002), “same sex marriage: a scandinavian perspective,” 24 loyola of los angeles international and comparative law review, vol. 419, pp. 421–425. macedo, stephen (1996). against the old sexual morality of the new natural law. in natural law, liberalism, and morality, ed. robert george, 27–48. oxford: oxford university press. masci, david & elizabeth sciupac. 2015. gay marriage around the world. pew research center http://www.pewforum.org/2015/06/26/gay-marriage-around-the-world-2013/. maxwell, nancy g. (2001), “opening civil marriage to same-gender couples: a netherlandsunited states comparison,” 18arizona journal of international & comparative law 141, pp 142–147 meezan, william, and jonathan rauch (2005). gay marriage, same-sex parenting, and america's children. the future of children 15 (2): 97–115. nigeria same-sex marriage (prohibition) act, 2013. rauch, jonathan (2004). gay marriage: why it is good for gays, good for straights, and good for america. new york: holt paperback. the criminal law amendment act, 1968–69 (s.c. 1968–69, c.38), passed as bill c-150 in may 1969, amended the criminal code to decriminalize consensual homosexual acts between male adults. 1996 annual report, canadian human rights commission. available at http:// www.chrcccdp.ca/publications/1996_ar/default-en.asp (visited 21 dec 05). 71 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/moral-realism/v-1 page 66 page 67 page 68 page 69 page 70 page 71 page 72 page 73 page 74 page 75 page 76 page 77 page 78 page 79 1 what is in a (sur)name? igbos and the gradual obliteration of their identity: a cause for concern modestus anyaegbu, phd peter university achina/onneh anambra state modesny@yahoo.com abstract for the igbo, globalization is one significant event that is considerably changing his/her values, culture, language, and practices. time was when an igbo could easily be identified by his cultural values and language. today, the igbo spirit of adaptation and adoption of the values and cultures of his/her place of birth and growth, education and residence, has been stretched to breaking point. the resultant effect is the evident loss of “some igboness” of igbos in diaspora and even igbos at home in various states of igbo land. it is the loss of ‘some igboness’ that will lead to what we have described as the gradual obliteration of the igbo identity. this is seen in the gradual but progressive penchant for change of igbo ethnic surnames into foreign or anglo-saxon surnames. for instance, an igbo formerly identified as ‘okechukwu okafo,’ accepts to be christened ‘john’ giving him the names – ‘john okechukwu okafo.’ when he becomes a parent, instead of bequeathing ‘okafo’ as the surname to his children, he transmits to them ‘john.’ that makes the igbo son born and christened ‘michael’ to become identified as ‘michael john.’ the new identification tag unfortunately deracinates him from his cultural heritage into anglo-saxon lineage of which he knows nothing about. this growing tendency poses a great danger to igbo identity and calls for serious cause for concern. we investigated the new students in a faculty and found evidence of igbo identity obliteration mostly by parental ignorance. our approach is expository, educative and corrective. introduction the question of igbo identity is becoming more and more complex by the day given the complex and multifaceted history, culture, experiences, assimilative and gregarious nature of the igbo. the vehicle of our culture and the expression of our ancient tradition—igbo language—is threatened with extinction today more than ever. while some of the factors bringing that extinction are externally brought upon us, some are self-engineered. one of those self-engineered factors that is speedily leading to the obliteration of the igbo identity is the change of igbo surnames into christian or baptismal or foreign names; foreign in the sense that such names are neither linguistically, ethnically, culturally, nor nationally inspired. it is the observation of scassa that: “names form a part of a language system, that language is central to individual identity, and that language is an important tool in the construction of national identity” (1996, p. 168). how then will igbos participate in the construction of their national identity, when they are busy denying their language and the visible mark of their identity, their igbo surnames? today one can correctly assert that though mastery of igbo language is a valid gage for ‘igboness’ of an igbo person, it is not indispensable. as a vehicle of communication, anybody from anywhere can conveniently master igbo language if he/she deems the language necessary for his/her survival. igbos in diaspora evidently mingle and thrive in foreign lands by, among other things, the mastery of the language of the place. more often than not, that language mastery does not suffice to make them autochthonous indigenes of their place of habitation. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 2 conferment of chieftaincy titles and other titles was one of the characteristics of igboness of the igbo person, when those titles were conferred by the true kings of the communities and in some cases by the communities themselves. other titles like nze, ozo, ichie, lolo etc., usually conferred upon meriting and worthy sons and daughters of various communities by which such receivers of the titles become privileged members of the special groups of honest, hardworking, and righteous people. the value of these titles has drastically been affected by among other things, the deadly and corruptive influence of money, which in some places has made the revered titles available to the highest bidder regardless of the character deficiency. even in diaspora, these titles are now conferred on diaspora sons and daughters of igbo parents, but who know little or nothing about the igbo culture and the significance of the titles they receive. can these diasporans stand and offer in traditional ways, the sacred kola nut to chukwu okike and invite the hallowed assistance of our ancestors—the ndi ichie? do they really understand the kola nut which achebe (2012) described as “a sacred fruit and had a very distinct and distinguished role in igbo life and culture” (p. 10)? we know our people were overtly religious and still, to certain extent, are. one of the most powerful encounters that affected and still affect the igboness of the igbo person is the christian religion. it is one of the signs of belongingness to a christian denomination to accept a christian name, which means foreign names introduced to us as those of saints, that is, those who have attained holiness through the practice of christian virtues. taking their names signifies that we have become new beings and have the assistance of our saint-models in our journey of faith. a once named ‘okechukwu ofoegbu’ would accept ‘peter’ as a baptismal name to show his new status. that would make him the bearer of three names – ‘peter okechukwu ofoegbu.’ the one change however which would cause much distress was the order to abandon igbo titles as they were seen to be “unchristian.” i remember the experience of some of our titled men who were torn apart between keeping their titles received from so called “heathen chiefs and kings” and receiving conversion into christianity which implied at that time, the rejection of those titles and their paraphernalia. we consider the interaction between achebe’s father and his uncle udoh on the need to accept christianity and go along with the rest of the family and the society at large. as reported by achebe (2012): his uncle pointed to the awesome row of insignia of his three titles—ichi ozo, ido idemili, ime omaalor. “what shall i do to these?” he asked my father. it was an awesome question. he had essentially asked: “what do i do to who i am? what do i do to history?” (pp. 12-3) that poignant passage has confirmed that titles were important in igbo land for igbo people. titles defined not only history of the person but his identity as igbo man and custodian of our ancient igbo tradition. those titles had igbo names and meanings attached to them through which they conveyed the conviction, the traditional values and history of the people. achebe’s uncle was at a crossroad: was he to keep his identity or “throw all that away because some strangers from afar had said so” (p.13)? of course, udoh held on to his identity. we remember the famous passage where shakespeare asked the rhetorical question: ‘what is in a name?’ our sense in the use of that question is to address a phenomenon that is increasingly becoming normal among the igbos of the southeast nigeria. it is about replacing traditional igbo surnames with ‘foreign’ or ‘english’ names that were personal names acquired from christian, sacramental baptism. for instance, ‘okechukwu ofoegbu’ after receiving baptism becomes ‘peter okechukwu ofoegbu’ or simply ‘peter ofoegbu’. when he becomes a parent, modestus anyaegbu, what is in a (sur)name? igbos and the gradual…. 3 he hands over his personal, baptismal name ‘peter’ as surname to his children. thus, if the child is michael by baptism, his full name becomes ‘michael peter’. how does ‘peter’ as a surname culturally identify michael as an igbo man? is this not an indirect and ignorant denial of one’s race and identity? my write up is inspired by the startling discovery i made of the surnames of the newly arrived year one students in one departmental course of a university. out of one hundred and seventynine students offering the course, twelve of them, though all igbos, had foreign surnames that distanced them from identification with igbo race, family or lineage. they had names, surnames first before personal names like: kelvin petra, vitus olive, hyacinth favour, peters teresa, fidelis angel, josephat stella, henry jude-mary, francis benedict, st. anthony faith, josephat-nweke sharon and ben-ezenwa evelyn. the last two indicate a different trend among igbos, a mixture of foreign and igbo names perhaps to demarcate their own families from other families of the same parents having the same family name. theirs is of lesser gravity than the rest. when i went into other faculties and looked at the names, i discovered that such foreign surnames of igbo families are gradually becoming a la mode. my interaction with the students bearing such names, revealed a total ignorance of the implications of bearing such surnames; almost all said that they were given the surnames by their parents who had them as their first or baptismal names. the first confusion it sows in the family is to have parents and children having two different surnames. how would they wriggle out of such self-inflicted wound when they are required to present certificates bearing proofs of the same parentage for their kids? the second confusion is that such ‘foreign’ surnames de-roots the bearers from their true family lineage and race into a foreign ethnic group who neither knows them, accepts them nor will ever identify with them. are we not foreseeing the seeds of future identity crisis being sown in silence and ignorance? thus, the importance of creating this awareness and educating our people on the reason for holding onto our igbo surnames. names and surnames: meaning and derivation names and surnames in igbo culture are not chosen by chance. while personal names are chosen by the parents, surnames are handed over from parents to their children while respecting the family lineage and the sacred traditions of our ancient culture. surnames are in effect indicative of people tied together by the relationship of blood and passed down from one generation to another. surnames are not only reflective of who we are, they are also indicative of where we are coming from. davies (2011, p. 565) notes that “the potential of surname as a signifier of heritage and as a way of locating the family and kin group in a wider web of relationships.” names usually come about because of so many factors affecting the birth and circumstances of a child or person, and surnames in most cases are the names of the patriarchs of the family. personal names are chosen by parents in accordance with certain factors. they could be circumstances of birth, day of birth, events that took place before, during and after conception and birth, the family history and lineage, family values and dreams, etc. thus, a child born during the war could be given a name like ‘aghadiuba – war is multiple; ‘aghaegbuna’ – let war not kill; ‘aghadinjo’– war is evil etc., to remind the parents the circumstances of the child’s birth and perhaps their survival of the war because of the child. names—personal names—were conveyed through the language of the people and would aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 4 always resonate with the community whose heritage and values the names communicate. as observed by nnamdi-eruchalu (2018): a personal name is a name that belongs to an individual and which serves as a label for him or her. it is the distinct identity which every individual bears. it is the standard practice in all cultures for every individual to be named at birth. (p. 171) when christianity became a major religion among the igbos, the use of foreign or christian or baptismal names as personal names became the mode. apart from traditional names given by parents after birth, the child received a second personal ‘christian’ name on the day of his or her sacramental baptism. these two names then precede the family name that we call surname. surnames are names that define a person according to parental, family, ethnic, national, linguistic and cultural heritage. for the igbo, surnames reflect their cosmology; the igbo understanding of the world in which they live and move, the belief system that shapes their relationship with visible and invisible forces, their values and ideology, their belongingness to a given society. it is a natural given that surnames which can communicate all these local experiences and historical values must be in the local language. igbo tradition also makes room for a child born outside of marriage. if the father of the unmarried mother of the illegitimate child is still alive, custom would dictate that the child gets recognition by adopting the surname of the grandfather. by that, the child becomes automatically the child of the grandfather and a member of the family. every surname as noted by scassa (1996) has a “history which belongs to the community of people as part of their language” (p. 168). the most important character of igbo surnames is that they are mostly patronymic following from a culture that is patrilineal. family references are usually made to the father of the family or a male ancestor of the family. in some exceptional cases and in some parts of igboland, some surnames are metronymic where they refer to the contributions of the mother, for example ezeakunne, akunne etc. the surname as in ‘ezeakunne’ references the kingly lineage that included a rich queen mother. as noted by ibemesi (2011): in idemili local government area of anambra state, people answer akunne, which means “mother’s wealth” to show that the bearer is enjoying the wealth of the mother. nnewulu is another surname which means “mother graced me.” again, as with patronymic, the above names tell some story about the bearers. they are not just mere identification tags. when in a male-dominated society, families answer surnames that show they were made by a woman’s “sweat,” this goes to show the historical importance of names as records of family and community history. (p. 156) another significant function of igbo surnames is the unmistakable identity it confers on the bearers. those who are abreast with different ethnicities of the world would not find it difficult to localize the bearers merely by seeing the surnames in their vehicle of communication which is the local language. as succinctly captured by scassa (1996): ethnic surnames are a useful model for making links between languages and individual identity, language and national identity, and the identification of the individual with the nation state. (p. 168) modestus anyaegbu, what is in a (sur)name? igbos and the gradual…. 5 some igbos in diaspora who fortunately are interested in knowing their root and safeguarding their cultural heritage adhere to the igbo family surname transmitted to them by their parents. though they may not understand the language of their roots, they do hold on to the fact that they have a family root that can be validly traced in time and space. the pride of knowing the cultural significance of their surnames, would keep them basically assured of a past rich in history. language and culture: given that culture is the mode of life of a people, it must be communicated through language. this makes the two inextricably bound. as a means of communication, language reflects the values of a culture, and transmits the knowledge, traditions, laws and cultural history of a given people. the visible sign of such values is in the names and surnames with which a given people are identified. language and culture, according to akindele and adegbite (2005), are connected in three major ways: first, it is an aspect of culture – one of the very many objects and institutions of culture. second, language is an instrument of thought. it helps to concretize thought and also to explore, extend and record the experiences in a culture. third, language expresses culture. it is the only way by which the social experiences and values of a group of people are perceived and understood. (pp. 5-6) surnames or family names are very important and significant on both cultural and social contexts. at least in igbo culture, the surname is a vehicle that conveys lineage and family history. it immediately indicates, in most cases, ethnic origins and nationality. ethnic origins are engraved in languages that vehicle surnames throughout the world. a classic example may be given with the names displayed by professional footballers on their team jerseys. i remember immediately the professional footballer for crystal palace football club in england. his name reads: ‘eberechukwu eze’ on his team jersey. the name automatically tells those familiar with the language and the name that this player has igbo roots in southeastern nigeria, though he may be representing england on international assignments. those interested could meet him to know about his roots, and his history. that is what surnames do; they convey identity and immediately connect individuals to their ancestral lineage and community. those who hold on to their igbo identities in their surnames, understand and value their traditional igbo history. they understand the value of their language in conveying meanings that go beyond time and locations. unfortunately, those who replace their igbo names for foreign or exotic names, not only disparage their origins and history, but more importantly showcase themselves as ignorant of who they are and where they are coming from. they help to perpetuate the evil of colonialism, and have become in themselves, enemies of their own igbo race and identity. they are in fact displaying badges on themselves perpetually asking “who are we?” “what is the meaning of our existence?” “our lives perhaps belong to others.” in short terms, they are saying that they have obliterated their identity and would become specimens for identity crisis in the future. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 6 the most important sources of igbo surnames having seen the meaning and importance of surnames and given that there is nothing more traditional than surnames, it is important to note some of the known source or sources from which the igbo derive their surnames. the igbo surnames are usually derived from the following factors: i. ancestry: this is the most important determinant of igbo surnames. fortunately, it is not only the igbos who take their surnames according to ancestral lineage. ancestors signify the source and origin of families. surnames pay homage to these founders of families and are pointers to a shared lineage and heritage. the biblical accounts of jewish families bear witness to the importance of having names taken from ancestral lineage. a good example is the event of the birth of john the baptist. when it was time to name him, the relatives objected to the name “john” prechosen by divine fiat and made known to the parents zechariah and elizabeth. they wondered how the parents came about that name and objected, “no one in your family has that name” (lk 1:61ff). outside of names chosen by divine fiat, jewish families give names to their offsprings with strict adherence to their ancestral and family lineage. this still holds in various races and ethnic groups of the world. the igbos as noted by onwuatuegwu (2023) pay much attention to their ancestral lineage as it is a link to the community’s past, “fostering a sense of communal identity and continuity” (p. 92). when ancestors are rightly honoured and respected, they bestow blessings upon their descendants. conversely, they allow curses to make their paths very rough and unprogressive. one of the ways of disrespecting our hallowed ancestors is by throwing away their names from the family lineage and heritage. the ancestral lineage is a vital link between the living and the spiritual realm which ensures continual guidance and providence. in certain cases, families who have maintained the same ancestral lineage for centuries get easy access by the mention of that name, to so many closed doors. it only suffices to have an ancestor in the lineage that lived well and rose to a position of high status and respect in the society, for the descendants to be accorded such privileges. ii. occupation and titles: in some cases, in igbo culture, surnames also reflect traditional occupations or titles that were once the identifiers of ancestors. names like “igwe,” “eze,” “ogbuefi,” “ogbuagu,” “ogbuinyinya,” “agu,” “nze,”“ezeudo, ezeoke, ezeigwe, ezeakacha, ezeabata,”etc., are synonymous with titles, occupations and achievements. the surnames portray the kingly lineage of the families who answer them. that gives you a special honour and privilege knowing that you share the lineage of kings and chiefs. some of these occupational names highlight specific excellencies of the bearers, and in such a way chronicle the historical achievements of the bearers in question. for example, “ogbuagu” refers to a man of courage and valour, who is not just a hunter but one who has the courage to encounter and kill lions. “ogbuehi” shows a wealthy man who kills cows and offers them for the benefit of others. iii. names of gods, deities and markets of the land: in igbo cosmology, there are spirits who also control the igbo week called ‘izu.’ the days are named after gods or sky-spirits like ‘eke,’ ‘oye,’ ‘afo,’ and ‘nkwo.’ according to afigbo (1983): modestus anyaegbu, what is in a (sur)name? igbos and the gradual…. 7 the nri say that the days of the igbo week—eke, orie, afo (aho) and nkwo— were revealed to them in the beginning by chukwu, and that these names were the names of sky-beings or spirits. (p. 62) these market days are fundamental names uniting all peoples of igbo stock throughout the world. those who count those names as their market days inevitably belong to the igbo race whether they have been severed from the igbo race by colonialism, war or state creation. such surnames are formulated from these cardinal market days and come either as prefixes or suffixes to signal that some people are children of these spirits or are specially guarded by these spirits. for instance, in metuh (1981) ‘nweke, nwankwo, nwafo and nwoye’ are surnames signalling sonship to the spirits as mentioned (p. 73). in other cases, the names signal that the bearers were born on the specific market days denoting their names. in this sense, ‘nweke’ means a child born on eke market day. ‘nwoye’ signals ‘a child born on the oye market day; ‘nwafo’ denotes a child born on afo market day; and ‘nwankwo’ refers to a child born on nkwo market day. above all, these names taken after market days, according to cekiso (2016), “are used as tools to record important events for future references” (pp. 260-2). other names as noted by afigbo (1981), reflective of attachment to certain deities include ‘ezeala, igwekala, ani, udeani,’ where -ala or ani (earth) is a deity responsible for fertility, morality, and the custodian of law and custom (p. 9). be that as it may, surnames in igbo are conveyors of historical and traditional heritages of the people. in the days when proper documentation was rare, these surnames were codes guarding the secrets, the histories, the cultural and family values of the igbo ancient tradition. culturally, igbo people take names from their personal god –‘chi’ or after the igbo supreme being–‘chukwu’ (great god), in recognition of the personal protection or relationship that exists between them and their personal god or between them and god almighty. among other things, these ‘chi’surnames “portray the religious belief of the igbo people.” names like ‘chiwetalu’ – god provided,’ ‘chinagolum,’ – ‘god intercedes for me,’ ‘chikadibia,’‘god is greater than doctor,’ ‘chidubem,’ – ‘god leads me,’ ‘chieloka’ – ‘god is thoughtful,’ etc., are some examples that refer to some form of relationship with a personal ‘chi.’ such names also denote the religious significance of god in the lives of the families bearing such names. iv. titles of sacred cults and spirits often are taken as surnames. this shows that persons and places who take those names have special connection to the sacred cults and some form of respect to and relationship with the spirits. for instance, names like ‘nwosu’ – child of a deity, ‘osuji’ – the yam deity, ‘osunkwo’ – the nkwo deity, ‘osuala’ – the earth deity, ‘osueke’ – the eke deity, etc., bear us out. some of those names reflect respect for individuals who have distinguished themselves in certain spiritual or practical fields of igbo life. other identifiers like ‘mmuoma’–the spirit knows, ‘mmuojekwu’ – the spirit will talk, ‘mmuoneke’ – the spirit shares, ‘mmuobuike’ – the spirit is strength, ‘mmuonwendu’ – the spirit owns life, ‘mmuolokwu’ – the spirit responds etc., are typically igbo. these and many other unspecified surnames signify the belief the igbo has in the abiding presence and providential care of the spirits. a westerner can never answer related names because they signify nothing for him and have nothing to do with his/her culture, language and belief system, and can never give him power of identification. why then do igbos reject their own and go for aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 8 those of the westerners? are igbos not the major protagonists to the obliteration of the igbo identity in the world? v. historical events: igbos sometimes perpetuate their remembrance of historical events in their lives by formulating names from such events. in the case of wars, deaths, births, and famines, names become vehicles of transmitting the events and their lessons to the younger generations. though they could be traumatic experiences, families do not forget them easily. that is why such experiences enter into the family history as piece of evidence and remembrance of what nearly destroyed the family and how the family avoided it. for instance, ‘onwuegbuchu’ which means ‘let death not kill prematurely.’ ‘onwubiko’ meaning ‘death please,’ is a prayerful request to death to spare the living. ‘onwudinjo’ is a reminder of how wicked death is, ‘onwuegbusi’ means ‘death do not kill’ etc. it could happen that a family could know barrenness after marriage for a long period of time. when a child eventually arrives, names like ‘sochukwuma’ – ‘only god knows,’ ‘ogechukwu,’ – god’s time, ‘uchechukwu,’ – ‘the will of god, ‘iheanacho’ – ‘what we are looking for’ bespeak of answered prayers to long years of waiting and seeking for answers to particular problems of childlessness or lack of male issue in the family. it is interesting to note that some of these names which begin as personal names eventually mature as surnames for younger generations. sometimes, hard times successfully navigated give rise to surnames which become markers of hope and expectation. after all, we say where there is life there is hope. names like ‘umejiaku’ – ‘breath holds wealth,’ ‘umeasiegbu’ – ‘life is stronger than hatred,’ ‘umendu’ – ‘breath is life,’ etc. ‘ume’ means ‘breath’ which involves life. once the breath of life is safeguarded, adversities would be overcome and turned into joy. vi. from symbols of authority – ofo. igbo people respect authority and hold it in high esteem. a man of authority is marked by among other things, his ‘ofo,’ an emblem which he carries around or holds conspicuously to demark his status. ‘ofo’ has been variously described by afigbo (1981). this is given the multidimensional function and status of ‘ofo.’ in one instance, it is described as a ‘ritual symbol of office and status’ (pp. 38-46). in another instance, it is seen as a symbol confirmingone’s descent from a certain kingly lineage (p.38). in certain cases, it designates the lineage heads of families and communities. and yet, in a more comprehensive manner, ‘ofo’ is described as “the all-important igbo ritual staff for controlling virtually every known spirit force” (p. 50). given the horizontal and vertical abilities associated with this symbol, and the importance and meanings attached to it, igbos also take their surnames after ‘ofo.’ for instance, surnames like ‘jideofo’ – which deeply encourages one to be blameless in dealing with others; ‘ofobuike’ – authority is power; ‘ofodile’ – authority is potent; on a deeper level, it signifies that righteousness is more effective; ‘ofoegbu’ – authority or status does not kill, ‘ofomata’– authority is knowledge; ‘ofokansi’ – authority is more potent than poison; ‘ofokaja’ – authority is more potent than sacrifice, etc., make reference to the importance of this in ancient igbo tradition and custom. belonging to a community the sense of belongingness that comes with a name is second to none. it is a belonginess that is innate and not given as a sign of favour to you. it comes as an inalienable right to you and modestus anyaegbu, what is in a (sur)name? igbos and the gradual…. 9 cannot be taken away from you by any jurisdiction. once your name is written, it inserts itself into the cultural lineage of your family and gives you a sense of identity and belongingness that your social status, education, job, etc cannot give you. our brothers and sisters living and working in foreign lands understand this so well that many parents now christen their children with their traditional names. igbo people take pride in their family origins and names, hence the expression afamefuna— literally meaning ‘let my name not be lost.’ the advent of christianity brought with it a lot of changes in the life, naming, and cultural standing of igbo people. as something new, it literally became a sacred tradition to signify the change in religious status by adopting a new name, what has been called a christian name. thus, a child known as ‘okechukwu okafo,’ adopts the name ‘michael’ by the fact of receiving the christian sacrament of baptism. this newly adopted name, let us say, identifies the child as belonging to the family of christians, those who have accepted to follow jesus christ, as saviour and redeemer of the human family. some eventually forget the traditional name ‘okechukwu’ and grow unto adulthood with the christian name ‘michael’ okafo. regardless of this addition of ‘michael,’ the family name ‘okafo’ remains intact and fully identifies this ‘michael’ wherever he might go as fully belonging to the igbo race. the tragedy now occurs when ‘michael okafo’ becomes a parent. in the wrong understanding of ‘afamefuna,’ ‘michael’ registers his own child baptised ‘john’ as ‘john michael’ where ‘michael’ now takes the place of his child’s surname. by that singular act, the identification name ‘okafo’ gets obliterated. though the generation of ‘john michael’ goes about speaking and identifying as igbo, nothing in his document attests to that. on paper, some europeans could easily identify with the name, but they would completely and totally reject the bearer as not being of european stock given his physical appearance. the ‘afam’ which ‘john’ intended to guard by transferring his personal, baptismal name to his child, becomes eventually lost. it is lost because in the genealogy of igbo people, ‘john’ is not a word that comes from igbo language or culture and does not communicate any meaning as a name to any igbo person. it does not and can never give a sense of belonging to the igbo family to the bearer. it must not be forgotten that igbo names are self-explanatory and self-identifying. once these characteristics are missing, your name is ‘lost’. the onus and the pressure will eternally be on you to prove your belongingness to the igbo race. such conscious change of ethnic surnames is legally viewed in some countries as denial of one’s race and fraudulent action. the logic is that there must be some form of impersonation going on where one adopts a surname that has absolutely nothing to do with his ethnicity. a time will still come when autochthonous people with autochthonous surnames will be fighting against foreigners who change or adopt foreign names for whatever reason without obtaining legal permission from the owners of such ethnic identities expressed in surnames. how could people be assuming names to which ethnically they have no legitimate claim? surnames are ethnocultural identifiers. any change of surnames becomes automatically suspicious of the motive. is the change trying to erase the history, the ethnicity and cultural background of the bearer, and for what reason, are some of the questions that come to mind. are those who change their surnames into anglo-saxon names trying to conceal their past and their origin from the public? there are circumstances that can lead to change of surnames. it has happened in history when in 1938 there was a racial cleansing and persecution of the jews by the nazis. thus, for aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 10 purposes of security and survival, some jews did “change” their surnames. this change would normally be temporary given the disappearance of the circumstance leading to such crimes in the first place. politics can also motivate change of surnames as does happen in nigeria where some people from a certain section enjoy greater privileges than the rest. minorities would think that their ethnic surnames constitute some hindrances to their accession to higher places and work positions in the society, thus leading to change in their surnames. those are practical instances of what karl marx would call ‘social and economic’ conditions shaping identity. religious conversion especially islam could also be another factor influencing change of surnames. though the law permits freedom of religion, it is doubtful whether such change of surnames is also covered by the law. eze (2020) avers: in view of the above, westernizing our surname means loss of identity which would result in the loss of the people’s culture and language as well … we cannot do away with our surnames because they define us, our belief system, socio-cultural values and ethno-religious practices are embedded in them. (p. 64) according to anyachonkeya (2014) “we should love our language and live our language by giving our igbo names, for our culture is our essence as a people” (p. 121), not only to identify with our igbo names but also maintain our surnames for they are our cultural identity and heritage. we cannot do away with our surnames because they define us, our belief system, socio-cultural values and ethno-religious practices are embedded in them. conclusion the phenomenon of change of surnames is on the rise in southeastern part of nigeria. though some could argue that it is their right to change surnames, we must not forget that the society and the culture from where they come possess a social right to be respected. one factor which may also be unconsciously inducing the change into anglo-saxon surnames is colonialism. where the later is the case, it even becomes more dangerous. adopting an identity imposed by a foreign culture, is like wearing what frantz fanon (1952) called a “white mask” to gain perhaps some form of social respectability and acceptance. these people according to the language of du bois (2015) suffer the psychological disease of “double consciousness and alienation” (p. 5). this entails being alienated from their own sense of self and their own cultural heritage, and conforming to an identity that is not theirs, an identity that is a sign of violence to one’s culture. is this not the self-obliteration of one’s identity that we are drawing attention to? the gradual replacement of ethnic surnames with foreign surnames is a tacit approval for the destruction of one’s native language as a vehicle of cultural transmission. whether it is induced by ignorance, convenience, social or economic factors, the rejection of ethnic surnames must be halted. igbo people must go back to reclaiming their rich, ancient and sacred tradition of choosing their surnames according to the major factors that determine such in igbo tradition and as such respecting and valuing their ancestral, linguistic, cultural, ideological, spiritual and historical roots. modestus anyaegbu, what is in a (sur)name? igbos and the gradual…. 11 references achebe, c. (2012). there was a country. new york: penguin group. afigbo, a. e. (1983). ropes of sand: studies in igbo history and culture. akindele, f. and adegbite, w. (2005). the sociology and politics of english in nigeria: an introduction. ile ife: obafemi awolowo university press ltd. anyachonkeya, n. (2014). naming in igbo land: a linguistic and cultural study. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 5/17, pp. 113-122. cekiso, m. (2016). xhosa cultural values and beliefs in the names of ingcibi. in o. nyambi et al (eds.), postcolonial condition of names and naming in south africa. cambridge: scholars publishing newcastle, pp. 260–62. du bois, w. e. b. (1903). the souls of black folk. new heaven & london: yale university press 2015 edition. eze, p. (2020). surname as a family, ethnic and national identities: umunze as a case study.international journal of literature, language and linguistics. vol. 3, 1, pp. 62-76. fanon, f. (1952). black skin, white mask. editions du seuil. ibemesi, f. (2011). origin of igbo surnames past and present. international journal of theology & reformed tradition, 3, pp.149-162. metuh, e. i. (1981). god & man in african religion. a case study of the igbo of nigeria. london: geoffrey chapman. nnamdi-eruchalu, g. i. (2018). a socio-linguistic study of the emerging trends in igbo personal names. advances in social sciences research journal, vol. 5/4, pp.167-179. onwuatuegwu, i. (2023). the reciprocal divine relationship: exploring acestorism and its parallel with judaism. international journal of social science and culture development (ijsscd), vol.1, no.3, pp. 89-104. scassa, t. (1996). national identity, ethnic surnames, and the state. cjls/rcds vol. 11, 2, pp. 167–191. 185 icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple hibiscus: a semiotic approach ikoro, onyinyechi stella ph.d department of languages and communication abia state polytechnic, aba starcharles01@gmail.com abstract signs abound in literary works and their interpretation form part of the message from the author to reader(s). unfortunately, most scholars do not regard them as researchable enough to demand scholarly attention. this paper is a re-reading of adichie’spurple hibiscus, deploying the engine of semiotics to create meaning. the data for the study shall be comments and material objects, randomly sampled from various sections of the select text and analyzed within the lens of visual and social semiotics. findings are that the igbos have a rich cultural heritage which, if caution is not exercised, may die a natural death because of lack of interest in upholding our identity; our legacies. the study concludes that the whole human experience, without exception, is an interpretive structure mediated and sustained by signs, and that readers miss the fundamental message of a fictional work when there is no integration/interpretation of the verbal and non-verbal clues, which are signs in themselves. the study recommends that the dearth of scholarship in literary semiotics should be discouraged, by all means, for the sole purpose of preserving our cultural heritage/moral and social values that are fast disappearing. keywords: semiotics, icons, indexes, symbolism, purple hibiscus. introduction chimamanda adichie, in purple hibiscus, employed a semiotic system that is rich in icons, indexes and symbols. these communication tools (path ways) enlarged the volume, scope and complexity of the book, by the vast interpretations they lend themselves to. semiotics, as the study of signs and sign-using behaviour, especially in language, was propounded by ferdinand de saussure and charles sanders peirce in the late 19th and 20th centuries. it is a theory that concerns itself with the production and interpretation of meaning. its basic principle is that meaning is made by the deployment of acts and objects which function as ‘signs’ in relation to other signs. semiotics study how meaning is formed – how first we interpret a sign, how the signs draw on cultural or personal experiences, that is the context in which they appear. signs themselves, according to eka & inyang (1996, p. 31), are deployed in space and time to produce ‘texts’ which use language in context. on the other hand, ndimele (2001, p. 12) opines that ‘language, whether verbal or non-verbal, is often described as a semiotic system because it entails the use of certain agreed-upon symbols or signals to convey meaning from one person to another’. thus, systems of meaning are analyzed and conclusions drawn by looking at the cultural and communication products and events as signs and their relationship with one another (eco, 1976, p. 14; irvine p. 45; nnamdi & ikoro, 2014, p. 275). signs are made up of many different components words, sounds, gestures (body language) and context (paralinguistic and extra-linguistic features) – all of which combine to create a visual language which aids understanding. mailto:starcharles01@gmail.com ikoro, onyinyechi stella icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple… 186 however, the interpretation of signs in texts forms part of the message from the author to reader(s). unfortunately, not much attention has been paid to the study of signs in literary texts, to integrate the intended message of the author to her audience by bringing the verbal and nonverbal cues to bear in the interpretation and fuller understanding of the texts. the result of this failure is that, for the most part, a reader misses the fundamental message of a fictional work of art. thus, this research examines how icons, indexes and symbols operate in chimamanda adichie’s purple hibiscus to create meaning. these will help us realize that the whole of human experience, without exception, is an interpretive structure mediated and sustained by signs, and that it is a viable means to analyze the logical process, by which we create inferences and make sense of things (langrehr, 2003, p. 30). iconicity in purple hibiscus an icon is a sign which refers to the object it denotes, merely by virtue of characters of its own and which it possesses. it is a sign that resembles its object in some way. it is a graphic representation of something or a person. an icon is a sign that is not only known to the public, it generally commands global recognition. icons are considered as non-arbitrary signs, signs that are visual, concrete or tangible. icons however, sometimes change meanings depending on their use in different event situations and at different times. icons do not necessarily have to be learned. examples of icons include a photograph, diagrams, paintings, images, maps, cartoons, onomatopoeic words (and expressions), etc. identified material icons in chimamanda adichie’s purple hibiscus include: delightful …gold-framed family photo (p.11), …framed photos of grandfather (p.15), …blond life-size virgin mary mounted nearby (p.12), …amnesty world (gave him a human rights award) (p.13), faded-looking labels as every other thing papa’s factories made (p.20), figurines on the etagere (pp. 11, 23), heavy missal (pp. 11, 14, 15), …the water-colour painting of a woman with a child…the virgin and child oil painting (p. 126), jaja turned to the statue of the preening lion (p. 140), …and i saw her, the blessed virgin: an image in the pale sun, a red glow on the back of my hand (p. 278), … the mask (p. 94).…fela, osadebe and onyeka (musical icons) (p. 126 ), …huge rosary with blue beads and a metal crucifix (p. 132). the non-material icons include the onomatopoeic …slap-slap slippers sounds on the marble floor (p. 15), … the thump-thump-thump of the pestle (p. 20), …the clink-clink-clink of forks and spoons (p. 30), … kroo-kroo-krooof the metal spoon on the pot (p. 172), …screechscreech-screech of the low underbelly of the mercedes (p. 63). though icons are ordinarily full of meanings, some of them are however for aesthetic purposes, association/identification and recognition (the photographs, paintings, statue, images, and plaque). again, some icons validly find interpretations as symbols (as in the case of the figurines, missal, mask discussed in the symbolism section of this paper) and as indexes (an example of which is the labels on papa’s factory products). also, unusual ‘slap-slap’ sound of mama’s slippers is suggestive of defiance and a symbolic indication of the on-set of chaos in the family. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 187 indexicals in purple hibiscus an index is a sign that is directly connected in some way, existentially or causally, to its object. an indexical sign, or index, fulfills its function(s) by ‘pointing out’ its referent (object), typically by being a partial or representative sample of it. indexes are not arbitrary, since their presence has in some sense been caused by their referent. for this reason, it is sometimes said that there is a causal link between an indexical sign and its referent. indexical signs can be symptomatic, that spontaneously convey the internal state or emotion of the sender. indexicality is based on an act of judgement or inference. they are non-tangible/non-verbal things, something the public may have to be educated on. anything which startles us or jostles our thinking is an index. examples are footprints, traffic signs, echoes, medical symptoms, smoke, thunder, non-synthetic odours and flavours, a knock on the door, signpost, a ringing phone or bell, words like ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘here’, ‘there’, etc. in purple hibiscus, the following have been identified as indexical signs: …credo and kyrie (p. 12), … the whirl of the ceiling fan (p. 15), …heard the sound… like something being banged against the door (p. 18), …seventeen-year-old face had grown lines (wrinkles) (p. 19), …fadedlooking labels (p. 20), …government square (pp. 24, 35), …members of our lady of the miraculous medal prayer group (p. 29), …introductory technology textbook (p. 30), st. nicholas badge blazing (p. 30), …pressed the ringer that dangled (p. 20), …ogui road (p. 35), daughters of the immaculate heart (p. 30), …the standard (pp. 32, 144, 154), …at the seme border (p. 41), …university of nigeria, nsukka, …opi junction (p. 118), marguerite cartwright avenue (p. 119), nsukka has no genesis or nike lake (p. 125), mary slessor hall, okpara hall, bello hall (p. 137), odim hill (p.139), bishop shanahan hospital, transekulu (p. 145), …the guardian (p. 154), the green welcome to abba town (p. 63), the title omelora – the one who does for the community (p. 64), …agwonatumbe (p. 94), …drawn lines in black ink (p. 32), …integrated science for junior secondary schools (p. 216), st. peter’s catholic chaplaincy, university of nigeria (p. 245), …she look like a hausa goat: brown, long and lean (p. 125), …exam questions are in the bank (p. 270), welcome to aokpe apparition ground, catholics on pilgrimage (p. 278), …and listened to the “ave maria” on the cassette player (p. 39), …when i heard the sound: swift, heavy thuds on my parents’ hand-carved bedroom door (p. 41), …introductory agriculture for junior secondary schools (p. 42), …the peugeot 505 with the factory name emblazoned on the passenger door (p. 42), …head of state (pp. 45/46), …there was a postscript in italics where he thanked his publisher: “a man of integrity, the bravest man i know”(p. 50), blessed virgin mary medal (p. 98), eziicheke (p. 93), his royal highness(p. 98), ninth mile (p. 62), remy martin (p. 62), “that” (pp. 20, 106). examples of symptomatic indexical are: papa’s voice was low, very low, … face looked swollen already, with pus-tipped rashes spread across (pp. 14, 23), …shocked eyes begged him to seal his mouth (p. 14), papa swayed from side to side (p. 15), papa’s breathing was always noisy, but now he panted as if he were out of breath (p. 23), …startling me although her igbo words were low and calming. in the same breath, without pausing … (p. 16), …compound walls would crumble …and squash the frangipani trees…sky would cave in, the persian rug…would shrink, …my body shook from coughing (p. 22), … but the aromatic soup only made me nauseated (p. 23), papa … slumped back on his seat, his cheeks dropped (p. 22), when papa started the prayer, his voice quavered more than usual (p. 40), papa’s gait on the stairs sounded heavier, more awkward, than usual (p. 41), …jaja’stone made me turn and stare at him. his brows were not knotted in worry, as i was sure mine were (p. 161), …i froze on my ikoro, onyinyechi stella icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple… 188 seat, felt the skin of my arms melding and becoming one with the cane arms of the chair (p. 194), …kambili said her ‘amen’ loudly (p. 198), rain splashed across the floor of the verandah, even though the sun blazed… (p. 222), catholic hymnal (p. 56). the indexicals identified above are non-material and intangible things. for instance, from the context, it is revealed that papa picks up the missal and flings it across the room towards jaja, his son. they are wide apart from each other even though in the same room. this depicts the absence of closeness between papa and jaja, though father and son. also, ‘that’ as an index is also symbolic. the use of the noun phrase, ‘that girl’ by papa to refer to sisi, the house girl, robs sisi of her identity. she is reduced to a mere object, a robot that must be useful to her master. papa never cherishes any relationship from his immediate family, let alone a maid. this attitude of referring to sisi as ‘that girl’ shows some social as well as identity distance, because of the presence of the deictic—‘that’. she is not meant to share the table with them since she is not integrated into the household. papa is determined to keep her at an arm’s length as revealed in another incident where he orders, ‘ask that girl to bring more bottled juice’ (p. 106). this act can define the social roles of participants in discourse situations and their relationship. this serves as an instance of ‘not naming’, a face threatening act. the relationship between sisi and papa is an unequal but unhealthy one; one between a social superior and a social inferior, a misfit. he guards against becoming close in any manner. thus, the use of the distal deixis, ‘that girl’, indicates a discourse move with distance maintaining function. kambili and jaja are not allowed to relate with sisi either. she is only there as their beast of burden, attending to their needs. the only time sisi appears before them is to run one errand or the other, bring bottles whose contents she never partakes of. she is a ‘work horse’ and she is fed to function effectively within the household only (pp. 19, 29, 61, 64, 106). the conversations that ensue between sisi and the entire household are instructions. there is no woman-to-woman talk between sisi and mama. the only time they talk is when mama directs her on what to put on fire and when to put it while she sits on an arm chair near the kitchen (p. 18), and maybe, when she tells her to assist her get food poison from her uncle, who is a witch doctor, to poison papa’s tea (p. 294). and it is due to this lack of intimate relationship between sisi and the entire household that she can afford to get the poison that kills papa. in addition, eye contact can indicate interest, attention, and involvement while eye aversion can convey a mixed message to the receiver when used during conversation. kambili speaks with her eyes on jaja’s face but jaja determinedly avoids eye contact with her and by extension, avoid the inevitable appeals they bear and which are meant to persuade him, jaja, to abandon his defiant and confrontational attitude towards papa. both kambili and jaja understand the message sent by each other through the attempt to make eye contact and the resolve to avoid same (pp. 14, 38, 67, 208, 293). eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. these signs can show positive or negative moods. from the context, the statement, ‘fear having darkened jaja’s eyes to the colour of coal tar’ (p. 14) is an ironic indication that the fear of papa has lost its grip on jaja. this is made the more evident by his unusual act of looking papa in the face. moreover, refusing to move after papa throws the missal at him suggests not only the absence of fear but also an invitation to papa to go on and do his worst. his father, papa, sways from side-to-side. this body movement shows fear, worry, confusion and surprise that he has lost it all in terms of exerting control over his family. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 189 again, some co-linguistic features identified above are symbolic too. features like ‘the lowering of papa’s voice’ – an alternation of softness and amplitude. this makes the conversations natural although in written mode. it could also signal a shift in the speech style of interlocutors to gain acceptance, solidarity, etc. mama gives order, ‘nne, ngwa, go and change in a very low and calm tone’ (p.14). and in the same breath, without pausing, she serves a reminder to papa, ‘your tea is getting cold’ (p. 14), and to jaja, a request, ‘come and help me biko’ (p. 14). this is remarkable. her breathing mechanism shows her state of rest even in the face of turmoil while the absence of pausing reflects a swing in mood – from a relaxed state to an anxious state. the speed in her speech shows a state of hurry to get things normalized, at least in the meantime, in the home again. she pretends nothing went wrong. symbolism in purple hibiscus a symbolic sign or symbol is a sign in which the relation between it and its object is arbitrary. its connection with its object is a matter of convention, rule and agreement amongst its users. it is almost always culture-bound. symbols may be general, regional or local in inference or application. the depth of meaning of a symbol is directly proportional to the feeling it engenders in or elicits from the individual or society. symbols are almost always a comparative evaluation of the same or disparate object or things using the resource of our memory. symbols deal with assumed meaning and are conventional. a particular symbol may remind people of a particular meaning, that meaning need not be inherent or obvious, in relation to the symbols. thus, a symbol has no logical meaning between it and the object it refers to. symbolic signs must be learned, and are unmotivated. examples of symbols include peace, honesty, love (rose, a shape of heart) symbols, colours, language in general (plus specific languages, alphabetical letters, punctuation marks, words, phrases and sentences), numbers, national flags, traffic lights, etc. purple hibiscus is a symbolic novel. purple hibiscus is a hybrid plant usually found in warm temperate tropical and sub-tropical regions. the title, purple hibiscus, symbolizes freedom and fulfillment. it stands for the inner voice and strength that the characters seek for. jaja’s rebellion is thus synonymous with aunty ifeoma’s purple hibiscus. it is a clarion call of freedom to which jaja responds. jaja’s eyes shone as he brings some purple hibiscus home from nsukka (p. 97). purple hibiscus stands for hope that one day, both the hibiscus and the smell of freedom will bloom (p. 253). from the novel, kambili and jaja’s visit to their aunt’s house in nsukka started it all. it is in aunty ifeoma’s house that jaja’s unconscious quest for freedom found expression and free course, triggered by the variety of purple hibiscus (p. 136). purple hibiscus is a rare breed; theirs is red, ‘…and all the hibiscuses in our front yard were a starling red’ (p. 9). jaja’s defiance seemed to me now like aunty ifeoma’s experimental purple hibiscus: rare, fragrant with the undertones of freedom, a different kind of freedom from the one the crowds waving green leaves chanted at government square after the coup; a freedom to be, to do. (p.24) ikoro, onyinyechi stella icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple… 190 boldness and demand for freedom is a rare breed both in eugene’s (papa’s) household and in nigeria in general. red hibiscus is everywhere, so is docility, servitude and fear. jaja is resolute in his determination to extricate himself – from the debasing consequences of his father, papa, while reaching out for the lofty ideals of the later. the colours of these plants were reddish: the purple plants had started to push out sleepy buds, but most of the flowers were still on the red ones. they seemed to bloom so fast, those red hibiscuses, considering how often mama cut them to decorate the church altar and how often visitors plucked them…. (p.17) papa represents the dominance and unrestrained flourishing of the red hibiscuses while the plucking of their flowers by mama (beatrice) is her unconscious but feeble effort at dethroning the overbearing lordship of papa (eugene) over her life. also, the plucking of the red hibiscus flowers ‘by mostly mama’s prayer group members’ represent their collective effort at assisting beatrice in her freedom-seeking enterprise. yanking of the hibiscuses, themselves, ‘by the government agents, two men in black jackets’, shows the ultimate fate that awaits papa (eugene); his death and the manner thereof. jaja is an embodiment of the purple hibiscus and like the fragrant flower, he is also about to blossom. the budding flowers, “oval-shaped buds in the front yard as they swayed in the evening breeze” (p. 257), are symbols of new hope and new life. jaja’s transformation from the docile young boy into a determined adolescent was representative of the swift blooming of the ‘purple hibiscus plant’; which he nurtured in the compound. despite papa’s strictness towards his entire household, he could not tame jaja; could not stop beatrice from asserting her rights whether through legal or illegal means; and could not stop kambili from blossoming into a woman who can dish out orders to mama and to the new driver mama employed. jaja’s aunt, aunty ifeoma, advices him to look after those stalks: ‘…they will take root only if they are watered at regular intervals. even though the hibiscuses tolerate not too much water, they do not prefer dryness either’ (p. 204). in the same vein, jaja’s effort at liberating himself and every member of the family from the stranglehold of his father (papa) must be done with wisdom, moderation and sense of balance. later, jaja informs aunty ifeoma that their gardener has planted the ‘purple’ hibiscus stalks; but that no one is sure that they will survive. this apprehension as to the survival of the purple hibiscus stalks has a direct correlation to the anxiety of everyone as to the probable outcome of jaja’s attempt to cut the domineering and intimidating behavior of his father, papa, towards his family. aunty ifeoma is central to the liberation struggles of beatrice and jaja. this is because quite apart from the psychological verve and fervency her purple hibiscus give to jaja, she severally encourage them to break the strangulating shackles of her brother, eugene. she opens jaja’s eyes to the greatness associated with his name, ‘i told your mother that it was an appropriate nickname, that you would take after jaja of opobo’ (p.152). the name, ‘jaja’, in the novel is a symbol while ‘king jaja of opobo’ is an icon. she encourages beatrice, her sister-in-law and jaja, her nephew, to dominate their worlds, “being defiant can be a good thing sometimes. defiance is like marijuana – it is not a bad thing when it is used right” (p.152); “this cannot go on, nwunye m. when a house is on fire, you run out before the roof collapses on your head” (p. 219). her later statement above is made when beatrice, mama, ran to nsukka after being beaten up by papa to the extent she was unconscious and lost her pregnancy. aunty ifeoma is the marijuana personified. the plucking of the red hibiscus flower by beatrice and members of her prayer group, and the yanking at the hibiscus plants themselves, by government agents, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 191 are supposed in reality the expressed and active encouragement aunty ifeoma offers to beatrice, jaja and kambili. papa is the ultimate embodiment of the lordship of the patriarch which relishes in silencing the woman, muffling or muting her voice or browbeating her to remain voiceless. adichie preaches a message of protest pointing at the unfriendliness, cruelty, brutality of man against the woman. patriarchy results in sexism which subscribes to the inferiority or even irrelevancy or worthlessness of the female gender. women themselves are brain-washed into being willing accomplices to the subjugation and dehumanizing of their sex by sharing in and even propagating of the patriarchal ideology. the female charaters – mama (beatrice) and kambili are the most suppressed, silenced, and brutalized, psychologically, emotionally and physically. others include aunty ifeoma, amaka and sisi. papa-nnukwu’s statement, while discussing with his daughter, aunty ifeoma, summarises it: “but you are a woman. you do not count” (p. 91). and it is because women do not count, that is why papa-nnukwu describes the women’s mmuo as harmless (weak): ‘they do not even go near the big ones (men’s mmuo) at the festival’ (p. 93). the mmuo he points to was small. thus, women are insignificant, meant for decoration/entertainment purposes. to demonstrate the low estate and esteem of the female mmuo, and by extension women in general, only little boys followed the female mmuo, playing music for her with metal ogenes and wooden ichakas. on the other hand, ‘agwonatumbe, the men’s mmuo is accompanied by elderly men, who ring a shrill bell as the mmuo walked’. he also rebuked his grandson, jaja, on their way to the village square for sight-seeing: “shh! these are mmuo, spirits! don’t speak like a woman!” (p. 93). papa is a symbol of hegemonic monster of patriarchy whose mere presence sparks off the fire of danger that keeps women under fear and tension. his high-handedness adversely affects members of his household, which in turn affects their relationship with others. kambili sounds lachrymal: ‘i felt suffocated’ (p.7), and at another time burst out, bemused: ‘fear. i was familiar with fear, yet each time i felt it, it was never the same as the other times, as though it came in different flavours and colours’ (p. 96). the colour, red, is symbolic in the novel. red stands for the dreadful, for tension: at best, it connotes danger; at worst, it means death. it is a harbinger of discomfort, fear, torture, agony. red is a symbol used by adichie to background and foreground the tensed-up, suffocating and tragic atmosphere that haunts and bespeaks papa’s (eugene achike) household. adichie flashes the ‘danger colour’—red—wherever she (kambili) turns her face. the symbol of red is awash, more or less innumerably mentioned in this novel. also, another colour that is symbolic is black. yewande, ade coker’s widow, dresses in black to show she is mourning: ‘…except for her attire in black wrapper, black blouse, and a black scarf covering all of her hair and most of her fore head’ (p. 262). it is quite unfortunate that kambili finds no freedom from the danger which red represents. even in the church, ‘the altar is decorated in the same shade of red as mama’s wrapper. red was the colour of pentecost. the visiting priest said mass in red robe…’ (p. 28). papa wears ‘red silk pyjamas’ (p. 41) most of the time in the house. papa-nnukwu bemoans himself having lost his son, eugene, to the missionaries. when he recalls the complexion of the first priest to ikoro, onyinyechi stella icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple… 192 abba, fada john whose ‘face was red like palm oil…’ (p. 84), he might mean that abba people were uncomfortable with fada john’s complexion which depicts trouble. the tension, fear, pain, and shock this red signification creates in her forces kambili into icy silence, which is a symbol too. she could only but stutter. adichie creates scenes where silence keeps recurring: ‘the silence was broken only by the whir of the ceiling fan’ (p. 15); ‘…flat in nsukka began to lift the silence’ (p. 16); ‘our steps on the stairs were as measured and as silent as our sundays…even our family time on sundays was quiet’ (p. 31); ‘silence hung over the table like the blue-black clouds…’ (p. 32). even mama (beatrice), when papa angrily throws a missal (missile) at jaja and misses him, but breaks the glass etagere which she, mama, worships, as a god, she does not complain but only “stared at the figurine pieces on the floor and then knelt to pick them up with her bare hands” (p. 16). members of papa’s household take not to silence by choice. their silence is bred by fear. fear of the god that is papa. that is why instead of being enraged that the glass etagere, which she is devoted to was broken by papa, mama and the children carried on as if nothing at all happened. jaja, when he is ten, misses two questions on his catechism test and is not named the best in his first holy communion class, his father, papa, gnarled his little finger which became deformed (p. 153). kambili was beaten for sleeping in the same house with her grandfather (papa-nnukwu), and for being in possession of papa-nnukwu’s painting. fear ruled their lives. when jaja heard from kambili, his sister, that their mother, mama is pregnant, he intones: ‘we will take care of the baby; we will protect him’ (p. 31), reflecting jaja’s growing intolerance to his father’s authoritarian, totalitarian, whimsical and monstrous treatment of his family, particularly his wife (mama), is seen in his resolve to fight for everyone’s liberation; including the unborn. it is significant that jaja in the end does not protect the baby from papa. kambili, whose name could mean ‘let me live’ or ‘allow me to live’ actually breathe down, pleads to be allowed to live but fear of papa would not permit her, would not permit anyone. another symbolic event in the novel is the breaking of the figurine. this symbolizes the fragility of the relationship between papa, on one side, and his family, on the other side. the relationship between the two sides is so fragile that it took only a little spark to shatter, and that spark started from the disobedience of jaja after a communion service. an outsider may theorize that the peace of the family has always been under constant threat due to the highhandedness of papa but for the servile character of mama, the self-imposed restraints of jaja and the innocence of kambili. the novel opens with a reference to the breaking of the figurines: ‘things started to fall apart at home when my brother, jaja, did not go to communion and papa flung his missal across the room and broke the figurines on the etagere’ (p. 11). this symbolizes a crack, an indelible mark that hunted the family of eugene (papa) while ushering ‘new attitudes’. mama (beatrice) eventually gets rid of papa by poisoning his tea. she insists on not replacing the broken figurines: ‘kpa, i will not replace them’ (p. 23), and because of how dangerous mama considers the broken figurines, she orders sisi, their house help, to wipe the floor. her refusal to replace the broken figurines is yet another danger sign that everything is fallen apart. she makes up her mind she will not need them anymore: ‘…shook her head to show that the figurines did not matter’ (p. 18). but kambili remarks that the figurines mattered in the past, they did, though. years ago, before i understood…i would go down to see her standing by the etagere with a kitchen towel soaked in soapy water. she spent at least a quarter of an hour on each ballet-dancing figurines. there were never tears on her face. (pp. 18, 19) aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 193 she derives comfort and solace in the figurines as she polishes them after every beating by papa. it was her way of dealing with the pain. they were her companions then. when the figurines were intact, they represented mama’s submission to and acceptance of papa’s violence. when they were broken, however, the seed of liberation was sown in mama’s subconscious mind. it is also observed that ‘her rubber slippers never made a sound on the stairs’ (p. 18) whenever she goes to polish them but it did when the figurines broke, ‘then mama came in, her rubber slippers making slap-slap sounds on the marble floor’ (p. 15). rebellion is a foot and nothing will be the same again. not ever. that is why mama and jaja act so normal, ‘as if they did not know what had just happened’ (p. 16), which surprised ‘innocent’ kambili. clearly, it was calmness that mama and jaja exhibited after the figurines broke. it was not silence. clearly again, the calmness was not induced by fear but by the absence of it. in speech and in action, they exhibited the assuredness of people that have taken unmistaken total control of their lives. jaja shows solidarity with his mother, mama, as he ‘knelt beside mama, flattened the church bulletin he held into a dustpan, and placed a jagged ceramic piece on it’ (p. 16). he rubbishes whatever upheld papa’s ideals. he refers to ‘host’ as ‘wafer’ (p. 11), enacting a divergent speech pattern just to threaten his father the more. this, he does to threaten papa’s positive face and publish self-image. and having seen the harm already done on them (himself, mama and kambili), he warns his mother, ‘careful, mama, or those pieces will cut your fingers’ (p. 16). obviously, the white t-shirt which mama wore every other day is symbolic but its significance is unfortunately lost on papa. papa’s religiousity is hollow, with neither substance nor content. at the same time, the expression, ‘god is love’, on her shirt show that she is depending on and looking up to god to use his love to save her from the virtual incarceration and loveless stranglehold of her husband. the fundamental attribute of god is love. this is a virtue papa is bereft of and which mama preaches to him every other day. beatrice is sending a subtle message to her husband by her constant wearing of this same t-shirt that love is the fundamental attribute which any man that lays claim to worshipping god must emulate; that the worship of god does not consists in the routine observances of human traditions that the church teach. there is nothing godly in hating or abandoning one’s father when one could have used the godly virtue of love to win him over to god. papa hates his father, papa-nnukwu because he is a pagan. so, beatrice’s message is: ‘no love, no god’. a closer look at adichie’s description of how the missal broke the figurines on the etagere is significant. it shows the inexorable fate of the collapse that awaits papa’s family. a collapse, in fact, destruction that will not respond to any effort to amend it: it cracked the top shelf, swept the beige, finger-sized ceramic figurines of ballet dancers in various contorted postures to the hard floor and then landed after them. or rather it landed on their many pieces. (p. 15) the verbs ‘cracked’, ‘swept’, ‘contorted’ and ‘landed’ all symbolize violent destruction. the etagere on which the figurines stand represents the family stage in society. the family is both physically and emotionally broken into pieces like the figurines while the heavy missal ikoro, onyinyechi stella icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple… 194 stands for papa who is the boss of the family. the missal misses jaja completely and breaks the figurines, which ushers in pain, chaos, and even the death of papa. it is ironical that the ‘huge leather-bound missal that contained the readings for all three cycles of the church year – a prayer book’, which is supposed to help eugene (papa) live right and order his family aright is what eventually destroys him – his happiness. the missal becomes an agent of destruction, an act which is the opposite of its purpose: papa looked around the room quickly, as if searching for proof that something had fallen from the high ceiling, something he had never thought would fall. (p. 15) again, the palm frond is a conspicuous symbol in the novel. it symbolizes the triumph of the faithful over his enemy, the devil. it marks the victory of the spirit over the flesh. palm branches were waved at the entry of jesus into jerusalem, known as the triumphant entry. references in three chapters to ‘palm sunday’ underscore the prominence of the palm in the text. ‘palm sunday’ refers to jesus christ triumphant entry. palm is also a symbol of peace, triumph and tranquility. the ‘palm sunday’ in christian theology is significant, being the beginning of the victory of good over evil. the ‘palm sunday’, in our text, is also remarkable significant for being the beginning of the end of papa’s household as originally constituted. it marks the beginning of change, a different kind of change that the eugene’s family had never witnessed before. fluting of the frond also shows solidarity with a cause and the agitators for the cause, as kelvin, papa’s driver, sticks the green palm tree branches to the car ‘lodged above the number plate, in solidarity in the first week after the coup, so that the demonstrators at government square would let us drive past’ (p. 35). however, as kambili notes, ‘our branches never looked as bright as the demonstrators’ (p. 35) may be indicative that their solidarity to the cause is merely cosmetic, serving only the purpose securing a right of way. it is perplexingly ironical that the ideals of the standard, papa’s newspaper, which is a symbol for all freedoms, and war against societal ills could not be practiced in papa’s home. it is heartrending that papa cows his family members to the extent that they speak with their spirit. another unmistakable symbol, in adichie’s purple hibiscus, is the masquerade, ‘agwonatumbe’. everything about it points to the fact that it is a pagan event. in its combination of such horrific items as human skull, tortoise, snake and dead chickens, the agwonatumbe is much a symbol of everything evil and scary as anything can ever be. it is the fulcrum of pagan worship quite alright but in real life, papa who abhors paganism with a passion personifies and symbolizes the agwonatumbe, more so to the members of his immediate family, including his father and sister. papa-nnukwu’s statement, ‘that is our agwonatumbe. he is the most powerful mmuo and for which abba was feared’ (p.95), with an air of pride and sense of respect, shows acceptance of everything male and patriarchy. it is the same manner that agwonatumbe is idolized that the umunna, abba town, the church hierarchy and laity idolize papa. he is a threat to the society at large since he criticizes the government through the standard. ‘the crowds near the road moved back quickly, fearfully, away from the agwonatumbe’ (p. 94).eventually, his powers are defiled by his sister, aunty ifeoma, jaja and beatrice (mama), his wife. kambili, on hearing the death of her father, papa, intones: i had never considered the possibility that papa would die, that papa could die. he was different from ade coker, from all the other people they had killed. he had seemed immortal. (pp. 290-291) aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 195 papa, being the most powerful voice through the standard is killed by poisoning. the one that published even underground is discovered, unrobed of his authority, stripped of his power, sapped of his strength as his lifeless body is taking to the hospital for autopsy. he harasses everyone although seen as christ personified by father benedict, who praises him always. papa is an epitome of ‘religion and oppression’ (p. 179). on the other hand, the ‘earthworm’ that appears in aunty ifeoma’s bathtub (pp. 237, 238, 273, 274), and the ‘snail’ that crawls out from mama joe’s basket (pp. 242, 243) are symbolic representations of kambili who was too slow to catch up with the changes in and around her home. kambili is the direct opposite of papa. however, her ridiculous devotion and eagerness to please him is quite annoying. to be fair to her though, it could be seen from her near absence of sorrow over papa’s death that it was fear and not love dictated her attitude towards him. like the snail, kambili would slowly crawl out of her imprisoned state. the ‘enterprising snail’ is seeking freedom, liberation, but there is a superior force produced as the human person imposing her will on the snail, caging it from freedom as it were. symbolic also are the ‘dead rats in a carton, carried by the soldiers’ (p. 214), the ‘two vultures that hovered overhead and then landed on the ground, close enough that i could have grabbed them…’ (p. 249) and kambili’s dreams (pp. 286, 287). they are ominous signs of death that eventually occurred. furthermore, weather also assumes a symbolic role. after the death of ade coker, the editor of the standard, there are heavy rains. the novel ends with the expected arrival of the ‘new rains’, which is connotative of new hope and positive outcome. other symbols in the novel include: the ‘eucharist fast’ (p. 109), the ‘host’ which represents the body of christ (p. 14), ‘ash wednesday’ (p. 11), ‘feast of epiphany’ (p. 112), ‘our father, hail mary, the apostles’ creed’ (p. 114), ‘act of contrition, blessed sacrament’ (p. 115), ‘ave maria’ (p. 115), ‘rosaries, holy water and scapulars’ (p. 279), ‘soutane’ (p. 287), etc. these religious items, practices, observances and rituals are mostly identified with the catholic denomination of the christian fold. the sectional titles: breaking godspalm sunday, speaking with our spirits – before palm sunday, the pieces of the gods – after palm sunday and a different silence – the present, are all symbols. before palm sunday, they speak with their spirits – they are mute and accept life the way papa presents same. the palm sunday witnesses a turn of events jaja’s defiance. the elements are let loose after palm sunday, then, a different silence at present – jaja’s admission too of having killed his father so as to protect his mother, mama, jaja in prison, aunty ifeoma’s letters to jaja from the states while he is in jail, kambili’s emotional attachment to father amadi who is away in germany on missionary work…. poisoning of papa’s tea, by mama, with rat poison procured by sisi, the index of inconsequentiality, whom papa only refers to as ‘that girl’, points to the power that even the dregs of the society can wield over the mighty. even kambili has a rather swift metamorphosis. her statements; ‘the new rains will come down soon’ (p. 310), shows hope. she becomes confident and proudly excited that she can frame her world, ‘i can talk about the future now’ (p. 310), are indexes breaking of the bands of fear and silence. mama, before papa’s death, could only respond to crises by crying and remaining calm. mama does not stand up to or challenge papa’s violence against her, but she takes action that speaks the loudest. mama’s (beatrice) attitude immediately after the death of papa, her husband, ikoro, onyinyechi stella icons, indexes and symbols in chimamandaadichie’s purple… 196 approximates her stern decision not to replace her beloved figurines earlier broken by papa. she shows she has become her own woman, her own person, taking charge of her life: the compound gates were locked. mama had told adamu not to open the gates to all the people who wanted to throng in for mgbalu, to commiserate with us. even members of our umunna who had come from abba were turned away…mama told him we wished to mourn privately, that they could go to offer masses for the repose of papa’s soul. (pp. 292-293) mama does not allow kambili, her daughter, to sympathize with her when her figurines break. that is why she tells her it does not matter. now also, on the death of papa, she wants no sympathy. jaja keeps a straight face and blank eyes on hearing the news of papa’s death. it is only sisi, their house help, that cries: ‘…loud sobs that had quickly quieted in the face of our bewildered silence’ (p. 293). the absence of wailing and tears, in the face of tragedy, is a deafening index of lack of sorrow and mourning, in contemporary igbo society. socio-cultural implications of negligence of identification and interpretation of signs from the fore-going discussion, it is obvious that the character, papa, could not detect the danger signs, the red flag his household was brandishing until he is consumed in death. his aggressive malhandling of them, beginning with mama, his wife, to the children led them to seek for freedom; jaja refuses to attend holy communion in church and gives flimsy excuse; kambili holds tight papa-nnukwu’s paintings she got from nsukka as they visits her aunt, aunty ifeoma, as papa beats her and mama poisons papa. in trying to inculcate moral discipline and right social values into his children, papa loses them through external influence from close relations, religious leaders like father amadi who opened kambili’s eyes to love. conclusion communication relies on using something to represent something else (saeed, 2009, p. 108; o’grady et al. 2011, p. 551). an understanding of signs is essential for understanding how messages are transmitted. from the above research paper, the novel, purple hibiscus, by chimamanda adichie is better understood through reading and interpreting both the verbal and non-verbal signs. fictional works are translated into reality when we decode the signs in them. and when signs in books are decoded, they can help fix ‘a floating chain’ of signifieds, according to roland barthes (cited in frank, 1983, p. 3). adichie’s purple hibiscus is rich in icons, indexes and symbols. we were able to identify some icons and indexes as symbols too. these signs identified in the novel are images of something used to illustrate and support the meanings and information provided by the text. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 197 references adichie, c. (2006). purple hibiscus. farafina. eco, u.a. (1976). theory of semiotics. indiana university press. eka, d. & inyang, u. (1996). aspects of spoken language. bon universal limited. frank, l. (1983). criticism and social change. chicago university press. irvine, m. (n.d.). semiotic theory: key terms and concepts. retrieved from http//www.9.georgetown.edu langrehr, d. (2003). from a semiotic perspective: inference formation and critical comprehension of television advertising. retrieved from http//eric.ed.gov. ndimele, o. (2001). readings on language. emhai books. nnamdi, j. & ikoro, o. s. (2014). “introducing nigerian cartoons movies in early childhood education: a pre-requisite for sustainable cultural literacy”. journal of the reading association of nigeria, 15(2), 275-281. o’grady, w., archibald, j.; & katamba, f. (2011). contemporary linguistics: an introduction. pearson educational limited. saeed, j. (2009). semantics. blackwell publishing limited. 204 hans jonas’ ethics of life: a panacea to modern anthropological crises dr. emmanuel ukata university of porthacourt eukata7777@gmail.com abstract in the face of mounting anthropological crises—ranging from environmental degradation and bioethical dilemmas to existential alienation and technological overreach—the need for a renewed ethical framework that prioritizes the sanctity and continuity of life has become urgent. this paper examines hans jonas’ ethics of life, grounded in his philosophy of responsibility, as a viable panacea to these multifaceted challenges. jonas advances an ontologically rooted ethic that emphasizes the asymmetry between the powerful present generation and powerless future generations, arguing for a moral imperative to act in ways that safeguard the long-term viability of authentic human life and the integrity of nature. central to jonas’ thought is his reformulation of the kantian categorical imperative into a future-oriented ethical command: “act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life.” this imperative, coupled with his critique of unchecked technological development, calls for a cautious and reverent approach to scientific innovation, ecological intervention, and moral decision-making. the paper critically engages jonas’ work, showing how his ethics transcends mere utilitarian or rights-based paradigms by establishing responsibility as ontological, unconditional, and anticipatory. in assessing jonas’ relevance to contemporary crises—such as climate change, biotechnology, and the fragmentation of moral meaning—the study argues that his thought provides a foundational ethic for sustainable human flourishing. while not without its limitations, jonas' ethics compels humanity to recover a deep sense of care, humility, and responsibility in an age where human actions have irreversible consequences for life itself. keywords: hans jonas, ethics of life, responsibility, anthropological crisis, environmental ethics, biotechnology, future generations, ontological ethics. introduction the modern era has been marked by unprecedented technological, scientific, and sociopolitical transformations that have radically reshaped the human condition. while these advances have yielded immense progress, they have also given rise to profound anthropological crises—ranging from ecological degradation and existential disorientation to bioethical challenges and the erosion of traditional moral frameworks. the contemporary world is thus confronted not merely with external threats to human survival but also with internal ruptures in the moral imagination that once provided a coherent sense of meaning, responsibility, and human purpose (jonas, 1984). in response to these challenges, hans jonas emerges as a crucial voice in contemporary philosophical ethics. a german-jewish thinker deeply shaped by the existential catastrophes of the twentieth century—particularly the holocaust, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the threat of nuclear annihilation—jonas turned his philosophical focus from speculative metaphysics toward what he termed an ethic of responsibility rooted in a reverence for life and an acute awareness of humanity's newfound technological power (jonas, 1984; wiese, 2009). his concern was not only with how human beings ought to live, but with how they should act in the face of unprecedented capacities to shape, and potentially destroy, the conditions of life itself. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 205 central to jonas’ moral philosophy is the idea that the ethical frameworks inherited from the past—particularly those derived from kantian autonomy, aristotelian virtue ethics, or judeochristian moral theology—are no longer sufficient in the face of the modern technological condition. traditional ethics, he argues, were formulated in contexts where the human capacity for action was limited in scale and scope. they failed to anticipate a world in which human agency, through technological innovation, could bring about irreversible consequences for the biosphere and for unborn generations (jonas, 1984, pp. 6–10). the moral crises of the present, therefore, require not merely an extension of previous ethical models, but an entirely new paradigm—one grounded in foresight, humility, and responsibility for the future. this ethical paradigm is developed in jonas’ main work, the imperative of responsibility: in search of an ethics for the technological age, where he articulates a novel categorical imperative: “act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life.” this principle, unlike traditional formulations, is future-oriented and asymmetrical—it considers the vulnerable, voiceless future as the primary object of moral concern (jonas, 1984, p. 11). in this light, ethical responsibility is not based on reciprocity or mutual recognition, but on the fragility of life and the irreversible consequences of technological power. the anthropological crises that confront modern humanity—climate change, biodiversity loss, artificial intelligence, genetic manipulation, and existential nihilism—are deeply interconnected. they stem from a common moral deficit: the absence of a deep, binding responsibility toward the integrity of life in all its forms (lehmann, 2011; ogletree, 2003). jonas’ ethics, grounded in an ontology that sees being itself as inherently valuable and worthy of protection, presents a compelling framework for rethinking this deficit. by calling for a fundamental reorientation of ethical thought—from immediacy to futurity, from domination to stewardship—jonas offers a path toward resolving the tensions between human advancement and ecological sustainability. this paper deals the philosophical foundations and contemporary relevance of hans jonas’ ethics of life, arguing that it offers a critical and necessary corrective to the anthropological disarray of the modern world. through a detailed examination of jonas’ ontology of responsibility, his critique of technological hubris, and his ethical imperative directed toward future generations, the study contends that jonas provides an indispensable resource for constructing a post-technological, ecologically conscious moral anthropology. conceptual clarifications to engage meaningfully with hans jonas’ ethics of life as a response to modern anthropological crises, it is essential to clarify the conceptual vocabulary that underpins this philosophical inquiry. key among these are the notions of the ethics of life, anthropological crises, and responsibility, especially as interpreted in jonas’ thought. these concepts are interwoven and foundational to understanding the moral and existential challenges of our time and jonas’ proposed ethical response. ethics of life (bioethics / ontological ethics) the term ethics of life refers to a philosophical and moral framework that places the sanctity, continuity, and inherent value of life—both human and non-human—at the center of ethical deliberation. in jonas’ work, this concept is deeply ontological; it is not merely about medical or biological ethics in the narrow sense, as seen in conventional bioethics, but about a metaphysical grounding of life as the fundamental locus of moral concern (jonas, 1984, pp. 1– 6). dr. emmanuel hans jonas’ ethics of life: a panacea to modern.. 206 anthropological crises (ecological, technological, moral, existential) anthropological crises refer to the manifold disruptions and distortions that affect the human condition in the contemporary era. these crises are not merely sociological or political in nature, but touch upon the very essence of what it means to be human in a world increasingly shaped by technological power, ecological collapse, and moral disintegration. ecological crises, exemplified by climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, and resource depletion, point to a rupture in the human-nature relationship. the anthropocentric exploitation of the natural world, fueled by industrialism and consumerism, has precipitated an environmental emergency that threatens the future of life on earth (leopold, 1949; jonas, 1984). technological crises emerge from the unchecked advancement of technologies such as genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and nuclear power. these developments, while beneficial in some respects, have outpaced ethical reflection, resulting in what jonas describes as a promethean gap between human power and moral responsibility (jonas, 1984, pp. 6–10). moral and existential crises manifest in the loss of ethical orientation, the fragmentation of traditional value systems, and the disintegration of communal bonds. the postmodern condition, with its emphasis on relativism and individual autonomy, has further undermined collective ethical commitments and the capacity to act with moral foresight (taylor, 1989; ricoeur, 1992). responsibility (in jonas’ terms: asymmetrical, forward-looking, ontological) the cornerstone of jonas’ ethical project is the concept of responsibility, which he redefines in novel and profound ways. for jonas, responsibility is not a contractual or reciprocal duty based on mutual agreement, as found in much of modern liberal ethics. rather, it is asymmetrical, future-oriented, and ontologically grounded. first, jonas’ idea of asymmetrical responsibility is drawn from the parental metaphor: just as parents bear responsibility for their children who cannot reciprocate, so too do present generations hold responsibility for future generations who cannot speak for themselves (jonas, 1984, pp. 97–100). this breaks with classical moral theories that presuppose symmetry between moral agents. second, responsibility is forwardlooking. unlike traditional ethics, which often focuses on immediate actions or past obligations, jonas emphasizes the long-term consequences of human actions, especially in light of technological power that can irreversibly alter the conditions of life. this temporal extension of ethics demands that human beings anticipate and safeguard the viability of future existence (jonas, 1984, p. 11). third, jonas’ responsibility is ontological. it emerges from the very structure of being—specifically, the capacity of life to suffer, to flourish, and to be extinguished. life calls to us, not through rights or laws, but through its vulnerability and value. responsibility thus becomes an existential imperative, rooted in the being of the other rather than in mere rational calculation (ogletree, 2003; wiese, 2009). hans jonas’ philosophy: an overview hans jonas stands out as one of the most original and ethically urgent philosophers of the twentieth century. his intellectual development traversed multiple traditions, including classical german philosophy, existential phenomenology, jewish theology, and post-holocaust ethical reflection. his philosophical legacy is particularly notable for its shift from ontological reflection on life to a robust ethic of responsibility tailored for the age of technological power and ecological vulnerability. jonas’ intellectual journey was deeply personal, shaped not only by rigorous academic training but also by the moral and historical catastrophes of his time. transition from existential ontology to ethics of responsibility jonas’ philosophical transition from existential ontology to ethical responsibility represents a defining moment in his intellectual trajectory. initially preoccupied with metaphysical aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 207 questions of life and being—as exemplified in his masterful the phenomenon of life jonas gradually came to realize that ontological reflection must be complemented by normative ethics, especially in a world increasingly shaped by science and technology. in the phenomenon of life, jonas develops a philosophical biology that views life not as a mechanistic process but as a teleological and value-laden phenomenon. he argues that even the simplest forms of organic life exhibit a kind of self-concern or inherent purposiveness, which he interprets as the metaphysical ground for ethical obligation (jonas, 1966, pp. 3–17). this ontological valuation of life becomes the foundation upon which jonas builds his later ethics of responsibility. the decisive shift occurs in the imperative of responsibility, where jonas confronts the moral implications of modern technological power. traditional ethics, he argues, is anthropocentric, short-sighted, and ill-equipped to deal with actions whose consequences extend beyond the present and even beyond the living. in response, jonas proposes a new ethical imperative: “act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life” (jonas, 1984, p. 11). this imperative is no longer grounded in the autonomy of the moral agent (as in kant), but in the fragility of life and the asymmetrical responsibility of the powerful toward the powerless especially future generations. jonas’ mature philosophy is articulated most clearly in three major works:  the phenomenon of life: this work lays the ontological foundation for jonas’ later ethics. it introduces the idea of life as inherently valuable, goal-directed, and imbued with existential meaning. against reductionist biology, jonas proposes a philosophical biology that recognizes purpose and self-concern even in primitive organisms (jonas, 1966, pp. 80–112). this metaphysical valuation of life is the cornerstone of his later normative claims.  philosophical essays: from ancient creed to technological man (1980) this collection brings together jonas’ reflections on ethics, theology, science, and existentialism. here, jonas elaborates on his post-holocaust theology and his critique of the moral ambivalence of technological modernity. the essays reveal the breadth of jonas’ thought, spanning from plato to cybernetics, and provide crucial background to his ethical writings.  the imperative of responsibility: in search of an ethics for the technological age (1984) considered his magnum opus, this work develops jonas’ ethics of responsibility in full. it confronts the moral vacuum left by classical ethics in the face of nuclear risk, ecological destruction, and biotechnological manipulation. the book’s central thesis is that ethics must now be guided by foresight, humility, and a commitment to sustaining the conditions of life for future generations (jonas, 1984, pp. 11–22). taken together, these works demonstrate jonas’ intellectual movement from speculative ontology to practical, world-responsive ethics. they constitute a coherent philosophical vision rooted in the intrinsic value of life, the limits of human power, and the moral demands of the future. core tenets of jonas’ ethics of life hans jonas’ ethical philosophy is a pioneering response to the challenges posed by modern technological civilization. at the heart of his ethics of life lies a radical reconceptualization of moral responsibility, grounded in a metaphysical appreciation of life and a sober recognition of the unprecedented scale and impact of human action in the technological age. unlike dr. emmanuel hans jonas’ ethics of life: a panacea to modern.. 208 classical ethical systems that centered on interpersonal justice, jonas articulates a normative framework capable of addressing the moral demands of future generations, non-human nature, and the very conditions for the continuity of life on earth. his ethics is built on three major tenets: the ontological foundation of responsibility, the new ethical imperative, and the ethical implications of modern technology. the ontological foundation of responsibility the cornerstone of jonas’ ethical thought is his ontological understanding of life as intrinsically valuable and worthy of moral consideration. in the phenomenon of life, jonas challenges mechanistic interpretations of biology by arguing that even the simplest living organisms exhibit a kind of teleology—a striving to persist, to maintain form, and to realize their potential (jonas, 1966, pp. 75–95). this self-concern of living beings is, for jonas, the most basic expression of intrinsic value. life, therefore, is not neutral matter in motion but a bearer of significance and moral appeal. building upon this ontological insight, jonas claims that responsibility is not merely a social construct or a contractual duty but arises directly from the nature of being itself. responsibility is elicited by the vulnerability of life and by the asymmetrical relation between the powerful (i.e., present agents) and the powerless (future generations, ecosystems, unborn life). it is, as he writes, “the correlate of power” (jonas, 1984, p. 130)—wherever human power increases, so must our moral responsibility. in this respect, jonas differs from both kantian formalism and utilitarian consequentialism. he does not base obligation on abstract autonomy or aggregated pleasure but on an existential intuition: that life as such calls for protection and reverence. the moral agent, then, is one who answers to the silent appeal of being, especially the being of those who cannot yet speak or defend themselves. the new ethical imperative recognizing that modern science and technology have radically expanded the scope and irreversibility of human actions, jonas proposes a new categorical imperative, a reformulation of kant’s deontological principle in light of future-oriented concerns. he writes: “act so that the effects of your action are compatible with the permanence of genuine human life” (jonas, 1984, p. 11). this imperative introduces several key innovations in ethical thought. first, it emphasizes anticipation: the moral agent must consider not just the immediate consequences of an action but its long-term effects on the viability of human life. second, it introduces asymmetry into moral relations: responsibility is owed not to equals, but to the most vulnerable—especially the unborn, the non-human, and the voiceless. third, it is precautionary: jonas insists that in cases of uncertainty, particularly with regard to technological risk, the burden of proof lies with the innovator. he articulates this in terms of a heuristics of fear, whereby the anticipation of potential disaster must override blind faith in progress (jonas, 1984, pp. 26–27). technology and the need for a new ethics one of jonas’ most original contributions is his identification of technology as an ethical category. while traditional ethics focused on individual actions within relatively stable contexts, the technological revolution—especially post-industrial developments in nuclear energy, biotechnology, genetic engineering, and artificial intelligence—has created actions with global, long-term, and possibly irreversible consequences. this, jonas argues, constitutes an entirely new moral situation (jonas, 1984, pp. 6–10). modern technology alters not only the scale but also the structure of human responsibility. for instance, the development of genetic editing techniques or the deployment of autonomous weapons does not simply pose ethical aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 209 dilemmas in the classical sense. rather, it reconfigures the very boundaries of what it means to act, to choose, and to foresee consequences. as a result, jonas contends, ethics must be expanded beyond anthropocentric and present-oriented frameworks to include the entire biosphere and the deep future (lehmann, 2011). technology also introduces a moral ambivalence: its potential for good is inseparable from its potential for harm. this duality necessitates a moral principle that does not presume progress as inherently good, but that evaluates every innovation against the criterion of life’s sustainability and dignity. jonas thus proposes an ethic of restraint, not to halt development but to humanize and moralize it. the true measure of innovation is not what can be done, but what ought to be done in the name of life’s preservation. diagnosing the modern anthropological crises hans jonas’ ethics of responsibility is deeply responsive to what may be termed modern anthropological crises—profound disruptions to human self-understanding, moral coherence, and the conditions of life brought about by modernity, particularly its technological expression. these crises are not isolated phenomena but interlocking dimensions of a deeper malaise afflicting contemporary humanity. they manifest in three interconnected domains: the ecological crisis, the technological and bioethical crisis, and the existential and moral crisis. jonas’ philosophical insight lies in recognizing that these crises cannot be resolved through technical solutions alone but require a renewed ethical orientation toward life, responsibility, and the future. ecological and environmental crisis one of the most urgent manifestations of the anthropological crisis is the ecological breakdown of planetary systems. climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, ocean acidification, and the depletion of natural resources indicate a severe rupture in the human-nature relationship (ipcc, 2023). human economic and industrial activity—especially since the industrial revolution—has treated nature as an instrument for human ends, with little regard for the intrinsic value of ecosystems or the long-term consequences of exploitation. jonas identifies this rupture as the product of technological optimism and anthropocentrism, wherein nature is viewed merely as raw material for human progress. the ethical systems that dominated western thought—particularly utilitarianism and classical liberalism—fail to provide adequate safeguards for nature because they do not recognize non-human life as ethically relevant (jonas, 1984, pp. 1–8). in contrast, jonas insists on the moral considerability of all life forms and the biosphere as a whole. he views the ecological crisis not simply as an environmental issue but as a moral failure—a failure to acknowledge our asymmetrical responsibility toward vulnerable and voiceless forms of life. his ethic calls for a new kind of stewardship, one that is rooted not in domination or control, but in humility and preservation. this ethical orientation is particularly relevant today, as ecological degradation increasingly threatens the conditions of human survival and the stability of planetary systems (rockström et al., 2009). technological and bioethical challenges the second major dimension of the anthropological crisis is technological in nature, particularly in its ethical implications. the rise of advanced technologies in areas such as genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, robotics, and synthetic biology presents both profound possibilities and unprecedented dangers. these technologies offer potential cures, efficiencies, and innovations—but they also risk undermining human dignity, eroding the boundaries of the natural, and even threatening the continuity of life itself. jonas warns that dr. emmanuel hans jonas’ ethics of life: a panacea to modern.. 210 human beings now possess the power to intervene in the very fabric of life, altering genomes, creating artificial forms of intelligence, and manipulating environments on a global scale. this transformation of the human condition brings with it ethical responsibilities that classical morality never anticipated. as he argues, “our capacity to do has outrun our capacity to foresee and our capacity to judge” (jonas, 1984, p. 9). this ethical lag has resulted in what jonas calls a promethean imbalance—the disproportion between human technical power and the lack of moral insight to govern it (jonas, 1984, pp. 6– 10). in particular, bioethical decisions—such as gene editing of embryos, cloning, and artificial reproduction—now require an ethics that considers not only consent and rights, but also the ontological meaning of life, naturalness, and future implications (habermas, 2003). jonas insists that in the face of uncertainty and potential irreversible harm, ethics must be guided by prudence, caution, and reverence for the integrity of life. this is not to paralyze innovation but to ensure that technological progress does not outpace our moral wisdom. crisis of meaning and existential alienation beyond ecological and technological dimensions lies a deeper existential and moral crisis: the erosion of meaning, purpose and shared moral orientation in late modern societies. the postmodern condition, marked by moral relativism, cultural fragmentation, and spiritual disillusionment, has produced a kind of ethical paralysis. while material conditions have improved for many, the moral and symbolic fabric of human life has become increasingly fragile (taylor, 1989; macintyre, 1981). jonas interprets this as a loss of ontological grounding, a detachment of ethics from any firm metaphysical basis. where previous moral systems were anchored in religious, natural law, or metaphysical traditions, modernity has left the moral subject to navigate without transcendent reference points. as a result, individuals are often caught between the extremes of nihilism and moralism, with little sense of existential responsibility beyond personal choice. in contrast, jonas offers an ethics rooted in being itself—a return to the idea that life and existence carry with them a normative weight. for jonas, the presence of life calls us into responsibility; it is not optional or relative, but constitutive of what it means to be human (jonas, 1966, pp. 1–25). this move seeks to restore ethical seriousness in an age that often trivializes or instrumentalizes moral decisions. moreover, jonas’ emphasis on responsibility toward the future challenges the short-termism that dominates contemporary life. political cycles, consumer culture, and economic systems are generally geared toward immediate gratification and profit. jonas counters this with a moral temporality that stretches across generations, linking the present to the unborn and the yet-to-be. jonas’ ethics as a panacea hans jonas’ ethics of responsibility offers not only a critique of modernity’s moral deficits but also a constructive ethical vision that addresses the core of today’s anthropological crises. it provides a panacea—not in the sense of a simplistic cure-all—but as a profound and holistic philosophical remedy to the deep-seated ethical, ecological, and existential challenges facing humanity. jonas’ ethic is curative because it reorients the human subject from mastery to stewardship, from immediacy to futurity, and from instrumentalism to reverence for life. in this section, we explore three core dimensions of jonas’ framework as a response to the modern crises: the restoration of intergenerational ethical bonds, the moral regulation of scientific progress, and the re-grounding of human identity in responsibility and care. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 211 restoring the ethical bond with future generations one of jonas’ most original contributions is his elevation of future generations to the central object of moral concern. whereas traditional moral theories focused on relations among contemporaries, jonas shifts the ethical gaze toward the not-yet-born, who are radically vulnerable to the present generation's decisions (jonas, 1984, pp. 11–12). this introduces an asymmetrical ethics: the moral agent holds unilateral responsibility toward beings who cannot reciprocate, protest, or even consent. jonas bases this ethic on an ontological intuition: that the sheer possibility of future human life carries intrinsic value and imposes a duty of preservation upon the present (jonas, 1984, p. 122). this principle radically contrasts with utilitarian costbenefit analysis and economic models of intergenerational justice, which often discount the future through mechanisms such as “social discounting” (rawls, 1971). jonas insists that temporal distance does not diminish moral weight; on the contrary, the further removed the potential victim, the greater the duty of care due to their voicelessness and exposure. in light of climate change, resource depletion, and genetic modification, jonas’ ethic urges a recovery of intergenerational solidarity. it compels political and economic institutions to embed longterm thinking into their structures. it also demands a cultural shift: from consumption to conservation, from short-termism to sustainability. integrating caution into scientific and technological progress a second dimension of jonas’ ethical panacea is his demand for caution and prudence in the deployment of modern science and technology. in contrast to the enlightenment faith in the neutrality and progressiveness of science, jonas contends that not all that can be done should be done. technological power must be morally constrained by an anticipatory ethic capable of evaluating the irreversible and global consequences of innovation (jonas, 1984, pp. 27–29). to this end, jonas introduces the principle of the “heuristics of fear”—a controversial yet profound moral insight. he argues that imagining worst-case scenarios is ethically necessary in an age when the stakes of error include planetary destruction or irreversible alteration of human nature (jonas, 1984, p. 27). fear, in this context, is not irrational panic but an epistemic and moral tool—a means of appreciating the fragility of life and the gravity of human power. it corrects the hubris of techno-scientific optimism and enforces the humility needed for responsible innovation. in current debates over artificial intelligence, synthetic biology, and nuclear energy, jonas’ ethic provides a much-needed framework for ethical foresight and constraint. it complements regulatory mechanisms by grounding them not in legal compliance alone but in a deeper metaphysical and moral seriousness about life’s vulnerability. re-grounding human identity in care and responsibility at a more anthropological level, jonas’ ethics offers a restorative vision of what it means to be human. against the backdrop of modern alienation, moral relativism, and existential emptiness, jonas proposes a vision of human subjectivity as intrinsically bound to care, responsibility, and fidelity to life. his ethical anthropology resists the modern detachment of the moral agent from nature, community, and the cosmos. human beings, in jonas’ view, are not isolated wills or autonomous consumers but entrusted stewards of life and being (jonas, 1984, pp. 80–85). this stewardship is not chosen but given—imposed by our capacity to affect the world and the vulnerability of the lives we affect. in this way, jonas reconfigures human freedom not as license, but as accountable agency—freedom that acknowledges its embeddedness in time, ecology, and interdependence. this insight is especially relevant in the face of the moral fragmentation of late modernity, where ethical norms are often reduced to personal preferences or cultural conventions. jonas’ ethics rejects both moral relativism and moral authoritarianism, offering instead an ethic dr. emmanuel hans jonas’ ethics of life: a panacea to modern.. 212 grounded in ontological realism—the idea that responsibility flows from the very structure of being, not merely from human agreement or social contract. in reconnecting ethics with metaphysics, jonas provides a powerful alternative to the procedural emptiness of much contemporary moral discourse. he calls individuals and societies alike to reclaim responsibility as the defining trait of human existence, not only in relation to others, but to nature, the future, and the very mystery of life. conclusion hans jonas’ ethics of life offers a deeply philosophical and morally urgent response to the radical transformations and dislocations that define the modern human condition. in the face of a world increasingly shaped by the unintended consequences of human power—ecological devastation, unchecked technological innovation, and a crisis of meaning—jonas advances a compelling ethical paradigm rooted not in anthropocentric sovereignty, but in ontological responsibility. his vision calls for a renewal of ethical consciousness, one that transcends the limitations of enlightenment rationalism, postmodern relativism, and utilitarian expediency. at the heart of jonas’ contribution is a redefinition of the human being—not as a master of nature or as a sovereign chooser, but as a custodian of life. his insistence that responsibility is the correlate of power radically reorients moral agency in the technological age. no longer can humanity act without reference to the long-term consequences of its choices. the future, in jonas’ framework, is not a passive extension of the present but an active site of moral obligation. this future-oriented ethic challenges contemporary models of decision-making— particularly in politics, economics, and science—which are often myopically fixated on shortterm gains and instrumental efficiency. moreover, jonas’ ethic revitalizes the moral imagination by introducing the “heuristics of fear,” a principle which counsels caution in the face of technological novelty. unlike reckless optimism or blind faith in progress, jonas’ call to anticipate worst-case scenarios is not an appeal to irrationality, but a recognition of the fragility of life and the irreversibility of technological consequences. in this way, he provides a crucial corrective to the moral inertia that often accompanies scientific advancement and political complacency. in the ecological domain, jonas’ emphasis on the intrinsic value of life provides a philosophical counterweight to the exploitative logic of industrial capitalism and consumerist culture. he challenges the view of nature as a mere backdrop for human progress, instead affirming a moral continuity between humanity and the biosphere. this perspective is vital in light of today’s climate crisis, where the degradation of the environment is increasingly understood not merely as a scientific or economic issue, but as a moral failure—a betrayal of our obligation to the earth and to future generations. equally significant is jonas’ contribution to bioethics and philosophical anthropology. his insistence that life is not morally neutral but ontologically significant invites a rethinking of biomedical ethics beyond the principles of autonomy and consent. in a world where the boundaries of human nature are increasingly malleable—through genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and synthetic biology—jonas urges a posture of humility, reverence, and restraint. he compels us to ask not only what we can do, but what we ought to preserve, protect, and revere. furthermore, jonas’ metaphysical realism offers a resolute alternative to the existential and moral relativism that characterizes much of contemporary thought. while he does not deny the loss of traditional religious and metaphysical certainties, he insists that ethics can still be grounded in the givenness of life and the urgency of responsibility. his vision is one of secular sanctity: a reverence for life that does not require theological scaffolding but draws moral force from the existential condition of vulnerability, finitude, and interdependence. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 213 of course, jonas’ ethics is not without its tensions and challenges. critics have questioned the practical applicability of his principles in complex democratic societies, the epistemological status of his ontological claims, and the potentially paralyzing effects of the heuristics of fear. yet these concerns do not undermine the normative depth and visionary scope of his project. rather, they invite further reflection on how jonas’ insights might be integrated, adapted, and operationalized in the policy arenas, cultural discourses, and moral practices of contemporary life. ultimately, jonas’ ethics of life is more than a theoretical framework; it is a call to conscience, a summons to awaken from the ethical slumber induced by technocratic thinking and moral complacency. it reminds us that the preservation of life is not an abstract imperative but a concrete, lived responsibility—one that defines our identity, shapes our institutions, and determines the fate of generations yet to come. in an age marked by planetary precarity and ethical disorientation, hans jonas offers a rare philosophical voice of hope grounded in realism, humility, and moral foresight. his ethics is not a nostalgic return to lost certainties, but a forward-looking appeal to cultivate wisdom, restraint, and solidarity in the face of existential risk. as such, it remains one of the most vital contributions to moral philosophy in the anthropocene, and a crucial resource for all who seek to navigate the challenges of life, technology, and human responsibility in the twenty-first century. dr. emmanuel hans jonas’ ethics of life: a panacea to modern.. 214 references habermas, j. 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(1989). sources of the self: the making of the modern identity. harvard university press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6 https://doi.org/10.1038/461472a aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr xenophobia and national identity: a study and moral evaluation of contemporary south african-nigerian conflicts on digital platforms afunugo, kenechi nnaemeka department of religion and human relations nnamdi azikiwe university, awka nk.afunugo@unizik.edu.ng abstract this study explores the role of digital platforms in shaping xenophobic tensions and national identity between south africans and nigerians. it uses a qualitative methodology that includes content analysis of social media discourse and interviews with affected individuals. social identity theory was utilized in evaluating its observations. the research addresses the growing problem of xenophobic rhetoric against nigerians in south africa, often fueled by online interactions in contemporary times. it seeks to fill a gap in understanding how these digital conflicts contribute to national identity formation and exacerbate real-world violence. a moral evaluation highlights the ethical responsibilities of individuals; social media platforms, and governments in mitigating xenophobic hate speech and promoting intercultural dialogue. the findings suggest that digital platforms amplify xenophobic sentiments, creating echo chambers that deepen divisions between the two nationalities. this was clearly exemplified in the focus of this research which is recent online tensions between nigerians and south africans regarding the booking and cancellation of ride-hailing services like bolt and uber, as well as the frustration caused by the increase in online purchases made by nigerians in south africa. these purchases were often used as pranks, causing financial losses for drivers and businesses. the study recommends stricter moderation policies in social media; government-led bilateral dialogues; and educational programs that emphasize shared africans identities and histories to foster mutual understanding and reduce conflict. keywords: xenophobia, national identity, moral evaluation, digital platforms, conflicts. introduction the role of digital platforms in escalating conflicts and tensions between nationalities cannot be overemphasized. in this regards, zeitzoff (2017) argues in his framework that digital platforms, distinctively social media, influences conflicts by reducing communication costs, increasing the speed and spread of information, and driving strategic interactions and adaptations among conflict actions. he affirms that it provides new data that reshapes available information, influencing the dynamics of the conflict itself. niekerk et al (2013) aver that social media fosters information-based conflict by enabling rapid dissemination and access to information, which can shape political landscapes and fuel civil disturbances. the authors enunciate that its role in major political events, such as the 2009 iranian elections and the 2011 uprisings in north africa and the middle east, shows how it can be used to mobilize populations and challenge established authorities. niekerk et al posit that by means of facilitating communication, organization and the spread of both accurate and false information, social media services as a tool in strategic security and military operations, amplifying its influence in modern conflict. uzochukwu et al (2019) maintain that hate speech on digital platforms, especially social media, contributes to societal conflicts by influencing public opinion. their study highlight the difficulty in clearly defining and measuring hate speech, as it can be manipulated to target 141 opposition or suppress criticism. relatively, proctor (2021) portrays that digital space, significantly social media, is constantly weaponized in fragile states in fueling conflict through disinformation, electoral manipulation, and extremist recruitment. hochwald (2024) states that digital platforms affect intra-state conflicts by amplifying civil society's influence, challenging authoritarian regimes, and by shifting power dynamics. he insists that social media have been used by both revolutionaries and governments, playing roles in events like the arab spring. initially viewed as empowering citizens, the author enunciates that governments now also exploit these tools for their own security and control, reshaping conflicts strategies. the contemporary south african-nigerian conflicts on virtual interfaces, particularly pertinent to the frustrations regarding the dubious and deceitful online bookings and cancellations of ridehailing services like bolt and uber which both nations experiences alongside the increase in volume of online purchases made by nigerians in south africa; represent a significant manifestation of xenophobia, deeply intertwined with issues of national identity. these tensions are often expressed through social media, where economic competition, immigration, and cultural differences fuel hostile interactions. this study critically examines the role of digital platforms in escalating xenophobic rhetoric, exploring how online spaces shape and reflect broader societal attitudes. additionally, it provides a moral evaluation of these conflicts, questioning the ethical implications of digital discourse and its impact on both nations' identities and relations in an increasingly interconnected world. the social identity theory (sit) was utilized in evaluating this work. this study employs a qualitative approach, incorporating analysis of social media discussions and conducting interviews with impacted individuals. the dynamics of relationship between south africa and nigeria the relationship between south africa and nigeria is characterized by both rivalry and partnership, as they compete for influence in africa while occasionally collaborating on regional and global issues. odubajo et al (2017) examine the evolving relationship between nigeria and south africa, emphasizing their competition for regional dominance in africa while pursuing national interests. the authors highlight that their interactions fluctuate between political conflict and cooperation. they conclude that both collaboration and competition shape their relations, and their ability to work together could benefit the african continent, though their pursuit of national interests may either foster or hinder this potential cooperation. deliberating on the interplay of the relationship between south africa and nigeria, adebajo (2019) accentuates that it is typified by both collaborations and competition. while they are pivotal to africa's political and economic integration, tensions arise from differing perceptions. he intimates that nigerians feel south africans are ungrateful for nigeria's role in the anti-apartheid struggle and see south african companies as dominating their market, while south africans criticize nigerian involvement in crime and face challenges doing business in nigeria. despite these differences, adebajo delineates that both nations share economic, social, and political similarities and are vital players in shaping africa's future. ogo et al (2015) analyzes the changing dynamics of the relationship between nigeria and south africa since nigeria's independence. initially, relations were strained due to nigeria's antiapartheid stance, which the south african government viewed as hostile. however, in 1992, diplomatic ties improved following a visit from south african president de klerk. while tensions arose during the mandela-abacha era, relations normalized under mbeki and obasanjo. the zuma and jonathan administrations faced diplomatic challenges, alternating between cooperation and discord. the authors argue that both countries, as africa's largest economies, should prioritize friendly relations to promote mutual benefits and strengthen their bilateral ties. ajiboye (2024) analyzes the economic relationship between south africa and nigeria from 2013 to 2018; stressing that it is marked by significant trade, investment, and diplomatic interacting, 142 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 despite underlying tensions and challenges. according to the author, the period saw fluctuating trade volumes, peaking at $6.1 billion in 2014 and declining to $3.8 billion by 2018, influenced by commodity prices and regulatory issues. both nations have made investments in each other's economies, particularly in telecommunications and banking, yet face challenges like trade imbalances and infrastructure limitations. ajiboye's study highlights the need for improved cooperation through initiatives like the african continental free trade area (afcfta) and emphasizes the importance of transitioning from competitive to collaborative relations to enhance economic growth and regional integration. bariledum et al (2022) while studying the foreign policies of nigeria and south africa alongside their contributions to african development, observe that while both nations are pivotal to africa's progress, nigeria's foreign policy has a greater impact compared to south africa's. the authors illuminate that the relationship between the two countries has fluctuated between tension and cooperation, marked by regional leadership competition. they conclude that in order to effectively tackle current african challenges, nigeria and south africa should strengthen their ties and establish a collaborative political, economic and cultural agenda, with nigeria recognizing south africa's potential to alleviate some leadership pressures. ogunnubi et al (2022) articulate the issue of xenophobia in south africa and its effects on nigeria-south africa relations, highlighting the paradox of xenophobia attacks despite shared african ideals of unity. discussing the rivalry and cooperation between the two countries; the authors argue that the nigerian government's inadequate use of citizen diplomacy contributes to the prejudice and violence faced by nigerians in south africa. they propose policy recommendations to strengthen the nigeria-south africa partnership, including the implementation of a cultural mix policy and early warning systems to address and reduce xenophobic conflicts. odock (2002) while examining the shift in relations between nigeria and south africa from competition to cooperation attributes this change to evolving national interests and a shared goal of continental leadership amid globalization. the author argues that while this cooperation offers potential benefits, foreign multinational cooperation's dominate key economic sectors likely making them the primary beneficiaries. additionally, difference in the internal class structures of the ruling elites in both countries may limit the depth of their cooperation, raising doubts about their ability to effectively tackle the challenges posed by globalization. moral assessment of the dynamics of the relationship between south africa and nigeria the findings from this study in conjunction with the insights from c. ezenwokike, o. otama, k. ezelibe and j. ozor (personal communication, september 3rd, 2024) exhibit that the relationship between south africa and nigeria is shaped by a complex interplay of historical, economic, political, and cultural factors. both nations have endured colonial legacies and struggles for independence, particularly south africa's fight against apartheid. this shared history underscores the importance of solidarity and mutual support among african nations as they work to overcome the lasting impacts of colonialism. a moral assessment of their dynamics promotes the necessity for collaboration rather than competition in fostering unity across the continent. as two of africa's largest economies, nigeria and south africa often find themselves in competition for influence and resources, leading to ethical considerations around their economic interactions. this rivalry raises questions about the balance between cooperation and protectionism. a moral evaluation favours collaborative efforts in trade, investment, and infrastructure development, which can benefit both countries and contribute to regional stability. in the political arena, changes in leadership and differing policies can strain relations, emphasizing the need for respectful diplomatic engagement to promote peace and stability within the region. 143 afunugo, kenechi nnaemeka xenophobia and national identity: a study and moral... social issues, including xenophobia in south africa and the perceptions of nigeria immigrants, require a moral lens that prioritizes empathy, understanding, and the rejection of discrimination. both countries play crucial roles in the african union and other regional organizations, and their collaboration on security and development issues reflects a moral responsibility to promote african unity and progress. via fostering cultural exchanges and mutual respect for each other's traditions; south africa and nigeria have the opportunity to enrich their relationship, working together towards a more united and prosperous africa while addressing contemporary challenges. nigeria-south africa online disputes over fraudulent bolt and uber drivers orders the online tensions and conflict between nigerians and south africans apposite to the use of ride-hailing services like bolt and uber escalated with south africans booking rides in nigeria and canceling them to prank nigerian drivers, causing financial losses and frustration. in retaliation, according to i. mojekwu, o. adebiti, n. johnson, d. newman, and l. mohammed (personal communication, september 5th, 2024), nigerians started doing the same, booking and canceling rides in south africa. this resulted in a price surge in cities like cape town and johannesburg, leaving some south africans stranded due to increased ride costs. ikeji (2024) records that in retaliation to the recent “order war” initiated by south africans, nigerian users drove up taxi fares in south africa by coordinating ride-hailing drivers to gather at particular spots. this follows south africans bragging on x (formerly twitter) about intentionally wasting nigerian driver's time by placing ride orders and then canceling them. ikeji underscores that nigerians and some south africans expressed outrage over the prank, describing it as vile and cruel. ezeamalu (2024) underlines that an x user, @i-am-feezah, criticized both south africans and nigerians for their actions in the bolt conflict, pointing out that innocent drivers trying to support their families are the ones suffering. abdullahi (2024) details that the challenge sparked a social media debate, with nigerians leveraging their larger population to dominate the prank. he further recounts that x users highlighted the financial disadvantage of the online war for south africans. some south africans conceded defeat, while others expressed concerns over the impact on driver's livelihoods. abdullahi notes that the rivalry intensified following the withdrawal of nigeria born chidinma adetshina from the miss south africa pageant due to backlash over her nationality. opanuga (2024) chronicles that bolt nigeria's country manager, yahaya mohammed, addressed the fake ride request issue involving individuals in nigeria and south africa, assuring measures to protect drivers and enhance platform security. despite these steps, tensions between nigerians and south africans kept heightening online, with users in x exchanging heated remarks. opanuga relates that some warn of worsening conflicts, while others highlight the risks of fueling animosity between the two nations. the online feud according to the author reflects deeper frustrations, with both sides engaging in banter and raising concerns about the real-world impact of the issue. jade empress #ate (2024, august 23) an x user, made a resounding statement regarding the issue against south africans thus: this time around you are targeting the nigerians minding their own business in their own country? you cannot even use the excuse that it is because they are illegal in your country. they are in their own country, yet you are doing this. later you people will deny the xenophobia when accused. (p.1). amara_nwankpa (2024, august 23), another x user consents that “xenophobia harms random, innocent people” (p. 1). while thabiso (2024 august 24), a south african x user delineates that: 144 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 “this is behind wrong. this guy is in his own country trying to make an honest living. is your beef not with the illegal immigrants in south africa kanti? there's nothing funny about this, you are a horrible person” (p. 1). maya (2024) enunciates in his own perspective that the situation of these online bookings is worsened by nigeria's fuel scarcity and rising cost of living, with screenshots showing south africans mocking their nigerian victims in local languages. the author streamlines that in retaliation, nigerians escalated the fake ride orders by engaging south african drivers in time-wasting conversations, giving absurd locations like “illorin post office” in cape town. maya illustrates that one nigerian even joked about transporting human body parts, to which a south african driver shockingly agreed, offering advice on packaging. according to his documentation, nigerians vowed to continue these pranks, with one x user stating, “we go lower until we find oil” (p. 3). the synopsis of maya's report showcases that uber and bolt apps can be easily manipulated for mischief, allowing users to book riders in other countries without detection. kupemba et al (2024) elucidate that bolt subsequently suspended accounts and restricted inter-country ride requests due to the rise in fake ride booking between nigeria and south africa, impacting its operations. they intimate that bolt confirmed that the restriction only applies to nigeria and south africa. nigeria's netizens extending online dispute to fraudulent ordering of online goods zage (2024) records that the online conflict went beyond ride-hailing requests, with some nigerians placing fake food orders from south africa businesses, as illustrated in an x user's post (cited by zage) to wit: “south africa has restaurants where you can order food and pay upon delivery. i am not saying anything” (p.1). this statement by harry @chiditweets,042 august 22, 2024 (cited by zage), highlights a practice in south african restaurants where customers can order food and pay upon delivery. the x user thus was calling attention to nigerian netizens to use that platform in frustrating the south africans more by ordering fraudulent online food to frustrate south africans online fast food vendors. zage (2024) details that the tension between nigeria and south africa stems from xenophobic attacks on nigerians in south africa, particularly in 2019 when nigerian-owned businesses were targeted. he stresses that while nigerians in south africa often possess better skill and education, locals accuse them of organized crime. despite this, nigeria historically supported south africa during apartheid, issuing passports to south africans, boycotting events, and raising awareness through cultural contributions. the author maintains that the future of the relationship between south africa and nigeria depends on resolving underlying issues and rebuilding mutual respect. jaiyeola (2024) specified that there were also nigerians who visited online relationship sites, seeking to connect with new friends with the motive of frustrating them. lethabo francina (cited by jaiyeola) shared on her x account that “someone asked me to wait for him on a street in south africa, but after two hours, i realized it was all just a prank” (p. 3). one can thus reckon the height of the online beef. ikeji (2024) assents that nigerians later intensified the online war by targeting additional south african businesses, including restaurants offering pay-on-delivery services, in a coordinated effort to disrupt operations as act of retaliation. the remote causes of tension between south africans and nigerians in digital and physical spaces udeoji (2017) asserts that the remote causes of the online and physical crises between south africa and nigeria stem from a combination of ineffective migration control leading to increased migrant influx, poor governance resulting in unemployment and socioeconomic challenges, fears among south africans about job competition and identity loss due to migrants, and the 145 afunugo, kenechi nnaemeka xenophobia and national identity: a study and moral... involvement of some nigerians in criminal activities. she avers that these factors contribute to ongoing xenophobic violence against nigerian migrants, including extrajudicial killings, which threaten regional stability and hinder economic integration efforts in africa. nwanganga et al (2022) in their study, highlights that the tension between south africa in both digital and physical spaces is rooted in the deepening poverty among south africans, which has been linked to the rising incidence of xenophobic attacks on nigerians and other foreign nationals in south africa. the south african government's failure to effectively address these attacks has contributed to a culture of xenophobia exacerbated by economic hardship and social unrest. the authors posit that this environment of fear and hostility is fueled by misconceptions about migrants taking jobs and resources, creating a volatile atmosphere that affects both digital and physical interactions between south africans and nigerians. ultimately, from the findings of this study apposite to the recent online tensions between south africa and nigeria, the remote causes of the conflict between the two nations both in digital and physical spaces stem from various underlying causes, primarily rooted in economic competition and xenophobia. many nigerians migrate to south africa in search of better opportunities, leading to perceptions among south africans that these immigrants are taking jobs and resources amid existing high unemployment rates. this competition fosters resentment and a sense of rivalry, exacerbated by waves of xenophobic violence directed at nigerians, who are often scapegoated for comprehensive economic frustrations. this animosity is further fueled by stereotypes portraying nigerians as heavily involved in criminal activities, such as drug trafficking and internet fraud, which fosters distrust and deepens societal divides. additionally, the historical relationship between the two nations has evolved negatively since nigeria's support for south africa during apartheid, with contemporary political and diplomatic tensions surfacing during episodes of xenophobia or inflammatory rhetoric from leaders. social media has amplified these tensions, as incidents of violence against nigerians are widely shared, often leading to heated discussions and misinformation. cultural differences and misunderstandings further contribute to the strain, as varying values and communication styles can lead to conflict in everyday interactions, both online and in urban communications. this complex interplay of factors creates an ongoing atmosphere of hostility and resentment between the two countries. social identity theory (sit) neighbors et al (2013) posit that social identity theory examines how being part of a group shapes one's self-image and influences how one view others within their peculiar group, those outside it, and members of competing groups. the theory has been widely applied to understand why people tend to favour their own group (in-group favouritism) and discriminate against those not in their group (out-group bias). mcleod (2023) expounds that social identity theory developed by henri tajfel and john turner in the 1970s, suggests that a significant part of an individual's self-concept comes from their association with social groups. the theory aims to explain the mental processes and social conditions that drive intergroup behaviour, particularly in relation to prejudice, bias, and discrimination. the author stresses that a person's social identity is shaped by the groups they belong to, forming an important aspect of their sense of self. mcleod intimates that in 1979, tajfel and turner argued that belonging to groups – whether it is one's nationality, social class, family, or sports team – serves as a major source of pride and self-worth. ellemers (2024) declares that in social psychology, social identity theory explores the relationship between personal identity and group identity. it seeks to clarify and predicts when people view themselves as unique individuals versus members of a group. the theory also 146 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 examines how both personal and social identities influence individual perceptions and group behaviour. evaluating the digital tension between south africans and nigerians using social identity theory social identity theory (sit) suggests that individuals categorize themselves and others into groups, forming part of their self-concept based on their group memberships. in this context, south africans and nigerians, belonging to distinct national identities, experience a sense of ingroup verses out-group competition. negative stereotyping, reinforced by past conflicts such as xenophobic attacks in south africa and perceptions of economic competition, amplifies this tension. nigerians are often portrayed in south african media and digital spaces as competitors for jobs and resources, while nigerians, in turn, view these reactions as unfair and discriminatory. according to social identity theory, individuals derive their self-esteem from their group identity and any perceived threat to the status or dominance of their group, leads to defensive behaviour. on digital platforms, this results in south africans and nigerians displaying behaviours that reinforce their national superiority. south africans may argue about sovereignty, the protection of local resources, and the impact of nigerian immigration, while nigerian emphasize their entrepreneurial spirit and contributions to the south african economy. these digital interactions become polarized, with both groups engaging in collective self-affirmation, further deepening the divide. furthermore, evaluating the recent digital tension between south africans and nigerians regarding fraudulent online booking of ubers and goods from the lens of social identity theory; one underscores that both groups perceive each other as distinct in-groups and out-groups. south africans often attribute these fraudulent activities to nigerians, reinforcing negative stereotypes and deepening the divide. in turn, nigerians feel unfairly targeted and defend their collective identity, leading to heightened online conflict. these cycles of attacks, counter-attacks, blames, and defenses are fueled by social competition, comparison and antagonism, where each group focuses on preserving its national image while amplifying the negative traits of the other. it is imperative to reinforce that social comparison which is a key aspect of social identity theory ignites social competition which produces social antagonism. this also explains why the tensions persist online. each group compares itself to the other, often highlighting positive traits within their in-group and focusing on negative traits of the out-group. these comparisons are often exacerbated by sensationalized news, cultural differences, and economic disparities, creating a cycle of digital hostility. this dynamic can also extend to the diaspora, where south africans and nigerians engage in debates over national pride and cultural identity, often reinforcing the negative stereotypes that lead to further division and online conflict. moral evaluation of digital conflicts between south africans and nigerians the digital conflicts between south africans and nigerians often seen on social media can be morally evaluated through the lens of ethics, mutual respect, the psychological backlash associated with it, and the value of intercultural dialogues. these online clashes are usually rooted in xenophobia, competition, and misinformation, with users from both sides engaging in harmful generalizations and accusations that deepen divisions rather than promoting understanding. an ethical perspective suggests that the propagation of hate speech, stereotyping, and cyber-bullying violates the principles of human dignity and mutual respect. these digital conflicts foster intolerance and perpetuate false narratives about both groups, ignoring the shared histories and struggles both nations have faced, especially regarding colonialism and economic 147 afunugo, kenechi nnaemeka xenophobia and national identity: a study and moral... hardship. the ease of spreading misinformation online exacerbates tensions, as sensationalist posts and divisive rhetoric gain traction more rapidly than calls for unity and peace. the moral implications also extend to the psychological and emotional well-being of individuals involved in or exposed to these digital conflicts. online hate speech and xenophobic rhetoric have tangible consequences, creating a toxic environment that fosters anxiety, stress, and even fear among those targeted. such hostile interactions undermine efforts to build cross-cultural friendships and alliances that could otherwise foster solidarity between the two nations. for bystanders, especially younger generations exposed to these digital exchanges, it sets a negative example of how differences should be addressed, reinforcing harmful patterns of communication. africans are celebrated for their deep sense of oneness and togetherness, a cultural ethos exemplified by the “ubuntu philosophy”, which emphasizes that “i am because we are” pertinent to the elucidation of samkange et al (1980). this communal spirit is integral to african identity, fostering harmony and mutual support across diverse cultures. consequently, cyber-bullying, particularly between south africans and nigerians, is profoundly alien to this worldview. such actions undermine the foundational values of solidarity and interconnectedness that african societies cherish. therefore, cyber-bullying should be actively discouraged, as it contradicts the very principles that bind africans together. consequently, a moral solution to these conflicts would involve using digital platforms for constructive dialogue, promoting empathy, and recognizing the shared humanity of all participants. social media could serve as a pace for educating each other on cultural differences, encouraging collaboration, and finding common ground in regional development, entrepreneurship, and addressing social injustices. by choosing kindness and understanding over hostility, both south africans and nigerians can shift these online interactions toward reconciliation and mutual respect. conclusion this study offers valuable insights into how online interactions can fuel and reflect broader social tensions. the research highlights how these conflicts are often rooted in historical grievances, socio-economic disparities and cultural stereotypes. digital platforms, as spaces for free expression, often amplify these tension by providing a stage for both constructive dialogue and harmful rhetoric. the analysis underscores the complexity of national identity in a globalized world and reveals how the internet has become a battle ground for expressing, defending, and sometimes attacking collective identities. ultimately, this study provides a nuanced view of the ongoing struggles over belonging and acceptance in a multicultural society. however, the research has limitations. it primarily focuses on digital interactions and interviews with people engaged which may not fully capture the depth of offline relationship and other socio-political factors influencing xenophobic attitudes. the scope is also restricted by the availability and accessibility of online data, which may not reflect the entire spectrum of the populations involved. furthermore, the study's reliance on digital content, which is often anonymized or pseudonymous, poses challenge in verifying the authenticity of the sentiments expressed. this limitation suggests that while digital platforms provide significant insights, they cannot comprehensively represent the realities and complexities of offline experiences and identity struggles. notwithstanding that this paper is by no means exhaustive; it has made a valuable contribution to understanding the role of digital interfaces in intensifying conflicts and tensions between nationalities. further research could benefit from a broader scope that includes offline interviews, ethnographic studies, and longitudinal analyses to better understand the roots and consequences of these conflicts. additionally, examining similar xenophobic tension in other 148 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 regions or between different national groups could provide a comparative perspective, highlighting universal themes and unique regional dynamics. in diversifying methodologies and expanding the geographic focus, further studies can deepen the understanding of how digital and offline identities intersect and influence one another in an increasingly interconnected world. recommendations this study proffers the following potential recommendations pertinent to its findings: 1. promotion of digital literacy alongside educational curricula reform. programs that encourage netizens (users) on identifying misinformation and understanding the complexities of immigration and national identity to combat xenophobia online should be enhanced. effort should be made by the governments of both south africa and nigeria to integrate topics related to xenophobia, migration, and national identity into school curricula to foster a culture of acceptance from a young age. 2. strengthening cross-cultural dialogues together with community engagement initiatives. there should be concerted efforts by both nations stakeholders targeted at facilitating discussions and workshop to foster mutual understanding and address stereotypes. local initiatives that involve both south african and nigerian nationals in community-building activities to enhance solidarity should be encouraged and appropriated. 3. policy implementation in addition to research and documentation. those in the reins of government alongside the citizens of both south africa and nigeria should advocate for policies that address the root causes of xenophobia, including economic disparities, and ensure fair treatment of immigrants. they should also encourage ongoing research into the impacts of xenophobia and national identity to inform policy makers and community leaders. 4. the government of both south africa and nigeria should leverage on the intelligence and capacity of their digital experts to urge and ensure that digital platforms takes more active role in 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(2017). how social media is changing conflict. journal of conflicts resolution, 61. doi:10.1176/0022002717721382. 150 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://m.lindaikejiasblog.com/2024/8/ https://www.google.com/amp/s/businessday.ng/news/article/ https://technext24.com/2024/08/22 https://www.simplypsychology.org/social.identity.theory.html https://guardian.ng.news https://www.mercycorps.org https://www.google.com/amp/s/globa/voices.%20org/2024/08/27 https://www.google.com/amp/s/globa/voices.%20org/2024/08/27 84 navigating the intersection of cultural norms and feminist ideals in chimamanda adichie’s ‘we should all be feminists’: lessons for nigerian feminists dr. uchenna nympha nkama department of philosophy, rivers state university nymphauchenna@yahoo.com abstract the global movement of feminism has sought to challenge systemic gender inequalities and patriarchal structures. however, its application within specific cultural contexts remains a subject of critical discourse. chimamanda adichie’s we should all be feminists has emerged as a significant text within contemporary african feminist thought, particularly in nigeria, where traditional gender roles remain deeply embedded. this paper examines the intersection between cultural norms and feminist ideals, analyzing how adichie’s arguments navigate the tensions between global feminist narratives and indigenous gender expectations. drawing on theoretical frameworks such as liberal feminism, intersectional feminism, and cultural relativism, the study explores how adichie critiques gender discrimination in nigeria while advocating for a localized approach to feminism. the analysis highlights key themes including gender socialization, economic empowerment, and the role of men in feminist advocacy. furthermore, the study discusses the challenges faced by nigerian feminists in adapting feminist principles within deeply patriarchal structures and religious traditions. finally, the paper argues that while adichie’s work aligns with global feminist ideals, it offers critical lessons for a culturally sensitive and context-specific feminist movement in nigeria. the findings emphasize the need for an inclusive feminist framework that engages both local traditions and global discourses to promote gender equality effectively. keywords: feminism, chimamanda adichie, cultural norms, feminist movement, gender introduction feminism is a global movement which has evolved to address the systemic inequalities and patriarchal structures that affect women globally. however, the interpretation and application of feminist principles vary across different cultural contexts (bhandari, 2024; parry, 2020; kiguwa, 2019). in nigeria, where traditional gender roles are deeply entrenched, feminism often encounters resistance due to cultural and religious norms that define women’s roles in society. chimamanda adichie has emerged and contributed significantly to contemporary feminist discourse, particularly in african contexts and presents a compelling argument for gender equality while acknowledging the cultural and social realities that shape gender relations in nigeria and beyond (adichie, 2014). adichie’s work is particularly relevant in a globalized world where feminist ideals are increasingly shaped by western narratives. while global feminism promotes universal gender rights, local feminist movements must navigate the intersection between international feminist ideals and indigenous cultural expectations. this raises critical questions: to what extent can nigerian feminists adopt adichie’s perspectives while remaining sensitive to local cultural values? how does ‘we should all be feminists’ help in reconciling feminist aspirations with societal expectations? and what lessons can mailto:nymphauchenna@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 93 nigerian feminists draw from adichie’s work to create a more inclusive and context-specific feminist movement? this paper explores these questions by analyzing we should all be feminists within the context of nigerian cultural norms and global feminist discourse. it examines how adichie’s work challenges traditional gender roles and advocates for a feminism that is both inclusive and adaptable to local realities. the study also considers the influence of globalization on feminist activism in nigeria, stressing the potential tensions between imported feminist ideals and indigenous gender advocacy.in doing so, this paper aims to provide insights into the ways nigerian feminists can effectively engage with adichie’s arguments while contextualizing feminism in a way that resonates with local traditions and values. by drawing lessons from adichie’s work, this study contributes to the broader discourse on feminist strategies that bridge global and local perspectives, ultimately fostering a more nuanced and impactful feminist movement in nigeria. theoretical framework the study draws on liberal feminism, intersectional feminism, and cultural relativism, while also considering the impact of global feminism versus localized feminist movements. this approach allows for a nuanced understanding of how adichie’s work navigates the complex intersection between cultural norms and feminist ideals in a globalized world, offering practical lessons for feminist advocacy in nigeria. liberal feminism, rooted in the principles of individual rights, equality, and legal reform, serves as a primary lens for analyzing adichie’s arguments. liberal feminists advocate for equal opportunities in education, employment, and political participation, emphasizing legal and policy changes as mechanisms for achieving gender equality (tong, 2009). adichie’s perspective aligns with liberal feminist thought, particularly in her argument that gender roles are socially constructed and that both men and women should challenge these norms to create an equitable society. this study examines how adichie employs liberal feminist principles while adapting them to the nigerian context. intersectional feminism, introduced by crenshaw (1989), highlights the interconnected nature of gender, race, class, and other social identities in shaping women’s experiences. in nigeria, where gender discrimination intersects with factors such as ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic status, feminist advocacy must account for these complexities. adichie’s work recognizes these nuances by acknowledging how cultural expectations and economic structures disproportionately affect nigerian women. this study utilizes intersectional feminism to explore how nigerian feminists can address gender inequalities in a way that reflects the country’s diverse social landscape. on the other hand, cultural relativism argues that beliefs and practices should be understood within their cultural contexts rather than judged against external standards. critics of global feminism often contend that western feminist ideals are imposed on non-western societies, disregarding indigenous gender dynamics (mohanty, 1988). adichie’s work straddles the line between advocating for universal feminist principles and acknowledging the cultural particularities of nigerian society. this paper examines whether we should all be feminists successfully navigates this balance or whether it risks imposing a western-centric feminist narrative. global feminism seeks to promote gender equality worldwide, often driven by international human rights frameworks and transnational feminist activism. however, local feminist movements must contend with unique sociocultural and political realities. nigerian feminism, for instance, must address issues such as patriarchy reinforced by religious doctrine, communal dr. uchenna nympha navigating the intersection of cultural norms and feminist… 92 family structures, and economic disparities. this study explores the extent to which adichie’s advocacy aligns with global feminist ideals while also providing insights that are relevant and actionable for nigerian feminists. adichie’s we should all be feminists in context chimamanda adichie’s we should all be feminists is a powerful work that redefines and contextualizes feminism within contemporary society, particularly in nigeria. the work serves as both an introduction to feminist thought and a critique of gender inequality rooted in cultural and societal norms (nartey, et al, 2023). adichie’s approach is accessible, blending personal experiences, social analysis, and historical perspectives to advocate for a more inclusive and equitable world. in this seminal work, the key arguments involve the normalization of gender discrimination, the role of language and socialization, the need for inclusive feminism, economic and professional barriers, and marriage and power dynamics. adichie presents a compelling case for gender equality by examining the systemic nature of gender discrimination and the socialization processes that sustain it. her arguments blend personal experiences, cultural analysis, and a call to action, making feminism accessible to a broad audience. on the aspect of normalization of gender discrimination, adichie noted how gender discrimination is deeply ingrained in nigerian society, often accepted as a natural and unquestionable reality. recounting personal experiences such as being overlooked for leadership roles in childhood because she was a girl, adichie illustrates how these biases begin early and the experiences shape the self-perception of both men and women, conditioning them to accept male dominance as the norm. she also critiques the way certain discriminatory practices are justified through cultural and religious traditions. for instance, women are often expected to tolerate abusive relationships because societal norms dictate that a woman's primary role is to sustain her marriage at all costs (adichie, 2014; madhani, et al, 2017). by normalizing these injustices, society perpetuates gender inequality across generations. further, adichie’s argument demonstrates the power of language in shaping societal attitudes toward gender. she explains how boys and girls are raised with different expectations, influencing their aspirations and behaviours. girls are taught to be submissive, humble, and accommodating, while boys are encouraged to be assertive, ambitious, and dominant. for example, phrases like “boys will be boys” excuse aggressive male behaviour, while “a woman must know her place" reinforces the idea that women should not challenge male authority (adichie, 2014; sumra, 2019). adichie calls for a shift in the way we talk about gender, advocating for language that empowers rather than limits individuals based on their sex. in addition, adichie dispels the misconception that feminism is synonymous with misandry (hatred of men) or that it is a western import incompatible with african values. she argues that feminism is about justice and equality, emphasizing that men also benefit from dismantling restrictive gender norms (adichie, 2014). she notes that many men feel pressured to conform to unrealistic expectations of masculinity, suppressing their emotions and avoiding roles deemed "feminine." by embracing feminism, society can create a healthier environment where both men and women have the freedom to pursue their aspirations without fear of societal backlash. also, adichie explores marriage and power dynamics demonstrating how societal expectations around marriage reinforce gender inequality. women are taught that their greatest achievement should be finding a husband, while men are encouraged to view marriage as a secondary aspect of their lives (sumra, 2019). adichie critiques the power imbalance in many marriages, where women are expected to cater to their husbands’ needs while sacrificing their aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 93 ambitions. this dynamic, she argues, stems from cultural norms that equate masculinity with dominance and femininity with submission. by redefining marriage as an equal partnership rather than a hierarchical institution, adichie suggests that both men and women can have more fulfilling relationships. adichie’s critique of nigerian cultural norms adichie’s critique of nigerian cultural norms is central to her feminist advocacy. while challenging the deep-seated patriarchal traditions that shape gender roles, adichie argues that these norms are neither natural nor unchangeable but are instead socially constructed and reinforced over time. hence, the perception of feminism as a foreign concept, and the role of religion in reinforcing patriarchy, toxic masculinity and male privilege defines adichie’s critique of nigerian cultural norms. one of the biggest challenges nigerian feminists face is the belief that feminism is a western ideology incompatible with african traditions (adichie, 2014). many critics argue that gender roles in african societies are dictated by culture and that challenging them means rejecting african identity. adichie refutes this by pointing out that african societies have a history of strong, independent women who play active roles in governance, trade, and leadership. she cites historical figures such as queen amina of zazzau and funmilayo ransome-kuti as examples of african women who defied gender norms. thus, feminism is not about adopting foreign ideals but about reclaiming the right of women to participate fully in society, just as they historically did before colonialism and other external influences reinforced patriarchal structures (adichie, 2014). furthermore, religious institutions play a significant role in shaping gender roles in nigeria. many interpretations of religious texts emphasize male authority and female submission, making it difficult for women to challenge oppressive norms. adichie calls for a more progressive interpretation of religious teachings, one that promotes gender equality rather than justifying discrimination. she argues that religious faith should not be used as an excuse to deny women opportunities or justify gender-based violence. however, adichie also critiques the rigid expectations placed on men. in nigerian culture, masculinity is often equated with strength, dominance, and emotional suppression (adichie, 2014). men are discouraged from expressing vulnerability, leading to unhealthy relationships and societal issues such as genderbased violence. by encouraging men to embrace feminism, she suggests that both men and women can benefit from dismantling oppressive gender norms and calls for a redefinition of masculinity, one that allows men to be nurturing, expressive, and supportive partners rather than figures of authority and control. the global feminist discourse and adichie’s contribution adichie’s we should all be feminists has a profound impact on global feminist discourse presenting feminism in a clear, accessible, and engaging manner and contributing to a broader understanding of gender equality that resonates across different cultures. the work has been widely embraced, influencing discussions on feminism in both western and african contexts. the book has been translated into multiple languages, used in academic settings, and even distributed to high school students in sweden as part of their curriculum on gender equality (wagner, 2015). adichie’s work bridges the gap between african and western feminist dr. uchenna nympha navigating the intersection of cultural norms and feminist… 92 movements by highlighting the universality of gender discrimination while also emphasizing cultural specificity, challenging the notion that feminism is a one-size-fits-all movement, advocating for localized feminist approaches, and bringing african perspectives into global feminist discussions, ensuring that african women’s voices are represented. the work has also sparked debates, particularly within african feminist circles. some criticisms includeclass bias, lack of intersectionality and simplification of feminist struggles (kalu, 2023). adichie’s feminism primarily reflects the experiences of middle-class, educated women and does not adequately address the struggles of poorer women, especially those in rural areas. while she acknowledges gender inequality, she does not always explore how other factors such as class, ethnicity, and disability intersect with gender discrimination. her approach, while accessible, simplifies the complexities of feminist activism and does not fully account for the systemic and structural barriers to gender equality. despite these critiques, adichie’s contribution to feminism remains significant. she has made feminist discourse more mainstream, particularly in africa, and has inspired a new generation of young feminists to challenge societal norms. her ability to blend personal storytelling with feminist theory has made her one of the most influential voices in contemporary gender discourse. cultural norms and gender in nigeria the historical perspectives on gender roles in nigeria date back to pre-colonial gender roles when gender roles in many nigerian societies were more flexible than they are today. women played active roles in trade, governance, and community decision-making. in some ethnic groups, such as the igbo and yoruba, women held significant economic power as traders and market leaders. the yoruba had the institution of the iyalode, a powerful female political figure, while the igbo had the omu, a queen-like female authority in market governance.however, patriarchy, or male dominance in social, political, and economic spheres, is a defining characteristic of today’s nigerian society. within this society, there is a stigma around single and independent women. single women, particularly those who are economically independent, often face societal scrutiny (budgeon, 2015). women who delay marriage to focus on their careers are sometimes labelled as "wayward" or "too ambitious." widows, on the other hand, are often subjected to harmful widowhood practices, such as being forced to prove their innocence in their husband's death. often, there are cultural justifications for gender inequality. many gender norms are justified through cultural sayings and proverbs that reinforce male authority. for example: "a woman’s place is in the kitchen" suggests that women should focus on domestic responsibilities. "a man is the roof of the house" implies that men are the primary decision-makers."a woman without a husband is like a tree without roots" reinforces the idea that marriage defines a woman’s identity. these sayings contribute to the persistence of gender inequality by framing male dominance as natural and unchangeable. furthermore, religious beliefs play a significant role in shaping gender norms in nigeria (paramallam, 2006; tuki, 2024). christianity, islam, and traditional african religions all have interpretations that influence societal attitudes toward gender.in islamic communities, interpretations of sharia law often reinforce male authority in marriage, inheritance, and leadership. however, some progressive islamic scholars argue for gender justice within islamic teachings. in christian communities, biblical passages that emphasize male headship in marriage are often used to justify women's subordination. however, some christian movements advocate for gender equality, citing jesus' inclusive treatment of women. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 93 traditional african religions often include female deities and priestesses, but they also uphold patriarchal structures in governance and inheritance. while religious institutions have historically reinforced patriarchy, they can also be powerful platforms for feminist advocacy. some faith-based organizations in nigeria promote gender justice by challenging harmful interpretations of religious texts and advocating for women’s rights (adamu & para-mallam, 2012).social institutions, including schools, the media, and workplaces, often reinforce gender norms. the media portrays women primarily in domestic roles, while men are shown as leaders and professionals.workplaces often have discriminatory policies, such as maternity leave without paternity leave; reinforcing the idea that childcare is solely a woman's responsibility. while the landscape of feminist activism in nigeria is changing, there are progresses as well as challenges. in recent years, there has been growing advocacy for gender equality in nigeria (olonade, et al, 2021). feminist movements, social media activism, and legal reforms have contributed to increased female participation in education and the workforce, a growing number of women-owned businesses, and greater awareness of gender-based violence and efforts to combat it.despite progress, challenges remain, resistance from traditional institutions, which continue to promote patriarchal values; lack of enforcement of genderequality laws, making legal protections ineffective, and backlash against feminism, with critics arguing that it threatens nigerian cultural values. however, younger generations, particularly through social media activism, are challenging traditional gender norms. technology is also providing women with greater access to education, entrepreneurship opportunities, and political engagement, suggesting that the future of gender equality in nigeria is evolving in a positive direction. lessons for nigerian feminists the intersection between cultural norms and feminist ideals in nigeria presents both challenges and opportunities for gender equality advocacy. as nigerian feminists navigate the complexities of advocating for gender equality in a deeply patriarchal society, adichie’s perspectives provide valuable lessons for engagement, resistance, and transformation. this section explores key takeaways from her work and their implications for the nigerian feminist movement. the need for context-specific feminism one of the key lessons from we should all be feminists is the importance of grounding feminist advocacy in local cultural, social, and economic realities. while feminist movements globally share common goals, nigerian feminists must consider the unique challenges posed by nigeria’s patriarchal traditions, religious beliefs, and colonial legacies.adichie’s emphasis on cultural sensitivity reveals that feminism must be adapted to different social contexts. she argues that while gender equality is a universal goal, advocacy strategies must reflect local histories and customs (adichie, 2014). nigerian feminists, therefore, must balance progressive ideals with cultural sensitivities to avoid alienating potential allies. a common criticism of feminism in nigeria is that it is seen as a western import that contradicts african values. adichie challenges this notion, asserting that the demand for gender equality is not exclusive to the west. however, nigerian feminists must take care to frame their arguments in ways that resonate with local audiences, using indigenous feminist traditions, historical examples, and dr. uchenna nympha navigating the intersection of cultural norms and feminist… 92 culturally relevant narratives. further, rather than outright rejecting cultural traditions, nigerian feminists can engage with traditional institutions such as market women’s associations, religious groups, and local councils – to promote gender-inclusive reforms. this approach helps to make feminism more palatable to wider audiences, including conservative communities. addressing gender socialization and education adichie emphasizes that gender inequality is not just about laws or policies but is deeply embedded in the way children are socialized. from an early age, girls are taught to conform to traditional gender roles, while boys are encouraged to assert dominance. addressing this issue is crucial for the feminist movement in nigeria. adichie critiques how society raises boys and girls differently, reinforcing expectations that limit female potential. nigerian feminists can use this insight to push for reforms in parenting practices, advocating for gender-neutral childrearing approaches that encourage both boys and girls to be independent, ambitious, and compassionate.gender biases are often perpetuated through school curricula that reinforce stereotypes about men’s and women’s roles (tuki, 2024). nigerian feminists should advocate for the inclusion of feminist literature and gender studies in school curricula, textbooks that portray women as leaders, innovators, and professionals, and the promotion of stem education for girls to break traditional career barriers. in addition, many religious teachings reinforce patriarchal gender norms. nigerian feminists must engage with faith-based institutions to promote gender-equitable interpretations of religious texts. collaborating with progressive religious leaders can help shift harmful narratives that depict women as subordinate to men. economic empowerment as a tool for feminism economic dependence remains one of the major barriers to gender equality in nigeria. adichie highlights the financial disadvantages that women face, arguing that economic empowerment is a crucial step toward true gender equality.women in nigeria are often paid less than men for the same work, especially in the informal sector. nigerian feminists can push for transparent wage policies in public and private sectors, legislation enforcing equal pay for equal work, and greater unionization among female workers to demand fair wages. often, women face significant barriers to accessing credit, business funding, and market opportunities (adamu & para-mallam, 2012). nigerian feminists can advocate for gender-sensitive financial policies that improve access to loans and investment opportunities, promote mentorship programs for female entrepreneurs, and support initiatives that encourage women to enter male-dominated industries. thus, to create an equitable work environment, nigerian feminists should push for workplace policies such as paid maternity and paternity leave, workplace anti-harassment policies, and flexible work arrangements to support working mothers.economic empowerment enables women to make independent life choices, reducing their vulnerability to domestic violence and exploitation. the role of men in feminism adichie argues that feminism should not be framed as a movement against men but as a movement for equality that benefits everyone (adichie, 2014). nigerian feminists can adopt this approach to create more inclusive advocacy efforts and challenge toxic masculinity. many nigerian men are socialized to believe that their masculinity is defined by dominance and control over women. nigerian feminists can promote alternative models of masculinity that emphasize emotional intelligence, cooperation, and respect for women. they may engage male influencers, religious leaders, and traditional rulers in conversations about gender equality. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 93 they may organize workshops that teach boys about healthy expressions of masculinity. also, encouraging male allies in gender advocacy creates a healthy environment for all. men hold significant political and economic power in nigeria, making their involvement in feminism crucial. nigerian feminists should encourage male politicians and business leaders to champion genderequality policies, create programs that educate men on the benefits of gender equality, and highlight successful partnerships between men and women in leadership. nevertheless, some nigerian men resist feminism because they perceive it as a threat to their status. feminists can address this resistance by showing how gender equality benefits men as well, such as through healthier family dynamics and economic stability. moving from awareness to policy action while adichie’s work raises awareness about gender issues, awareness alone is not enough. nigerian feminists must translate feminist ideals into concrete policies and legal reforms (tuki, 2024). first, strengthen legal protections for women. despite existing gender equality laws, enforcement remains weak. nigerian feminists should push for the full implementation of the violence against persons prohibition (vapp) act, advocate for laws ensuring equal political representation for women, and demand harsher penalties for gender-based violence and discrimination. second, increase women’s political participation. women’s representation in nigerian politics is among the lowest in africa. to address this, feminists must support female candidates through mentorship and campaign funding, advocate for gender quotas in government positions, and educate voters on the importance of electing women leaders. third, strengthen feminist movements. for feminism to succeed in nigeria, the movement must be strong and united. nigerian feminists should build coalitions across different sectors, including academia, media, and grassroots organizations. they should utilize social media to amplify feminist messages and organize nationwide protests and advocacy campaigns to push for policy changes. surely, adichie’s we should all be feminists provides nigerian feminists with a powerful framework for advancing gender equality. by adopting a culturally sensitive approach, focusing on economic empowerment, engaging men as allies and pushing for policy reforms, nigerian feminists can create lasting change. while the road to gender equality in nigeria remains challenging, the insights from adichie’s work offer a clear roadmap for moving forward. conclusion chimamanda ngozi adichie’s we should all be feminists serves as an essential contribution to feminist discourse, particularly within the nigerian context. the study highlights how adichie’s arguments provide a nuanced perspective that bridges the gap between global feminist ideals and cultural realities in nigeria. by critiquing entrenched gender norms, advocating for inclusive feminism, and emphasizing the importance of economic empowerment, adichie presents a framework that is both aspirational and practical for nigerian feminists. the intersection of feminism and cultural norms presents both challenges and opportunities for gender equality advocacy. nigerian feminists must navigate societal resistance, religious interpretations, and economic disparities while advancing their cause. as this paper has shown, adopting a culturally sensitive approach that engages traditional institutions, reshapes gender socialization, and fosters male allyship is crucial for the movement's success. moreover, translating feminist awareness into tangible policy actions, such as legal reforms and increased female political participation, remains imperative for long dr. uchenna nympha navigating the intersection of cultural norms and feminist… 92 term impact. despite persistent patriarchal structures, there is growing momentum toward gender equality in nigeria, driven by feminist movements, social media activism, and legal reforms. by leveraging insights from adichie’s work, nigerian feminists can foster a more inclusive and adaptable feminist movement, one that resonates with local traditions while embracing universal principles of gender justice. in doing so, they can 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(2015). sweden gives 'we should all be feminists' to every 16-year-old student. npr. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/12/04/458514464/swedengives-we-should-all-be-feminists-to-every-16-year-old-student 21 is traditional epistemology androcentric? a question and response in the light of jane duran’s feminist epistemology remigius achinike obah phd & victor chizi ihunda phd department of philosophy, university of port harcourt, rivers state. nigeria. e-mail: remigius.obah@uniport.edu.ng e-mail: victor_ihunda@uniport.edu.ng abstract this study critically examines whether traditional epistemology is androcentric in the light of jane duran’s feminist epistemology. in her work, toward a feminist epistemology (1991), jane duran appears to have weighed the entire western traditional epistemology on an epistemic gender-neutral scale or gender-inclusive scale, and in her observation and judgment finds it wanting of the charge of androcentrism. hence, she sets out with the task of liberating epistemology from the 'parochial shackle’ of androcentrism to a liberal and holistic feminist perspective through the framework of naturalized epistemology and more recent advances in the cognitive science, feminist theories and sociology of knowledge. the findings in this study reveals that duran’s feminist epistemology is simultaneously a reaction against androcentrism which she claims is inherent in traditional epistemological theorizing and her investigation into the possibility of a way of knowing that pertains to women. after engaging in a ground clearing attempt to establish her case against the traditional analytic epistemology which in her judgment is both androcentric and apsychological, duran proceeds to lay foundation for a feminist epistemology and the possibility of a gynocentric model. adopting the method of critical analysis, this paper is particularly concerned with her labeling of traditional epistemology as ideologically androcentric upon which she proceeded to advocate for a feminist epistemology. this study objects to the claim by duran that traditional epistemology is androcentric and argues that contrary to her position, the theoretical traits of epistemology which she dubbed androcentric are in fact the product of the nature of the activity of epistemology as majorly a normative discipline. keywords: androcentric, gynocentric, traditional epistemology, feminist epistemology. introduction advocacies for the proper redress of the injustices faced by women on the basis of their gender and the cry for inclusion is not just in the social, political and economic activities of society but also in an area of study such as epistemology. as an idea, feminism’s root could be traced to enlightenment ideals of freedom and justice (lennon & whitford, 1994, p. 1). influenced by the panoply of feminist theories and movements, there has been a systematic attempt to ensure that both as subject and object of knowledge, women are not left behind. thus, scholars with interest in the subject matter have made attempts to articulate what they mean by a feminist epistemology, that is, a way of knowing peculiar to women. moreover, while some of these feminist scholars work in epistemology are aimed at exposing the masculinity of different areas of knowledge (lennon & whitford, 1994, p. 1), others are concerned with articulating a way of knowing that pertains to women—feminist epistemology. mailto:remigius.obah@uniport.edu.ng mailto:victor_ihunda@uniport.edu.ng aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 22 some of the feminist scholars who have worked in the area of epistemology and have shaped the discourse of feminist epistemology include evelyn fox keller (in her work, reflections on gender and science and a feeling for the organism), sandra harding (in her work, the science question in feminism) and susan bordo (the flight to objectivity) etc. with the aid of recent advances in areas such as feminism, cognitive science, philosophy of science, sociology of knowledge and naturalized epistemology, jane duran in her work, toward a feminist epistemology, sets out firstly, to argue that what has passed for epistemology, and particularly, analytic epistemology is ideologically androcentric, hyperidealized and normative (duran, 1991, p. 19). secondly, on the basis of her claim that traditional epistemology is inherently androcentric, she proceeds to establish grounds for her gynocentric model which she believes shall serve as a panacea to the androcentrism of the traditional epistemology. thus, this paper titled, is traditional epistemology androcentric?: a question and response in the light of jane duran‘s feminist epistemology is primarily concerned with duran’s claim that thus far, what has been referred to as epistemology as a discipline concerned with the theory of knowledge is inherently an androcentric activity and hence, does not reflect the peculiarities of women as both subject and object of knowledge. this paper is divided into four parts and ends with a conclusion. epistemology and feminism are the subject matter of the first part, here we tried to investigate if there is a relationship between epistemology as a sub-area of philosophy and feminism as an idea and socio-political movement. secondly, we looked at the analytic theory of knowledge and the allegation of androcentrism, particularly with the aim of finding out what provided duran with the overarching justification for her claim. the concern of third part is whether naturalized epistemology can save epistemology from androcentrism? considering the nexus of naturalized epistemology with feminism, we tried to see if naturalized epistemology serves as appropriate framework, if we admit that traditional epistemology is indeed androcentric. the final part contains our response to duran’s claim that traditional epistemology is androcentric. here we maintained that duran’s claim is not justified and that the theoretical traits that she labeled androcentric are in fact a product of the nature of analytic epistemology as a normative discipline. epistemology and feminism is there possibly a relationship between epistemology on the one hand and feminism on the other hand? how does epistemology as a branch of philosophy that is concerned with addressing fundamental problems and questions of knowledge and the clarification of what it means to know, (rescher 2003, p. xiii) relate to the spectrum of socio-political movements and ideologies which seeks to establish the personal, social, economic and political equality of the both sexes called feminism? (mendus 2005, p. 292). does the feminist project which is concerned with activism for the social, economic and political rights of women some of which include but not limited to “right to: vote, hold public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter contracts, have equal rights within marriage, and maternity leave, access to contraception, legal abortions, etc.,” (echols 1989, p. 23) have any nexus with epistemology? remigius achinike & victor chizi is traditional epistemology androcentric?..... 23 some of the recurring fundamental questions and problems bedeviling epistemology could be expressed as questions: what is knowledge and what are its essential features? from where does our knowledge originate (sources)? “how do we know (process or procedure)? what is the extent of our knowledge, is there actually a limit to what we can know? etc.” (moser & nat 2003, p. 1). in the light of the feminist agitations, we may add new epistemological questions like: do our biological or physiological constructions influence our quest for knowledge? is there a way of knowing that is peculiar to both genders? these questions particularly, the two latter ones seem to draw us closer to the possibility of a nexus between epistemology and feminism. if we grant that there possibly is a nexus between epistemology and feminism, what exactly is the nature of the nexus? miranda fricker and jennifer hornsby did maintain that the nature of the nexus between epistemology and feminism is a friendly one. referencing the brand of michele le doeuff’s feminism, fricker and hornsby maintains that her feminism serves as a powerful instrument against prejudice and enables an individual to judge for oneself and grants the individual the “ability to uproot the habit of holding on to old opinions and to reveal women as rational knowers” (fricker and hornsby 2000, pp. 128-129). if relations between feminism and epistemology were entirely friendly, then feminism’s contribution to the subject would be to point this out, as astell did. ‘feminist epistemology’ would be epistemology aware of its own feminist implications. but there is more to the story than this, and there are many ways in which relations have not been entirely friendly. one central strand of the feminist contribution to epistemology has been to show how, when it comes to knowledge, women get left out. another has been to show how, when it comes to knowledge, women get hurt. these partly overlap, since women may be hurt by being left out, but may be hurt in other ways too. (fricker and hornsby 2000, p. 129) both as object of knowledge and subject of knowledge, rae langton made an attempt to show how women may be left out in our quest for knowledge and the need for feminism or more precisely, feminist epistemology as a panacea to this undesirable negligence of women in the human epistemic quest. first, one of the ways women may be left out as objects of knowledge is that, “women might fail to be known” (langton cited in fricker & hornsby 2000, p. 130). in the course of study of the various institutionalized branches of knowledge: women’s lives may be rendered invisible by particular bodies of knowledge, such as history, economics, medicine and philosophy itself. when historians chronicle only kings and dates and battles, women are left out. when economists analyze the relations between capital and labour, ignoring unpaid labour in the home, women are left out. when scientists study heart disease using male-only samples, women are left out. when philosophers define human beings as rational animals, assuming all the while that women are not rational, women are left out. to the extent that these things happen, women remain a kind of terra incognita. (langton cited in fricker & hornsby 2000, p. 130) secondly, as subjects of knowledge, women may be left out of the human quest for knowledge by ‘failing to be knowers’ and this happens because they are often deprived of the knowledge men have. langton maintains, that, from the earliest days of feminism it has been eloquently argued that women’s subordination is constituted in part by barriers to the knowledge to which men have access” (langton cited in fricker & hornsby 2000, pp. 130131). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 24 feminism as socio-political movement and ideology or doctrine appears to be a herculean task when it comes exhaustively delineating what it is from what it is not. however, from a historical perspective, it cannot be disputed that, “over the centuries, and in many different countries, women have spoken out for their sex, and articulated, in different ways, their complaints, their needs, and their hopes” (walters 2005, p. 2). one of such complaint among women though not without some male sympathizers against what they perceive to be a patriarchally biased or dominated society is what jane duran refers to as androcentric epistemology. in her work, towards a feminist epistemology, duran alleges that hitherto the rise of naturalized epistemology in the 1960s a great deal of what has passed for epistemology since the era of plato is ideologically androcentric. she holds the overt emphasis on pure and speculative reason devoid of the influence of human passions and physiological functions alongside the conception of women as the ‘other being’ enslaved to bodily functions and incapable of separating her reason from the body as held by traditional epistemologists as the cause of “a tradition in epistemology that is at once virtually exclusively normative and staggeringly androcentric” (duran, 1991, p. 8). analytic theory of knowledge and the allegation of androcentrism the idea of a feminist epistemology, at least, duran’s version, is a product of a reaction to the perceived prevalence of a male-dominated or biased conception of epistemology that does not accord equal or adequate cognizance to the unique feminine features on the discourse in the theory of knowledge. traditionally, in philosophy, normative epistemology refers to those aspects of epistemology that are dominantly concerned with first-order theorizing with regards to such recurring questions and problems as; what is truth? how can we know? how ought we to form justified belief? etc. alvin i. goldman delineates three conceptions of epistemology on the basis of their aims and functions. they are; descriptive epistemology, analytical epistemology and normative epistemology. he warns that these three conceptions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive (goldman, 1985, p. 29). in her attempt to show the masculine nature of what passed as epistemology prior to the advent of naturalized epistemology, duran appears to use the terms: analytic and normative interchangeably. she believes that the normative nature of analytic epistemology manifest itself in the course of our epistemic analysis of these problems of knowledge and the presuppositions we hold about knowledge (duran, 1991, p. 19). in the part one of her work, entitled, androcentric epistemology, duran sets out to establish what she terms the “normative and hyperidealized nature of contemporary analytic epistemology” (duran, 1991, p. 19). in tracing the historical roots of epistemology as a sub-field of philosophy, she contends that epistemology is as old as the platonic dialogues but the present status or advancement made in epistemology as it is the case today is largely due to the modern era, that is, the post-cartesian period and partly also due to the twentieth century that have witnessed more narrowly defined epistemological question. an instance of this question is the question of the fourth condition for knowledge. predominantly utilizing bertrand russell’s, a history of western philosophy, duran embarks on a task to establish the problem of the epistemic tradition of philosophy. referencing russell on the cartesian architectural quest for indubitable knowledge and his eventual arrival at cogito ergo sum, duran draws attention to subjectivity of certain knowledge as highlighted by remigius achinike & victor chizi is traditional epistemology androcentric?..... 25 russell when following the logical expression of descartes’ cogito ergo sum. this, she claims, has been at the heart of contemporary epistemology. duran went on to highlight some of the major epistemological theories and their influence; she begins with russell’s logical atomism. she is of the view that the work foreshadows a good deal of the history of twentieth-century epistemology and from the works of descartes and even russell’s logical atomism she tried to show that there is a “desire to place empirical knowledge on a footing equal to non-empirical or deductively ascertainable knowledge” (duran, 1991, p. 23). this underlining pattern in epistemology she contends manifest itself in the twentieth-century analytic quest, “and this was ushered in partly by russell’s attempt to establish a basis of irrefutability for sense-based contentions, beginning with the deployment of logically proper names” (duran, 1991, p. 23). it is this perspective of russell that duran blames for the move among professional epistemologists to give “a tighter and narrower account of knowledge, or claims to knowledge derived through the senses” (duran, 1991, p. 23). in the subsection entitled, sense-data views: normative theories of privileged access, she proceeds to argue that the sense-data theorists in an attempt to obtain epistemic certainty subserviently sacrificed most of what would pass for an adequate ontology and in “the process did, indeed, begin to encompass their own destruction” (duran, 1991, p. 25). in reaction to this atomistic and sense-data view, by j. l. austin’s objection, duran points out that this brought about an attempt to tackle the conditions for knowledge from the view point of analytically “tight necessary and sufficient conditions” (duran, 1991, p. 26), by american philosophers. from the stand point of necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge in approaching the question of knowledge, duran held that this new standpoint ended up all cases of knowledge, “whether empirically derived or not, on the same footing” (duran 1991, p. 26). even the american analytic epistemology is not without its own impediments. in examining edmund gettier’s classical reaction to the traditional epistemological conception of knowledge as justified true belief and the panoply of reactions to gettier’s thesis in the twentieth-century were all purely obsessed with normativity. neither gettier in his hypothetical examples nor scholars with their counterexamples responding to his work cared to at least make reference to the human cognitive process as that of rational agent seeking knowledge. yet these cognitive dimensions of humans play a vital role both in the generation, storage and retrieval of human knowledge. what sorts of facts about cognitive and neural functioning are relevant? one wants to inquire why it is that elements of memory storage, retrieval from memory, sensory retention of images, capacity for inferring logical structure, and other sorts of cognitive capacities -all relevant to the sorts of examples utilized -are never referred to in the theories of relevant counterexamples? (duran, 1991, pp. 29-30) it is her observation and judgement that vast majority of what passes as analytic epistemology is not only hyperidealized and ideologically androcentric but originated in sheer apsychological manner and have held on to this apsychological character from the 1960s and 1970’s. this apsychological character of epistemological theory became a cause of concern among epistemologists and forms the needed grounds for “another important move in the theory of know1edge” -naturalized epistemology (duran, 1991, p. 30). duran’s allegation of androcentrism as an underlying ideological current underpinning contemporary analytic epistemology majorly springs forth from these her analysis of the theoretical traits of traditional epistemology. particularly, in the light of an analysis of aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 26 knowledge in terms of “logically necessary and sufficient conditions, lack of allusion to descriptively adequate models, the importance of counter-exampling, putative universalizability of conditions and so forth” (duran, 1991, p. 44). it is in fact these kinds of traits that duran and other feminist theorists describes and labels androcentric. the structuring of traditional western epistemology is inherently and purely normative in its approach in theorizing about knowledge without adequate consideration of what humans engage in cognitive activities, in quest for knowledge, actually do go about it. on the contrary, it seems too obsessed with what approach the ideal would-be knower ought to take in arriving at knowledge. this hyperidealized nature of epistemology is not only too stringent an approach to theorizing about knowledge but also narrows the bounds of a holistic approach to epistemology. these aforementioned traits of analytic epistemology are in fact repudiated by duran hence, her advocacy for a more naturalized theory of knowledge liberated from the shackles of the stringent and hyperidealized normative foundations or analytic epistemology. however, the question at this juncture is this: how would a naturalized epistemology deliver epistemology from the undesirable allegation of androcentrism, if we grant that in fact those aforementioned traits are indeed androcentric or a product of androcentrism? would a naturalized epistemology save epistemology from androcentrism? in the part one of her work, entitled, androcentric epistemology, duran seems to have weighed the entire western traditional epistemology on an epistemic gender-neutral or gender-inclusive scale, and in her observation and judgment finds it wanting of the charges of androcentrism. thus, she sets out to liberate epistemology from the parochial shackles of androcentrism to a ‘liberal and holistic’ feminist perspective through the framework of naturalized epistemology. if we assume that all the enumerated problems inherent in analytic epistemology as argued by duran is indeed androcentric, how would a naturalized epistemology salvage epistemology from its undesirable androcentric trait? duran is of the view that yes, her gynocentric model grounded on the framework of naturalized epistemology would save epistemology from androcentrism. the embracive nature of naturalized epistemology as a cluster of philosophical views that advocate the adoption of empirical methods and the utilization of the empirical findings of certain fields of study in understanding epistemic phenomena is considered a panacea to the overt masculine nature of traditional epistemology by duran. tracing the roots of naturalized epistemology, she pointed out that: “the late 1960s and the early 1970s saw an enormous rise in the development of what came to be known as cognitive science, the intersections of areas such as psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, computer simulation and computer science itself” (duran, 1991, p. 35). in spite of little or no response to these developments in the aforementioned fields by philosophers to the materials generated in these new frontiers of knowledge, “it was clear from the outset that the material was immediately relevant to issues in philosophy of mind” (duran, 1991, p. 3). duran considers the rise of naturalized epistemology as a necessary precursor to her idea of feminist theory of knowledge. the rise and advances of cognitive science was not entirely embraced by epistemologists, but by the 1970s things began to change. for instance, such work as beyond foundationalism and coherence theory by hilary kornblith and remigius achinike & victor chizi is traditional epistemology androcentric?..... 27 epistemology naturalized by w. v. quine had apparently begun to suggest the need for a replacement of epistemology by natural and social sciences. kornblith in the beginning of his essay explicitly acknowledges the view predominant in positivist epistemology that epistemological questions should be divorced from psychological questions on grounds that epistemology is traditionally considered a normative discipline. this view kornblith believes is mistaken and rather supports “a psychological approach to the questions about knowledge and justification” (kornblith, 1980, p. 597) like quine and alvin goldman. quine expresses similar view when he speaks of epistemology thus: epistemology, or something like it, simply falls into place as a chapter of psychology and hence, of natural science. it studies a natural phenomenon viz. a physical human subject. this human-subject is accorded a certain experimentally controlled input certain patterns of irradiation in assorted frequencies for instance, and in the fullness of time the subject delivers as output a description of the three-dimensional world and its history. (quine, 1969, pp. 82-83) however, subsequently, a new wave literature in epistemology that generally did not call for a replacement of epistemology but the recognition by epistemology of works that explicitly are related to the possibility of knowledge acquisition began to surface. duran tried to show as argued by kornblith that, “the question of whether or not the actual cognitive functioning of agents could be relevant to epistemology as practiced by professional philosophers” (duran, 1991, p. 36) leads to an apsychologistic approach to epistemology and this is a mistake. furthermore, she takes on foundationalism and coherentism challenging them as theories that are a psychological in nature. that is, that they fail to tell us anything about the functioning of the epistemic agent, “and each theoretical stance may be thought of as a recommendation for the way in which epistemic agents should perform the task of justification, if that task of justification were to be performed ideally” (duran, 1991, p. 40). however, this is not the case as human agents seldom perform epistemic tasks in an ideal manner. duran remarks of the naturalizing project thus: if contemporary analytic epistemology may be thought of as non-naturalized and androcentric, the current naturalization of theory of knowledge at least strikes the positive note of moving in another direction. if, as some theorists have contended, gynocentric thinking tends to concern itself with the particular and the contextualized (or as bordo has it, the “view from everywhere”), the newer naturalized material is already somewhat less androcentric simply insofar as it is more context sensitive and less concerned with a highly idealized universalizability. (duran, 1991, p. 4) from the foregoing, we can easily notice the rigid and hyperidealized normative emphasis of analytic epistemology been challenged by a more embracive, descriptive, empirical and collaborative attempt to grasp not just the epistemic process of knowledge acquisition and justification but the cognitive or psychological process of an epistemic agent within the naturalized epistemology framework. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 28 is traditional epistemology actually androcentric? a response in the light of duran’s feminist epistemology feminism as a distinct philosophical idea has turned into an umbrella term for a plethora of meanings and usages, hence, making it a difficult task to exhaustively and adequately delineate what it precisely is in a single definition. even within feminist thinking, there are divergent and often contradictory views (lennon &whitford, 1994, p. 1). however, in spite of this definitional challenge, there are basic tenets or commonalities shared by feminist theorists in spite of their individual peculiarities or area of interest with regards to the perceived injustices faced by women by virtue of their gender as women in different areas of life. such areas encompass the social, political, economic and even personal or private aspects of women’s life. epistemology is also not exempted; it is one area feminist theorists have taken up to articulate the peculiarities of women’s experience as both object and subject of knowledge. duran’s feminist epistemology is simultaneously a reaction against androcentrism which she claims is inherent in much of traditional epistemological theorizing and her investigation into the possibility of a way of knowing that pertains to women. after engaging in a ground clearing attempt to establish her case against the traditional analytic epistemology which in her judgement is both androcentric and apsychological, duran proceeds to lay foundation for a feminist epistemology and the possibility of a gynocentric model. in the third chapter of her work, she provides an overview of what has come to be known as feminist epistemology, particularly, as it has been constructed by other feminist theorists interested in epistemological problem and who engaged in a task she describes as being of “crucial importance for the intersection of naturalized and gynocentric strands” (duran, 1991, p. 103) of thinking that she intends to create. some of the feminist theorist that featured majorly in duran’s work include: evelyn fox keller, sandra harding and susan bordo. and other hosts of feminist theorists such as: ruth hubbard, helen longino, elizabeth prior and robert pargetter, loraine code, and alison wylie are some of the scholars who part of their works as previewed by duran enabled her to clearly delineate what she meant by feminist epistemology. moreover, the works of some feminists specifically the french feminists like cixous, julia kristeva and luce irigaray etc. whose works were influenced by the general continental tradition in philosophy and serves as a source of variation from traditional philosophy. having employed these numerous literatures in an attempt to elaborately establish grounds for a feminist epistemology from the feminist theories of these scholars, what does duran delineates as feminist epistemology? for duran, what is meant by feminist epistemology or “feminists’ epistemics” is a model that is not only grounded in inherently female practices or pragma but that is also applicable to women cross and inter-culturally. central to duran’s feminist epistemology is the emphasis on the importance of nonverbal means of communication and the sensitivity of the female to such form of communication in general. thus, she asserts that her model “allows for acquisition of knowledge, or justification of knowledge claims, to be accomplished on the basis of informal input that is both verbal and nonverbal, straightforward and nuanced, articulable and only somewhat expressed (duran, 1991, p. 184). moreover, it is an indispensable tenet of duran’s feminist epistemology that knowledge acquisition, that is epistemic justification is a context and culture-related process. hence, it is due to this process of knowledge acquisition she claims that her model is applicable to all context and culture-related process (duran, 1991, p. 185). she believes this remigius achinike & victor chizi is traditional epistemology androcentric?..... 29 provides her model with the fluidity not found in non-naturalized model and also makes it profoundly relevant to that particular critical area of contemporary feminist theory that deals with the pluralistic nature of women’s voices. the crux of duran’s model having been expressed, we are left with the very pertinent question: is traditional epistemology androcentric? considering that the overarching justification of duran’s feminist epistemology is based on her observation and conclusion of the nature and inadequacies of traditional analytic epistemology. is duran’s claim actually the case that analytic epistemology is androcentric? in response to this, we argue otherwise with three major reasons, that duran is not justified in labeling analytic epistemology as androcentric. firstly, it is necessary to note that, duran did not directly assert that analytic epistemology is androcentric but did so indirectly on the basis of the theoretical traits she observed. such traits include the “normative and hyperidealized nature of contemporary analytic epistemology” (duran, 1991, p. 19). also, “analysis in terms of logically necessary and sufficient conditions, lack of allusion to descriptively adequate models, the importance of counterexampling, putative universalizability of the conditions (of knowledge) and so forth” (duran, 1991, p. 44). one could argue that some, if not all of these traits are not essentially androcentric but could be an attribute of the nature of the task of analytically theorizing about knowledge. moreover, the prevailing zeitgeist of the era (analytic tradition) which was in itself a reaction against such continental philosophies as existentialism and phenomenology, etc. was concerned with the primary emphasis on language and logical analysis in elucidation of meaning and proper usage of language and by extension our attainment of knowledge. there was a need to precisely and clearly state what conditions where required for an ideal knower to be justified in his or her claim to knowledge. it is this normative aspect of analytic epistemology that duran appears to be dissatisfied with and thus, believes it is androcentric. it apparently seems to be the case that without judging analytic epistemology to be androcentric, she possibly would not have had the grounds to introduce her feminist epistemology. this is arguably unnecessary as naturalized epistemology largely undertakes the investigation of the contexts, social and individual peculiarities in the task of theorizing about knowledge. secondly, the normative nature of analytic epistemology requires these theoretical traits (normative, hyperidealized, stringent, narrow and obsession with universalizability) which duran dubbed androcentric, are in fact some of the basic traits that sets analytic epistemology apart from other aspects of epistemology as a normative discourse also concerned with the task of outlining the basic conditions of knowledge. moreover, as a branch of philosophy, epistemology is a normative discipline that is primarily concerned “among other things, with questions about how reasoning ought to proceed. such questions can be answered, we are told, independently of investigation into the processes that in fact occur when reasoning takes place” (kornblith, 1980, p. 597). despite the fact that, like kornblith, duran thinks that this approach is mistaken, we need to be clear that it is the nature of epistemology as a normative enterprise involved in the theoretical analysis of knowledge that warranted such theoretical traits that duran dubbed androcentric. regardless of how we decide to label those theoretical traits of analytic epistemology, we cannot expect that the nature of a discipline engaged primarily with a normative task pertaining to fundamental questions and problems of knowledge should be similar with that of a discipline that is engaged with a descriptive activity. lastly, without conceding, if we grant that analytic epistemology is indeed androcentric, then one would have expected that duran’s feminist epistemology should call for a total aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 30 jettisoning of traditional epistemology and should erect or at least provide us with an idea on how to erect a new epistemological edifice but no, she does not. rather, she held that it is still relevant to epistemology. to put it in her words: “however, androcentric the tradition of the professional epistemologists has been up to now, it has the virtue of being a rigorous method of inquiry and being a finely tuned philosophical apparatus” (duran, 1991, p. 15). given the option she chooses, it is fair to think that she actually does have a problem with the stringent and narrow nature of theorizing and not necessarily because analytic epistemology is per se androcentric. conclusion if indeed there is a way of knowing that is peculiar to women as both the subject and object of knowledge, naturalized epistemology does justice to that. duran’s idea of a feminist epistemology, we admit, has raised awareness about the peculiarities of women as knowers. however, the inadequacies of analytic epistemology do not provide duran with an overarching justification to label analytic epistemology as androcentric on the basis of its prevailing theoretical traits as a normative enterprise. drawing our attention to a way of knowing that pertains to women do not necessarily require a reactionary response to analytic epistemology and its eventual labeling as androcentric by duran. the theoretical traits of analytic epistemology pointed out by duran we argue, posit and hold as a product of the normative nature of analytic epistemology and are not necessarily and essentially androcentric as she claims. in conclusion, with regards to duran’s claim that traditional epistemology is androcentric, this study concludes that those theoretical traits which she labels as androcentric are not androcentric, but are by-products of the nature of the task of epistemology as normative discipline. with three major reasons, the paper objects to duran’s claim that traditional epistemology is androcentric. remigius achinike & victor chizi is traditional epistemology androcentric?..... 31 references duran, j. (1991). toward a feminist epistemology. united states: rowan & littlefield publishers, inc. echols, a. (1989). daring to be bad: radical feminism in america, 1967—1975. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. fricker, m. & hornsby, j. (2000). the cambridge companion to feminism in philosophy. united kingdom: cambridge university press. goldman, a. 1. (1985). “the relation between epistemology and psychology” synthese vol. 64 iss. 1. doi: 10.1007bf00485711. kornblith, h. (1980). “beyond foundationalism and the coherence theory”, the journal of philosophy. vol. 77. no. 10. usa: journal of philosophy, inc. pp. 597-612. lennon, k. &whitford, m. (ed.). (1994). knowing the difference: feminist perspective in epistemology. usa: routledge. mendus, s. (2005). “feminism”. in honderich, ted (ed.). the oxford companion to philosophy (2nd ed.). england: oxford university press. pp. 291-294. moser, p. k. & nat, a. v. (2003), human knowledge: classical and contemporary quine, w. v. 0. (1969). “epistemology naturalized”, ontological relativity and other essays, columbia university press, new york, pp. 69-90. rescher, n. (2003). an introduction to the theory of knowledge. usa: state university of new york press. walters, m. (2005). feminism: a very short introduction. united kingdom: oxford university press. aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr philosophy, poverty and the re-making of the nigeria nation owere a. ejidje iliaro, phd. directorate of general studies federal university of petroleum resources, effurun, delta state. iliaro.owere@fupre.edu.ng abstract philosophy is a discipline that has to do with critical reflective thinking. this kind of thinking is important for the development of any human society. by producing theories engendered from critical thinking, philosophy provides us with useful tools for the emancipation of the poor and the overturning of exploitative political systems. nigeria as a nation is in dire need of economic progress. however, this cannot be achieved without the input of critical minds. thus to re-make nigeria as a nation, the thought process and pattern of her citizens are to be redirected in the appropriate direction in order to make progress. it is a lack in this regard that largely accounts for her low level of development in spite of her abundant human and natural resources. this paper is an attempt to resolving this problem, through sustained critical reflections on the sources and causes of poverty and how best to address the needs of the disadvantaged. the paper concludes that to endorse philosophy is to be on the side of freedom and creativity; which is economic progress. keywords: philosophy, poverty, development, exploitation, political systems, nigeria. introduction nigeria is a nation richly blessed with mineral resources and a fair weather. amidst all these advantages she still suffers economic, development and political crisis. it can be identified that nigeria does not regard disciplines which are not oil or medically related; this is because she feels it is only through oil or the medical related disciplines that her economy can progress. so rather than achieving progress even with these myopic and ideology system, she has only succeeded in endangering and injuring her economy and this has led to various economic setbacks which she has faced in years past, even till this time. nigeria's political system is one filled with corruption and all forms of irregularities; both among the leaders and citizens alike, and this have been degrading for nigeria. she is referred to as the 'giant of africa' but what can be pragmatically identified is nothing short of developmental, leadership and economic dwarf. on its own part, philosophy as a discipline is considered by many nigerians as one of the most irrelevant in nigeria today. ironically, the progress and development of any society is fundamentally dependent on the level of reflective and critical thinking adopted and implemented. the thrust of this piece is to address the shortcomings facing the nigerian economy and politics which has hindered proficiency in development; while establishing the place of philosophy as a tool for redirecting the hearts of nigerians into good politics, developmental and economic progress. philosophy: the mother of all disciplines no discipline is self sufficient to cater for all the affairs of a nation or state. this is the reason why we have several disciplines in the sciences and arts among other hosts of disciplines. each is expected to bring out the dynamic ideas of their field to work, in other to produce proficiency and efficiency in that section of affairs. this basically shows why a medical doctor cannot be in charge of a construction project but would rather be proficient in his medical or clinical field; 89 while the construction engineer takes care of the construction affairs. in the real sense of it, no discipline is unnecessary or irreplaceable. thomas flynn as quoted in macdonald (2013, 63) characterizes philosophy as targeting the establishment of basic truths about human nature and the cosmos. the term philosophy is derived from the greek words, 'philos' and 'sophia' which means 'love' and 'wisdom' respectively. philosophy therefore means the love of wisdom. definitely, it is concerned etymologically with attaining knowledge and its applicability (wisdom). this knowledge is multifaceted and translates or is broken down into microcosms which become different disciplines. it is in this regard that philosophy becomes the 'mother of all disciplines'. philosophy is understood to be a discipline that encompasses all other disciplines, though a discipline like every other discipline but still a discipline which has a command over all disciplines (ogbujah, 2006, 2). this command over all disciplines does not insinuate the disposal or irrelevance of others, but reflects the fundamental and foundational role it plays as the mother of all other disciplines. similarly, philosophy is a watch dog which guides and interrogates all disciplines. could this be the reason for having a philosophy of every discipline? in the words of onwuama, philosophy is: [a] critical, reflective and unbiased investigation on development aimed at providing principles, theories for development. philosophical issues for development refer to those areas and problems of development that are reserved exclusively for philosophical clarifications and hermeneutics. (2011, 167) this is achieved through various theories which are propounded to settle individuals and group cases (in context and content). nnamdi (2011, 85) views philosophy as “a method of distinguishing fact from fallacies, sifting truth as sacrosanct… it is a method of securitizing our otherwise unexamined beliefs and practices in order to purge them of falsehood and error.” this shows that philosophy is concerned with trying to identify truth in things through procedures and processes which are unbiased and strategic. what have been considered truth in today's world are parchments of fallacies which have tried to fit in into people longings as such are adopted as truth. all these philosophy aims to rectify. nigeria's quagmired economy and politics an average nigerian, when confronted with issues bearing on nigeria economy, politics and general development, will surely speak from the negative perspective. several nigerians have lost hope in their country; this is because the country in itself has contributed nothing to their existence or future. nigeria is a high respected and known african country, gifted with mineral resources and the most favourable climatic conditions. yet, the positive effects of these gifts do not reflect in the country. the problems facing nigeria cannot be said to bear on just one sector but on all sectors. basically, the level of development when viewed from the economic and political spectrum is nothing to write about. as ohuawunwa (2022, 37) observes, “a collapsed economy is a collapsed nation.” unfortunately, nigeria's economy over the years has suffered from mismanagement of funds, lack of proper accountability, corruption and lack of expertise and this has landed her economy into shambles; it is so porous that it favours foreigners more than citizens. this has triggered many of the first world countries to pocket the nigerian economy as nigeria only does their bidding in the name of partnership. every new government who takes over power is either borrowing from other nations, world bank or other international organization to get funds they would use to carryout projects. nigeria runs to them as the only hope and they enslave the 90 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 nigerian economy even more in the pretence of wanting to assist. some even go to the extent of offering the nations property as collateral and even selling off some to get funds. as such, nigeria continues to owe debts that are in the real sense of it, unnecessary to have been incurred in the first place. it is appalling that the majority of the goods consumed in nigeria are imported and from these same 'first world' countries. paradoxically, many of these countries are not even as blessed as the nigerian society but they have been able to critically use the available judiciously, while nigeria has only managed to invite and increase poverty among her citizens. when foreign companies are interested in exploitation, the nigerian soil becomes the perfect site. nigerians are being employed and paid peanuts which are not in tandem with the level of labour exerted into work (another form of slavery). also, when one looks at the budget approved by the senate, one would think that the country actually cares for her citizens. but this is not the case. instead, nigerians do not see the impact on the society as there is always an ulterior motive behind the budget. contracts are given to thieves clothed as contractors who would only use substandard materials, mismanage and siphon a huge amount of the funds given to them to carry out a task. in fact, approval of bills has now become another means of stealing from the nigeria economy. this is one of the most outstanding reasons why there is next to no development in nigeria. public sectors are erected in weak structures and poverty even though huge sums of money are allotted to them in the budget. it is not that there are no cases of poverty in other countries of the world but it is most pronounced in nigeria. as it stands, many nigerian have lost hope in the economy of their country. quite sarcastically, bierce (2023) defined politics as the “strife of interests masquerading as a contest of principles.” this is the kind of politics that can be found in nigeria. nigeria cannot be said not to have engaged in healthy politics. this is because the act of politiquing has been greatly misunderstood in the nigerian milieu. politics is seen as a “do or die affair”, where politicians make use of whatsoever means at their disposal to win elections for positions they are not qualified for. this is why election period becomes an avenue for reckless killings and kidnapping. those who have held political offices are not in any way interested in the well being of the people but in their own pockets. a man who has nothing enters into office and when he is to leave the office, he has already acquired what a full community can be sustained with. people no longer bother to ask how and where he made his fortune even with the declaration of property/assets before entering into office. these politicians are not bothered about being investigated even after leaving office because they can always lobby around it. achebe opined that: the trouble with nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. there is nothing basically wrong with the nigerian land or climate or water or air or anything else. the nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise up to the responsibility, to the challenge of personal example which is the hallmarks of true leadership. (1998, 1) campaigns grounds have become deceptive avenues to lie to nigerians while discreetly distributing illicit funds to bribe citizens to vote them in. on election days, thugs are sent out with weapons to disrupt the electoral process thereby bridging a democratic activity. however, outgoing leaders now decide who would replace them in office, as if the position is a family or personal property. the intention for a political arena that is party structured is to ascertain a level of competency and diplomacy, in other to achieve a good candidacy for the supposed service in the office. but this is not actually the case when closely interrogated into. okolo supports achebe's line of thought when he said that “nigeria has a problem with leadership and insists that there can be no serious change in the country unless it occurs in the leadership” (okolo, 1994, 16). the true purpose for party politics has been killed and buried as what we have 91 owere a. ejidje iliaro philosophy, poverty and the re-making of the nigeria nation now is a 'god-fatherism' oriented political system. the so-called god-fathers decide who becomes and who does not, as such though not physically in office but indirectly controlling the seat of power. in this way, the affairs of nigeria has been piloted by leaders whose personal interest stands as the epicenter of governance (ugwu, 2020, vii). moreso—even though the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria emphasizes the autonomy of each of the arms of government—when the nigeria political system is examined critically one might be tempted to ask: are the arms of government still three or one? this is because the arms of government in nigeria are obviously being controlled by the executive. justice dies day by day and laws are enacted or regulated in a manner as though to please the executive. there have been countless cases of the executive ignoring the verdicts of the judiciary and the legislative. the legislative and judiciary are seen as slaves of the executive because they only do the biding of the executive. so in the real sense of it, the executive is the only arm of government that is active in nigeria, though beclouded in corruption. all these deceptions have impacted negatively upon the mindset of the children and juveniles as they have been misoriented to believe that political leadership over the people is all about stealing and causing violence. now when a child is asked why he or she intends to be leader in the future one will be shocked to hear things like: i want to make steal my own money and be rich. what most persons refer to as national cake. this cancerous menace has eaten enormously into the hearts of many nigerian citizens. this therefore portrays the sources and causes of the economic and political state of a quagmired nigerian situation. addressing nigeria's political and economic challenges through the instrumentality of philosophy succinctly put, philosophy is focused on giving an interpretative understanding of reality; a goal and liberation oriented discipline from the bonds of ignorance for developmental sustainability (onwuama, 2011, 49). the progressive affairs of a nation are reflective of the critical minds and implementations. embracing philosophy is the direction for and towards nigeria economic progress. philosophy as a field of study can directly help nigeria's economy by encouraging critical and reflective thinking; considering what is right and wrong, and exploring big questions. it helps to ask and address questions like: what have been the shortcomings in the nigerian economy? what are the factors responsible for these shortcomings? how can these shortcomings be resolved? what are the impact on the citizens and its long time benefits? while philosophy itself does not directly create economic growth, it can provide a basis for developing and implementing policies and strategies that support progress. philosophy can help structure guidelines for economic activities that are fair and responsible. it has always been the case that majority of the economist who have held nigerian offices have not seen the need to reflect adequately on the long time benefit (the futuristic), they have only focused on the present and this has greatly affected the nigerian economy. by thinking about different ideas of what is right and wrong, policymakers, business leaders, and economists can make informed decisions that focus on long-term sustainability, fairness, and overall economic growth. philosophy promotes skills like: thinking carefully, reasoning logically, and analyzing information. these skills are important for identifying economic problems, evaluating different options, and coming up with new solutions. by using careful thinking and analysis to tackle economic challenges, policymakers can make smart choices that drive sustainable growth and address social and economic issues. by thinking about these ideas, policymakers can design economic policies that are inclusive, promote fairness, and create an environment where businesses can succeed and thrive. 92 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 furthermore, challenged with the breakdown of order and gross marginalization of people in the society through politics, philosophy is obliged to not only confront these social-political ills, but to seek for justifiable grounds in which humanity can return back to the track of civilizing process. philosophy is instrumental to the political sphere or system; this is because it asks question like: who should rule? with what and how the society should be governed? it establishes what is fair, and the role of the government. these fundamental questions are necessary for any political or leadership system which intends to grow or develop. in the nigeria context, philosophy will help in establishing the fact that those who intend to hold public offices should first acquire adequate knowledge of what they seek to be admitted into. this will help the leaders recognize the need for an ethos, because a leader is expected to be one whom others can aspire to be like. it will equally bring to mind that consciously and unconsciously there are other learning from every footstep he or she makes as a leader; so they would strive to obey the law as no one is above it. secondly, philosophy will help present and future leaders be it in the judiciary, legislative and executive to recognize the fact that they are first citizens like any other nigerian out there. nwekeaku (2014, 26-35) averred that “nigeria's constitution provides for fundamental rights of the citizens and roles for every level of government, thus it is not the lack of good laws that troubles nigeria but the lack of good governance that seeks to twist these laws to its own curves.” as such, there is a need for an integral participation in trying to lead and govern the people accordingly; since it takes one from the people to understand the plight of the people. philosophy through its reflective capacity will establish into leaders the fact that they are servants chosen by the people to service and not to be lords over them. every position or office is not held for eternity but for a period of time, this philosophy through critical thinking will help the leaders recognize and understand, so there will be no attachments in all of their dealings while in office. it will help them develop a sense of community (altruism) rather than the self (egoism or greed).this way element of corruption and loquacious spending would be curbed intrinsically. pragmatically therefore, there is a need to appoint and give offices to individuals who are experienced in the required field. many offices in nigeria are given to people who have little to no experience in that field, so they occupy the seats and turn their position into avenues to learn rather than act. it is porous to note that even though nigeria is blessed with countless numbers of philosophers, the leaders have not seen the need to incorporate them into committees and offices which requires critical minds inputs. in nigeria universities students studying philosophy are seen as wasting their time because philosophy is not valued and has been greatly reduced to nothing. one can hardly see a politician in nigeria who is a philosopher but this is what has engineered the sporadic increase in foreign nation's successes. little wonder; there approach to philosophy as a discipline is not the same in nigeria. there is therefore that need to incorporate philosophers into the system as the importance of philosophers in predictive analytics, public policy making, political analysis, peace and conflict management or resolution cannot be underestimated. conclusion to buttress, the economic retrogression and political mishmash in the nigeria society has led to poverty and lack of development. these, in turn, have continuously affected the citizens and the proper way of thinking from generation to generation. such situation has been sustained for long because philosophy and philosophers help has not been sorted. philosophy therefore can play a role in shaping policies that encourage critical thinking, creativity, and curiosity. by emphasizing philosophy in institutions, nigeria can develop a new generation of thinkers who are equipped to handle complex economic challenges, come up with new ideas, and contribute to innovation, 93 owere a. ejidje iliaro philosophy, poverty and the re-making of the nigeria nation entrepreneurship, and economic growth. it can inspire policies that reduce corruption, increase transparency, and ensure a level playing field for everyone in the economy. lastly, by integrating philosophical insights into economic policies and strategies, nigeria can create an environment that supports sustainable economic growth, social development, and overall progress. this fundamentally becomes a re-orientation and reconstruction of the minds of the citizens and leaders to achieve an economic and politically progressive nation which is necessary for development. references achebe, c. (1998). the trouble with nigeria. enugu: fourth dimension publishing co-ltd. bierce, a. “about politics” retrieved from http://www.australianpolitics.com/democracy/what-ispolitics.shtml on 29th june, 2023. james, p., magee, l., scerri, a., and steger, m. (2015). urban sustainability in theory and practice: circles of sustainability. london: routledge. macdonald, g. (2013). the role of philosophy in national development. ibadan: tk publishing press. nnamdi, b. s. (2011). selected themes in logic and philosophy. port harcourt: university of port harcourt press. nwekeaku, c. (2014). “the rule of law, democracy and good governance in nigeria” global journal of political science and administration, 2(1), 26-35. ogbujah, c. n. (2006). philosophy: a thematic introduction. owerri: barloz publishing limited, 2006. ohuawunwa, a. c. (2002). a reconceptualization of leadership and governance as service in the thought of robert kiefner greenleaf: a quest towards radical development of the nigerian politics.unpublished thesis. st albert institute fayit-fadon kagoma, kafachan, kaduna state, june, 2022. okolo, b. (1994). squandermania mentality: reflection on nigerian culture. nsukka: university trust. onwuama, e. (2011). “understanding philosophy” in j. oloidi (ed.) fundamentals of philosophy, logic and issues in human existence. enugu: kriscento publishers. ugwu, m. o. (2020). nigerian democracy: a disguised leverage of criminality. markudi: eagle prints. 94 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 http://www.australianpolitics.com/democracy/what-is-politics.shtml http://www.australianpolitics.com/democracy/what-is-politics.shtml 140 between recognition and inclusion: rethinking multiculturalism in nigeria’s democratic landscape prof. ogundare, z. b. department of philosophy, faculty of arts, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti. zacchaeus.ogundare@eksu.edu.ng & dr. (mrs) owoyemi, d. o. department of philosophy, faculty of arts, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti. owoyemi.deborah@eksu.edu.ng abstract multicultural democracy often promises political recognition for diverse cultural groups, yet such recognition rarely translates into substantive inclusion within state institutions. liberal models of multiculturalism, particularly those advanced by charles taylor and will kymlicka, foreground cultural identity and group-differentiated rights, but remain entrenched in normative assumptions that marginalize non-western epistemologies. in deeply plural societies like nigeria, the reliance on symbolic recognition such as ethnic balancing, zoning arrangements, and elite-based power-sharing has not addressed the structural exclusion embedded in democratic governance. rather than fostering political belonging, these measures have entrenched ethno-political divisions and undermined democratic legitimacy. rethinking multiculturalism in this context demands a shift from liberal recognition to participatory inclusion rooted in indigenous democratic practices. drawing on indigenous governance mechanisms such as communal deliberation, consensus building, and non-centralized authority, the framework of indigenous inclusive democracy offers an alternative political logic that privileges agency, voice, and belonging over mere representation. recasting democracy through this lens not only reorients multicultural theory but also challenges the epistemic dominance of liberal paradigms in postcolonial contexts. the nigerian case illuminates the limits of eurocentric democratic models and affirms the viability of decolonial frameworks for reimagining inclusive governance. keywords: indigenous governance, multicultural democracy, nigeria, political inclusion, postcolonial statehood. introduction the promise of multicultural democracy lies in its ability to reconcile cultural diversity with civic equality. yet, in practice, multicultural frameworks have often privileged symbolic gestures of recognition over substantive mechanisms of inclusion. this disconnect is especially pronounced in postcolonial states such as nigeria, where the liberal architecture of democratic governance fails to account for the plural, indigenous, and often non-western modes of political participation. in such contexts, the politics of recognition, anchored in the works of charles taylor and will kymlicka offers limited resources for addressing the structural and epistemological exclusions that undermine democratic legitimacy. mailto:zacchaeus.ogundare@eksu.edu.ng mailto:owoyemi.deborah@eksu.edu.ng aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 141 taylor’s influential argument that recognition is a ‘vital human need’ has shaped normative understandings of how multicultural democracies ought to accommodate difference (taylor, 1994). his emphasis on the dialogical nature of identity formation compels democratic institutions to acknowledge the cultural backgrounds of citizens as a precondition for selfrealization. similarly, kymlicka (1995) argues that multicultural rights should supplement liberal democracy by ensuring that minority cultures have the group-differentiated rights necessary to sustain their cultural narratives within the broader polity. however, both theorists frame their proposals within a liberal paradigm that assumes the primacy of the state and the individual, often to the detriment of communal and indigenous forms of political agency. the problem with these liberal multicultural models is not merely their inadequate application in non-western contexts, but their foundational epistemic assumptions. as bhikhu parekh (2000) observes, liberal multiculturalism tends to universalize a particular cultural experience, rooted in western modernity, and imposes it as a framework for adjudicating difference. it fails to take seriously the idea that different cultures may embody different views of the good life and the good society, which are not reducible to a single liberal template. in deeply plural societies like nigeria, this failure is not theoretical but material: it manifests in the political marginalization of minority groups, the erosion of traditional governance systems, and the instrumentalization of ethnicity in electoral politics. nigeria’s democratic landscape reflects the limitations of recognition-based multiculturalism. since independence, the state has relied on mechanisms such as federal character principles, ethnic balancing, and rotational leadership to manage cultural diversity. these arrangements, while ostensibly designed to ensure equitable representation, have often functioned as elite bargains that reinforce ethnopolitical hierarchies rather than dismantle them. as osaghae (2006) notes, nigeria’s version of multicultural democracy has produced a ‘recognition without empowerment’ paradox, wherein cultural groups are acknowledged symbolically but remain excluded from substantive decision-making processes. the consequence is a persistent crisis of legitimacy in which many citizens perceive the state not as a neutral arbiter, but as an arena of ethnic contestation and exclusion. these deficiencies call for a fundamental rethinking of multiculturalism, one that moves beyond recognition to structurally embedded forms of political inclusion. inclusion here is not reducible to numerical representation or the mere presence of cultural elites within state institutions. it entails the creation of democratic spaces in which diverse communities can actively participate in shaping the rules, values, and priorities that govern collective life. this shift requires not only institutional reforms but also epistemic humility: a willingness to engage indigenous political systems not as relics of pre-modernity, but as viable sources of democratic insight. in this regard, indigenous inclusive democracy emerges as a critical framework for reconceptualizing multicultural inclusion. rooted in african communal traditions of deliberation, consensus-building, and non-centralized authority, this model challenges the statist and individualistic assumptions of liberal democratic theory. rather than viewing inclusion as an extension of state benevolence, indigenous inclusive democracy understands political participation as a communal responsibility embedded in cultural practices. as wiredu (1996) contends, “consensual democracy as practiced in traditional africa was not based on numerical majorities, but on inclusive dialogue aimed at accommodating divergent views.” this model aligns with the normative demands of democratic inclusion while also respecting the ontological diversity of political communities. prof. ogundare & dr. (mrs) owoyemi between recognition and inclusion: rethinking.. 142 by situating nigeria as a critical case, this paper challenges the universality of liberal multiculturalism and demonstrates the need for alternative democratic paradigms in postcolonial settings. it argues that the persistent failures of multicultural democracy in nigeria are not anomalies, but symptoms of a deeper theoretical inadequacy. liberal multiculturalism, even at its most sophisticated, cannot deliver meaningful inclusion without confronting the historical and structural conditions that define postcolonial statehood. as santos (2014) puts it, there is no global social justice without global cognitive justice; and cognitive justice, in turn, requires that democratic theory be open to multiple epistemologies of inclusion. from recognition to inclusion: rethinking the multicultural paradigm multiculturalism emerged as a normative response to the cultural homogenization implicit in the liberal nation-state. it promised to recognize and protect the identities of cultural minorities without sacrificing the egalitarian values of liberal democracy. foundational to this project are the works of charles taylor and will kymlicka, both of whom argued that democratic legitimacy in plural societies requires a principled accommodation of cultural diversity. yet, despite their moral appeal, these theories often fail to achieve meaningful political inclusion, particularly in postcolonial states like nigeria. as owoyemi (2025) observes, the recognitionbased model presumes a liberal context that is often absent or unstable in postcolonial polities, where cultural identity intersects with histories of subjugation and state fragility. charles taylor’s notion of the politics of recognition offers a moral foundation for multicultural citizenship. in his view, modern identity is dialogical: individuals form their sense of self through relations of mutual recognition with others (taylor, 1994). in this light, failing to recognize a culture is not merely a political oversight but a form of misrecognition that impairs personal and collective self-esteem. taylor thus argues for the inclusion of minority cultures in public discourse, education, and national narratives. however, this recognition remains largely symbolic and discursive. it seldom translates into institutional power or collective agency. as parekh (2000) submits, “recognition without redistribution can reinforce rather than dismantle existing power hierarchies.” will kymlicka takes a more juridical approach. he defends group-differentiated rights within liberal democracies, arguing that national minorities and indigenous peoples require distinct legal protections to preserve their cultural integrity (kymlicka, 1995). his emphasis on external protections and self-government rights for minority cultures marks an important shift from abstract tolerance to legal recognition. however, like taylor, kymlicka’s model remains nested within liberal assumptions: the sovereignty of the state, the primacy of individual autonomy, and the neutrality of public institutions. these assumptions are often alien to the socio-political realities of postcolonial states, where traditional governance structures and communal identities play vital roles in political life. owoyemi (2025) offers a synthesis of taylor and kymlicka’s contributions while highlighting their shared limitations. she argues that both theorists assume that the state is already a fair arbiter of cultural claims. in postcolonial contexts like nigeria which is marked by ethnic patronage, colonial legacies, and deep institutional mistrust, this assumption cannot be sustained. the liberal state itself often perpetuates exclusion and fails to provide the structural basis for multicultural justice. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 143 this critique aligns with the growing body of scholarship questioning the universal applicability of liberal multiculturalism. scholars such as bhikhu parekh (2000), iris marion young (1990), and boaventura de sousa santos (2014) have challenged the liberal emphasis on procedural fairness and individual rights, arguing instead for models that reflect the ontological diversity of political life. santos, in particular, calls for an “epistemology of the south,” one that takes seriously the knowledges, practices, and institutional forms excluded by western political theory (santos, 2014). a core issue at stake here is the distinction between recognition and inclusion. recognition affirms identity but often stops short of empowering communities to participate meaningfully in political decision-making. inclusion, by contrast, demands structural changes in how democratic systems are conceived and operated. inclusion implies access, voice, and agency, not just the acknowledgement of cultural distinctiveness but the reconfiguration of the state to accommodate alternative political ontologies. the nigerian case illustrates this problem vividly. as discussed by osaghae (2006), nigeria’s federal character principle was designed to reflect ethnic diversity in public appointments. yet it has largely served as a quota system manipulated by elites, failing to democratize access to political decision-making. symbolic recognition has neither curbed ethnic tension nor ensured equitable participation. owoyemi (2025) terms this the ‘recognition-without-empowerment paradox,’ wherein the politics of symbolic inclusion conceals deeper mechanisms of exclusion that reproduce colonial-era asymmetries of power. to move beyond these limitations, the discourse must turn toward alternative frameworks of democratic inclusion. this entails rejecting the presumption that western liberalism exhausts the possibilities of democratic life. as wiredu (1996) argues in his reflections on traditional african polities, inclusive deliberation in non-western settings is often based not on adversarial majority rule but on consensus and communal reasoning. such models offer not only a political alternative but an epistemic challenge to the dominance of liberal assumptions. the need, then, is not for more recognition in the liberal sense, but for the integration of indigenous forms of inclusion into the political architecture of multicultural states. indigenous inclusive democracy, as articulated by owoyemi (2025), redefines inclusion not as statemanaged representation, but as culturally grounded participation shaped by local political logics. this framework foregrounds communal dialogue, traditional authority, and participatory agency as mechanisms for democratic legitimacy beyond liberal institutionalism. multiculturalism and democratic practice in nigeria a. cultural pluralism and the postcolonial state nigeria’s political trajectory is deeply shaped by its colonial legacy, which not only imposed artificial boundaries on diverse ethnic groups but also instituted western democratic frameworks disconnected from indigenous political traditions. the result is a complex multicultural polity marked by competing group identities, uneven development, and fragile institutional cohesion. as osaghae (2006) notes, the nigerian state has long functioned as an arena of contestation between cultural groups who view political power as a zero-sum resource for survival and domination. this reality has consistently undermined attempts to foster a cohesive national identity. prof. ogundare & dr. (mrs) owoyemi between recognition and inclusion: rethinking.. 144 in the post-independence era, successive constitutions have attempted to accommodate nigeria’s diversity through federalism and consociational mechanisms. the federal character principle, for example, was designed to ensure ethnic representation in appointments and distribution of public goods. yet these mechanisms often operate more as symbolic recognitions than instruments of equitable inclusion. according to owoyemi (2025), multicultural governance in nigeria has largely focused on visibility rather than participation, acknowledging difference without enabling shared decision-making. this paradox reflects the failure of liberal multicultural models, which presuppose state neutrality and institutional trust, conditions that are largely absent in nigeria’s fragmented polity. b. the failures of recognition-based governance the politics of recognition in nigeria often manifests through ethnic balancing in political appointments, rotational presidency, and regional zoning arrangements. these measures aim to reflect nigeria’s ethno-regional diversity in state structures. however, such recognitions remain elite-driven and do little to address broader patterns of exclusion. as suberu (2001) argues, federalism in nigeria has been “more about distributing patronage than deepening democratic engagement”. the distributive ethos of the nigerian state thus reinforces a logic of ethnic competition rather than institutional inclusion. the rotational presidency, often presented as a stabilizing mechanism, illustrates the pitfalls of symbolic multiculturalism. although intended to ensure fair distribution of power among nigeria’s major ethnic blocs, the practice has largely operated along a north–south binary, marginalizing minority groups in the middle belt and south-south regions. the 2011 elections, for example, ignited widespread violence in parts of the north following the perceived breach of zoning arrangements, reflecting how informal power-sharing can deepen rather than resolve ethnic tensions (suberu, 2013). more recently, in may 2025, the house of representatives explicitly rejected a constitutional amendment that sought to enshrine rotation of the presidency and vice-presidency among nigeria’s six geopolitical zones. this decision underscores the institutional resistance to transforming symbolic zoning into binding national policy, reinforcing the fragility of recognition without structural inclusion (allafrica/daily trust, 2025). furthermore, states like benue, taraba, and plateau, despite their ethno-linguistic diversity remain politically peripheral in national discourse and severely underrepresented in the federal cabinet. these exclusions demonstrate that recognition-based mechanisms such as zoning or ethnic balancing may acknowledge the existence of groups but fail to institutionalize their political agency. as owoyemi (2025) emphasizes, “without mechanisms that empower minority voices to shape policy, multicultural recognition merely reinforces elite patronage and regional hierarchies.” this instrumental approach to multiculturalism has produced what owoyemi (2025) calls a ‘recognition-without-redistribution syndrome,’ where cultural groups are formally acknowledged but denied substantive access to political power and economic resources. marginalized communities, particularly those outside dominant ethno-political blocs, remain excluded from policymaking and development planning. the over-politicization of ethnicity has weakened the capacity of the state to function as a unifying force. political elites routinely mobilize ethnic sentiment to consolidate power, manipulate electoral outcomes, and undermine institutional impartiality. as ayoade (1986) observed decades ago, nigeria’s multiculturalism is ‘practiced more in the breach than in observance,’ leading to cyclical conflicts, secessionist aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 145 agitations, and legitimacy crises. the challenge, then, is not merely the absence of recognition but the failure to convert recognition into democratic inclusion. c. the need for structural inclusion in a fragmented democracy nigeria’s democratic project reveals the limits of multiculturalism conceived solely as cultural visibility or ethnic balancing. what is absent is a theory of structural inclusion, one that would enable marginalized communities not merely to be represented, but to participate meaningfully in the political process. inclusion in this sense is not synonymous with tokenism or elite incorporation. it requires reforms that alter the architecture of governance to reflect indigenous values of participation, justice, and accountability. this shift is being articulated through the introduction of the concept of indigenous inclusive democracy, which emphasizes bottom-up political engagement rooted in traditional african models of deliberation and communalism. these indigenous systems, far from being antithetical to modernity, offer normative resources for democratizing state institutions. in many traditional african societies, decision-making is not majoritarian but consensus-oriented; leadership is not domination but stewardship. wiredu (1996) captures this well when he argues that traditional african political systems are more participatory in substance than their liberal counterparts. indigenous political institutions in nigeria offer important insights into inclusive governance that liberal democracy often neglects. in yoruba traditional settings, the àgbà council involves deliberation among elders, where decisions are reached through broad consensus rather than adversarial voting. among the igbo, the àmà-ala council which is a village assembly composed of elders and titleholders, functions as an open forum for communal participation. even in the largely hierarchical tiv system, the tor tiv remains subject to consultation with clan heads and elders before critical decisions are made. these mechanisms, while varied, are unified by their emphasis on communal deliberation, accessibility, and social accountability. yet, contemporary nigerian governance does little to incorporate these models into formal institutions. as owoyemi (2025) observes, “the state’s preference for western legal-rational bureaucracy has rendered indigenous systems politically irrelevant despite their deep legitimacy among the people.” bridging this gap is not merely about cultural preservation. it is essential for reconstructing a democratic model that reflects nigeria’s social realities. addressing this gap requires rethinking multicultural democracy beyond liberal frameworks. inclusion must be re-conceptualized not just as procedural fairness or legal access, but as cultural alignment; the integration of local norms, institutions, and epistemologies into national governance structures. as santos (2014) insists, democracy cannot be reduced to the formats of western modernity; it must also reflect the grammars of the people it claims to represent. nigeria’s future as a democratic polity may well depend on its ability to move from recognition to structural inclusion, anchored in both normative justice and historical reality. indigenous inclusive democracy: a viable framework for inclusion a. beyond the liberal paradigm efforts to institutionalize multicultural democracy in postcolonial contexts like nigeria have long been constrained by the assumptions of western liberalism. these include an prof. ogundare & dr. (mrs) owoyemi between recognition and inclusion: rethinking.. 146 overemphasis on individual rights, procedural neutrality, and bureaucratic rationality, often at the expense of cultural embeddedness, historical justice, and participatory equity. liberal multiculturalism, as theorized by kymlicka and taylor, offers recognition and legal protections but does not adequately address the deeper question of how democratic legitimacy is constructed in culturally diverse societies marked by colonial histories and fragile institutions. in response to this inadequacy, indigenous inclusive democracy serves as a framework for reconceptualizing democratic inclusion. this model seeks to transcend the liberal emphasis on symbolic recognition by rethinking democracy from within indigenous african traditions of governance and participatory decision-making. it emphasizes that the challenge in multicultural democracies is not merely about accommodating difference, but about redistributing political agency and reconstructing the institutional architecture to reflect plural political ontologies. this proposal resonates with decolonial theorists such as santos (2014), who argue for ‘pluriversal democracy’, which is a system that recognizes the co-existence of multiple political rationalities beyond the liberal-modern canon. b. philosophical foundations of indigenous inclusion at its core, indigenous inclusive democracy is rooted in a communitarian ontology. unlike liberal democracy, which prioritizes autonomous individuals and abstract rights, african traditional political systems are oriented toward communal responsibility, moral interdependence, and dialogical consensus. as gyekye (1997) observes, the individual in african thought is not an isolated bearer of rights but a ‘person-in-community,’ whose moral identity is formed and fulfilled in relationship with others. this philosophical orientation manifests politically in the primacy of deliberative assemblies, rotational leadership, and accountable authority in many precolonial african societies. for instance, the yoruba àgbà council, the igbo àmà-ala, and the tiv ipaven are not merely customary relics but embodiments of inclusive political logic. they stress negotiation over coercion, consensus over majority rule, and legitimacy through communal validation. wiredu (1996) describes such systems as ‘non-party consensual democracies’ where governance is deliberative rather than adversarial. these traditions offer a normative resource for building democratic systems that are locally legitimate and socially embedded. owoyemi’s (2025) model builds on this foundation to advocate for an inclusive democracy that is contextual, pluralistic, and historically situated. it is contextual in that it begins from lived political realities rather than imposed constitutional models. it is pluralistic in recognizing the coexistence of multiple governance systems (state-based and indigenous). and it is historically situated in acknowledging that colonial state formation disrupted existing mechanisms of inclusion, replacing them with extractive and exclusionary structures. c. institutional principles of indigenous inclusive democracy for indigenous inclusive democracy to be more than a philosophical ideal, it must offer institutional principles capable of reconfiguring governance structures in multicultural states. owoyemi (2025) identifies three key pillars: participatory federalism, cultural subsidiarity, and integrated legal pluralism. 1. participatory federalism involves decentralizing power not merely along administrative lines but according to cultural communities. this enables grassroots groups to aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 147 participate in agenda-setting, development planning, and conflict resolution. unlike conventional federalism, which prioritizes geographic divisions, participatory federalism emphasizes identity-responsive governance. 2. cultural subsidiarity extends the principle of subsidiarity beyond technical efficiency to cultural relevance. it asserts that governance tasks should be devolved to the smallest and most culturally competent units. this supports indigenous institutions, such as village councils or traditional courts, as primary sites of democratic participation, with the state playing a facilitative rather than dominating role. 3. integrated legal pluralism rejects the colonial dichotomy between “modern” and “customary” law. instead, it encourages institutional synergy between formal and indigenous legal systems, allowing for context-sensitive dispute resolution and more inclusive justice delivery. together, these principles provide a model for reimagining democratic governance in ways that are both locally grounded and normatively robust. they challenge the epistemic privilege of liberal legalism and open space for alternative traditions of rights, justice, and participation. d. advantages and challenges of the model the merits of indigenous inclusive democracy are both ethical and practical. ethically, it respects cultural diversity not just as a symbolic value but as a foundational principle of democratic legitimacy. it recognizes that no single political logic is universally valid and that local traditions of governance can offer meaningful alternatives to state-centric liberalism. practically, it addresses persistent deficits in trust, participation, and institutional relevance that plague many postcolonial states. by integrating indigenous systems, governance becomes more responsive, more accessible, and more reflective of the people it serves. nonetheless, the model faces significant challenges. one is the risk of elite capture, where traditional authorities are co-opted into corrupt political structures. another is gender exclusion, as many indigenous systems historically marginalized women in decision-making processes. addressing these requires both internal reform of customary institutions and critical engagement with democratic norms. the goal, as owoyemi (2025) acknowledges, is not to romanticize the past, but to reconstruct democratic futures that are historically conscious and socially just. moreover, implementing indigenous inclusive democracy demands a recalibration of state authority, legal codes, and civic education. this is not a quick institutional fix but a transformative political project, one that calls for the decolonization of governance and the democratization of state-society relations. prof. ogundare & dr. (mrs) owoyemi between recognition and inclusion: rethinking.. 148 conclusion multiculturalism in postcolonial democracies like nigeria reveals a profound tension between symbolic recognition and structural exclusion. while liberal democratic frameworks have offered tools for acknowledging cultural diversity, they have too often failed to institutionalize meaningful inclusion. recognition, when detached from political agency, reinforces hierarchies rather than dismantling them. as this paper has shown, nigeria’s experience with ethnic balancing, federal character, and zoning exemplifies the limits of recognition-based governance in deeply divided societies. the shift toward indigenous inclusive democracy provides an innovative framework for responding to these limits. grounded in african philosophical traditions and institutional practices, this model prioritizes participation, cultural legitimacy, and epistemic justice. it calls for a reorientation of democratic theory and practice, away from imposed liberal templates and toward historically rooted, community-driven institutions of governance. this shift does not require the rejection of modern democratic principles, but their reconfiguration through indigenous logics of deliberation, accountability, and inclusion. crucially, indigenous inclusive democracy offers more than conceptual critique; it sets forth institutional principles, such as participatory federalism, cultural subsidiarity and legal pluralism that can be adapted into policy frameworks. for instance, reforming nigeria’s federal structure to give greater legislative and administrative authority to culturally cohesive units could enhance citizen participation and reduce conflict. integrating indigenous dispute resolution mechanisms within formal legal systems may also improve access to justice, particularly in rural or marginalized communities. policymakers, therefore, must go beyond symbolic inclusion and invest in frameworks that align democratic governance with indigenous political realities. at the international level, this model adds to the growing call for pluriversal democracy, one that recognizes the legitimacy of multiple pathways to political inclusion. as global democratic theory continues to grapple with the failures of liberal multiculturalism, the nigerian experience, understood through the lens of indigenous inclusive democracy, offers valuable lessons on the intersection of culture, legitimacy, and justice. future research may further explore how this model can inform democratic transitions in other postcolonial or culturally plural societies. ultimately, democracy must be measured not only by its formal procedures but by its capacity to foster belonging, empowerment, and equitable participation. in this regard, indigenous inclusive democracy is not merely a theoretical alternative; it is a necessary step toward building democratic futures grounded in both plural identities and shared political agency. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 149 references ayoade, j. a. a. (1986). ethnic management in the 1979 nigerian constitution. canadian review of studies in nationalism 16(2), 73–90. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3330204 gyekye, k. (1997). tradition and modernity: philosophical reflections on the african experience.england: oxford university press. isbn: 978-0-19535-467-6 kymlicka, w. (1995). multicultural citizenship: a liberal theory of minority rights. england: clarendon press. isbn: 978-0-19-829091-8 osaghae, e. e. (2006). ethnicity and the state in africa. african sociological review 9(1), 1– 21. owoyemi, d. o. (2025). a reorientation of multiculturalist perspectives in democratic ideology in nigeria.ph.d dissertation, ekiti state university, nigeria. parekh, b. (2000). rethinking multiculturalism: cultural diversity and political theory.massachusetts: harvard university press. isbn: 978-0-674-00436-1 santos, b. de. s. (2014). epistemologies of the south: justice against epistemicide. new york: routledge. isbn: 978-1-61205-545-9 suberu, r. t. (2001). federalism and ethnic conflict in nigeria.washington: united states institute of peace press. isbn: 978-1-929223-28-5 suberu, r. t. (2013). prebendal politics and federal governance in nigeria. the journal of modern african studies 51(3), 433–456. doi: 10.1057/9781137280770_4 sule, i. d. (2025, may 13). nigeria: reps reject bill on rotational presidency. daily trust via allafrica. https://allafrica.com/stories/202505140030.html. accessed 15 june 2025. taylor, c. (1994). the politics of recognition. in: gutmann, a. (ed.) multiculturalism: examining the politics of recognition. princeton university press. wiredu, k. (1996). cultural universals and particulars: an african perspective. indiana university press. isbn: 978-0-253-21080-1 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr the use of fear in animal rights discourse: an ethical pragmatist approach akande michael aina, ph.d dept. of philosophy, lagos state university, ojo. mail:aina.akande@lasu.edu.ng https://orcid.org/0000orcid: -0002-4231-9891 abstract the debate on animal rights has been encouraging in the last decade since peter singer published his book. various arguments have been advanced to show that animals have distinct rights when compared to human rights. later the notion of equal rights was advanced in the accusation of speciesm leveled against human beings. in all, philosophers and activists have theorized about ethical, legal and religious issues on animal rights. recently i read a paper that adopts language change and i think such is commendable. however, it is not out of place if one says these approaches had yielded little result. to my mind, this is the case because the debate has adopted the strategy of persuasion, respect and love; appealing to human conscience and rationality. in this paper, i argue that a better result will be achieved if there is a change of strategy from persuasion to fearfulness. this paper is in agreement with karl marx's argument that it is time philosophers changed the world rather than analyse it. the finding in this work is that fear deters humans than love. many religious and nutritional literatures that encourage killing and eating of animals elucidate on the benefits to humans, therefore, to change the narratives, animal rights activists need to adopt the strategy of espousing the disadvantages of eating or killing animals to humans rather than to espouse how disadvantaged animals will be when killed. an exposition of literatures that adopted this strategy of fear will be done to show their pragmatic import. it shall then be seen that fear repels or makes humans to be cautious. keywords: animal rights, fear, love, emotion, ethical pragmatism introduction the aim of this paper is to encourage animal rights activists to adopt a new approach in protecting non-human animals since previous or current approaches have not yielded expected result. empathy had been introduced in many theories to prevent cruelty and death to non-human animals. this is informed by the belief that humans are higher moral beings that will be persuaded by such emotion. the failure of that emotion is the reason why i think a new emotion should be introduced. the strategy of fear is proposed here and it is informed by the marxian maxim that 'philosophers should abandon interpretations of reality and concentrate on changing it'. karl marx was fed up with traditional philosophers' approach to life in their attempts to describe the world because these descriptions seem not to have pragmatic value. his frustration was based on the fact that there are many descriptions which are incongruent with each other and as such people continue to live miserably and unsure of what life will become. he adopted the method of dialectics showing that there is inherent contradiction in life but with the hope that the end will be good if class struggle is eliminated. he thought that this class struggle will disappear if and only if, the oppress class will take up arms to overthrow the class of the oppressors. in essence, there is a need to fight 119 mailto:aina.akande@lasu.edu.ng mailto:aina.akande@lasu.edu.ng https://orcid.org/0000 back or cause your opposition to fear you and retreat if one desires to live a worthy life. invariably marx is saying the fear of the proletariats by the bourgeoisies in a capitalist economy is the beginning of wisdom. according to subba, as expressed in the words of michael eneyo “fear is a beautiful consciousness with different forms. fear is one of the driving forces of civilization, and it is a director of life”. for him, fear is mystery; fear is god; fear is superpower; an alert indicator; fear is courage; fear is also defined as an enemy of a person (2018:23). subba goes further to say that “fear is beauty, a powerful weapon and a controlling mechanism. fear is also defined as a super law and guardian of all activities” (subba, 2014:13-19). the use of rational fear in discourse is known as 'fearism'. this is a philosophical theory that pertains to the use of rational fear rather than brute fear to create caution or overcome obstacles in human affairs. it is an attempt at building fear within an argument to provide caution in relation to impeding danger. desh subba sees fear as an integral part of human life which can be explored for positive purposes. fear appeals to human consciousness against harm, death, failure and the likes. fear goes hand in hand with knowledge about a thing. the more one is aware about the negativity of a thing the more one has fear about it. the intensity of knowledge about different diseases will result to a higher level of fear on the causative agents. this convinced us that if one confronts cruelty on animals with fear of diseases they can cause, it will reduce or stop cruelty to animals especially by showing human beings that their interest is at stake. so, in animal ethics, there is a need to hap on the danger or destructive tendency of bacteria, viruses, trichinosis and reverse evolution as guiding principle against cruelty to animals. in achieving the objective of this work, subsequent part of the paper will focus on literature review of past works on animal rights, to show how the concepts of love and rationality permeated them, secondly, exposition of philosophers' uses of the 'weapon' of fear and the third will dwell on the benefits of the strategy of fear and the fourth will be the conclusion. historical review on animal rights literature contemporary works on animal rights can be seen as a reaction against old literature and actions of human beings that have denigrated the place and nature of non-human animals in the world. though biological studies have shown that there are striking similarities between human animals and non-human animals, this revelation has not deterred human beings from being cruel to animals that are members of the same universe, no thanks to religious beliefs and cultural practices that mandate the killing of non-human animals for the purposes of sacrifices and entertainments. the curiosity in advanced human health diagnoses and treatments is also a culprit in this maltreatment of animals. of important mention is the view of both ancient and modern philosophers whose ideas rubber stamped this earliest belief and practices. the views of philosophers are supposed to be dispassionate and objective given their methodology, orientation and expectations. it becomes troublesome when philosophers seem incapable of transcending their culture and biases. pythagoras is reputed to have stopped the killing or maltreatment of a dog because he felt the soul of the dog is that of a friend and not because he believed the dog is sentient or that it is immoral to do so (bruce,2010). his concern for fellow man rather than for the dog becomes the basis of prohibiting the maltreatment of animals. descartes in the modern period sees animals as automata, capable of engaging in mindless behaviours and gymnastics even when these behaviours are not quite different from the ones human beings engage in (thomas, 2020:999). 120 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 j.s. mill following in the consequentialist tradition of jeremy bentham could have saved torturing and maltreatments of animals with his theory of utility, having placed good and bad in the purview of sentience (mill,1969:211). however, the position of these philosophers has been pushed to absurdity when life is measured in qualitative versus quantitative periscope. this led to the thinking that the quality of human life is more than that of animals and as such sacrificing them for human well being would be morally right. utility is therefore reduced to comparison of qualities. immanuel kanta deontologist avers that “we only owe ethical duties to rational beings and animals are not included in that group” (see gregor, 2013). however, in his attempt to save human life kant pronounced that in order to prevent man inhumanity to man, there is a need to stop being cruel to animals. since our constant cruelty to animals can become habitual to the extent that such behaviour could be transferred to other human beings. he concludes that it is only man that should not be used as a means to any other end; humanity should be an end itself thereby excluding other occupants of the physical environment like nonhuman animals. it is the attempts to correct some of the above views that animal rights advocates armed themselves with both deontological and teleological ethical theories exploring the principles of love, intentionality and consequential rationalism to show that most arguments that encourage animals' cruelty are inappropriate or biased. animal rights philosophers have proposed different arguments to show that animals too have the same rights as humans. from the point of the environmentalists, every organism and plant has purposeful importance to the survival of the eco-system in general and humans in particular. according to the convention on biological diversity in 2004 “biological diversity – the variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms – is increasingly threatened by human activities” (2004:04). in recognition of this threat, the association has taken various measures to reduce the effects but of particular mention is the single-species conservation programme which is geared towards preservation of animal species that are rare or those that are endangered to prevent a situation of being extinct (2004:02). this approach involved persuading humans to refrain from killing such animals. aside the environmental worth, some animal rights scholars have argued that animals have intrinsic worth and as such their values are not reducible to their usefulness to others. in tom regan's opinion “any being that is a subject of a life has inherent worth and the rights that protect such worth, and all subjects of life have these rights equally” (see lori guen, 2017) peter singer introduced the claim of sentience with his argument on utilitarianism. he argued that avoidance of pain or suffering is a binding factor between non-human animals and human animals. humans do suffer, just like animals; however, it is noticeable that humans avoid pain while they inflict pains on non-human animals. this in singer's opinion is immoral. korsguaard buttressed singer's position when he asserts that “it is pain to be in pain. and that is not a trivial fact” (1996:154) in this wise, the fact that animals can suffer just like humans confer certain moral obligation on us to pity them as we would do to fellow human beings. in spite of the above efforts of aforementioned scholars, the maltreatment of non-human animals is not abated. appealing to human sense of love and sympathy for others, rational consideration of not engaging in actions that will indirectly affect human being has not yielded result especially with religious traditions. it is for this reason that i think a change in strategy is required. 121 akande the use of fear in animal rights discourse: an ethical pragmatist approach philosophy and the strategy of fear it seems strange to talk about the concept of fear as a strategy in philosophical discourse especially when the issue of (animal) rights is being discussed. after all, philosophers are supposed to be dispassionate and employed rational, moral and critical methods in their discourses. though fear is a form of emotion, yet it is not outside the realm of morality or rationality. fear in subba opinion is “a beautiful consciousness with different forms” (eneyo, 2018: 23). he goes further to describe it as a form of rational endeavour because it is a product of knowledge. for him, “when we have knowledge about the potential of something (to harm us) the knowledge in turns generates fear about the thing” (eneyo, p.23, emphasis mine). anaxagoras, an ancient greek philosopher submitted in his theory of reality that nature is 'at the mercy of two forces: love and hate. in other words, reality is composed of a force of contraction and a force of repulsion respectively. he argued for a pluralistic universe, where things or units exist, but, this units are brought together to form different objects by the power of the human mind through love. and these units can be separated in different proportion by the power of hate. i interpret the power of hate to be in the same class with the power of fear since hate and fear have the characteristics of repulsion. love and fear are seen by fisher (2012:4) is parallel and as such they cannot be exercised simultaneously by humans. in other words, if you fear something you cannot love it at the same time and vice versa. however, love and respect can go together just as fear and respect. the former is taking for granted but the latter can be problematic if not explained. an example that can suffice here is in religion where god, the object of worship is both feared and respected. god is feared because of the enormity of his power to destroy and respected because his care and help to humans. this symmetric between fear and respect is noteworthy because some may argue that if fear is adopted as a strategy on nonhumans by human beings it may scare them from taking care of these animals or it may lead to attempt to eliminate them totally. eneyo (p.64) allays our fears in his book that fear is a moderation of thoughts and actions. for instance, if we found an animal useful to the ecosystem but dangerous for eating it will make us to take precaution (have fear) in the way we relate with it, this can lead to further research in developing instrument of preserving ourselves or handling the animals rather than to eliminate it. robert appelbaum describes fear as a polysemantic word with related terms like phobia, paranoia, panic, terror, horror, dread, awe, etc (2018:02). what these words have in common with fear is that they make human beings to be cautious or move away completely from the object that is responsible for their predicament. it is the pragmatic import of fear we are proposing in this work in order to achieve the goal of building a universe, less of discrimination and cruelty within the domain of animal rights. there is need to mention that fear as an ethical tool is entrenched in traditional african ethics. this is why there are many acts that are termed as taboos. taboo is way of inducing fear to deter humans from engaging in anti-social acts. african ethical pragmatism the debates on environmental ethics and animal rights in western philosophy is making some headway for reasons that they are able to provide alternatives to natural meat and the enactment of laws to curb unnecessary killing of animals and environmental degradation. the concern of this paper is the lack of impact this debate is having on the african 122 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 continent. there is few or no law in most african countries to promote animal rights or environmental sustenance. the poverty in the land too is a factor for disobedience to rational persuasion. the source of protein open to many in africa is natural meat. this makes it difficult to abandon it. couple with the fact that religious beliefs too give certain instructions on when to kill different animals. it is in this regard i think that something extra-ordinary must be done to deter africans from environmental harm. and the proposal here is the infusion of fear into this rational discourse. in traditional africa, fear is a weapon in their ethical theorizing. this fear is embedded in what they call taboo. taboos are tied to the apron of the gods as the detector and punishers of anti-social behaviours. according to sophie oluwole (1984-1985) “for the yoruba, the gods are agents of moral sanction rather than authorities whose moral prescriptions man must obey.” (quoted from balogun, 2013:110-1) the implication of this is that, in africa, moral codes of conduct are not the inventions of the gods, but since the gods are interested in human affairs, they help supervise man's compliance with these codes and appropriately punish deviance from them. the theory of fear in focus here is rational fear; the idea of fear that is not paranoiac or based on pure myth but it is nevertheless based on a mixture of empirical fact and emotional suppositions. it needs to be mentioned that fear has been a tool in african cultures especially the yoruba culture that i am familiar with. a little exposition of this methodology will suffice at this juncture before we proceed to how some western philosophers also employed it in their philosophy. yoruba ethical pragmatism and the adoption of fear one tenet of pragmatism is that the workability of an idea is a test of its truth. pragmatism in this direction recognizes that idea can be lucid and consistent yet lacking practical value. pragmatists believe that the important value of a claim is not its consistency but it ability to change our world views or meet our expectations about life. pragmatism has become an important tool in ethical system or theorizing because of the need in exploring human behaviours to achieve social goals. this is why williams james a foremost pragmatist avers that functionality or usefulness of an idea is the yardstick of its truth value (1907:07). the yoruba people of nigeria, one of the major ethnic groups, have adopted this pragmatic ideal in their ethical theorizing over the centuries. segun gbadegesin espouses this position when he argues that the yoruba “are very pragmatic in their approach to morality, and although religion may serve them as a motivating force, it is not the ultimate appeal in moral matter (1991:82). sophie oluwole makes it explicit when she asserts that “for the yoruba the gods are the agents of moral sanction rather than the authorities whose moral prescriptions man must obey” (see balogun, 2013:110-1). by implication, the yoruba are aware of the utilitarian consequences of immoral behaviour and the rationality of adhering to good conduct is not lost on them. however, in enforcing obedience, the fear of the gods is employed. this is the case because the yoruba believe that the gods are ubiquitous and impartial in their judgment. ethicists leverage on this belief to disabuse people's mind about escaping punishment for disobedience. since human police are not ubiquitous and do not possess the most effective instruments of discovering crime on time and delivering judgment without bias. it was reasoned that the approach of instilling fear will even prevent crime and as such will be better than inflicting punishment after the crime. 123 akande the use of fear in animal rights discourse: an ethical pragmatist approach for instance, a yoruba myth among the worshippers of oya (river goddess) forbids them from killing buffalo or eating it (olusola, 2005:157-9). the story was told about how the goddess transform from a buffalo (agbonrin) to human by shedding her skin somewhere in the bush. a hunter accidentally stumbled on this process and picked the skin. when the goddess came back she could not find the skin and this made it impossible to change from human to buffalo. the hunter then revealed to the buffalo that her skin is with him and unless she agrees to marry him, she will not get the skin back. the buffalo and the hunter eventually married, but the hunter betrayed the promised not to reveal this secret. so, the buffalo killed the hunter and went back into the forest but she could not transform her children. in order not to incur the wrath of the goddess, her adherents were forbidden from eating buffalo since then. this myth is one of those developed by the yoruba people of south-west nigeria to preserve the environment and prevent cruelty to animals. michael eneyo reported that in efik culture (a minority group in nigeria), a story was told that if the skin of yams and other wastes are left (on the ground) till the next day without being swept, anyone who sees these waste will encounter a terrible day…nobody likes to have ill or bad luck, so no one will intentionally do such things that will bring him bad luck. this fear of accumulated dirt informing ill luck assisted the efik to inculcate the habit of keeping their environment clean at all times (2018:156-7 emphasis mine). adoption of rational fear in western philosophy employing rational fear in philosophical discourse to achieve a better society is not novel to this work. a deep look at the philosophical postulations of the social contract theory of hobbes and the historical development theorized in karl marx's social theory are instances of the use of the concept of fear to achieve their goal of how a modern society ought to be organized. hobbes described the pre-civil society as full of chaos, death and crisis ridden. for him, the state of nature which precedes the civil society was brutish, and life was short. and for this reason, human beings within such a situation chose an authority or government to oversee the affairs of the inhabitants. hobbes argued that due to the ego and stubbornness of human nature, the best authority is a sovereign authority with absolute powers (leviathan). when the power given to this authority was described as too much, hobbes warned that any attempt to resist this power or authority will lead to a slide-back into the state of nature which is worse than any misuse of the sovereign powers. with this explanation, hobbes created fear into the minds of people who may want to challenge the leviathan as he called this absolute power. to curry obedience from the citizens thomas hobbes created a leviathan who is feared with absolute power to deal with erring citizens. hobbes' proposal may be a product of his upbringing according to peters richard, who wrote an introduction to hobbes' work (1962). richard, reports hobbes to have mentioned that “fear and i were born twins”. peter goes ahead to say that “the fear of death was to dominate hobbes life and thought” ( leviathan, p. 7). hobbes himself writes that “the passion to be reckoned with is fear” (leviathan, p. 111). karl marx in his historical dialectics describes the pre-communist society as a state of conflict between classes who were opposed to each other. he avers that the capitalist society will be the last in which such conflict will exist. in the capitalist society are the class of workers and the class of the bourgeoisie, who are in opposition to each other. he predicts that if the life of the workers is 124 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 not made better by the capitalists, they will be killed and overthrown in a bloody revolution that will eventually give birth to a new (communist) society. marx with this explanation instilled fear in the minds of the oppressors by informing them that if they do not take care of the welfare of the oppressed they are risking their own existence. since then capitalism has taken different colorations with a focus on the welfare of the individuals or working class. this strategy of fear has helped the modern day societies to provide welfare packages for workers; as such this work proposes the same strategy to the community of animal rights activists and scholars. adams smith rightly submitted that “it is not the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from the regard to their own interest” (2002: 127). the implication of the above quote is that human beings only do things because of certain benefit or to prevent harm coming to them. the rich class has since then constantly modified capitalism to involve workers' welfare and creating opportunities for some members of the working class to be elevated to their class. this development can be attributed as one of the reasons the capitalist society has remain firm in spite of known ideological problems. blaise pascal's argument on why it is more rational to wager on the existence of god rather than the contrary is also instructive on the use of rational fear. pascal, in his supposedly advice made god a judge and an accuser in his own court, thereby creating fear of inescapable damnation to an agnostic who decides to slide into atheism. this palpable induced fear is buttress by the saying the fear of god is the beginning of wisdom. this “suggests fear as facilitator of our journey to enlightenment. in this sense, fear drives us to knowing god, not just for what we stand to gain but if we obey and respond to his call, but also for what we stand to lose if we ignore this divine invitation” (eneyo 2018:22). aside this, religions all over the world have adopted this strategy of making their gods fiery and furious and intolerant of opposition as such many religious believers even in their poverty and sordid states hardly jettison religious commands that are not of benefits. this is one of the reasons why karl max and machiavelli see“religion as a controlled mechanism because it aids trustworthiness and loyalty in performing public duties'' (ogundowole,2004:46). machiavelli therefore advises, that a ruler must believe in the religion of his subjects so that he can use this religion to control their minds or fight in order to win power or cling to it. machiavelli goes further in his choice of means to approve the use of propaganda that can make a ruler seems virtuous in the eyes of the citizens. deceit to him is a method that is most effective in controlling obedience of the people. a ruler must appear virtuous even if he is not. ogundowole quoted machiavelli as saying,“an army fight with morale as truly as with guns and the wise ruler sees that both are the best quality''(ogundowole, p46). in other words, machiavelli's political philosophy recognizes the need to use effective means to achieve a desired end. ogundowole captures machiavelli's argument as saying ''it is useless and worthless to pursue a political purpose by methods that are bound to fail; if the need is to help the good, we must chose means adequate to its achievements ''(2004:42-43). for him, it does not matter whether the means is love or fear, however he argues that it is better for a ruler to be feared than to be loved. he chose fear because fear involves a ruler equipping himself or herself with characteristics that project fierceness. since love depends on the characteristics of the person who is in love rather than the person being loved. so, it will be effective to build oneself than to rely on external capacity. it is because of the effectiveness of fear in these philosophical rationalizations that i have suggested the need for a change in approach to animal rights activism. this strategy was used in a paper titled “the chicken fallacy and the ethics of cruelty to nonhuman animals” to dissuade humans from maltreating domestic or domesticated non-human animals (akande & ofuasia, 2017). the paper argues that the cruelty to these animals may cause 125 akande the use of fear in animal rights discourse: an ethical pragmatist approach them to become violent or developed genes that would make them a health risk in a future evolution. the recent outbreak of novel corona virus named covid-19 that is reported to have been transferred from animals to humans from a market in wuhan, a province of china, is a confirmation that cruelty to non-human animals can be dangerous. the outbreak of this disease took many human lives to the extent that the world economy was threatened, businesses were closed, humans were isolated from each other, traveling was banned, all because of the fear of contracting the virus. peter singer too makes a similar stride in his work co-authored with jim mason “the way we eat: why our food choices matter” where they expose the health risks of eating some animals and foods. fear in its various manifestations is a repellant; it can be used as a cause of change from a status quo. in other words, it can be used to make people hold on to the present in other to avoid a coming danger or to abandon the present danger and embrace a coming bliss. conclusion fearism as a philosophical theory has been adopted as a tool in philosophical discourses over the century as it has been shown from various works. the use of fear as we have shown here can be rationally employed for pragmatic reasons. william james who is a pragmatist holds that, an idea “is useful because it is true or that it is true because it is useful. and for him, both phrases communicate the same message”. (james,1907:78). in respect to the above james avers that the functionality, usefulness or workability of an idea makes it true (1907:77). consequently, the workability of a theory or argument in dissuading cruelty to animals matters only if they achieve their objective. the means to achieve a goal is worth pursuing to a pragmatist. it is for this reason this work proposes the use of rational fear in animal rights discourse given its achievement in other areas of philosophical discourse. references akande, a and ofuasia, e. (2017) “the chicken fallacy and the ethics of cruelty to non-human animals” in bangladesh journal of bioethics. vol. 8 no 1 pp7-20 appelbaum, robert (2018) “shakespeare and the concepts of fear” in open edition journal retrieved @https://journals.openedition.org https://doi.org/10.4000/shakespeare.4006 5/3/2024 balogun, b.j (2013) “the consequentialist foundations of traditional yoruba ethics:an exposition” thought and practice: a journal of philosophical association of kenya vol.5 no 2 bruce, pennington (2010) “the death of pythagoras” in philosophy now: a magazine of ideas. issue 78 retrieved @ https://philosophynow.org eneyo, michael (2018) philosophy of fear: a move to overcoming negative fear. milton keynes uk: lighming source uk ltd fisher, r. michael (2012) “love and fear” in center for spiritual inquiry and integral education. yellow paper, no 6. retrieved @ https://prism.ucalgary.ca gbadegesin, segun (1991) african philosophy: traditional yoruba philosophy and contemporary african realities. new york: peter lang gregor, m. (2013) kant's the metaphysics of morals. cambridge university press hobbes, thomas (1962) leviathan: or the matter, forme and power of a commonwealth ecclesiasticall and civil (ed) michael oakshott, selected with an introduction by 126 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://doi.org/10.4000/shakespeare.4006%205/3/2024 https://doi.org/10.4000/shakespeare.4006%205/3/2024 https://prism.ucalgary.ca richard peter. london: collier macmillan publishers james, williams (1907) pragmatism: a new name for some old ways of thinking. new york: logmans korsgaard, christine (1996). the sources of normativitycambridge: cambridge university press) lori guen, (2017) “the moral status of animals” in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy retrieved @ plato.stanford.edu mill, john s. (1969) “utilitarianism” in john robson (ed) collected works of j.s. mill vol. x. toronto press ogundowole, kolawole (2004) aspects of european political philosophy: an introductory handbook. lagos: correct counsels ltd olusola, ajibade (2005) “animals in the traditional world view of the yoruba” in folklore retrieved @ https://www.folklore.ee/folklore singer peter (2006) the way we eat: why our food choices matter,published by rodale retrieved @ https://researchgate.net smith, adams (2002) an inquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of nations. oxford: biblomania.com ltd. sophie oluwole (1984) “the rational basis of yoruba ethical thinking” in nigerian journal of philosophy, vol 4/5 no 1&2 subba, desh (2014) philosophy of fearism: life is conducted, directed and controlled by fear. usa: xlibris publication “the ecosystem approach convention on biological diversity” in january, 2004journal of un environment programme. https://www.unep.org/report thomas, evans (2020) “descartes on the animal within and the animals without” in canadian journal of philosophy, vol 50 no 8 nov. 127 akande the use of fear in animal rights discourse: an ethical pragmatist approach https://www.folklore.ee/folklore https://researchgate.net https://www.unep.org/report https://www.unep.org/report page 127 page 128 page 129 page 130 page 131 page 132 page 133 page 134 page 135 aquino volume3 issue 2 december 2023 abstract humans have coexisted with animals for thousands of years, but the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries are when the word "pet" was first coined to mean domesticated animal. pet ownership is for companionship or pleasure, comfort, amusement, and security. it is good for a child's sense of value, social skills, and cognitive development. there are ethical issues with keeping animals as pets. these problems mean that neglecting animals poses a threat to humans and animals. pets keeping may be unpleasant but not a sufficient reason to enslave them. this essay contends that having pets is beneficial, but there is an urgent need to investigate moral issues that violate the rights of animals. the moral discussions of petting sparked assessments of the nature of "beingness" and the treatment of confined animals. this study makes the utilitarian case that, if pet ownership serves the interests of the greatest number of animals and their keeper, it should be permitted for the mutual worthy of humanity. keywords: pet-keeping, morality, relationship, companionship, animal slavery. introduction animal slavery is the human 'invention' of domesticating animals, which predates their adoption for agriculture and experimental purpose. there may be strong evidence to argue that animal slavery is connected with pet ownership. slavery is an institution that treated humans as a means to an end (hauskeller, 2005). aristotle's explanation of the 'natural law' underlying slavery proved most enduring, lasting in various guises up until the very end of slavery in the united states. the human domination over animals proved a compelling example for many of those who sought to understand slavery (jacoby, 2022). the name "teleology" comes from the ancient greek word "telelos, (rights)" which means "an end, fulfillment and completion are intrinsically inherent of all beings. a right is the reason to checkmate an action or something happens or is done (brennan, 2002). animal right is privilege intended to achieve beingess (i.e., end), and practical deliberation entails outlining the specific procedures required to do so (brennan, 2002). an agent's total telos, here interpreted as their ultimate goal and fundamental rights summum bonum (the "highest good"), can also be seen as the goal of their entire life, generally identified in antiquity as the imonia (happiness) (happiness). violating the rights of animal has led to pain and avoiding the satisfaction of beingness (rollin, 2012). the word pet is a relatively recent invention dating back to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. humans have lived with animals for much longer—dogs have been domesticated for at least 30,000 years (matthew, 2017). pet ownership is a prevalent is pet-keeping a violation of animal rights? a consequentialist standpoint ikechukwu monday osebor, phd department of philosophy, university of delta, agbor ikechukwu.osebor@unidel.edu.ng 129 custom with a long tradition. more than half of the world's population is thought to live with one or more pets in their homes and lives. for instance, it has been known to keep dogs as pets for at least 15,000 years. however, historical pet-keeping customs frequently diverge from popular modern beliefs. the term "pet" originally meant "favorite," and it was frequently used to describe either a person (such as a teacher's pet) or an object of love (such as a pet project) (jalongo, 2023). emmaline maintains that dogs were the first animals domesticated, although the history of animal domestication is complex and has different narratives. 'pet keeping has transformed animal and human lives in many parts of the world. this revolution has transformed many family homes, and it has played important roles in family life: befriending the lonely, chumming with children, and even intervening between husband and wife (jane and julie-marie, 2023). pet keeping could be peaceful or chaotic; the cohabitation of domestic space between humans and animals has led to ethical issues. however, it is obvious that much damage has been done to the captured wild pets, such as changes in habitat, cognitive enhancement, widespread plucking of birds, and many others (jane and julie-marie, 2023). animal cruelty evokes moral feelings that will be argued from a consequentialist standpoint (emmaline, n.d.; leslie, 2004). in africa, pet keeping has resulted in animal cruelty since prehistoric times. huntergatherers have numerous pets, such as dogs, and they often take them to the forest or wilderness, where they teach them the act of hunting. dogs were thought to understand human and animal movements and were typically kept for the joy they could bring to their owners or children (jennifer et al., 2022). while hunting, dogs suffered and died in the wilderness; they were often traded as pets and flog to urbanites who wanted a vain companionship (jane and julie-marie, 2023). the domestication of animals such as horses, dogs, and cats could help establish a symbiotic relationship between their owners and the animals, but they took up space in homes and represented a potential source of disorder: noise, smells, and so on (britannica, 2023). many dogs, whether those of the working classes or the middle classes, therefore slept outside in kennels, but new suburban homes had more space for pets (although dogs were often chained up in gardens) (jennifer et al., 2022). pet-keeping shows that the symbiotic relationship between a pet and its owner may not be the case. instead, the doctrine of human supremacy over animals shows that human relationships with animals have often been ideologically impossible (leslie, 2004). the argument that humans are fundamentally superior to animals is that dominance amounts to slavery. aristotle's “explanation of the 'natural law' underlying slavery proved most enduring, lasting in various guises up until the very end of slavery in the united states. the human domination over domestic animals proved a compelling example for many of those who sought to understand slavery."(jacoby, k. (2022)) the treatment of animals as lesser beings is unethical (darya, 2021). inter-species attachments have occurred involving human intervention, such as in households, zoos, and wildlife parks in which the animals were provisioned (herzog, 2014). in settings with human agency (such as houses, zoos, and wildlife parks), attachments between non-human animals of various species are surprisingly frequent. but in nature, interspecies animal friendships that are comparable to human pet 130 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december ownership are either extremely uncommon or nonexistent (herzog, 2014). why did pet ownership only develop in homo sapiens? countries may have changed their legal status concerning animals. for instance, in "2015, the government of new zealand recognized animals as sentient beings, in effect declaring them no longer property" (linda, 2017). we experience "moral schizophrenia" when it comes to our ethical and legal responsibilities to nonhuman animals. we contend that it is morally wrong to subject animals to "unnecessary" suffering and that animals have morally important interests in avoiding suffering. the vast majority of the pain, suffering, and death that we inflict on animals cannot be seen as necessary in any sense, despite the fact that we have laws that ostensibly reflect these moral views. because of our morally schizophrenic relationship to the position of animals as property, animal suffering will, in practice, be justified anytime it serves the interests of human property owners (francione, 2004). this could be morally problematic for animals as well as people. animals may be considered a part of a family or a best friend that wouldn't be sold for a million dollars (linda, 2017; foley, 1999). in some cases, cross-species interactions or relationships could be best facilitated by professional animal trainers, but there may be no convincing evidence that non-human animals are capable of becoming attached to members of other species. this study is concerned with the question, "is pet-keeping a violation of animals' telos?" the ethical issue of taming animals pet keepping is one of the contemporary discussions in moral philosophy, bioethics, and legal philosophy. philosophers are developing philosophical literature on animal ethics, the use of animals, and the ethical dilemma of confined animals by proposing acceptable ethical theories that would enhance the relationship between animals and their owners. ethics is the study of moral values. ethics deals with standards or principles for the evaluation of human actions as right or wrong (mark, 2023). conduct means "those actions that are freely taken or that are seen to spring from deliberate choices made by free moral agents." it justifies how people ought to make moral and immoral decisions (beaney 2003). it focuses on behaviors based on a moral compass or values and society's shared values, laws, or traditions (monday, 2020). ethics is the study of morality. it studies moral principles that should guide human conduct. ethics deals with what ought to be done or not done and the right actions that humans should follow (mark, 2023). the question is: does pet keeping amount to a violation of animal rights? pets are members of the family where they are kept. humans must treat them with care, love, and respect. modern pet keeping can be characterized by the custody of animals for no other reason than to be companions (jennifer et al., 2022). but is the act of petting in the best interest of the animal or its owner? this question has sparked discussion in recent times about the ownership law and how animals are seen as the owner's personal property, just like other tangible property like a car or furniture. animals should not be used for factory farming and testing labs; these are forms of animal abuse. animal petting violated their telos. animals for games, 'puppy farm, and the act of establishing new behavioral patterns for animals violates their telos (bernard, 2019). in the worst-case scenario, animals are abused through hoarding, dog fighting, cockfighting, and rings (ray, 2020). jennifer et al. (2022) maintain that "humans have 131 is pet-keeping a violation of animal rights? ... ikechukwu monday osebor dominated the living environment and their pets, with approaches varying between extremes of dominance and affection, love and abuse, cruelty and kindness." in some cases, keeping animals may be difficult because caring for their physical and psychological needs may violate their telos (ray, n.d.). also, the culture of sentiment is characterized by animal cruelty and dominance (jennifer et al., 2022). cruelty toward animals is ethically wrong. there may be fewer extreme cases of animal cruelty in keeping pets, but we must consider the fact that "pets are creatures with whom we share a world, and we rejoice in their companionship; you don't have to anthropomorphize to recognize that the feelings are returned. let us be close and cherish each other always" (doris, 2018). keeping pets for companionship is a conduit of affection, which transforms human ends but not in the way that laboratory animals or farm animals do (spencer et al., 2006). one could argue that millions of cats and dogs are killed in shelters every year. bernard (2019) argues that, as st. "thomas aquinas teaches, animals were not perceived as enjoying genuine moral status. at best, it was obligatory not to treat them cruelly, as they sufficiently resembled humans so that gratuitous abusive treatment of them was likely to cause harm. some animals have been bred to the pleasure of their owners; sometimes they are given tasks to the extent they suffer pain and discomfort. animal tasking and over-breeding would expose them to a greater risk of genetic defects or disease, leading to an increase in "zoonotic diseases" and the spread of zoonotic diseases such as the coronavirus (covid19)". (monday, 2020) although improvements in medical and veterinary sciences have lowered the risk of zoonoses, or diseases transmitted between animals and humans, zoonotic infections continue to threaten human populations. jennifer et al. (2022) maintain that the excruciating ordeal of pet keeping involves the manipulation of animals' bodies, behaviors, and emotional lives. for centuries, the confinement of animal bodies such as dogs, horses, and rabbits has been shaped to suit human fashions, conditions, and fancies. this, of course, has led to the violation of animals' telos and physical harm (shutter, 2019). moral arguments on animal rights "rights" is to fully express natural behavior, to be free without conferment, to live lives to the fullest, to enjoy their native environment, and to follow natural instincts (regan, 2013). these instincts are the best possible world for animals. animal rights are moral principles grounded in the belief that non-human animals deserve the ability to wish as they wish without being subjected to the desires of human beings. at the core of animal rights is respect for animals, which means the total abolition of the use of animals in science, the total dissolution of commercial agriculture and culture, and the total elimination of commercial and sport hunting. (regan, 2013) there may be many worlds, but respect for animals does not mean keeping them in private homes where their owners can rarely provide the proper conditions for keeping animals. exotic pet keeping should be avoided, such as work experimentation; it leads to animal cruelty (animals, n-d). domesticated dogs and cats must be given the best care possible because they cannot survive "freely" in our concrete jungles. adopting animals from shelters or saving them from a dangerous existence on the streets means dedicating time, money, and love to their 132 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december patience to make them significant because they are dependent on their keeper for survival (quotes, 2012). the belief in the practice of pet keeping is to engage in animal welfare and “protection against suffering.” any efforts to prevent suffering must also accept the "right" of pets to express their intrinsic natural behavior. dogs kept in houses for most of the day are being kept in an unnatural environment. so are rabbits kept in hutches and guinea pigs or birds kept in cages? these conditions infringe on the animals' telos (sunstein & nussbaum, 2004). animal experimentation infringes on it telos, autonomy and it should be drastically reduced although animal experimentation is for clinical study is necessary but not for anthropocentrism (benjamin, 2020). utilitarianism utilitarianism is a moral theory that is associated with jeremy bentham (1747–1832) and john stuart mill (1806–1873). utilitarianism holds that morality promotes actions that advance the happiness or pleasure of the greatest number of people (carla, 2022). the morally best action will bring about the greatest amount of pleasure and avoid the pain of the greatest number of people (monday, 2018). utilitarianism determines the right from wrong of pet keeping by focusing on outcomes, or consequentialism. the study endorses utilitarianism as the rationale for pet keeping. arguments in support of utilitarianism for pet keeping have received relatively little sustained attention in the philosophical literature. pet keeping underlies many widely held beliefs about zoos, pet ownership, scientific research on animal and human subjects, and agriculture, although the idea of pet keeping is rigorous with several commitments. in relation to the view that humans keeping animals constitutes an ethical dilemma, utilitarianism is intuitively plausible for animal petting, but it may alter animals' rights (killoren & streiffer, 2020), this idea could be widely believed to be incompatible with the utilitarian approach. the best ethical theory for keeping animals is to overturn the conventional wisdom and maintain that utilitarianism has moral significance for petting animals (monday, 2020). to strengthen utilitarian principles, we establish a coherent, robust, and intuitively appealing account of the moral significance of ethical theory (killoren & streiffer, 2020). the core of this theory is that whether pet ownership is morally right or wrong depends on the effects it produces. more specifically, the only effects of pet ownership that are relevant are the good and bad results that they produce (encyclopedia, n.d.). morally, pet keeping is best if it brings about the greatest amount of pleasure or happiness to the greatest number of pets and their keepers, but sentient animals should count for something in our ethical decision. although petting animals could be equivalent to slavery because they are incarcerated in their telos. monday, (2020), utilitarianism opposes unhappiness or harm. we maintain that animal cruelty is a violation of animal telos when applied, and utilitarianism would aim for the betterment or welfare of animals and their keepers without violating their telos. the knowledge of animals in housing must be reassessed because they have rights and should not be treated as the property of individuals (leslie, 2004). rollin (2016) argues that animals have rights that are inherent in their nature "unique set of traits and powers that make the animal what it is—the 'bigness' of the pig, the 'dogness' of the dog—make the animal what it is. the telos of animals must be understood in terms being or nature. utilitarianism is important in pet ownership because 133 is pet-keeping a violation of animal rights? ... ikechukwu monday osebor it evaluates actions based on consequences, not motivation. although this philosophy has a problem with accounting values, which justify rights or wrongs, if utilitarianism is a true philosophy, then the unethical execution of animals is morally right (monday, 2020). when it is advantageous to human property owners, animal suffering will be considered a practical matter and required. animals can no longer be used as resources for humans if we take animal interests seriously. this does not imply that we must provide animals with the same rights as people or that, in cases of actual conflict, we cannot put human interests ahead of animal interests. instead, we must acknowledge that animals only have one right—the right to not be treated like property—and that utilizing animals in ways that we never use humans does not give rise to human-animal conflicts (francione, 2004). animals will always remain nothing more than things that lack any morally relevant interests as long as they are considered to be human property, making it impossible for the concept of equal regard to apply to them (just as it could not apply to slaves). the hypothesis put forth is applicable to any sentient animal and does not call for any new cognitive traits in animals. (francione, 2004). we argue that for utilitarianism to hold, other possible consequences must be considered in the context of animals. for instance, animal welfare must be considered otherwise. it sets a bad precedent that weakens the legal and ethical systems. conclusion pet keeping is good if the well-being of pets and their keepers is justified from a utility or consequential standpoint. the paper argues that pet keeping would be beneficial rather than worsening the telos of animals in confinement. furthermore, the ability to feel pain may not be sufficient ground for a non-sentient being to obtain moral status. what is necessary for moral status is what happens as the consequence of an action, whether negative or positive. our study maintains that moral agency must be taken into account in pet keeping to avoid repudiation of human-animal dignity. the paper concludes that utilitarianism cannot be overruled in debates on pet keeping because the theory is geared towards the common good of the greatest number of pets and their keepers. references animals, (n-d) animals as pets https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/animals/using/pets.shtml beaney, m. 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(2023), pet revolution: animals and the making of modern british life, london: reaktion, isbn 978-1-78914-686-8 (hb). jennifer, h. david g. lewis, and marjorie m. snipes (2022): pet-keeping. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/bookshelves/anthropology/introductory_anthro pology/introduction_to_anthropology_ (openstax)/18%3a_human animal_relationship/18.05%3a_pet-keeping killoren, d., & streiffer, r. (2020). utilitarianism about animals and the moral significance of their use, philosophical studies, 177(4), 1043–1063. 135 is pet-keeping a violation of animal rights? ... ikechukwu monday osebor leslie, i. (2004). pampered or enslaved? the moral dilemmas of pets, international journal of sociology and social policy, 24(9):5–17. doi: 10.1108/01443330410790740 linda, r. (2017) should we stop keeping pets? why do more and more ethicists say yes? https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/aug/01/should-we-stopkeeping-pets-why-more-and-more-ethicists-say-yes mark, o. 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(2012,). telos. in veterinary & animal ethics: proceedings of the first international conference on veterinary and animal ethics, oxford, blackwell; (pp. 75-83). shutterstock, (2019) pets: is it ethical to keep them? 136 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 2, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 december https://theconversation.com/pets-is-it-ethical-to-keep spencer, s., decuypere, e., aerts, s., and johan, d. history and ethics of keeping pets: comparison with farm animals, j agric environ ethics 19, 17–25 (2006) https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-005-4379-8 sunstein, c. & nussbaum, m. (2004). animal rights: current debates and new directions, oxford university press. 137 is pet-keeping a violation of animal rights? ... ikechukwu monday osebor page 137 page 138 page 139 page 140 page 141 page 142 page 143 page 144 page 145 12 the dignity of life in the light of albert schweitzer’s philosophy of reverence for life okewu michael peter claretian university of nigeria, nekede, owerri okewupeteryahoo.com, okewu.michaelpeter@claretianuniversity.edu.ng abstract albert schweitzer’s philosophy of reverence for life presents a profound ethical ground centered on the dignity of all living beings. this principle, rooted in a deep sense of responsibility toward life, challenges anthropocentric worldviews and calls for an inclusive moral consideration of all forms of existence. schweitzer’s ethical thought emerges from his conviction that life, in all its manifestations, possesses intrinsic value and deserves respect. his philosophy rejects utilitarian and purely rationalist approaches to ethics, advocating instead for an intuitive and compassionate engagement with the world. this paper employs schweitzer’s reverence for life as a foundational concept for understanding human dignity within a broader ecological and ethical context. it examines how his philosophy extends the notion of dignity beyond human beings to encompass all living creatures, arguing for a universal ethic of care and responsibility. furthermore, the study highlights schweitzer’s critique of modern civilization’s disregard for life’s sanctity and the implications of his thought for contemporary discussions on bioethics, environmental ethics, and human rights. emphasizing the interconnectedness of all life forms, schweitzer’s philosophy challenges us to redefine ethical relationships in a way that fosters greater harmony and respect for life’s intrinsic worth. this paper thus contributes to the ongoing discourse on dignity by positioning reverence for life as a vital ethical principle that remains relevant in addressing contemporary moral and ecological challenges. keywords: bioethics, dignity of life, environmental ethics, intrinsic value, reverence for life, universal responsibility. introduction albert schweitzer's philosophy of reverence for life is an ethical thought that places the sanctity of all life—human, animal, and environmental—at the center of moral consideration. developed during the early twentieth century, schweitzer’s ideas challenge the mechanistic worldview and anthropocentrism that characterized much of modern thought, particularly in the realms of industrialization, scientific progress, and technological advancement. his ethical stance advocates for a moral responsibility toward all living beings, emphasizing compassion, respect, and a commitment to alleviate suffering wherever it exists (schweitzer, 1923). in the philosophy of civilization, schweitzer contended that the rise of technology had fostered an attitude of domination over nature and other living beings, rather than a respectful coexistence with them. he argued that scientific and technological progress, while improving human material conditions, had simultaneously led to a reductionist, utilitarian view of life—one that disregarded the inherent value and sanctity of existence itself (schweitzer, 1923). schweitzer believed that this dehumanizing worldview threatened the very core of ethical living, as it overlooked the moral importance of compassion, empathy, and respect for life. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 13 the principle of reverence for life encourages humans to recognize the intrinsic value of all life forms, urging a universal respect for their existence and well-being (schweitzer, 1954). in this sense, schweitzer's philosophy is both a critique of modernity's instrumental approach to nature and a call for a more compassionate and holistic view of the world. this ethical stance, grounded in a deep spiritual and moral commitment, is as relevant today as it was when schweitzer first articulated it, particularly in light of the contemporary environmental crisis, technological advancements, and ongoing social injustices. the purpose of this paper is to explore the key elements of schweitzer’s philosophy and its contemporary relevance. in particular, the paper will examine how schweitzer’s reverence for life informs current ethical discussions surrounding environmentalism, animal rights, bioethics, and global humanitarian efforts. by revisiting schweitzer's work, we can gain valuable insights into how his principles can guide modern ethical practices and address pressing global challenges. as we confront the moral dilemmas of the twenty-first century, schweitzer's philosophy remains a powerful tool for fostering a more compassionate, responsible, and sustainable world. schweitzer’s concept of reverence for life albert schweitzer’s central ethical principle, reverence for life, is a comprehensive moral philosophy that emphasizes the inherent dignity of all living beings. at its core, this concept asserts that life itself has intrinsic value, and it is our moral duty to treat all forms of life—human, animal, plant, or even microscopic—with respect and compassion. schweitzer’s reverence for life is not simply a philosophical abstraction but a practical and transformative approach to ethics, calling for a radical shift in how humans relate to the world around them. in other words, the central tenet of schweitzer’s ethical philosophy is the concept of reverence for life. this idea asserts that all life has intrinsic value and deserves respect, regardless of its form or function. schweitzer was inspired by the ethical teachings of various religious and philosophical traditions, particularly those that advocated for compassion and a deep spiritual connection with all living beings. for example, his exposure to eastern religions, particularly hinduism and buddhism, influenced his understanding of life’s sanctity. both traditions emphasize nonviolence and the interconnectedness of all living beings (schweitzer, 1954). defining reverence for life reverence for life is grounded in the belief that all living beings possess an inherent worth simply by virtue of their existence. schweitzer argued that this reverence is not limited to human beings but extends to all forms of life, regardless of their complexity, intelligence, or usefulness to humanity. to "reverence" life is to acknowledge its sacredness and to honor its inherent dignity, which necessitates that we refrain from causing harm whenever possible and act with compassion toward all living creatures. reverence for life is more than just a moral guideline; it is an existential stance that acknowledges the sanctity of life in its most basic form. schweitzer defines reverence as "the ethical attitude okewu michael peter the dignity of life in light of albert….. 14 toward life" which requires that individuals "respect the dignity and worth of all living things" (schweitzer, 1954). this respect is not limited to human beings but extends to animals, plants, and even microorganisms. according to schweitzer, all life forms possess an inherent value and must be treated with dignity, as each living being is capable of experiencing pain and joy (schweitzer, 1923). life as the central ethical consideration in schweitzer’s philosophy the central tenet of reverence for life is that life itself is sacred and must be respected. schweitzer’s philosophy asserts that life, in all its diversity, should be at the center of ethical consideration. unlike many traditional ethical systems that place human beings at the top of the moral hierarchy (anthropocentrism), schweitzer’s approach is fundamentally biocentric. he argues that moral consideration should be extended beyond humanity to include all forms of life, from animals and plants to the smallest microorganisms. this ethical extension implies that all living things, simply by virtue of their existence, have a claim to respect and protection. schweitzer believed that human beings have a special moral responsibility to recognize the value of life. however, this responsibility is not based on human superiority, but rather on human capacity for compassion and moral agency. human beings, with their advanced cognitive abilities, have the power to either nurture life or to harm it. therefore, they bear a special responsibility to act as stewards and caretakers of life on earth. the ethical implications of reverence for life the principle of reverence for life has profound ethical implications, both in personal and societal contexts. schweitzer argued that the ethical life is one that is actively committed to the alleviation of suffering and the promotion of life in all its forms. this commitment is not merely a passive acknowledgment of life’s value but an active, moral stance that requires individuals to engage with the world in a way that reduces harm and promotes well-being. compassion and altruism reverence for life calls for an altruistic and compassionate approach to others, where individuals recognize their duty to alleviate suffering, regardless of the species or form of life involved. schweitzer’s concept extends beyond human relationships to include animals and the environment. his philosophy insists that suffering is a universal experience and, as such, should not be inflicted upon any living being unnecessarily. this calls for a rethinking of practices like factory farming, animal experimentation, and environmental destruction, all of which involve the exploitation and suffering of non-human life (schweitzer, 1954). moral responsibility to non-human life schweitzer’s ethics challenge humans to broaden their moral considerations beyond the confines of human society. in a world that often views animals and nature through a utilitarian lens, schweitzer insists that all life—whether human or non-human—deserves respect and protection. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 15 his views have been highly influential in the development of modern animal rights ethics and environmentalism. by stressing the intrinsic value of animals and the natural world, schweitzer laid the groundwork for contemporary ethical debates concerning the moral treatment of animals, environmental conservation, and the reduction of human impact on the earth (van der gucht, 2007). schweitzer’s critique of modernity and technological progress albert schweitzer’s philosophical reflections on modernity and technological progress are integral to his broader ethical framework of reverence for life. schweitzer viewed the advances of modern civilization—particularly in the realms of science, technology, and industrialization—as having both positive and negative consequences for humanity and the world. while acknowledging the practical benefits of technological progress, he was deeply concerned about its dehumanizing effects, its potential to disconnect people from the sacredness of life, and its role in exploiting nature and non-human animals. his critique is rooted in a profound sense of the spiritual and moral implications of technological advancement, which he believed often led to an erosion of ethical responsibility toward life itself. schweitzer's concept of reverence for life can be understood as a direct response to the challenges of modernity, particularly the increasing mechanization and commodification of life. the rise of industrialism, technological advancement, and the growing influence of utilitarian ethics all contributed to a worldview that often neglected the intrinsic value of life in favor of efficiency and material gain. schweitzer's philosophy was a critique of this reductionist view, calling for a more holistic and compassionate approach to life and human progress. his emphasis on the dignity of all life and the ethical obligation to protect it challenges modern practices that prioritize human interests over the welfare of other living beings. schweitzer’s critique of modernity also serves as a warning against the dangers of technological and scientific progress when it is divorced from ethical consideration. his philosophy reminds us that human advancement must be accompanied by moral reflection and a commitment to alleviating suffering, not just for humans, but for all living creatures (schweitzer, 1923). reverence for life is a deeply ethical and spiritual principle that calls for a profound respect for all living beings and an active commitment to the alleviation of suffering. schweitzer’s concept challenges modern societies to rethink their relationship with nature, animals, and each other, urging humanity to embrace a more compassionate and responsible way of living. as we face the ethical dilemmas of the twenty-first century, schweitzer’s philosophy remains an enduring guide, advocating for an ethic of interconnectedness, compassion, and moral responsibility toward all life. the mechanization of human existence one of schweitzer's most significant critiques of modernity is the mechanization of human existence. as western civilization moved toward industrialization and technological progress, schweitzer believed that humanity began to view life, including human life, through a mechanistic lens. he argued that the rise of science and technology led to a reductionist worldview, where okewu michael peter the dignity of life in light of albert….. 16 living beings, including humans, were seen more as machines or objects rather than as beings with inherent dignity and a spiritual essence. schweitzer’s concern was that this mechanistic worldview led to the devaluation of life. when humans began to focus primarily on the efficiency and functionality of their surroundings, they lost sight of the intrinsic value of living beings. this worldview promoted a utilitarian approach to life, where beings were valued only for their utility to human ends. in turn, this fostered a culture that justified exploitation, both of people and the environment, in the name of progress and productivity. for schweitzer, this mechanization of life was morally dangerous because it separated individuals from a sense of ethical responsibility toward the natural world. without reverence for life, technological advancements became tools for domination and exploitation rather than for promoting human flourishing or nurturing the well-being of all living creatures. technological progress and its ethical consequences while schweitzer acknowledged the immense practical benefits of technological progress, such as improved health care, communication, and comfort, he also raised serious ethical concerns about its unchecked development. in his work the philosophy of civilization, schweitzer warned that modern technological achievements often led to moral corruption, as they were employed to serve human desires without adequate consideration for their broader consequences on life, both human and non-human. schweitzer believed that the overreliance on technology led to a form of alienation. as humans became more dependent on machines and technological systems, they increasingly lost touch with the spiritual and moral aspects of life. instead of fostering genuine human relationships, technological progress often resulted in an increase in human isolation and a diminished sense of personal responsibility. the technological world, in schweitzer’s view, created an environment where people were seen as mere cogs in a machine, contributing to a larger system, but not as individuals with a moral duty to others and the world. technological progress, in schweitzer’s view, often prioritized human convenience and economic growth over the preservation of life in all its forms. this disregard for the sanctity of life was compounded by the rise of mechanized warfare, which showed how technology could be wielded to destroy rather than preserve life. the use of atomic bombs during world war ii, which schweitzer strongly condemned, exemplified the destructive potential of technological advancements when divorced from ethical consideration. the loss of spiritual and ethical awareness schweitzer argued that modern civilization, in its blind pursuit of technological progress, had lost touch with the deeper spiritual and ethical dimensions of existence. the emphasis on materialism, efficiency, and economic growth left little room for consideration of the spiritual or moral consequences of human actions. schweitzer believed that technological advancements had aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 17 contributed to a world where people no longer recognized the sacredness of life. instead, they saw nature and other living beings as objects to be controlled, used, and exploited for human benefit. schweitzer’s critique was not just about the dangers of technology itself, but about the loss of a moral and spiritual orientation in the face of rapid industrialization. he believed that true progress lay in a more ethical relationship to life, one that involved recognizing the dignity and sanctity of all living beings, not just human beings. this was a call for a humanism that was spiritually grounded and ethically responsible. schweitzer believed that modernity’s focus on technological progress and material success had diminished the capacity for compassion, reverence, and responsibility—the very qualities that were central to his ethical system. schweitzer’s critique extended to the need for a moral reawakening in modern society. he called for a shift in values, where technological progress would be seen as a means to support human well-being in a way that respects the dignity of all life. rather than being driven by the pursuit of power, profit, and domination, human progress should focus on fostering compassion, responsibility, and respect for life. this ethical reorientation would require individuals to recognize that true progress is not measured by the accumulation of wealth or power, but by the extent to which humanity fosters the flourishing of all living beings. the mechanization of life and the loss of moral sensibility schweitzer was acutely aware of the mechanization of society that accompanied technological and industrial advancements. he argued that modernity’s focus on efficiency, productivity, and material progress led to the objectification and commodification of life. in the philosophy of civilization, schweitzer critiques the reductionist attitude that arose from mechanistic thinking, which sought to understand and control nature and human beings as if they were mere machines. he writes, “the mechanistic view of life leads us to treat the world as if it were an aggregate of things to be used for human purposes” (schweitzer, 1923). this perspective, he argues, disregards the inherent value of living beings and reduces them to resources to be exploited. schweitzer’s critique of the mechanistic worldview was informed by his understanding of life as something deeply spiritual and interconnected. the mechanization of life, he contended, resulted in a loss of moral sensitivity to the suffering of other beings. as technology advanced, people became increasingly disconnected from the natural world and from the ethical considerations necessary for truly understanding and respecting life. schweitzer’s philosophy, which emphasizes reverence for life, directly challenges this reductionist worldview, urging a return to an ethic that recognizes the intrinsic value of all living beings, not just as objects to be controlled or exploited (schweitzer, 1954). the dehumanizing effect of technological progress schweitzer was also concerned with the dehumanizing impact of technological progress, particularly in its potential to erode human empathy and compassion. while technology brought material benefits, it also contributed to a culture of alienation, where human beings were increasingly seen as parts of a vast, impersonal system. schweitzer writes, “the triumph of technology has led man to believe that he can dominate the world, yet it has stripped him of his okewu michael peter the dignity of life in light of albert….. 18 spiritual connection to the world and to other people” (schweitzer, 1923). for schweitzer, technological advancements, while improving material conditions, often undermined the moral and spiritual foundations necessary for a fulfilling and meaningful life. this dehumanizing effect is particularly evident in industrial practices that prioritize efficiency over human welfare, such as the exploitation of workers and the prioritization of profit over ethical considerations. schweitzer’s work emphasizes that technological progress must not come at the cost of human dignity, suggesting that society must balance technological innovation with moral reflection and spiritual insight. his criticism of modernity calls for a reevaluation of how technology is used, ensuring that it serves to enhance rather than diminish human well-being (van der gucht, 2007). the contemporary relevance of albert schweitzer's philosophy albert schweitzer’s philosophy, particularly his concept of reverence for life, has profound contemporary relevance in various fields, from environmental ethics to bioethics, animal rights, and social justice. in today’s world, characterized by rapid technological advancement, environmental crises, and social inequalities, schweitzer’s ethical framework offers vital insights for addressing the moral challenges we face. environmental ethics and sustainability schweitzer’s philosophy is increasingly relevant in the context of modern environmental concerns. as the world grapples with issues such as climate change, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and pollution, schweitzer’s reverence for life provides a compelling ethical foundation for advocating sustainable environmental practices. his view that all life, not just human life, has intrinsic value, calls for a radical shift in how we approach environmental conservation. this is especially relevant today as human activity continues to degrade ecosystems and disrupt the balance of life on earth. schweitzer’s vision of a life-affirming and interconnected world challenges current industrial practices that exploit nature for short-term gain at the expense of longterm environmental health (van der gucht, 2007). the rise of environmental movements in the 21st century, including campaigns for biodiversity preservation, climate action, and sustainable development, echoes schweitzer’s call for humanity to view itself as stewards of the earth, responsible for the well-being of all life forms. his emphasis on compassion and interconnectedness resonates with the growing recognition that environmental sustainability is not only a scientific or political issue but also a moral one (hiltner, 2014). bioethics and medical ethics in the field of bioethics, schweitzer’s humanitarian work and his ethical perspective on life have significant contemporary relevance. his emphasis on compassion, dignity, and respect for human life informs modern debates on issues such as euthanasia, organ donation, and end-of-life care. schweitzer’s philosophy insists that all life, regardless of circumstances, has inherent worth and should be treated with reverence. this is particularly relevant in discussions about medical ethics, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 19 where decisions often involve questions about the value of life in situations of terminal illness or significant disability (christian, 2003). schweitzer’s approach to bioethics prioritizes a holistic view of the patient, advocating for care that attends to the emotional, spiritual, and social dimensions of illness, in addition to the physical. in an era when healthcare systems are often characterized by impersonal, mechanized practices, schweitzer’s emphasis on a compassionate, patient-centered approach is more important than ever. his work underscores the need for healthcare providers to maintain empathy and respect for patients, ensuring that medical decisions are not driven solely by efficiency but by a commitment to human dignity (fiedler, 2018). global social justice and human rights schweitzer’s humanitarian philosophy has continuing relevance in the context of global social justice. his efforts to provide medical care and support to marginalized populations in africa illustrate his deep commitment to the dignity and worth of every human being, regardless of race, nationality, or social standing. in an increasingly globalized world, schweitzer’s work highlights the moral imperative to address global inequalities, from access to healthcare to education, food security, and basic human rights (schweitzer, 1923). in contemporary debates surrounding immigration, refugees, and economic disparities between nations, schweitzer’s call for the recognition of shared humanity offers a moral foundation for efforts to alleviate suffering and promote justice. his philosophy encourages individuals and governments to address the root causes of poverty and inequality, not merely the symptoms, and to consider the long-term implications of policies on the well-being of vulnerable populations (van der gucht, 2007). technological and ethical challenges as technological advancements, particularly in fields like artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, and biotechnology, continue to raise profound ethical questions, schweitzer’s philosophy offers crucial guidance for navigating these challenges. his critique of the mechanization of life and the dehumanizing effects of unchecked technological progress remains highly pertinent today. schweitzer warned against the dangers of viewing technological advancements as ends in themselves, emphasizing that such progress must always be tempered by ethical considerations that recognize the sanctity and interconnectedness of life (schweitzer, 1923). in the context of debates about genetic modification, artificial intelligence, and other emerging technologies, schweitzer’s concept of reverence for life challenges humanity to ensure that technology is used to serve life rather than to diminish or control it. his call for ethical reflection in the face of rapid technological progress encourages a future where technology enhances human flourishing and respects the inherent dignity of all life forms (kegley & wrenn, 2002). okewu michael peter the dignity of life in light of albert….. 20 conclusion albert schweitzer’s philosophy of reverence for life continues to offer valuable ethical guidance in addressing some of the most pressing challenges of contemporary society. his deep respect for all forms of life, commitment to compassion, and insistence on ethical responsibility provide a moral framework that can inform debates about environmental protection, animal rights, bioethics, and social justice. as modernity continues to evolve, schweitzer’s call for a more ethical, compassionate, and responsible relationship with the world and its inhabitants remains a vital and necessary guiding principle. in an age of technological advancement, global interconnectedness, and environmental crisis, reverence for life offers a pathway to a more sustainable, compassionate, and just future for all living beings. in an era marked by ecological crises, technological advancements, and deepening social inequalities, schweitzer’s emphasis on the interconnectedness of all life and the moral imperative to treat all living beings with dignity provides crucial guidance. his philosophy challenges us to rethink our approach to technology, the environment, and human relationships, urging a future that prioritizes compassion, sustainability, and ethical reflection. as the world continues to face complex moral questions, schweitzer’s vision of a life-affirming ethical framework offers a timely and necessary contribution to contemporary philosophical discourse moreover, schweitzer’s critique of modernity and technological progress reminds us of the dangers inherent in the mechanization of life, where efficiency and profit often overshadow moral and spiritual considerations. his work calls for a reevaluation of how technological developments and economic systems are employed and urges us to integrate ethical responsibility into the very fabric of our progress. in contemporary bioethics, environmentalism, and global humanitarian work, schweitzer's philosophy offers a compelling call to center the value of life in all its forms, ensuring that human advancements serve the greater good of the planet and its inhabitants. schweitzer continues to call us back, reminding us that true progress is not measured by material wealth or technological capability, but by our ability to foster a world where all living beings are treated with dignity and respect. as we confront the challenges of the modern world, schweitzer’s commitment to reverence for life provides a moral compass that can guide us toward a more compassionate, sustainable, and just future. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 21 references christian, w. (2003). albert schweitzer: a biography. usa: harpercollins publishers. fiedler, m. (2018). the ethics of reverence for life and the future of humanity. uk: springer. hiltner, s. (2014). ‘reverence for life: the ethics of albert schweitzer.’ journal of religious ethics, 42(1), 103–128. kegley, c. w., & wrenn, c. (2002). ethics and technology: ethical issues in an age of technology. usa: wadsworth publishing. schweitzer, a. (1906). the quest of the historical jesus. new york: macmillan. schweitzer, a. (1923). the philosophy of civilization. translated by c. t. campion. new york: macmillan. schweitzer, a. (1954). reverence for life. translated by c. t. campion. new york: macmillan. van der gucht, c. (2007). albert schweitzer: a biography. usa: princeton university press. 119 macabre dance of masquerades in our political square: an exploration of the intersection of religion and politics in northeastern nigeria habila katuka, ph.d lecturer, department of christian religious studies faculty of arts, taraba state univeristy, jalingo (katukashock@gmail.com) & john moses maikomo, ph.d lecturer, department of political science and international relations, faculty of social science, taraba state univeristy, jalingo (johnmoziz@yahoo.com) abstract the socio-political environment in northeastern nigeria reflects a history of inadequate political leadership in the region. this situation highlights the necessity of investigating the reasons behind the endorsement of political candidates by religious leaders, who are often perceived as mere instruments in the political arena. to address this inquiry, the research employed qualitative techniques for data collection and analysis. focus group discussions were conducted across seven sessions in each state of northeastern nigeria, involving randomly selected adherents from both religious groups. additionally, interviews with clergy from both religions were also conducted via telephone. data collection occurred in september 2024. the findings were examined and interpreted through the framework of needs and conspiracy theories. the study found that the endorsement of political candidates by religious leaders is significantly shaped by their personal needs and aspirations, which contrasts with the public image they project. this calls for religious leaders to adhere to altruistic principles in consideration of their followers, who have suffered for an extended period. keywords: politics, religious-leaders, northeastern nigeria, interrogation and negotiation. introduction the phrase, “let them breathe,” which serves as a poignant metaphor for the struggles faced by nigerians despite the nation's abundant human and natural resources, encapsulates the deficiencies in leadership within the country. scholars and social commentators frequently attribute the nation's challenges to the failures of its political leaders. in contrast, religious figures, while claiming moral superiority, often present themselves as victims, despite their well-documented support for certain political candidates. there is substantial evidence to support the notion that declarations such as “thus says the lord” or “allah wills it” from these religious leaders can lead to the overthrow of existing regimes and the establishment of new ones. this reality appears to foster a tacit understanding among politicians that in the realm of politics, “the fear of religious leaders is the beginning of wisdom”. this dynamic may explain friedrich hegel’s perspective that religious ideas serve as fundamental catalysts for historical change (hodgson, 2005). mailto:katukashock@gmail.com mailto:johnmoziz@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 120 it is indisputable that religious affiliations, particularly those of christian and muslim communities, significantly influence the political landscape in nigeria, especially in the northeastern region. political campaigns, narratives, rallies, promotional materials, and even attire are often designed to reflect specific religious inclinations. as a result, discussions surrounding ideologies, qualifications, past performance, and the principles of effective governance are frequently overshadowed by the dominant voices of religious leaders. a collective amnesia regarding the challenges faced under the same political leadership appears to emerge whenever these leaders endorse a candidate. consequently, despair gives way to a sense of euphoria surrounding a so-called divinely chosen individual, while skepticism is muted by a misplaced faith in politicians who have been sanctified by religious endorsements. terms such as ‘born again politician’, haram, halal, kafir, and arna are strategically employed to either disparage opposing candidates or to obscure the shortcomings of favored political figures, thereby manipulating voter sentiment. this raises the question of whether political parties in nigeria are genuinely driven by ideological principles or merely serve as coalitions of power brokers. through their leadership, these religions have shown a significant ability to direct their followers towards particular political agendas. best (1992) corroborates this view by indicating that these faiths have been a constant element in the intergroup relations within the nation. regrettably, the outcomes of their political decisions have negatively impacted a large segment of the northeastern nigerian populace, as evidenced by headlines such as “nigeria’s economy faces worst recession in four decades, says new world bank report” (nasir, 2020) and “conflict has continued to roil the country’s northern and central regions, where armed groups are active…” (tilsley, 2023: 32). to tackle the pressing issues confronting north-eastern nigerians, it is essential to evaluate the primary social instruments that determine the political leadership choices. the political discourse in nigeria is rich with literature that often identifies politicians and their behaviors as the primary contributors to the emergence of subpar political leadership. nevertheless, this focus on politicians may represent a superficial approach, akin to addressing a symptom while neglecting the deeper, underlying issues. it is conceivable that religious leaders play a more significant role in shaping the political leadership landscape. consequently, a thorough investigation into the political needs of christian and muslim leaders in nigeria, with the objective of negotiating their expectations, may illuminate the root causes and offer viable solutions to the leadership crises afflicting the nation. socioeconomic dynamics and leadership effectiveness in northeastern nigeria the sociopolitical landscape of any society is predominantly influenced by several key factors including security, economic status (encompassing national wealth and income disparity), social cohesion, and political discord (cooper 2011; dawes 1995; and stanley et al., 2011). these factors significantly impact social institutions and the broader social framework, which in turn shapes the overall well-being of society and the caliber of political leadership. this section is dedicated to examining the essential qualities of political leadership that contribute to national well-being in northeastern nigeria, with a focus on themes such as the economy, security, and social integration. this undertaking may be fraught with difficulties, particularly in light of the current sociopolitical atmosphere. the prevailing conditions may lead to perceptions of the researchers as adversarial toward political and religious leaders. however, habila katuka, & john moses. macabre dance of masquerades in our political… 121 it is crucial to extend the boundaries of research to highlight the political progress made in the region since independence by its leaders. although politicians often assert their dedication to preserving nigeria as a singular entity, this assertion can be viewed as a political success. furthermore, northeastern nigeria can take pride in the abundance of mosques and churches, as well as the successful religious pilgrimages facilitated by various regimes. nonetheless, there exists a substantial body of evidence that highlights the significant sociopolitical challenges confronting nigeria, particularly within the northern region. for instance, the initial discussion could be elaborated with statements such as, “africa’s largest economy has experienced its most severe contraction in over a decade” (kazeem, 2020) and “nigeria’s economy is entrenched in stagnation” (fasan, 2021). these assertions reflect the prevailing economic conditions in the nation. the media report indicates that despite having had considerable opportunities to govern the country—evidenced by the duration during which the region has held the highest leadership positions it remains the most impoverished and least developed in terms of human development among all its states. according to the oxford university poverty and human development initiative's 2017 report, the northern region, despite its wealth of natural resources, ranks poorly in the “multidimensional poverty index data bank” for 2017, with an average score of 85.36 percent and states such as bauchi, gombe, and taraba are among the highest on this list. in contrast, the report suggests that states in the southern region are generally performing better in implementing poverty alleviation strategies. the assessment of security in northeastern nigeria reveals a landscape marred by bloodshed, fear, and a populace that has been both physically and psychologically scarred. the heinous acts perpetrated by armed groups, kidnappers, and the ongoing ethnic and religious strife have instilled a sense of nostalgia for a time of relative peace among many residents. reports such as “conflict has continued to roil the country’s northern and central regions, where armed groups are active…” (aljazeera, 2024); and “world looks other way as christians ‘killed for sport by jihadists’ in nigeria” (tisley, 2024) further lends weight to the argument that the region has not succeeded in ensuring security. social integration remains a longstanding challenge in nigeria. hamzat (2012: 23) insightfully refers to the country’s condition as a “paradox of false marriage of opposites in perpetual conflict.” this characterization is particularly relevant given the historical prominence of ethnicity, tribalism, and religious identity in shaping nigeria's social dynamics. in the northeastern region, the struggle for political representation, intertwined with religious affiliations—namely christianity and islam—has further diminished the social bonds that once fostered relative peace. the previously strong sense of brotherhood among the people has been overshadowed by religious and political divisions. the once-frequent invocation of ‘mutanen arewa’ (people of northern nigeria) has diminished, while the phrase ‘namu-namu ne’ (our own is our own) has emerged among political and religious figures, reflecting a shift towards consolidating power for political purposes. the calls for restructuring and the formation of new states from certain groups in the region seem to be intrinsically tied to a mounting frustration due to poor social conditions. in light of the issues discussed, one might contend that the involvement of religious leaders in the selection and advocacy of political figures has led to detrimental outcomes for the region. investigating the rationale behind the political endorsements made by these religious authorities could illuminate the underlying causes of the region's underdevelopment. it is possible that the future of a more equitable nigeria relies on confronting these challenges. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 122 political credentials and religious endorsement in northeastern nigeria the practice of religious leaders endorsing politicians during election periods has become a normalized aspect of the political landscape in nigeria, no longer subject to public scrutiny. this phenomenon appears to have been institutionalized, with endorsements now conducted openly rather than in secrecy. the active promotion of political candidates within places of worship has integrated itself into church services and tafsir (exegesis of the quran) during jumu’ah prayers. consequently, the involvement of religious leaders in political matters has led to the belief that the influence of these leaders is crucial for political acumen in nigeria. as a result, politicians are increasingly eager to secure endorsements from religious figures. it is not uncommon for media outlets to report on the interactions between politicians and religious leaders during election seasons, as evidenced by headlines such as “guber election: endorsement row rocks adamawa muslim council” (ochetenwu, 2023) and “how clerics influence voters’ choice of candidates in bauchi” (babaji, 2023). the political dynamics in northeastern nigeria can be likened to a free market system, where the interplay of supply and demand influences the pricing mechanisms. in this analogy, religious leaders function as buyers, while politicians serve as sellers. however, some religious figures contend that the endorsement of political candidates is not a tenet of church doctrine. a catholic priest, for example, has expressed that the catholic church’s approach to politics is fundamentally based on its teachings regarding social justice and the dignity of all human beings. he argues that the church’s recognition of the importance of political engagement for the purpose of advancing the common good and creating a just society does not imply a formal endorsement of political entities. he provided several arguments to reinforce the catholic church’s position against political endorsements. i. the church respects the freedom and responsibility of individuals to make their own political choices. ii. the church encourages catholics to form their consciences according to the teachings of the church and to participate actively in political life. however, it does not seek to impose specific political choices on its members. iii. by not endorsing candidates, the church seeks to avoid being seen as favoring any particular political party or aligning itself with partisan interests. this allows the church to maintain its prophetic voice and moral authority, speaking out on issues of justice and the common good free from the constraints of political affiliations. iv. instead of endorsing specific candidates, the church provides guidance on moral principles and issues that should inform political decision-making. through its teachings, the church seeks to shape political debates and encourage catholics to engage in responsible and informed voting. the rhetoric employed by rev. fr. mbaka regarding favored political candidates, along with similar appeals from various religious leaders advocating for specific political figures, warrants consideration. nonetheless, it is important to note that during various focus group discussions held across different regions, religious leaders from both christianity and islam articulated that political decisions are predominantly made by leaders at the highest levels of their respective religious organizations, such as the christian association of nigeria (can), the national supreme council of islamic affairs (nscia), and jama’atu nasril islam. these apex religious habila katuka, & john moses. macabre dance of masquerades in our political… 123 leaders frequently align themselves with influential political entities that possess the momentum necessary to effectively contest electoral positions. this observation suggests that religious leaders tend to follow the lead of the ruling party, the most formidable opposition, or the preferences of prominent political figures. the organizational frameworks of religious institutions within both faiths are structured in such a manner that decisions made at higher levels can permeate down to even the most isolated communities. for instance, the nigerian supreme council for islamic affairs (nscia) comprises several components: the general assembly, the national executive council, standing committees, state councils, local committees, zonal offices, and zonal consultative committees. notably, the general assembly serves as the highest legislative body of the council, possessing ultimate authority over all issues pertaining to islam and the muslim community in nigeria. this assembly is composed of the president general of the council, the national officers, and representatives from the state councils. to facilitate the selection of state representatives for the general assembly, the council's constitution categorizes all states into three groups: category a includes states where muslims are the overwhelming majority, represented by ten members; category b encompasses states with a simple muslim majority, which are allotted seven representatives; and category c consists of states where muslims are in the minority, represented by five individuals (shittu, 2010). in 1991, the assembly of the christian association of nigeria (can) approved a revised constitution that formalized the classification of churches into five principal groups: the catholic secretariat of nigeria (csn), the christian council of nigeria (ccn), the christian pentecostal fellowship of nigeria (cpfn) / pentecostal fellowship of nigeria (pfn), the organization of african instituted churches (oaic), and the tekan and ecwa fellowships. the composition of can is predominantly structured around: the national assembly, the national executive committee, the president-in-council, zonal assembly, zonal executive, the state assembly, the state executive committee and the local government executive committee (enwerem, 1995). the national assembly is the highest policy making organ of the association with csn, ccn, cpfn/pfn, oaic, tekan and ecwa fellowship, representative from each state branch of can and fct can, the national officers of the association, the past presidents and general secretaries of the association shall be honorary members, and the national chairman and secretary of the youth wing of christian association of nigeria and women wing of the christian association of nigeria (yowican & wowican) shall also be members (enwerem, 1995). masquerading anointed candidates for political votes a multitude of theories exists regarding the factors contributing to the rise of certain political leaders in nigeria. one of the most prominent is the manipulation theory, which asserts that politicians strategically use religion to further their political ambitions. this theory implies that religious leaders are reduced to mere pawns in the political arena, ultimately becoming victims of the machinations of politicians. however, a closer examination of the political events that unfold during election cycles in northeastern nigeria suggests a different narrative, one that points to a possible collusion or conspiracy between political and religious leaders aimed at subverting the interests of the general populace. this perspective indicates that there is often a aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 124 cooperative dynamic between these leaders during elections, which is orchestrated through a conspiracy framework, enhanced by the use of ‘framing’ techniques. the term, ‘conspiracy theory’, denotes a carefully constructed narrative that is strategically imposed on a specific society, aiming to create an illusion of order and reality regarding events, thereby influencing particular decisions. such theories can target any individual or group perceived as a threat, and the repercussions of these accusations can be significant, regardless of their veracity (aaronovitch 2010). this indicates that conspiracy theories may be grounded in factual information, a blend of facts, or entirely fabricated narratives, all designed to sway public opinion for specific advantages. in the context under discussion, this approach appears to be facilitated through the mechanism of framing. framing involves the selective emphasis of certain elements of reality, enhancing their prominence or diminishing their significance within a given narrative (entman, 1993). for instance, during electoral campaigns, terms such as krista (christian), musulmi (muslim), 'hausa-fulani', arna (heathen), tsonka (derogatory term for a muslim), kafiri (derogatory term for christian), sharia law, and oic (organisation of islamic cooperation) become prevalent and are strategically utilized according to the preferences of religious leaders. these tactics serve to tarnish the reputations of unendorsed candidates while simultaneously cloaking the questionable actions of supported politicians in religious symbolism, thereby manipulating voter behavior even against more qualified candidates. additionally, phrases like born-again politicians (referring to reformist politicians), musulmidagaarewa (a muslim from the north), and lover of religion and the masses are employed to embellish the image of favored politicians among religious constituents. one could argue that religious leaders, to a significant extent, depend on the credibility of their followers, who tend to accept various narratives uncritically as long as they are framed within a spiritual context. politicians and religious authorities capitalize on every opportunity presented by the political landscape to implement their strategies, often resorting to conspiracy theories through careful framing or omission of facts. the general populace is rendered vulnerable by ethno-religious identities that cater to the political desires of those in control. points of contention are highlighted and exploited for maximum impact. emotions related to religion, ethnicity, and sect are utilized as instruments of mobilization, targeting the easily influenced majority, particularly in nigeria, where literacy rates are alarmingly low in the relevant regions. authentic issues are either downplayed or entirely excluded from political dialogue, replaced by manipulative narratives that are emotionally charged to fulfill specific agendas. the warnings and insights of the few who dare to think and act differently are often overlooked or distorted (akeredolu, 2022). agbu et al. (2016) corroborate this viewpoint, providing additional context that: a significant concern in nigeria is the approach taken by political parties in their campaign efforts, which appears to be devoid of ideological underpinnings or issue-based discourse. instead, the focus is primarily on personal attacks, characterized by the dissemination of false information and hate rhetoric, aimed at misleading the electorate and sowing discord among supporters of various political factions. in a nutshell, the narration or impression which religious leaders give on political issues through religious sermons, tafsir, granted interviews etc. to a large extent determine how the target audience (christians or muslim uma) interpret and feel about a particular political issue or candidate. carefully constructed narratives that present some politicians like ‘beast’ and others as ‘beauty’ from religious leaders influence and shape public opinions, attitudes of habila katuka, & john moses. macabre dance of masquerades in our political… 125 voters and voting patterns in north eastern nigeria. however, one may wonder: what are the major social needs religious leaders seek to achieve by aligning with politicians with seemingly negative antecedents? interrogating and negotiating needs and aspirations of religious leaders in northeastern nigeria the contributions and sacrifices made by religious leaders within the political sphere of northeastern nigeria deserve significant scrutiny. some propagate false narrative while others issue prophecies that later reveal themselves to be deceptive. we witness images of religious leaders in covert gatherings and hear of their associations with politicians who could compromise their spiritual integrity. quotations from sacred texts are frequently employed in a selective manner to reinforce prevailing political stances. this situation prompts critical inquiries: what drives religious leaders to boldly endorse political figures, even those of questionable integrity, thus inviting potential backlash? are there particular ambitions that these leaders seek to fulfill? are these ambitions rooted in a sincere commitment to their faith and its followers, or do they suggest hidden agendas that require our attention? the majority of religious leaders operating at the grassroots level from both faiths who participated in the interviews expressed a consistent adherence to the directives issued by the leaders of the highest religious authorities. nevertheless, a select number of leaders from the supreme council of islamic affairs (scia) and the christian association of nigeria (can), whom the researchers had the opportunity to interview, emphasized that their primary concern lies in safeguarding their respective religions and enhancing the welfare of their adherents. some of these leaders elaborated on their commitment by highlighting the personal sacrifices they have undertaken to improve the well-being of their followers through their decisionmaking. one might find it compelling to consider the assertions of religious leaders who claim that their engagement in secular politics in northeastern nigeria is primarily motivated by a deep-seated love for their religion and their followers. this perspective is closely tied to the teachings found in the two sacred texts, which are replete with directives promoting brotherly love and communal bonds, or ummah. for example, islamic texts such as those narrated by al-bukhari and muslim highlight the prophet muhammad (peace be upon him) stating, “none of you has faith until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself.” additionally, adherents are called to submit to allah, who embodies the attributes of the most loving and the most merciful, with names such as al-rahim and al-wadud reflecting these qualities. the bible also reinforces this notion through its commandments, including “love the lord your god…” and “love your neighbor as yourself,” asserting that “there is no other command greater than these” (mark 12:30-32 niv), thus lending credence to the claims made by religious leaders. the prevailing circumstances on the ground stand in stark contrast to the assertions made by religious leaders. this raises the question of whether the needs and aspirations of these leaders, encompassing both islam and christianity, align with the overall welfare of the communities they serve. such skepticism arises from the difficulty in reconciling the professed 'love for religious adherents' with the persistent issues of extreme poverty, insecurity, and inadequate infrastructure that followers of both faiths endure, largely due to a history of ineffective political leadership in northeastern nigeria, which these religious leaders have often supported. it is possible that the needs and aspirations of religious leaders, frequently masked to project an image of concern for the populace, are predominantly self-serving. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 126 allingham (2024) posits that the motivations behind needs and aspirations, regardless of their manifestation, are primarily driven by personal desires to fulfill five fundamental wants: survival, love, belonging, power, and enjoyment. this perspective aligns with maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which prioritizes self-actualization, self-esteem, love and belonging, safety and security, and physiological needs. given the social status of religious leaders at the top of the hierarchy in northeastern nigeria, their motivations are largely rooted in self-actualization and self-esteem—needs that are inherently difficult to satisfy. consequently, these motivations often influence their aspirations within the secular political landscape. in contrast, a significant portion of their followers tends to prioritize physiological and security needs above all else. this disparity highlights a lack of common ground between the needs of religious leaders and those of their followers. notably, the needs of these religious leaders appear to align more closely with the aspirations of political leaders, thereby fostering a connection between the two groups. conclusion over the years, politicians in nigeria, particularly in the northeastern region, have come to understand that political discourse often resides within the domain of the secular, making it susceptible to public sentiment. however, religion, with its roots in sacred principles and divine origin, can be a powerful tool for politicians – either as a strong ally or a formidable opponent. when politicians use religious frameworks to justify their stance, it can gain a level of legitimacy that is hard to challenge. in northeastern nigeria, the intersection of religion and politics, particularly through the influence of religious leaders, has showcased a considerable political capacity by swaying voters towards individuals often regarded as political saviors. however, the socio-economic challenges, such as high poverty levels, poor infrastructure, and security concerns in north eastern nigeria, imply that the relationship between politicians and religious leaders may be more accurately viewed as a collusion that detracts from the welfare of the local population. this viewpoint diverges from the traditional theories which suggest that politicians exploit religion, by implication religious leaders. by this position, the theories tend to mitigate the accountability of religious leaders by framing them as mere instruments of political manipulation. to justify the assertion that religious leaders’ involvement in politics undermines their followers’ interest, this study explores the needs and aspirations of religious leaders in north through ethnographic research approach. the findings indicate that the primary qualifications necessary for a politician to gain the support of religious leaders are financial resources and a demonstration of affiliation or empathy towards a particular faith. within the context of 'theories of needs,' the research suggests that the motivations of religious leaders are often driven by personal ambitions rather than the broader needs of their constituents. as the region grapples with ongoing insecurity and economic challenges, it is imperative for religious leaders to prioritize the collective welfare of their followers over their individual aspirations, embodying principles of love, mercy, justice, and prosperity. habila katuka, & john moses. macabre dance of masquerades in our political… 127 references aaronovitch, d. 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(2023). world looks other way as christians ‘killed for sport by jihadists’ in nigeria. fox news. 107 the paradigm of terrorists’operations in taraba state, the promissory note of the law, the failure of government, and the role of religion ishaya rbunu (ph.d fellow, unn) lecturer department of christian religious studies, faculty of arts, taraba state univeristy, jalingo (ishayabrunu@gmail.com) & habila katuka, ph.d lecturer department of christian religious studies, faculty of arts, taraba state univeristy, jalingo (katukashock@gmail.com) & ibrahim sersinyang department of christian religious studies, faculty of arts, taraba state univeristy, jalingo abstract hitherto, terrorists in taraba state have engaged in the nefarious act of bombing of facilities, leading to the loss of many lives and destruction of property. however, in recent times, terrorism, has assumed a paradigm shift that found expression in banditry and kidnapping. these have affected the people in no small measure; threatening their lives and means of livelihood. this study was an attempt to understand the situation in view to proffering solutions. the study found out that fiscal terrorism occasioned by theft of the national treasury by government agents, coupled with other factors such as the ambazonia struggle for independence in the anglophone cameroon, clemency over chieftaincy rights in places such as takum, sardauna and karim lamido local government areas, the exploration of rose wood, the displacement of boko haram and iswap in northeast nigeria, gave impetus to terrorist influx in taraba state. these terrorists operated mostly through high-profile kidnapping and banditry. these have affected taraba state in areas such as education, agriculture and tourism. to make matters worse, the laws on the fight against terrorism and terrorist financinghave been ineffective, hence, demonstrating the failure of government. the study recommended that christian, islamic and traditional leaders should form a caucus through their various recognized groups, in order to pressure the government to enact effective legislation, checkmate corruption, equip the security agencies, so as to be effective in the fight against terrorism. these religious leaders, through their institutions, should also inculcate moral values to their adherents, which will go a long way in strengthening social solidarity for corporate existence and development. key words: terrorist, law, government, religion mailto:ishayabrunu@gmail.com mailto:katukashock@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 108 introduction terrorism has registered its name as not only a menace in the society, but also, asone of the concepts that have drawn the attention of scholars. hence, it has shaped intellectual discourse, in the global system of deadly crime management. taraba state, just like most states in the northeast regional bloc of nigeria, has witnessed and is still witnessing the disastrous effects of terrorist activities. terrorism is affecting every stratum of taraba society, and has gradually eaten so deep into its fabrics, thereby, causing devastation of higher proportion. as one of the six states in the northeast nigeria,taraba state is riddled with the activities of the displaced terrorist groups, such as “boko-haram” and the islamic state west african province (iswap). for instance, taraba news online (2023) chronicled the activities of terrorists in taraba state, and reports that in 2012, at the hit of the “boko-haram” insurgency, the convoy of a commissioner of police, mamman sule, who was posted to taraba state, was attacked in jalingo, between the government house and the police headquarters. during the attack, many bombs blasted, about 11 people died, and more than 20 others were severely injured. in the years that followed, several attacks across the state were reported. there have been attacks in wukari, kpambo, garba chede, bali, jalingo, iware and a host lot of other communities, that left people death and properties destroyed (taraba truth and facts, 2023). in recent times, the renewed attacks have been overwhelming; on april 19, 2022, there were several bomb blasts at “angwan mashaya” in iware, ardo-kola local government area.these incidences, claimed the lives of more than 20 persons, and left several others injured. in jalingo, there were several bomb blasts at nukkai on april 22, 2022, atc on september 18, 2022, and at “angwan doruwa” on may 15, 2023. these bomb blasts led to loss of lives and properties worth millions of naira. in mutum-biyu, gassol local government area, a catholic chapel at st. john’s college was bombed on january 24, 2022 (taraba news online, 2023). other places in the state have witnessed the influx of these terrorists, who perpetrate different kinds of crimes, such as high-profile kidnappings and banditry, thereby, threatening the peoples’ socio-economic existence. as a result, therefore, some people in places like bali, gassol, lau and karim lamido local government areas, are already fleeing their ancestral homelands for safety, due to threats of impending terrorist attacks. thisstate of attacks, and the panic it has created among the people, has affected them in many ways, ranging from agriculture, economic, education and the sociopolitical aspects of their lives. as a consequence, therefore, farms are left unattended, markets do no longer witness the inflow of goods due to restricted movement and low productivity, and schools have turned to internally displaced persons’ (idps) camps, hence, affecting the educational sector. all these are challenging experiences that must be addressed if taraba state is to make headway and take its place of pride as nature’s gift to the nation. this research is therefore, an attempt to investigate the threat posed by the phenomenon of terrorism, and its changing dynamism in taraba state, especially in its new paradigm as it found expression in high-profile kidnapping and banditry. this is in the light of the promissory note of the laws, and the failure of government, so as to propose roles, which religion can play with other stakeholders, to ameliorate its disastrous effects. ishaya, habila & ibrahim. the paradigm of terrorists’operations in taraba state, the… 109 historical evaluation of terrorism in taraba state the history of terrorism in taraba state is interconnected with the national discourse on the emergence of terrorism. thus, the history of terrorism in taraba state can be linked to the history of terrorism in the northeast region of nigeria. however, the reports of some forms of terrorist activities in taraba state were first noticeable during the activities of “banni isaella” in may, 2003 (taraba miror, 2007). during that time, there were insinuations that the members of this group were drawn from boko-haram, to serve as thugs to then governor, jolly nyame, to help him win election for the second term. their activities were not to last long, as they were dispelled soon after the election. thus, taraba state recorded relative calm in the years that followed until 2012, when the convoy to a commissioner of police was attacked. from then on, the activities of terrorists continued intermittently and in recent times, taraba state has ascended the ranks as one of the most active places for terrorists in the northeast, nigeria. although the level of sophistication of terrorist activities in taraba state—which is measured by the number of suicide bomb attacks—is comparatively low, what is generally recognized as terrorism in taraba state are the activities of the boko haram sect, that are targeting innocent civilians, religious and public places, government officials, and security forces. boko haram, is only one of many formal and informal groups, engaged in what qualifies as terrorist activities (adeyemi, 2022). the relevance and strength of the group has risen quickly from beinga regional phenomenon to attaining global status. its increasing relevance and spread also imply stronger and more significant influence on the political and economic fundamentals of taraba state’s economy, begging for answers to questions concerning the underlying factors behind its origin and growth. paradigm of terrorists’ operations in taraba state traditional acts of terrorism are majorly through bombing of government facilities and killing of high-profile government officials (abbas, 2013). however, in recent times, there has been a growing concern over the changing dynamism and paradigm shift in the trends and patternsof terrorist activities, especiallyin taraba state. thus, the trends and patterns of the operations of terrorists in taraba state are made manifest obviously in banditry and high-profilekidnapping of persons, not necessarily government officials: firstly, banditry is one of the ways in which terrorists operate in taraba state. even though banditry is not a new trend, its recent consistent operations are fueled by terrorists,because it serves as one of the means for the accumulation of the resources, needed for the continual financing of terrorist activities in the northeast and across borders. yusuf (2017) thinks that banditry is reflected in criminal escapades like cattle rustling, armed robbery, drug abuse, arson, rape and the brazen and gruesome massacre of people of agrarian communities, with sophisticated weapons. thus, it is an issue now obvious, that the displaced terrorists from the northeast nigeria, who have made inroad to taraba state, hardly engage in the known classical methods of disastrous terrorists’ outings. what they do now is mostly acts of banditry that target vulnerable population, who in this era of national poverty and suffering, are struggling to feed. for instance,in bantaji, a town in wukari local government area, and maihula, a town in bali local government area of taraba state, banditry such as cattle and sheep rustling, as well as aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 110 the killing of innocent citizens, has a strong connection with the influx of terrorists from the folds of boko haram and iswap. however, in places like ussa, takum, kurmi and sardauna local government areas, which lie on the border with the republic of cameroon, trans-border banditry, by the local groups as well as challenges relating to the ambazonian struggles in the cameroons, explains the nature and pattern of rural banditry. livestock theft is becoming a trans-border criminal activity affecting movements along sardauna and the cameroonian borders. local bandit groups, mostly the displaced terrorist in the northeast, connived with traditional elites to rustle livestock and share the proceeds of their criminality (james, 2019). in northern taraba state, the first recorded case occurred somewhere between the border communities in adamawa and nasarawa states in 2007, when 780 cattle, and donkeys, laden with grains, were attacked, and in the process, 42 merchants killed. this shows that banditry has gradually transformed in scope and dimension overtime, from its rudimentary phase, to a more complex and complicated pattern of criminality (global conflict tracker, 2021). secondly, high profile kidnapping has been identified as a new pattern of the activity of terrorists in taraba state. high-profile kidnapping in taraba state began rising in 2016, when terrorist groups such as boko haram and iswap,made inroad to lau local government area, and started kidnapping people for ransom. for instance, in 2017, one zakaria. abdullahi, a member of the displaced boko haram terrorist group, was arrested by the security agents in connection with the rising tension of kidnapping in taraba state.additionally, on february 5th2018, fifteen miners that were kidnapped in bali were released after being held for more than six weeks. on august 18th, 2019, what appeared to be a major warning to the government and the citizens was announced by the terrorists parading as kidnappers, when they vowed to extend hostilities beyond the yorro, lau and zing local government areas to jalingo lga. similarly, on january 25th 2022, what appeared to be high profile reported case of abduction of people took place, when four foreign rose wood buyers, were kidnapped in takum lga (taraba news online, 2023). catalysts for terrorist operations in taraba state from available records, a lot of reasons can be advanced as the causes and motivations for terrorist activities in taraba state. the recent onslaught by the nigerian military and other sister security agencies on boko haram, ansura and iswap in the northeast region of nigeria, has greatly displaced them. as a result, they are now at large, looking for safe havens, and taraba state, among other places, has become a new destination for them. taraba state offers the kind of terrain required for criminals to operate nearly unhindered. the vast landmass of taraba state is a perfect hideout for terrorists and criminals. more so, the porous international border that taraba state shares with the republic of cameroon, is telling on the easy access it has created for terrorists to find their ways into the state. no wonder the ambazonian fighters also found easy ways into taraba state along the border communities. thus, one can safely say that the ambazonia struggle for self-determination in anglophone cameroon is another factor that motivates the influx of terrorists into taraba state. the ambazonia struggle developed into guerilla armed conflict with the cameroonian security forces in 2016 (institute for economic and peace, 2017). thus, in an attempt to stem the tide against them, most of them ran into nigeria as refugees, through the porous abong and bissaula ishaya, habila & ibrahim. the paradigm of terrorists’operations in taraba state, the… 111 borders. in the passage of time, they regrouped and began kidnapping for ransom, as a means to provide financial assistance for the ambazonia struggle in the cameroons. this has added impetus to the rise of terrorism and its destructive activities in taraba state over the years. all these are further compounded by the struggles for clemency rights over chieftaincy, especially in takum, sardauna and karim lamido local government areas.these struggles, have added momentum to the influx of terrorists in taraba state. these terrorists serveas mercenaries of war in the event of any armed confrontation. in takum local government area for instance, the long struggle for the installation of “ukwe” takum, the paramount ruler of the kuteb kingdom, has resulted in armed conflict between the kuteb and the chamba people. in sardauna local government, since the early 2000s, fulani and mambilla ethnic nationalities have been in constant fight over sole ownership to the first-class chief on the mambilla plateau. in karim lamido local government, between april and may, 2023, crisis emanated between the jenjo and the wurkum people over claim to a third-class chiefdom that was created in that area (taraba truths and facts, 2023). thus, these continual struggles have given each of the camps the need to fight for the survival of the throne in their respective areas. as a consequence, it is insinuated that these ethnic groups have resorted to hiring mercenaries, who are masters in guerilla warfare.these mercenaries unfortunately, are alleged to be mostly from among the displaced terrorists in the northeast region. additionally, the discovery of timber and mineral resources such as rose wood, gold, diamond, and other precious stones, in places like bali, kurmi, gassol and sardauna local government areas in commercial quantity, has spiked the pace of the encroachment of terrorists into taraba state. for instance, the rise of rose wood as an important commodity in international trade aggravated the influx of terrorists into taraba state. this is because rose wood dealers have been insinuated to deal in excessive cash. most of their transactions are done with physical cash instead of electronic transfer. in this regard, most terrorists who learned about it have therefore, seen taraba state as a base where money could be easily acquired from the rose wood dealers. thus, it is the opinion of many people that the continual exploration of such timber resources as rose wood in taraba state, will continue to give room for terrorism to strive. it should be added that taraba state is a nature’s gift to the nation and as such, there are no shortages of these timber resources. in fact, kurmi local government area, that is nick named as the “home of abundant natural resources” and the third richest local government area in nigeria, has a timber plantation that holds the capacity to sustain taraba state at least for 100 years (jonathan, 2018). effects and implications of terrorist operations in taraba state the effects and implications of terrorist activities in taraba state are telling. these have been revealed in numerousways, among which are: i. dislocation in economic engagement due to the activities of terrorist in taraba state, a lot have been lost in the area of economics that affect lives and livelihood. it is important to note that, markets are deserted and investments from investors in almost all the areas of economic activities have been lost. the mararabadonga cattle market has been on the decline, because marketers fear for their lives. the wukari yam market, no longer witness the influx of sellers and buyers in droves as a result of fear of terrorist attack. the food produce market at garba-chede is almost deserted. mentioned can aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 112 also be made of the decline in international trade with the cameroons along the border towns of bissaula, abong and gembu respectively. the palm oil market at baissa is now an eyesore. these challenging situations have affected in no small measures the rate at which economic activities in taraba state have been booming hitherto the onslaught of the terrorists. ii. enhancement in agriculture and food production insecurity it is often said that a flourishing economy that depends on agriculture and food production requires a peaceful and serene environment to foster. this is because the slogan; “peace gives development” lives true for all ages (bala & tar, 2019). thus, as a consequence of frequent terrorist attacks either through banditry or kidnapping, farmers have left the forest. this is because the forest where food and agric resources are tapped, has become the den and hideout of the terrorists. in this situation, farmers find it very difficult and challenging to cope, especially that, the securities forces have not lived up to the task of curbing the menace of terrorism (eva, 2013). more worrying is the fact that in areas where farmers could farm with little or no security challenges, the government has not provided the required subsidies and incentives to boost production. provision of subsidies in the areas of timely distribution of and reduction in fertilizer prices, farm machineries for large scale farming such as tractors, planters, harvesters and the like, have met with irresolvable challenges due to corruption. in worst case scenarios, where farmers are able to make large production, the challenge of storage facilities or transportation to large markets always arises (jonathan & berisha, 2021). iii. retardation in educational development the incessant attacks by terrorists have led to the creation of internally displaced persons (idps).these idps are usually settled in camps on a temporary basis. according to institute for security studies (2019) it is unfortunate that government has not made provisions to cater for this emergency. consequently, people who are displaced as a result of terrorist attacks or because of fear of impending terrorist attacks, usually stay in open fields, uncompleted or abandon government buildings, and churches. some usually stay with host families within the communities where they ran for safety, while others stay with relatives in those areas. in situations where these places are filled to capacities, the next available options are usually school premises. in which case, government do close down schools so that those premises could serve as temporary camps for the displaced persons. these actions affect and indeed, retard educational growth both of the communities where people ran from, and of the host communities, where they are to stay on a temporary basis. iv. depreciation of tourism potentials from available records, taraba state obviously presents itself as a tourist destination on the global stage. the savannah and high mountainous regions of the mambilla plateau, the gashaka gumti national park, the serene desert of bali, the warmth forest of baissa, the wukari crocodile pound, the nwonyo fishing festival of ibi among many others, are clear evidences of what taraba state offers the world in terms of sites for tourism attraction. thus, there is no gain stating the obvious that all these tourist attraction sites have not been harnessed due to the fear of possible terrorist attack, especially on the intending tourists. in the past five years or so, there have been decline on tourists who visit places like the gumti national park and other tourist destination on the mambilla plateau (institute for economic and peace (2020). this decline in those who travel for tourism purposes have been attributed to fear of impending terrorist attacks. v. scars on peace, human and societal development ishaya, habila & ibrahim. the paradigm of terrorists’operations in taraba state, the… 113 the overall effect of the terrorists’ onslaught on the people of taraba state could be felt in the areas of peace, human and societal development. it is a fact that insecurity, especially the one that is orchestrated by terrorism has been a scar on the peace of the land (yakubu &idahen, 2021). thus, the continuous attacks on the people of taraba state in almost all its communities have greatly hampered human development. it is the opinion among scholars that the society is made of people and that the level at which any society develops is dependent on the strength and productive capacities of its people (okoli & agada, 2014). development occurs in an atmosphere of peace. peace therefore is instrumental to the growth of any society the world over (ellis & chris, 2015). this means that for the human mind to think creatively and productively, it must be settled in an environment where peace reigns. laws on the fight against terrorism: investigating the failure of government the legal frameworks of the state in the fight against terrorist remain a critical challenge to state security and stability. these legal frameworks are built on the foundations of the nigerian state. below is an overview of some of these frameworks as put forward by institute for security studies (2019), adeyemi (2022), eleanor (2023) & chady (2023): i. terrorism prevention and prohibition act, 2022: this act criminalizes acts of terrorism and the financing of terrorism. it empowers law enforcement agencies to investigate, arrest, and prosecute individuals or entities involved in terrorist financing. the act also provides for the freezing and forfeiture of assets linked to terrorism and terrorism financing. the act makes robust provisions on the powers of law enforcement agencies and the powers of the nigeria sanctions committee to identify and designate groups, individuals and entities as terrorists. ii. the nigerian financial intelligence unit (nfiu) act, 2018: this act establishes the nfiu as an independent body responsible for receiving, analyzing, and disseminating financial intelligence reports on money laundering, terrorist financing and other relevant information to law enforcement, security & intelligence agencies, and other relevant authorities. the nfiu plays a crucial role in detecting and investigating terrorist financing activities as the act establishes the unit as the secretariat to the inter-ministerial committee on the nigerian sanctions committee. the foregoing legal frameworks hold a promise for ensuring that the citizens are protected. however, despite the existence of these robust legal and regulatory frameworks to combat terrorist activities andfinancing, there are challenges with the effectiveness of these measures and their practicability. these challenges serve to demonstrate the failure of government, and they include: i. implementation and enforcement: while nigeria has enacted laws and regulations to address terrorism, there are concerns about the effectiveness of their implementation and enforcement. this is due to inadequate resources, lack of capacity, and presences of corruption within the relevant agencies. ii. interagency coordination: effective prevention of terrorism requires close coordination among various government agencies, such as the nfiu, cbn, and law enforcement agencies. however, there have been instances of weak coordination aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 114 and information sharing among these agencies, which hinders their ability to effectively combat terrorism. iii. proliferation of terrorist groups: the existence of several terrorists in taraba state such as boko haram and the islamic state in west africa province (iswap),present significant challenges in combating terrorism. these groups have been known to employ diverse and complex financing methods, making it difficult for authorities to detect and disrupt their activities. institutional terrorism: examining fiscal terrorism fiscal terrorism encapsulates financial misappropriation or thievery, of the national treasury, of the funds required to fight terrorism. these funds may also include those appropriated for investment in other developmental projects. these investments are necessary for the smooth functioning of the nigerian society, so as to create a decent environment that will be devoid of all sorts of crimes, such as terrorism. a peep into the nation’s events reveals a myriad of financial frauds by government officials, agents and proxies that are mindboggling. these have been the bane for development and thus, have created a kind of society that allows terrorism to flourish. for instance, the 9th senate of the federal republic of nigeria appropriated the sum of 30 trillion naira as ways and means for the central bank of nigeria without accountability (punch news, 2024). in fact, in what could be describe as a show of shame on the floor of the senate, most of the senators stood on national television to take excuse that they were not in attendance, when such obnoxious bill was passed. more so, the implementation of the 2024 budget of the federal government, also calls for scrutiny. senator abdul ningi of bauchi state insinuated that the budget was padded by the godswill akpabio’s led senate. his stands on the matter, led to his voluntary resignation as the chairman of the forum of northern senators. not only that, he was suspended by the 10th senate for three months. speaking on this issue, senator jarigbe agom, on the floor of the senate, in a heated debate, submits that: all of us, the senators, are culpable. some so-called senior senators here, got five hundred million naira (500, 000,000) each, from the 2024 budget. i am a ranking senator; i did not get anything. no senator has a right to accuse senator ningi. this singular episode has led to several commentaries on the nigerian political scene. a lot of persons have lent their voices. atiku abubakar, on march 14, 2024, on his facebook page, put up the following: over the past few days, allegations have rocked the senate, questioning the very integrity of the 2024 appropriation act, the cornerstone of our nation’s annual planning and development. a fiscal policy analytics and advocacy organization, has unequivocally confirmed, a disturbing lack of transparency within the 2024 appropriation act… the allegation of budget padding, totaling n3 trillion, cannot be dismissed lightly by the government… given the current hardships facing our nation, a padded budget is already translating to a padded hunger, padded poverty, padded insecurity, and the soaring cost of living. the position of atiku abubakar only reveals how deteriorated nigeria’s fiscal policies are. these revelations are disheartening and heartbreaking especially in such a time that the country is faced with the twin evil of terrorism and poverty. peter obi, had earlier on, precisely on ishaya, habila & ibrahim. the paradigm of terrorists’operations in taraba state, the… 115 march 10, 2024, called attention on this matter of national disgrace. he postulates on his facebook page that: i find it deeply disconcerting and a matter of grave concern, and even shameful, to read about the alleged n3 trillion discrepancies between the budget approved by the nigerian senate and the one being implemented by the presidency… this alleged discrepancy is especially worrying because it represents over 10% of our national budget, which is more than the combined education and health official budgets… with insecurity, hunger, poverty, inflation, and unemployment, plaguing the nation, these actions are insensitive to the people’s plight… therefore, we, the nigerian people, demand a public explanation from both the national assembly and the presidency, regarding the purpose and process of adding this alleged n3 trillion allocation to the officially approved national budget of 2024. more so, it is troubling to see how nigeria fiscal policies have been terrorized and assaulted to unprecedented levels by the present and the preceding administrations. bryan (2019), richard (2019) & chady (2023), chronicled some acts of brazen official corruption that can be equated to terrorist onslaught on the nation’s treasury, and submits that, from 1992-2023, unpaid ground revenue of 6 trillion naira was diverted. alien card (cerpac) revenue of 40 billion naira was diverted. from 2011-2014, 29.17 billion dollars was lost to stolen crude oil. by 2018 government enterprises and cbn did not remit operations surpluses of 10 trillion naira. in 2019 the combined expatriate residence permit and, and by 2020 the outstanding royalty of 62 billion dollars by international oil companies was not accounted for. the foregoing pattern of embezzlement, holds the potentials to disfigure any giant nation the world over. in fact, it does not stop there, 2 billion dollars appropriated in 2014, for the purchase of arms, to execute the fight against terrorism, was embezzled in what has come to be known as the dasuki-gate. just recently, a court asked sadiya sadiq, to account for the over 700 billion naira she claimed was given to nigerians during the covid-19 lockdown. more shaming is the collapse of mamman sale, former minister of power, during his prosecution, for laundering over 33 billion naira. this startling exposé, highlights a grim reality of corruption within nigeria’s government, raising urgent concerns about financial mismanagement, and the need for stringent accountability measures (punch news, 2024). the sum of the foregoing is what is termed “fiscal terrorism”. addressing the menacing effects of terrorism: recommending the role of religion on the basis of the above findings, the following recommendations are here proposed as new alternatives, to assist religion on its sacred duties and obligations, of ensuring that the sanctity of the state and governmentis preserved, especially now that it is being threatened by rising cases of terrorism in taraba state: i. christians and muslims leaders should form a caucus that will give them influence over the policy making and decision taking processes of the government. in this way, they can open the eyes of politicalleaders, to understand that banditry and kidnapping are two famous means through which terrorist operate especially in taraba state. this will give government the impetus that will allow the office of the national security adviser to identity and designate any act of banditry and aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 116 kidnapping as terrorism. in this way, bandits and kidnappers will be treated as terrorists. ii. religion through the vehicles of christianity and islam, should pressure the government and the law makers to enhance the effectiveness on laws banning illegal mining of mineral and timber resources by incorporating traditional and religious leaders into various committees that are set up to deal with such. the work of the committee set up by the taraba stategovernment to combat the activities of illegal miners must be commended, however, the rigidity with which the committee operates must be relax to accommodate informed opinions that are legal and diplomatic. iii. religious leaders should ensure that laws on terrorism are strengthened. and security agencies should be deliberate through joint task force to strengthen national and inter-state borders so that the movements of persons especially those with suspicious behaviour can be noticed. this will greatly help especially in checkmating the influx of persons, especially the ambazonia fighters along the abong, bissaula and mambilla borders with the cameroons. it will also help in identifying and proscribing a group as a terrorist group. iv. religious leaders and clerics under their various recognized associations, organizations and institutions, should rise up to the occasion and challenges of personal examples, to ensuring that their adherents are effectively informed on the moral positions and doctrinal tenets of their religious beliefs and principals. these pieces of information, when rightly inculcated, especially at the infant stage of the children’s upbringing, will help in balancing the moral compass of the society. this is so because, it has been rightly established that most if not all of the terrorists are members of either christianity or islam. in this regard, the government can help to enact laws that will regulate all religious preaching and teaching to ensure that the citizens are given the right kind of information that are required for the wellbeing of the state. conclusion terrorism is one of the many problems confronting taraba state in recent times. it has raised its big head and shown its ugly face. its consequential effects on lives and livelihood have been disastrous and devastating. the changing dynamism in the operations of terrorists have been menacing and degrading,especially in climbing the upper projections of the society through the ladder of growth and development. the implications are too overbearing on the government’s capacity to ensure development in areas such as education, agriculture, tourism, and the like. more than anything else, the government’s agents have been willing accomplices, through acts of commission and omission, in indulging in theft of the state’s treasury in what could be described as fiscal terrorism. thus, the cumulative effects have taken a toll on the society. efforts by religious leaders and institutions in managing the situation have hit a concrete wall.it has not made matters any less difficult. this research therefore, studied the situation, made some findings, and offered laudable recommendations.it is hoped that, if they recommendations are put into consideration, they will help in eradicating the evil of terrorism in taraba state or reducing it to a bearable minimum. ishaya, habila & ibrahim. the paradigm of terrorists’operations in taraba state, the… 117 references abbas, f. 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(2017). terrorism in koranic perspective: reinterpretation of the isis group’s view regarding the concept of jihad, takfir and caliphate. ibadan: spectrum books. https://issafrica.org/amp/iss31 ochichi nchigbu and sit-tightism in contemporary leadership in africa: a philosophical investigation jude chibuzo udenkwo department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university awka chibuzotj@gmail.com abstract leadership in post-colonial africa has been saddled with lots of predicaments ranging from dictatorships, resentments, bad governance, banditry, kidnapping, extraordinary rendition, arrogance, bribery, apathetic corruption, abuse of office and fundamental human rights etc. african democracy in comparison with the west has experienced an unimaginable stay in power by her leaders. this is deeply worrisome. the frequency at which they hold grip to power has been a critical point of debate among scholars in philosophy, comparative politics, diplomacy, and other fields of humanities. many scholars have wrestled, while many are still wrestling on ‘how and why’ many africa dictators have continued to hold grip to power unceremoniously, against the wishes and aspirations of the people. there have been honest yearnings of people for leaders who can rise to the challenges of the time, leaders who can swim against the current, leaders of repute, leaders who can create the lasting change on africa soil. to put this paper in proper perspective, this researcher examined the concept of ochichi nchigbu (dictatorship), and sit-tightism as it affects contemporary leadership experience in africa. really, a sad fact for africa and africans! keywords: leadership, ochichi nchigbu, sit-tightism, decolonization, dictatorship. introduction africa has about fifty four (54) independent states. most of these states have similar political and socioeconomic conditions, owing to the striking similarity in geography, history, politics, and religion among them. a notable centripetal force among african states is the fact of having a similar experience of imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, and a relative evenness in the division into two sphere of religious influence—christianity and islam, the two being three world faiths of the abrahamic category. the remarkable homogeneity in the socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of african states is responsible for the tendency to lump up the continent whenever there is an attempt to classify, characterize or assess these states, based on academic, research, economic and other strategic concerns. why do african states display a marked similarity in their socioeconomic and political features, based on different indices or measures of characterization? this simply points to the fact that african states are beset with similar problems, as a result of which they respond uniformly to whatever variable that is administered across the region, and thus cause these countries to occupy similar positions in different ranking methodologies, like those of the world bank, international monetary fund (imf), the united nations development programme, united nations economic and social organization (unesco), the united nations international children’s emergency fund (unicef), and so on. despite the relative homogeneity of african states, three major socioeconomic and politicocultural clusters could be seen in the continent. first, a perceptible line runs through the middle aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 40 part of western and central africa, cutting the continent into two fairly equal zones of sociocultural influence. the northern zone is predominantly islamic by faith and arabic by culture. all the countries of north africa, and one half of west african countries, including one half of central african states, fall within this zone. on the other hand, from the southern zone of west and central african states down to the southern tip of the continent, christianity is predominantly practiced. second, african states have a common history of imperialism and colonialism, most of which occurred in the not-so-distant past. though some european states like germany, belgium, portugal, spain and italy have either brief or insignificant colonial presence in africa, it will not be wrong to assert that africa was almost evenly partitioned between two european states-britain and france. third, most african states are characterized by a low level of material advancement, low capital formation, lack of effective skills for industrialization, and other features that describe the condition of underdevelopment. with the possible exception of the southern end of the continent, driven by the republic of south africa, and the northern end of the continents which enjoy the benefits of proximity and economic association with the countries of the middle east, most part of africa is poor, and suffering from a host of socioeconomic and political ills. the above analysis is a perfect representation of the political economy of african states, which provides a fertile ground on which most of the political and socioeconomic trends germinate. one of these trends or political tendencies which are common to many african states, is the tendency among executives or heads of african states to cling to power for a long time, even throughout their lifetime. since african states have been shown to possess common socioeconomic variables, it is the intention of this research to undertake a comprehensive analysis of the concept of political ochichi nchigbu (dictatorship) and sit-tightism by exploring a diverse range of issues and perspectives which feed into the phenomenon. ochichi nchigbu: a conceptual framework in simplified terms, a dictator is someone who has an absolute control of power over a people, or a state. oftentimes, this power is obtained through unconventional or forceful means. over the years, the question as to ‘why and how’ african dictators continue to have a stronghold to political power against the will of the ruled has been recurring in a consistent consistency. the egregious and infamous 42-year presidency of gaddafi (1969-2011) was a succinct example in the midst of many. kawalay-tendo (2020) submits: modern dictators have survived by surrounding themselves with elite groups that are composed mainly of allies that were involved in the initial struggle for power. insulating oneself with the cadre of ‘yes men’ is one part as the other is keeping up with their rents. these rents can present themselves mostly in the forms of ill-acquired wealth and influential government positions. comrades of a dictator have a lot to lose if their valued leader is overthrown. consequently, they will go out of their way to ensure that the statuesque remains. they do these effectively by circulating their voices, and championing the incumbent’s plan of action oftentimes through dissolution of political parties and removal of term limits. the jude chibuzo udenkwo ochichi nchigbu and sit-tightism in…. 33 contemporary africa witnessed years of political domination, and untold dictatorships during the 70s, 80s and even 90s. during these periods, africa was a hotbed for civil wars, and acute political domination by a generation of strongmen, who held plum political positions at the center. the ruled endured poor health facilities, poor government dividends, apathetic corruption, bribery and deteriorating infrastructures. any opposition or revolution from the people leads to brutal force using the state structures such as the police or army. there was an unimaginable ochichi nchigbu (dictatorship), emanating from the political class. the concept of political sit-tightism starting from the days of monarchy to the present, the objectification of leadership or rulership with the ‘seat,’ the object for sitting down, has become a common practice. seat has thus become a perfect metonymy for political leadership, and its various forms like stool, throne, etc have come to symbolize political power. in the same way, to ascend the throne, or to seat on the throne, are common expressions for occupying political power. the person who seats on the throne is the one recognized as de jure ruler. in a colorful legend of the ashanti people of ghana, the founder of the kingdom was described as having received the mandate to rule by the reception of a mystical throne which, helped by the conjuring powers of a powerful mystic, was made to fall from heaven. this is the etymological and contextual meaning of sit-tightism. in common usage, it refers to the condition of extreme unwillingness to relinquish political power, even at the expiration of one’s political mandate. as posited by anozie (2009), political sit-tightism is nigeria’s contribution to the evolving vocabulary of dictatorship in the modern world. sit-tightism is the adaptation of the african political class to the changing currents of leadership systems. it is an attempt to maintain a fortuitous middle ground between the traditional monarchical structure in which majority of african political systems was structured, and the modern demands of democracy and popular participation. being mostly democracies, (with the possible exception of morocco and swaziland which still practice monarchy), and having gained political independence from european colonial masters between the late fifties and early sixties, most countries of africa witnessed two of the three waves of democratization (huntington, 1991). the first wave occurred between 1826 and 1926, when most part of africa was still under the effective grip of colonial masters. by the second wave (1945 to 1962) africa had joined the league of democracies by virtue of the decolonization process. the continent equally moved with the global trend in the roll-back of democracy known as reverse democratization (1958 to 1973) during which many democracies reversed to dictatorships. according to huntington’s serialization, the third wave of democratization started in 1974, (with the overthrow of the military regime in portugal) and spread across southern europe, latin america, and asia. by the early 90’s, when huntington’s book was going to the press, africa had joined the fray, with one country after another shacking off decades of military dictatorship. given the long period of experiencing various forms of military dictatorships during the reverse wave, and added to the novelty and consequent fragility of african democracies in comparison with western states where the length of democracy was longer and more entrenched (having started to adopt democracy during the first wave), there arose a situation where leaders of african states were either unwilling to oversee the commencement of democratic transition in their respective states, or allowed the transition to different forms of pseudo-democracy in aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 40 which case group of leaders transformed from military dictators to civilian presidents, with the ultimate end of retaining power in the same person or group of persons. focusing exclusively on west africa, dukor expresses this succinctly: one interesting observable political phenomenon, if not a reality, in west african sun-region, was the issue of military head of state who came to power through coup d’état, only to pull off the uniform to succeed himself in a seeming democratic election. self-succession was certainly a new, if not a blizzard, horizon in black man's political lexicon and frontier...the development itself was an interesting addition to an encyclopedia of political thoughts, having derived its origin from military dictatorships (dukor, 2003: 236). thus began a process of populating africa with sit-tight ‘presidents.’ ekeocha notes: history is replete with individuals whose love for power turned into horrifying nightmares for their societies. on the parade in africa are the late hastings kamuzu banda, idi amin dada, hussein havre, late saide bane, mengistu haile mariam, the late samuel doe, jean bedel bokasa, marurs nsuema, mathew kerekou, the late mobutu sese sekou, gnasingbe eyadema, and so on. some of them, in an attempt to perpetuate their hold on power, employed various means ranging from electoral manipulation, voodoo, kidnapping and assassination of their opponents (ekeocha, 2003: 21). sit-tight syndrome in africa: an explanation human behavior has been, to a commendable extent, made explicable as a chain of causes and effects, actions and reactions, stimulus and response mechanisms, under the controlled rigor of social and behavioral sciences. within this intellectual background, this research would explore sit-tight syndrome in africa in three dimensions---the philosophical dimension, the political dimension, and the socioeconomic dimension. the philosophical dimension right through the ages, philosophy has grappled with the fundamental question of how a society should be organized, and what should be the basis for any choice as to what best form of organization would prevail (frost, 1989). deriving from this broad compass are issues of who are most qualified to exercise rulership; what qualities or attitudes are most desirable in rulers; what are the best forms of relationship between the rulers and the ruled, or between the citizens and the state? these questions have occupied the minds of political philosophical thoughts from plato to aristotle, augustine, machiavelli, hobbes, locke, rousseau, etc. a fundamental point of interest as well as point of departure in the ideas of these philosophers is the concept of power. wolfe, cited in lawhead (2003) defines power as the ability to compel compliance by threat or use of force. it is different from authority, which is the right to command and, correlatively, the right to be obeyed. liberal philosophers and political scientists do not define power differently. max weber, the german sociologist, underscores power as "the possibility of imposing one's will upon the behavior of others." john kenneth galbraith in his anatomy of power elaborated weber's thesis by adding that "the related purpose, the greater the power exercised by the controlling authority." henry kissinger, the former american secretary of state, argues that "power is an jude chibuzo udenkwo ochichi nchigbu and sit-tightism in…. 35 aphrodisiac, a sort of scintillating elixir, both to the person in power and his admirers." kissinger’s contemporaries, known as the structural-realists, like hans morgenthau, kennan and niebhur argue that:"the quest for power is driven by human desire for domination" (ekeocha, 2003). in spite of the differing interpretations, and sometimes mutually antagonistic positions taken by these scholars over the concept of power, they all understand that power is a very dicey and intractable force when being used, and often proves to be a true test of the maturity of rulers, as well as the maturity and freedom of followers. this insatiable lust for power is the reason why african politicians have adapted the instruments of government to their personal satisfaction and dynastic perpetuation. the idea of what amount of power should be lodged in any one man and, correspondingly, the rules governing a determination of tenure and method of transfer of political power, was first given expression by plato. in his classical work, the republic, and much later, the laws, plato theorized that the ideal society is organized in three gradations of unequal power and importance. at the lowest level of this organization is the stratum of workers. these are the uneducated, gullible, and unsophisticated majority whose labor is the source of the material satisfaction of the society. these are followed by the soldiers or auxiliaries who occupy the middle or second stratum. as indicated by their status, these are the guardians of the physical life of the society, upon whose bravery and self-sacrificing exertions the freedom of the society lay. at the top of this social hierarchy are the rulers, a class of philosopher-kings whose wisdom and sagacity is the bedrock of the survival and continuity of the state (froost, 1989; lawhead, 2003). plato went on to propose a system of education which ensured the maintenance of society through the preservation of this natural scheme of things (anozie and ekeada, 2019). it was not surprising, therefore, that plato preferred monarchy over democracy, though he later argued in the laws, that all citizens should have a voice in government, though provisioning the slaves for all works in the state (frost, 1989: 182). this theory of the state is fundamentally aristocratic, mirroring plato's privileged background as the scion of an aristocratic stock. even given the socialistic social structure which his theory of the state implied, in which all wealth should be devoted to use by and for all under the string guiding hand of the state, there are echoes of political absolutism which negate fundamental democratic ethos (frost, 1989: 183), but rather support the concentration of political power in the hand of a few. somewhat disagreeing with plato, aristotle was less inclined towards democracy and constitutional arrangement of power. “aristotle held that a monarchy, an aristocracy and a "polity" in which the members care equal, are the best forms of the state. on the other hand, he condemned as bad a tyranny, an oligarchy and a democracy. aristotle believed that slavery was a just practice in a good state, since it was for him, a natural institution. however, he would admit only foreigners to the state class’’ (frost, 1989: 184). the economic dimension a materialist interpretations of society and all of history, is no longer the exclusive preserve of marxism. contemporary social science and philosophy, in keeping with a prevailing multidisciplinary approach to social studies, have started to point to the fact that africa's socioeconomic and political problems have economic dimensions as well. in other words, africa suffers from a vicious cycle of poverty, inequality and unemployment, which have conspired to retard the growth of the region, and make it vulnerable to bad governance and outright dictatorship (ochichi nchigbu). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 40 one could then understand why majority of the conflicts in africa were either ignited or fuelled by the struggle of rival individuals or groups for resource control, for a fairer distribution of income, or for alleviation of the worst forms of poverty in the continent. in almost all the conflicts that have erupted in africa, one could see the infamous hand of the struggle for control of oil, gold, diamond, copper, water, and uranium, and so on, or the struggle for control of political power, which would guarantee these results. to groom africa’s economy towards poverty reduction, income inequality and increased employment, there is need to change the pattern of development from emphasis on national planning and building of gigantic infrastructure, to the provision of more enabling environment for free trade. osadolor (2001) correctly argues that a major reason why colonial and post colonial benin did not produce a class of wealth-owning and free-thinking indigenes able to fully grasp the opportunities for education, trade and politics as much as their igbo neighbors to the east, was as a result of strict control of trade with outsiders and foreigners, by the oba and his chiefs. free and equal ownership and participation in the economy by all citizens, as the argument goes, reduces income inequality, provides employment opportunities, and ensures, if not effectively guarantees, democracy and good governance. in light of the above, the existence of great income inequality and unequal access to public resources by all has grave implications for the nurturance of democracy and good governance in africa. this problem is more acute in resource rich countries of africa, particularly those whose economies thrive predominantly on oil. the connection between oil wealth, the concentration of political power in few hands, and repressive governance, has been successfully made in anozie (2009). citing okonkwo, he held: the most important feature of the oil sector, is its virtual independence from the rest of the economy. the output of the sector depends on very little contributions from the domestic means of production, and in particular, it's share of the total labour force is very negligible. hence the revenues are surely in the nature of surplus or collective economic rent. by contrast, oil revenue makes a large share of the national revenue, and virtually the whole of foreign exchange receipt. on the basis of this remarkable thesis, anozie (2009) went on to argue that oil wealth is great inducement to perpetuation of political power among leaders, noting that oil state leaders tend to have one of the longest tenure in office. this as will later be argued by ekeocha (2003) bred political sight-tightism (which) ‘’is a nigerian contribution to the evolving vocabulary of dictatorship in the modern world’’ (anozie, 2009:200) . he further observed that gabon's omar bingo (1968), libya's maomar ghadaffi (1969 till date), nigeria's military dictatorship (29 and half years), egypt's hosni mubarak (1981 till date), the republic of conho's james sassou ngueso (1987 till date), equatorial guinea's ngyema (1979 till date), iraq’s saddam hussein (1968-2003), and indonesian’s suharto (19651998) are some of the leading names that testify to the reputation oil has as a political elixir. jude chibuzo udenkwo ochichi nchigbu and sit-tightism in…. 37 the political dimension this segment of the on-going analysis explores the factors that either cause or contribute to the so-called sit-tight syndrome, which stem from the structure of and relations of power between the citizens and the rulers, and among citizens themselves. the emerging post-colonial african states have unwittingly reinforced the political values inherited from the colonial state apparatus. the gulf between the nigeria ruling elite and minorities...is a result of power structures devoid of legitimacy or popular engagement. the genocide and ethnocide committed by nigeria state support the suggestion that their forced annexation policies are designed to complete an unfinished colonial legacy (mohammed-salih, 2001: 191). the first significant factor at work in conditioning leaders of african countries towards reluctance for predictable political transition is a conscious and unconscious carry-over of the mentality of colonialism. political scientists, anthropologists and sociologists have suggested that colonialism is monstrous development of capitalism and imperialism. to this end, it (that is capitalism) requires the mobilization of tools of exploitation and subjection, to realize. one notable instrument of colonialism, used by the british in most of their colonies, is the divideand-rule tactic. divide and rule, as the name suggests, first sets the actors and entities that constitute an effective opposition to the rulers against each other, and then conquers and emasculates them one after the other. having made them powerless and inactive, an unquestioned and unquestionable period of reign is then guaranteed. thus those actions and leadership tendencies that support sit-tightism are the descendants of the british policy of indirect rule. colonial administration was undemocratic, repressive, exploitative and non-transparent. the administrators were not accountable to the locals, nor was there a durable framework for transfer of power. in fact, the concept of peaceful and democratic transfer of power was alien to colonialism. that is why, having been thoroughly enmeshed in the infamous school of colonialism, the indigenous politicians who took over from the foreigners could not help imbibing the values and mentalities of their erstwhile masters. it is an indubitable fact that "the goal of the african elite struggle against colonialism was not to transform but to inherit the colonial state, (and this) is evident in its persistent authoritarianism and disrespect for human and civil rights in the colonial and post-colonial states alike" (mohammed -salih, 2001:24). extending the logic to a general assessment of colonialism, ezeanyika (2000) submits: perhaps the failure of the british policy of indirect rule (more correctly, colonial rule) is best demonstrated by the continued failures of those trained under it. the very fact that the british trained the majority of those africans to whom they handed over government at the end of colonial rule in africa greatly mirrors their administrative capabilities. the continued exploitation of the masses by the elite classes, orchestrated through subtle autocratic policies...ezeanyoka, 2000: 75). another factor in the unique structure of the political system in africa which has given occasion for the tendency towards power perpetuation through tenure elongation, is the uncommon way through which the political party system evolved and developed in most of africa. essentially, while political parties in the west originated in parliamentary groups and electoral committees, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 40 clubs and long-established ideological debating societies and religious movements, in africa, only a few individuals or groups of educated elite established political parties (mohammedsalih, 2003:5). this scholar further argues that "whereas the emergence of western parties was contingent on the emergence of parliamentary institutions, the result of suffrage, ideological movements, union, church as well as civil society and social movements, african political parties were in some instances created instantaneously by a small group of political elite to contest elections in preparation for independence" (mohammed-saleh, 2003: 5). moreover, because they failed to live up to the expectation of western-style democracy, post-independent political parties gradually drifted towards traditional political structures, relying on chiefs to promote their election chances (mohamned-salih, 2003: 5-6). this development was made possible because of the settlement pattern of african societies. african societies were arranged in ethnic enclaves. for this reason, "the political constituencies were geographical in nature and ethnically homogeneous. therefore, to win the support of an ethnic group was to win a political constituency. since in nigeria, the ethnic group homelands were quite large geographically and demographically, a strong political base was guaranteed (nnoli, 1978: 151). african states thus became battlegrounds where ethnic groups of varying sizes and strengths contended for political power and economic dominance. nnoli again states: under the conditions of congruence between the interests of the political parties and ethnic associations, increased political active led to the politicization of ethnicity. the struggle for political power became interpreted in ethnic terms. it became a struggle for the hegemony of the various regional factions of the petit bourgeoisie, first in the regional enclave, and then in the country as a whole (nnoli, 1978:152-153). it is therefore correct to conclude that "while decolonization has contributed to the emergence of a short-lived african nationalism, independence, on the contrary, contributed to the resurrection of ethnicity’’ (mohammed -salih, 2001: 25). using their ethnic bases as bulwarks around political power, african politicians easily resort to sit-tightism, afraid that the precarious hold that their ethnic groups have on power, as well as the privileges and perquisites that come therewith, will be lost if politician's from rival ethnic groups, are ever allowed have access to the corridors of power. another unpopular but widely used strategy used by african politicians for political perpetuation of one man or a few groups of men in power, is the one-party system. at a time in africa, especially between the early 70's and early 90's only a few african states had not experimented with the one-party system at one time or the other. ghana, zambia, tanzania, kenya, ethiopia, and uganda, were common examples. the one-party system was a drug which exacerbated the very disease it was taken to heal. this is for the fact that though the "men behind the one-party regimes in africa argued that the system was beneficial in order to control regional or ethnic divisions and curtail factionalism," arguing that the "one-party system reflected the basic consensus of african society" (mbah, 2007: 365), the system became, in effect another veritable tool in the hand of the rulers for pushing back the advance of democracy and entrenching dictatorship. sit-tightism has found some kind of theoretical justification in the elitist theory of the state, variously expressed by pareto, mosca, and popularized in mitchels’ the iron law of oligarchy. jude chibuzo udenkwo ochichi nchigbu and sit-tightism in…. 39 one of the most widely influential proponents of the first concept was c. wright mills. according to his views expressed in the power elite and other works, society is organized around institutional power structures, the three most important of which are the economic, military and political communities. each power structure is manned by a top hierarchy, or elite: corporate presidents and board chairmen, the chiefs of staff of the armed services, and the highest elected or appointed officials in the government, such as the prime minister or the president and his cabinet (rodee, christol, anderson & greene, 1983: 166-167). conclusion as shown in the analysis above, both politicians in democracies and those in ochichi nchigbu (dictatorships) have one thing in common: the keenness to gravitate towards power, to manipulate it, and even grovel before it. it was in light of this universal appeal of power that kissinger saw "power (as) an aphrodisiac, a sort of scintillating elixir, both to the person in power and his admirers." all societies therefore agree on the meaning and importance of power. again, in all societies, it is understood that politics is the game for manipulating and utilizing power, for various ends. in this connection, david eaton sees politics as the authoritative allocation of values, while harold lasswell defines politics as the arena for determining who gets what, when and how (appadorai, 1979). there is, however, a particular area of disagreement: while democracies produce leaders that understand power as a means to an end--the end being the uplift of the living condition of citizens alive and those unborn--dictators have a tendency for seeking power as an end in itself. dictatorships, especially those that resort to political perpetuation, often argue that the challenges of nation-building, economic development and national security warrant the need to erode popular freedoms. they argue that what holds true for advanced democracies do not necessarily hold true for developing countries (anyaoku, 2005), given the acute struggle of these countries to catch up with the rest of the world in development and wealth. on the other hand, advanced capitalist democracies argue that freedom is a basic and universal human right, which does not require temporal and spatial convenience to be granted to people. they often cite the document on the american declaration of independence, in which the provision of freedom, equality and happiness, is deemed as the most fundamental duty of government (jefferson, in lawhead, 2003). this paper has shown the extent to which the factors that determine the freedom and democratic values of a society are dependent on a complex web of socioeconomic, cultural and political forces. that, in effect, implies that if one wants to change a way a people is governed, by possibly expanding their freedoms and ensuring popular participation in decision-making, one needs to first change the material basis of the society. there is need to find a middle ground between these extremes, to discover the golden mean between the unrestricted political involvement and socioeconomic freedom enjoyed in advanced democracies, and the total sacrifice of the freedom of the people at the altar of national stability and more often than not, one man's interest. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 40 references appadorai, a. (1979). the substance of politics. (2nd ed.). madras: oxford university press anozie, p.o. & ekeada, c. (2019). plato’s education theory and national policy on education: imperatives for civic training and national development. panorama of curriculum development and instructional plan.a book ofreadings in honour of professorakuma, nwani. ebonyi state university, abakaliki anozie, p.o. (2009). political economy of oil and gas: the contradictions of an oil economy. owerri: cel-bez publications ltd. ayaoku, e. (2005). the inside story of the modern commonwealth. london: longman. dukor, m. (2003). philosophy and politics: discourse on values, politics and power in africa (2nd ed.). lagos: malthouse. ekeocha, o (2003). the reality of state power. in dukor, m. (ed.) philosophy and politics: discourse on values, politics and power in africa(2nd ed.). lagos: malthouse. ezeanyika, s.e. (2000). introduction to african politics. (2nd edition.) owerri: development studies research group. mbah, c.c. (2007). foundations of political science. nimo: rex charles & patrick.p.365). frost, s. e. (1989). basic teachings of the great philosophers: a survey of their basic ideas. new york: anchor books huntington, s. (1991). the third wave: democratization in the late twentieth century, university of oklahoma press. lawhead, w.f. (2003). the philosophical journey: an interactive approach. (5th ed). boston: mcgraw-hill book company. mohammed-salih, m.a. (2003). african political parties: evolution, institutionalization and governance. london, sterling, virginia: pluto press. mohammed-salih, m.a. (2001). african democracies and african politics. (london, sterling, virginia: pluto press. nnoli, o. ((1978). ethnic politics in nigeria. enugu: forth dimension publishing co. ltd. osadolor, o. b. (2001). the military system of benin kingdom, c. 1440–1897. (doctoral dissertation). university of hamburg. rodee, c.c., christol, q. c., anderson, t.j. & greene, h.g. (1983). introduction to political science (international students edition) tokyo: mcgraw-hill book company. p.166-167 kawalya-tendo, c (2020). how dictators maintain a stronghold on power; a focus on africa’s strongmen (doctoral dissertation) regis university 114 peace and conflict resolution: a paradigm for national development ushingio, peter ushingio, university of calabar. & chukwu, paul ogbonna university of nigeria, nsukka. abstract over the years, conflict has been a recurring phenomenon in many nations of this planet earth. this is incumbent on the fact that the human nature is not devoid of conflict due to various biological, psychological and social factors. for instance, from the perspective of evolution, conflict is necessary for survival because humans competed for food, territory and mates which likely contributed to the development of conflict as a natural aspect of life. also, human beings are social beings with complex emotional and cognitive needs, conflict often arise among them owing to differences in values, beliefs and goals. humans equally have an inherent tendency towards aggression or competition as a way to secure resources and ensure survival, and tend to interpret the world through their own biases, leading to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of others' actions. these biases, such as in-group bias can fuel conflicts, as people may be more prone to perceiving threats or insults based on their pre-existing beliefs. this paper points out that even though there are many attempts made, and methods employed to resolve conflict, and great efforts have been made in our climes regarding global peace, world peace, conflict avoidance, conflict management and conflict resolutions, we still experience disasters, mayhem, acrimony, wars which have taken a toll on many nations’ development. there is therefore, the need to explore more avenues to fight the course of conflict to enhance national development. this paper advances the position of a philosopher with particular interest in the philosophy of ibuanyidanda noetic propaedeutic to address the issue of conflict for national development. keywords: peace, conflict resolution, ibuanyidanda noetic propaedeutic, national development. introduction according to wonah, the state through its government formulates and implements development policies and programmes. in line with this, he sees national development, as the effort made by the people through their government to improve their quality of life and ensure free and egalitarian societywithin the national boundary (3). lawal and oluwatoyin also jaja nwanegbo, and odigboas cited in (wonah, 3), see national development asthe overall development or a collective socio-economic, political as well as religious advancement of a country ornation.national development,therefore, is a multidimensional concept encompassing the economic, political, and social progress of a country. it goes beyond mere economic growth, encompassing the overall well-being of a nation’s citizens and the structural transformation of its institutions. as nations strive for sustainable development, key areas such as education, infrastructure, and governance have emerged as foundational pillars that support long-term national prosperity. national development is a complex but achievable objective when approached through a multifaceted lens. education empowers individuals and strengthens the human capital necessary for economic growth. infrastructure facilitates ushingio &, chukwu, paul peace and conflict resolution: a paradigm for.. 115 connectivity and supports industry. governance ensures that the benefits of development are equitably distributed and sustainably managed. together, these pillars form the foundation of a nation’s progress. future strategies must emphasize the synergies among these domains to ensure holistic, inclusive, and sustainable development. all these can be achieved if there is peace and conflicts are resolved as and when due. according to naboth and nwafor, the concept of peace lends itself to several interpretations and definitions, which cannot beexhaustively discussed here. ordinarily, peace means the absence of conflict or violence at a particular time andplace. it evokes the climate of freedom from fear, intimidation and harassment, oppression and brutalisation byexternal forces or agents (1). there is no gain saying the fact that our nations need peace, the human nature needs peace both in daily activities of life and in thoughts and culminate in actions. there is no nation in this terrestrial existence that grows successfully without the entrenchment of peace, tranquility and harmonious coexistent among the citizens. looking at the vital role of peace in the society, some analyst often times describe peace as an organic foundation for any significant development across all levels of human endeavors. in spite of the robust nature or how viral policies of any nation’s government might be, without peace such policies will not achieve the desired goal or objective. this is what makes this research work very central and apt especially in an era where we need peace most particularly in our homes and nation at large bearing in mind the high levels of agitations and insecurity among the citizens partly for self-secession and economic control. it is however imperative to state that human development and economic diversification all over the world hinges exclusively on the existing peaceful coexistence among the citizens of such country to galvanize support for full actualization of government economic and political policies for the best interest of her citizens. furthermore, peace which remains an essential need of the people has always been among the humans highest values right from time immemorial. in fact, an unjust peace is better than a just war. peace: a necessity peace is more important than all justice. it is on this clime to state that humanity prefer the most unjust peace to the most just war that was ever waged as there never was a good war or a had peace. however, economic prosperity and socio-cultural development of any nation is the function of the peaceful, harmonious relationship and tranquility that prevailed among the citizens over time.ultimately, this is viewed as a peace of the mind or favorable serenity for people hearts desired to strife in the areas of domicile. the task before any citizen of any a nation is to proactively work assiduously for the sustenance and build peace constituency within the individual family, traditional institutions, pressure groups, interfaith organization, schools, market places, civil society organization. ngos and peer groups to champion the course of national unity and peaceful coexistence which undoubtedly is the most essential need of any nation. many people, scholars, tourists, businessmen and well-meaning citizens of a nation hold tenaciously to the fact that the greatest resources any government can bequeaths to her citizens is a sustainable peace to enhance growth and meaningful development among the people. there is a compelling need for government at all levels to create effective and efficient peacebuilding mechanism to holistically address visible conflict as a greater concern among the citizens to adequately in cooperatethe yearnings of the people in the policy formulation of government with a view to address the roots causes of sectional, political agitations or grievances, religious and civil wars coming from the citizens to allow peace to reign particularly at the time when aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 116 the economy of nations of the world is trying to exist from the covid-19 pandemic which had ravaged world. it is therefore crucial to mitigates conflict than to allow it escalates. it is much better and economical to address conflict at the early stages hence the urgent need to step up a holistic approach for effective service delivery and formulations of people oriented policies that has direct impacts on the lives of the concerned citizens than to provide relieve materials to a victims of conflicts. there is need to inculcate the right behaviour that engender peace to eschew conflict that will make a nation to suffer underdevelopment, inter/inter-ethnic and religious crisis that brings about untold hardship to the people, loss of lives, rendering people homeless, displaced and scattered in refugee camps, destruction of economic activities, vandalization of properties which may cost government money to repair them. peace is a pre-requisite for development as a whole because it creates an enabling environment for the fundamentals of a society’s progress: human capital formation, infrastructure development, markets subject to the rule of law, and so on. in the absence of peace, education and health structures break down, systems to provide infrastructure disintegrate, and legal commerce is crippled. critically, peace also frees up resources, both financial and human, that would otherwise be diverted to controlling (or creating) violence. intuitively, it already in our subconscious that peace and development go hand in hand.generally, speaking, the more peaceful a society, the more prosperous and stable. but there is a need for us to understand the economic costs of violent conflict because if the economy of a nation is not stable and growing it will be tantamount to underdevelopment. towards the understanding of the nature of conflict in human society conflict refers to a disagreement or clash between two or more opposing individuals, groups, parties or even ideas as a result of different values, goals, beliefs, interest and so on. conflict is an inherent part of human existence.it is woven into the fabric of history, literature, and everyday life; be it internal or external, individual or collective. while conflict is often viewed negatively due to its association with war, violence, and division, it also serves as a catalyst for growth, self-discovery, and social change. conflict manifests in various forms, namely, personal, interpersonal, and societal. at its core, it arises from opposing interests, desires, or values. sigmund freud described internal conflict as a psychological struggle between different components of the mind, particularly the id, ego, and superego (freud, 34). on a broader level, societal conflicts such as class struggles, racial discrimination, and political disputes have historically driven revolutions and reforms. as hegel posited, “progress is the result of the dialectical process, a conflict between thesis and antithesis leading to a synthesis” (qtd. in singer, 107). in this sense, conflict is not only inevitable but necessary for evolution and change. some scholars, in their works, often mirror societal struggles and internal dilemmas, using conflict as a central device to develop characters and advance the plot. in romeo and juliet, shakespeare presents the destructive consequences of familial conflict, where the feud between the montagues and capulets leads to tragic outcomes (shakespeare, 1.1.85–90). similarly, in chinua achebe’s things fall apart, the cultural conflict between traditional igbo society and british colonialism results in the disintegration of individual identity and societal cohesion (achebe, 176). these narratives highlight how conflict can expose underlying truths about human nature and societal norms. psychologically, conflict can lead to anxiety, stress, and emotional turmoil. however, it can also foster resilience, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence. according to carl jung, ushingio &, chukwu, paul peace and conflict resolution: a paradigm for.. 117 confronting one’s shadow which is in other words known as inner conflict is essential for personal development (jung, 145). on a societal level, conflict can bring attention to injustice and inequality, prompting activism and policy change. the american civil rights movement, for example, was born out of racial conflict but ultimately led to significant legal and cultural advancements (branch, 211). while conflict is often unavoidable, the way it is managed determines its outcome. constructive conflict resolution involves communication, empathy, and compromise. in contrast, unresolved or poorly managed conflict can lead to prolonged suffering and division. as noted by conflict resolution expert john burton, “conflict should not be seen as a failure but as an opportunity to understand and address human needs” (burton, 92). educational and community-based programs focused on dialogue and mediation have shown promising results in fostering peaceful coexistence. conflict, though often uncomfortable, is a powerful force in shaping individuals and societies. its history underscores its complexity and necessity. by understanding the sources and consequences of conflict, and by embracing strategies for its constructive resolution, individuals and societies can harness its transformative potential. in doing so, conflict becomes not merely a challenge, but a gateway to growth, understanding, and progress. cultural and societal structures can amplify or mitigate conflict. different societies have different norms, values, and systems of governance that can either promote cooperation or exacerbate competition and conflict. group identities, such as ethnicity, nationality, or religion, can create in-group favoritism and out-group hostility, fueling conflicts between different groups. some sociologists argue that conflict is not necessarily an innate human trait but a result of the structures and systems within society. inequality, power struggles, and competition for resources can create tensions and conflict, even in otherwise peaceful societies. conflict may arise when individuals or groups are placed in positions of inequality or when their interests clash.humans also tend to interpret the world through their own biases, leading to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of others' actions. these biases, such as in-group bias or confirmation bias, can fuel conflicts, as people may be more prone to perceiving threats or insults based on their pre-existing beliefs (burton, 93). causes of conflict the ontological principle of causality which is also rendered as the principle of sufficient reason or intelligibility states: omins effesus causem habet ‘every effect has cause’. this metaphysical dictum hinges on the fact that conflict doesnot occur in a vacuum. therefore, there areroot causes of conflict in a nation's existence. we shall now look at such causes; some of which are pointed out by eyo et al., (32-34). 1. economic resources: resources which include human resources and material resources constitute conflict if they are scarce. a nation that does not get the required resources to meet up with the allocation of its people and if there is no proper role played by the government in the allocation of the nation's resources, it will cause political disputes and the likes. citizens of the country, nigeria for instance should be fair in dealing with natural resources endowed by god (ushieet al., 95) 2. power: this has to do with the ability or capacity to act or do something in a particular way. also, the ability to achieve a desired effect whether in the face of opposition or not. such power is gotten either through consent or to coercion, as a result of delegation, conferment etc. when it becomes toxic, whereby those at the corridors of power becomes rather tyrant, it will cause conflict. where there is inability to exert influence and control over people for in any way if it causes conflicts. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 118 3. leadership: this may be considered as an art of motivating a group of people towards achieving a common goal. it can also be seen as an ability to influence and guide followers in a group, when those in leadership positions lacks the ability to inspire confidence in the right direction of a group or nation purpose. it brings out crisis. on the other hand, when about 2million people have interest direct or indirectly in few leadership position, it constitute conflict especially when it’s not properly handle. we have had cases of electoral violence before, during and after elections. this is as a result of those to be at leadership positioning. 4. human nature: according to eyo et al, conflict is engaged in human nation, and as quoted, “there is an irrational" human nature embedded in the human personality characterized by anger aggression, cruelty, hostility. these negative values, tendencies or sensitivities, together produce a violent behavior. the proclivity of the human persons to shine out in different areas of endeavors always causes conflict if pride, wealth, power, fame, etc are managed well. 5. religion: this has to do with the belief and activities regarding to transcendent deity. in view of the religious dogmatism and fanaticism occasioned by religious activities crises and violence break out. 6. ideology: as quoted by eyoet al, ideology refers “the body of ideas reflecting the social needs and aspiration of an individual group, clan or culture”. most time due to the ideological difference and different ideological orientations of some people and nations conflict arises, a case to note here is that of vssr and usa who are seen on having a cold war because of their different ideologies eastern communism and western democracy respectively. the above causes have their theoretical explanatory backgrounds or models which are considered as framework for the taxonomy of causes of conflict. there is the structural conflict theory which derived its generic contents and orientation from two main sources: (i) the radical structural theory of karl marx, friedrich engels and v.llenin. (ii) the liberal structuralism by johan galtung. the main idea of structural conflict is that conflict is inherent in the very way societies are structured or organized. this so conflict occurs as a result of the unjust structures in the society. there is the biological theory, whose proponent is least thomas hobbes. this holds that nature has endured many which the instinct of self-preservation such that “if two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy. they become enemies, and in a way to their end, which is principally their own self-preservation endeavor to destroy or subdue one another”. this brings about violence which according to hobbes harasses man in the state of nature, which is a state of war against every man. it is a state of “solitary, poor, nothing, brutish and short” (hobbes, 409).there is the nealish theory by machiavelli which is seen in his pessimistic view of the human nature. this theory' holds that the combination of possessive and aggressive nature of the human person, compiled with restricted resources give use to conflicts especially in politics. there is the frustration/aggression or human needs theory by abraham maslow, who holds that the instruction which comes as a result of the jack of expected needs satisfaction of the human persons causes conflicts. there is the relational psycho-cultural theory which deals with conflict emanating from the different sociological, political, historical and economic relationships and that of cultural ethnocentrism or cultural chauvinism. ibuanyidanda neotic prepaeduetic as a model for peace and conflict resolution in relation to national development ushingio &, chukwu, paul peace and conflict resolution: a paradigm for.. 119 noetic: the etymology of the term noetic comes from the greek word noétíkos, ultimately from noéōs meaning “i see or i understand” or from the word nous meaning intuitive knowing. the adjectival form of the word noetic means pertaining to the mind or intellect, or originating, or apprehended by reason. the noun form of the word noetic refers to the science of the intellect or a purely intellectual entity. noetic philosophy is therefore a philosophy dealing with the mind, intellect or consciousness. propaedeutic: propaedeutic, (etymologically: propaideuin) means to teach beforehand. it can be seen as a historical term for an introductory course into a discipline such as art, science, etc. it may be defined as knowledge, but not for proficiency (richardson, 82). it can also be referred to as the nature of preliminary instruction. noetic propaedeutic noetic propaedeutic is seen as the training of the mind to acquire a mind-set that understands reality as being in mutual complementation. asouzu’s noetic propaeduetic noetic propaedeutic is a pedagogical and psycho-therapeutic dimension of ibuanyidanda philosophy. the philosophy of ibuanyidanda is a philosophy founded by prof innocent i. asouzu of the philosophy department, university of calabar, calabar. nigeria. the term ibuanyidanda, with its english equivalent “complementarity” is a concept that has its roots in the observational statement ibuanyidanda. (asouzu, 10). most igbo, and most especially, traditional igbo philosophers of the complementary system of thought, allude with the statement ibuanyidandaa form of mutual dependence observable in nature. this statement is derived from the observation based on a colony of ants called danda. this is indicative of the fact that danda, in mutual dependence, ants have the capacity to carry loads that appear bigger and heavier than them. this implication portrays the fact that human beings and even communities just like the species of ant have the capacity to handle difficult challenges by complementary efforts. from the concept of ibuanyidanda comes the articulation of the new complementary’ ontology as its horizon and where the expression complementary reflection (ibuanyidanda philosophy) is derived. the point that stands out clear here is that anything that exists has to fulfill a minimum condition, which survives in its commitment to a mutual complementary relationship between it and the other units with which it shares a common framework. this is what makes existence meaningful. little wonder the central thesis of ibuanyidandaphilosophy: “anything that exists serves a missing link of reality”. (asouzu 10). serving as a missing link is the capacity for existent realities to be in mutual complementary relationship, as not being alone. there are two principles of philosophy, namely, the principle of integration and the principle of progressive transformation. the principle of integration which asouzu calls the metaphysical variant of ibuanyidanda principle states: “anything that exists serves a missing link of reality”. and the principle of progressive transformation which serves as the practical variant of lbuanyidanda states: “all human actions are geared towards the joy of being" (asouzu, 44), it is through these principles, coupled with the imperative, truth and authenticity criterion that ibuanyidanda philosophy seeks to harmonize theory and practice. in this case they emphasis more on the human insufficiency not forgetting the human determination to absoluteness and comprehensiveness in his future reference (asouzu, 45). the basic tools of ibuanyidanda philosophy are method, principles, imperative and truth and authenticity criterion of ibuanyidanda philosophy. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 120 i. method of ibuanyidanda: it is the fundamental disposition needed for the missing link to think and act in an ibuanyidanda mode. ii. principles of ibuanyidanda: it is the principle of progressive transformation which claims that “all human actions are geared towards the joy of being”. iii. imperative of ibuanyidanda: this demands that limitations of beings should be allowed to be the cause of one’s joy. iv. truth and authenticity criterion of ibuanyidanda: it states that a world immanent missing link should never be elevated to an absolute instance. ibuanyidanda philosophy relies on its method, principles, imperative and its truth and authenticity criterion as its tools to address the broken unity often sensed in human consciousness and the existential challenges and constraints imposed by our tension-laden existential experience. the term noetic propaedeutic is attributed to asouzu innocent. it is a process of preparing the mind before it enters any discourse. it can also be seen as pedagogy of the mind. that is to say it is a process whereby the mind is trained to view reality as being in mutual complement. one of his proponents of ibuanyidanda, edet mesembe, sees noetic propaedeutic as the kernel of ibuanyidanda, philosophy. thus, he says: it refers to the need for training the mind to learn to view the units composing of any reality as complements. it is a process where the mind is educated to see beyond its narrow enclaves. it is an education of the mind towards renouncing a non-conciliatory, conceited, polarizing and discriminative type of mindset acquired through education, socialization and indoctrination (167). this notion of mesembe regarding noetic propaedeutic underscores the training of the mind toward approaching reality. it takes care of issues of factions, tribalism, nepotism and the likes. it takes care of the situation of one-sided approach to human interest. thus,asouzu avows: “one sided approach to human interests would lead to tension, confusion ...” (92). for bisong, noetic propaedeutic is a “form of positive personal awareness of the capacity of the constraining mechanism to inject fear in an individual regarding the dangers we are facing and thus instigating the instinct of self-preservation to lead the mind in a one-directional and polarized manner” (181). in the words of oti friday, noetic propaedeutic “refers to the process of training the mind and human reason, with the view to overcome the broken unity in human consciousness” (1l).in the process of noetic propaedeutic (pre-education of the mind) the human subject learns to convert the transcendent categories of unity of consciousness of ibuanyidanda philosophy into practical action. in this process of noetic propaeduetic. method of ibuanyidanda philosophy, which is the fundamental disposition needed to think and act in an ibuanyidanda, is co-intended and consummated, both formally and materially in all given instances. “based on this method” as asouzu avers, “ibuanyidanda, seeks to show why judgments concerning given empirical conditions are not necessarily objective statements of fact as they occur in our consciousness, but judgments can be preconditioned by mechanisms and phenomena that influence the way we perceive reality” (22). the understanding of this assertion is that the method of ibuanyidanda philosophy is an imperative venture in dealing with the world so that ushingio &, chukwu, paul peace and conflict resolution: a paradigm for.. 121 theoreticians and actors can always search beyond mere sensations in order to ascertain some phenomena and mechanisms of rational, non-rational and quasi-rational nature in our experience of reality. the method of ibuanyidanda, therefore, indicates why pedagogy in the sense of neotic propaedeutic is indispensable for addressing the challenges that threaten terrestrial existence in its fundamental tension-laden constitution. there is a need for a mind-set that plunges into effective communication. the indispensable precondition of this is the training of the mind. thus asouzu avers that “the mind turns out to be that faculty on which all seeking meaning and understanding within contexts of communication can reliably build. in this way. the mind turns out to be that faculty through whose activities human beings can be distinguished from other lower beings and missing links” (asouzu, 83). noetic propaedatic brings about the self-consciousness that reactivates the innate transcendent categories of the mind. asouzu considers this as the highest act of selfconsciousness or the state of imaonweonye in igbo language. through reactivation in innate categories of the mind to transcendent categories the subject will be able to supersede the impositions of the senses and the prevalent constraints as a result of the phenomenon oi concealment and human tension-laden ambivalent existential situations. it therefore becomes sacrosanct for the mind to be sensitized in the act of positive self-awareness and affirmation in view of dangerous, insecure and unstable human situations. in a general existential relationship with reality, noetic propaedatic gives a personalistic awareness regarding factors that posed existential challenges. therefore the capacity of instilling positive fear in missing links against danger, insecurity and instability is typical of the process of noetic propaedeutic. it also brings to foe the proactive spirit of letting the missing links know that their efforts subsist in the fact that to be is to be in mutual complementary relationship with all existent realities. noetic propaedatic aims at disclosing the difficulties indulging in acts of excessive selfishness that is geared towards overturning of the interest of others. there is therefore a need for a kind of mindset that enters into a continuous type of noetic propaedeutic, “there is a need as asouzu opines’ to trained the mind towards the acquisition of such a mindset” (81). “the main objective of such a noetic propaedeutic” therefore “is to make the acting subject adaptable and receptive towards understanding and sharing meaning in a way that transcends artificial boundaries it creates around itself” (18). this can be achieved by designing peace building and conflicts resolution modules to educates and sensitize the members of the public agitating for one thing or the others from the government. similarly, there are various ways to attempt to coordinates peace building process.one way is to develop a peace building at the individual level by training the minds to undergo a process of healings thereby x-ray all the various components inherent in peaceful coexistence looking at the economy, political and socio-cultural repercussion and the attendant destructions of lives and social devastations of a conflict.though, no nation can attain greatness without conflict but we should be mindful of the twine consequences that conflict might posed if allowed.therefore it must be done in a manner that it will not and does not affects the corporate existence of the country or threatening the security of the nation.extreme conflict over a status quo erupt basically to achieve or draw government attentions to just governance by underlying the goals and beliefs inherent in the agitation. consequently, conflict itself is a process of communication, an engagement in a well-defined area of expression, passion and beliefs become evident of a hidden interest towards achieving a new structure of expectations if it is well articulated and managed from escalation. this is a clarion call on the citizens of nations of the world to use this which this paperoffered to genuinely, fairly and justly come together on a round table to passionately address our common aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 122 problems in a more pragmatic and holistic manner.where all segments of the aggrieved population can come together to embrace each other mutually through dialogue rather than extreme confrontations.lt is pertinent at this junction to draw attentions of all nations irrespective of their position, cultural beliefs, political associations and affiliations to warn those fanning the embers of disintegration, hate speech, animosity to have a change of mind as the unity and diversity of the country is the strength of every nations.no body or groups of individuals can bring division and separate citizens from achieving the labours of the heroes past through deep rooted offensive language of disintegration or secession and other kinds of conflict. conclusion there is need to develop a mindset that will in turn train people to come up with new ideas to solve intractable social problems and work relentlessly to execute them in order to achieve lasting social impact.in this case, of preparing society to overcome the effects of violent conflict all hands must be on deck to builda lasting peaceful society so critical for economic and social development which geared towards national development.peace is more than the absence of war; it entails the presence of conditions that foster social justice, equitable resource distribution, and participatory governance. national development—defined as the capacity of a nation to improve the economic, political, and social well-being of its people—is deeply rooted in the presence of peace. infrastructural development, education, healthcare, and investment suffer in the absence of peace. ushingio &, chukwu, paul peace and conflict resolution: a paradigm for.. 123 references acha, j. o. 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(2019). peace and national development in nigeria: the rivers state experience. developing country studieswww.iiste.orgissn 2224-607x (paper) issn 2225-0565 (online) doi: 10.7176/dcs. http://www.iiste.org/ aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr the epistemology of disagreement: hume, kant, and the current relevance benedict michael, phd department of philosophy benue state university benmike3@gmail.com , bmichael@bsum.edu.ng and terzungwe emmanuel igyom department of philosophy benue state university abstract the paper explores the epistemology of disagreement in the epistemologies of david hume and immanuel kant. hume in his epistemology—especially in his empiricism—lays emphasis on the role of sense experience and the fallibility of human reason, suggesting that disagreement often arises from the limitations and biases inherent in human cognition. hume in his empiricism did not believe in consensus or middle ground the analysis of human knowledge, differing experiences and interpretations, advocating for a skeptical approach to conflicting viewpoints. kant, contrastingly, introduced critical philosophy in which reason and a priori knowledge play pivotal roles in his critique of pure reason. the principle of universality in the critique played pivot role resolving the disagreements especially in the dichotomy of rationality and empiricism. the universal rational principles ensure that disagreements can be resolved through the application of universal rational principles, positing that the proper use of reason can lead to consensus. kant's framework suggests that apparent disagreements may stem from misunderstandings or misapplications of these principles, and that genuine rational discourse can bridge epistemic divides. this study examines the various dimensions of disagreement in epistemology and show the kantian approach in resolving disagreement. the paper synthesizes these perspectives, examining the implications of hume's skepticism and kant's rationalism in the context of modern epistemological theories. it investigates whether contemporary approaches align more closely with hume's fallibilism or kant's optimism about reason, and how these philosophical legacies inform current understandings of disagreement. the paper concludes that the proper understanding of hume and kant's respective handling of the epistemology of disagreement will serve as the model for managing disagreement or differences in scholarship and among scholars. keywords: epistemology, disagreement, hume, kant, current debate. introduction the epistemology of disagreement is an area of philosophy that investigates the nature, implications, and potential resolutions of disagreements, particularly those that occur among individuals considered to be epistemic peers—people who are roughly equal in terms of knowledge, evidence, and intellectual capability. this area of study has become increasingly important in contemporary philosophical discourse, mirroring the growing societal concerns about polarization, ideological divides, and the challenges of constructive dialogue in an increasingly fragmented world. disagreements among epistemic peers pose unique challenges: if two individuals, both equally 78 knowledgeable and rational, arrive at opposing conclusions, how should they respond to each other's views? should they remain steadfast in their beliefs, revise them, or suspend judgment altogether? these questions are not only philosophically intriguing but also practically relevant in contexts ranging from scientific debates to political discourse. this work explores the contributions of two towering figures in the history of philosophy, david hume and immanuel kant, to the epistemology of disagreement. hume, known for his empiricism and skepticism, provides a framework that emphasizes the limits of human reason and the role of custom and habit in belief formation. kant, on the other hand, offers a counterpoint with his emphasis on the autonomy of reason and the critical role of moral and epistemic principles in guiding belief and action. by examining their respective views, we gain valuable insights into how their ideas can inform and potentially resolve contemporary debates on disagreement, particularly in contexts where mutual understanding and consensus seem increasingly difficult to achieve. hume's empiricism and skepticism david hume stands as a towering figure in the scottish enlightenment and one of the most influential philosophers in western thought. his philosophical work is characterized by a deep skepticism about the capacities of human reason and a staunch commitment to empiricism, which holds that all knowledge originates from sensory experience. hume's philosophy begins with a crucial distinction between "impressions" and "ideas." according to hume, impressions are the raw data of experience—the vivid and immediate sensations we receive through our senses, such as the color red, the taste of an apple, or the pain of a headache. ideas, on the other hand, are the faint images of these impressions that we use in thinking and reasoning. for instance, the idea of a mountain is derived from our sensory experience of seeing a mountain. hume argues that all ideas, no matter how complex, can ultimately be traced back to original impressions. this radical claim challenges the notion that humans possess innate ideas or knowledge independent of experience (hume, 1739). hume encapsulates his insight in what he calls the "copy principle." this principle states that all ideas are copies of impressions. for example, our idea of a unicorn is not innate; rather, it is a combination of simpler impressions (like the shape of a horse and the horn of a rhinoceros) that we have experienced separately. by this account, complex ideas are nothing more than composites of simpler ones. hume goes further to suggest that if an idea cannot be traced back to an impression, it is likely meaningless. this criterion of meaning leads hume to dismiss many metaphysical concepts, such as the notion of a perfect being, which cannot be directly linked to sensory impressions (hume, 1748). given that all knowledge is grounded in sensory experience, hume argues that our understanding is limited to what we can perceive through our senses. this means that we cannot have knowledge of things that lie beyond our sensory experience, such as metaphysical entities like the soul, god, or an afterlife. hume's skepticism about these matters stems from his belief that they cannot be empirically verified—they cannot be traced back to any sensory impressions and, therefore, lack meaningful content (hume, 1748). this stance places him in direct opposition to many of his contemporaries who believed that reason alone could provide knowledge of such entities. skepticism: questioning human understanding one of hume's most influential contributions to philosophy is his skeptical treatment of causality. while we observe that certain events seem to cause others—like striking a match and seeing it ignite—hume argues that we never actually observe a necessary connection between 79 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 cause and effect. instead, we only observe that one event follows another consistently. from this, we infer causality, but this inference is not grounded in reason. rather, it is a product of habit or custom—our minds are conditioned to expect certain outcomes based on past experiences. hume's analysis of causality challenges the rationalist assumption that causality is a fundamental feature of reality that can be known through reason alone (hume, 1739). closely related to his skepticism about causality is hume's famous “problem of induction”. induction is the process of making generalizations based on specific observations (e.g., the sun has risen every day, so it will rise tomorrow). hume points out that there is no logical justification for assuming that the future will resemble the past; this assumption is not based on reason but on habit. we cannot rationally justify induction because it relies on the very principle we are trying to prove—this leads to a form of circular reasoning. hume's problem of induction has profound implications, particularly for the scientific method, which relies heavily on inductive reasoning (hume, 1748). hume also extends his skepticism to the notion of the self. he famously argues that what we call the "self" is nothing more than a bundle of perceptions. we experience a constant flow of sensations, thoughts, and feelings, but we never actually perceive the self as a single, enduring entity. according to hume, the self is an illusion created by the mind's tendency to link these perceptions together over time. this view challenges the traditional notion of a stable, unified self and has had a lasting impact on later philosophical discussions about personal identity (hume, 1739). hume is particularly skeptical of metaphysical claims that cannot be grounded in empirical evidence. he believes that much of traditional metaphysics, which deals with questions about the existence of god, the nature of the soul, and the afterlife, is speculative and not grounded in sensory experience. for hume, if a concept cannot be traced back to a sensory impression, it is likely nonsensical. this skepticism leads him to reject many of the metaphysical systems that were popular in his time, advocating instead for a philosophy grounded in empirical observation and common experience (hume, 1748). hume's empiricism and skepticism laid the foundation for later philosophical movements, particularly naturalism and logical positivism. his insistence that all knowledge must be grounded in experience influenced the development of modern science, which relies on observation, experimentation, and the rejection of unverifiable metaphysical claims. hume's work can be seen as a precursor to the scientific approach that emphasizes empirical evidence over speculative reasoning (hume, 1748). hume's philosophy is often viewed as a direct challenge to the rationalist tradition, which holds that reason alone can lead to knowledge. by demonstrating that many of our most fundamental beliefs—such as causality, the self, and even the existence of god—are not rationally justified, hume pushed philosophy toward a more critical and self-aware stance. his work highlighted the limitations of human reason and the need for a more modest, empirically grounded approach to knowledge (hume, 1748). despite his deep skepticism, however, hume did not advocate for radical doubt or complete disbelief. he recognized that human life requires us to operate on the basis of certain beliefs and habits, even if they are not fully rational. for instance, while we cannot rationally justify our belief in causality, we must still act as though cause and effect relationships exist in our daily lives. in this sense, hume's skepticism is practical, urging us to be cautious in our claims to knowledge while acknowledging the role that custom and experience play in our everyday decisions (hume, 1748). 80 benedict michael & terzungwe emmanuel igyom the epistemology of disagreement:... kant's critical philosophy and the role of reason immanuel kant's critical philosophy, often encapsulated in his seminal work, critique of pure reason (1781), represents a profound shift in philosophical thought, particularly in response to the skepticism of david hume. kant sought to resolve the tension between rationalism and empiricism by proposing that while all knowledge begins with experience, not all of it is derived solely from experience. instead, kant posited that the human mind actively structures and shapes our experiences using innate categories and concepts. this concept of the mind as an active participant in knowledge acquisition was revolutionary and formed the basis of what kant called "transcendental idealism." kant's critical philosophy hinges on the role of reason, which he believed was essential in organizing and making sense of the sensory data we receive from the world. unlike empiricists such as hume, who argued that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and that reason is merely a passive recipient of this data, kant asserted that reason has a fundamental, constitutive role in shaping experience. he argued that the mind is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which the world imprints itself. instead, it comes pre-equipped with innate structures, which kant referred to as "categories," that actively interpret and organize sensory data. these categories include fundamental concepts such as causality, substance, and unity, which are not derived from experience but are necessary conditions for the possibility of experience. for example, the concept of causality (the idea that every event has a cause) is not something we learn through experience; rather, it is a mental framework that we impose on the world to make sense of it. without such categories, kant argued, we could not experience the world as a coherent, structured reality; instead, it would appear as a chaotic, disorganized array of sensations. kant's assertion that the mind plays an active role in structuring experience marked a significant departure from the empiricism of hume, who famously questioned the very notion of causality and the reliability of inductive reasoning. hume argued that our belief in causality is the result of habit or custom, not rational deduction. in contrast, kant insisted that causality is a necessary precondition for any coherent experience of the world, and thus, it is a product of reason, not merely an empirical observation. the transcendental deduction a key element of kant's argument is the "transcendental deduction," a complex argument designed to show that the categories of the mind are not arbitrary but are necessary for the possibility of experience. kant asked how it is possible for objects in the world to conform to the knowledge we have of them. his answer was that the objects of our experience conform to the categories of the mind because the mind actively imposes these categories on the raw data of sensory experience. this process is what kant called "transcendental synthesis," where the mind unifies the manifold of sensory input into a coherent experience of an object. this synthesis is a function of what kant called "pure reason," as distinct from "practical reason," which deals with moral and ethical decision-making. pure reason is concerned with the conditions of the possibility of knowledge itself, and it operates independently of empirical content. by placing reason at the center of his epistemology, kant sought to secure a firm foundation for scientific knowledge against the skepticism of empiricists like hume. the limits of reason and the phenomenal-noumenal distinction while kant placed great importance on reason, he also acknowledged its limits. he argued that while reason can structure and organize the data of sensory experience, it cannot provide knowledge of things as they are in themselves, independent of our experience. this distinction 81 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 between the "phenomenal" world (the world as it appears to us) and the "noumenal" world (the world as it is in itself) is central to kant's critical philosophy. kant contended that we can never have direct knowledge of the noumenal world because our knowledge is always mediated by the categories of the mind. this limitation implies that certain questions, such as the nature of the soul, the existence of god, or the ultimate nature of reality, lie beyond the reach of human reason. these questions are not meaningless, but they cannot be answered through speculative reason. instead, they belong to the realm of practical reason, where moral and ethical considerations come into play in summary, kant's critical philosophy represents a synthesis of rationalism and empiricism, where the mind is seen as actively shaping the raw data of experience through innate categories and concepts. this view of the mind's role in knowledge acquisition marked a significant departure from the empiricist tradition, particularly in its response to hume's skepticism. kant's emphasis on the role of reason in structuring experience laid the groundwork for much of modern philosophy, influencing subsequent developments in both epistemology and metaphysics. by delineating the limits of reason, kant also opened up new areas of philosophical inquiry, particularly in ethics and moral philosophy, where the role of practical reason becomes paramount. for kant, reason is not just a passive tool for organizing sensory data, but an active force that shapes our very experience of reality. this centrality of reason in kant's philosophy underscores his enduring contribution to the field, as well as the ongoing relevance of his ideas in contemporary discussions on the nature of knowledge, reality, and the human mind. the nature and sources of disagreement in hume's philosophy hume's epistemology suggests that the fundamental cause of disagreement among individuals stems from the variability of human experience and the subjective nature of perception. according to hume, all our ideas are ultimately derived from impressions, or sensory experiences, which differ from person to person (hume, 1739/1978). these differences in sensory experiences lead to varied beliefs, as people interpret the world through the lens of their own experiences. hume notes that because these impressions are subjective, it is inevitable that disagreements will arise, as individuals do not share the same experiences and therefore cannot be expected to hold identical beliefs. hume also argues that the passions, or emotions, play a significant role in shaping our beliefs. this introduces another layer of subjectivity, as different individuals have different emotional responses to the same experiences. these passions can influence judgment and reasoning, leading to further divergence in beliefs (hume, 1748/1975). thus, for hume, the origins of disagreement lie not only in the variability of sensory experiences but also in the diverse emotional responses that accompany these experiences. hume's approach to resolving disagreements hume's method for addressing disagreements involves a critical examination of the evidence and experiences that underpin each party's beliefs. he advocates for a form of moderate skepticism, where individuals are encouraged to question their beliefs and those of others, acknowledging the fallibility of human understanding. hume emphasizes that, in the absence of absolute certainty, the best approach is to evaluate the probability of various beliefs based on the available evidence (hume, 1748/1975). in this process, hume suggests that individuals should be open to revising their beliefs when confronted with compelling evidence that contradicts their current views. he discourages dogmatism and the expectation of achieving absolute certainty, instead proposing that people aim 82 benedict michael & terzungwe emmanuel igyom the epistemology of disagreement:... for reasonable beliefs that are supported by the best available evidence (hume, 1739/1978). this approach is grounded in hume's broader philosophical commitment to empiricism and skepticism, where knowledge is seen as provisional and subject to revision in light of new experiences. hume's approach to resolving disagreements also involves an acknowledgment of the limitations of human reason. he argues that since our beliefs are heavily influenced by custom and habit, rather than by strict logical deduction, we must be cautious in assuming the infallibility of our reasoning processes (hume, 1748/1975). by embracing a humble and critical stance towards our own beliefs and those of others, hume believes that we can navigate disagreements more effectively, even if we cannot always achieve consensus. kant on disagreement kant placed significant emphasis on the role of pure reason in addressing and resolving disagreements. according to him, pure reason allows individuals to transcend their subjective experiences and personal biases, thereby facilitating the attainment of objective knowledge. this concept is crucial in the context of disagreements, as it suggests that through the disciplined use of reason, individuals can move beyond their immediate, potentially conflicting perspectives and work towards a shared understanding rooted in universal principles. for kant, the proper exercise of reason is not just about resolving specific disputes, but about engaging in a process that reveals the underlying principles that govern our cognition and moral judgments (kant, 1781/1998). kant proposed that disagreements should be addressed through a process of critical examination, which involves the rigorous analysis of the concepts and assumptions underlying different viewpoints. this process, guided by reason, aims to uncover the universal principles that structure our experiences and inform our judgments. kant believed that rational discourse, when conducted properly, could lead to the resolution of disagreements by appealing to these universal principles. the idea is that by focusing on what is common to all rational beings—namely, the structures of reason itself—individuals can find common ground even in the face of apparent conflict. this approach reflects kant's broader commitment to the enlightenment ideals of reason and autonomy, where rational dialogue is seen as the path to mutual understanding and the resolution of conflict (kant, 1785/1996). debates in the epistemology of disagreement one of the most prominent debates in the epistemology of disagreement is between the conciliatory and steadfast positions. conciliatory views suggest that when faced with a disagreement with an epistemic peer (someone with similar evidence and cognitive abilities), one should revise their belief, often by adopting a middle ground or by lowering confidence in the original belief. this view is often associated with the idea that disagreement provides evidence that one may have made an error in reasoning or interpretation. advocates of this position, such as richard feldman and david christensen, argue that failing to revise one's beliefs in light of peer disagreement indicates a form of epistemic arrogance or irrationality (feldman, 2006; christensen, 2009). on the other hand, the steadfast view maintains that one is not necessarily required to revise their beliefs in the face of disagreement, even when the disagreement is with an epistemic peer. proponents like thomas kelly argue that holding firm can be rational, especially if one has strong reasons to trust their own cognitive faculties or interpretation of the evidence (kelly, 2010). this position allows for the possibility that one could rationally maintain their belief even in the face of disagreement, as the mere fact of disagreement does not automatically undermine the justification for one's belief. 83 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 a related debate centers on the notion of an epistemic peer. determining who qualifies as a peer is crucial since the epistemic significance of disagreement often hinges on whether the disagreeing party is considered a peer. some philosophers argue that an epistemic peer is someone with similar access to evidence and roughly equal cognitive abilities, while others suggest that other factors, such as intellectual virtues and critical thinking skills, should also be considered. there is also debate over how to handle disagreements when it's unclear whether the other person is an epistemic peer. for instance, if there is uncertainty about whether the disagreement is with a peer, should one lean towards conciliation or steadfastness? some scholars suggest adopting a more cautious approach, possibly treating the other as a peer unless there are strong reasons to think otherwise (elga, 2007). another significant debate involves the uniqueness thesis and the permissivism thesis. the uniqueness thesis asserts that for any body of evidence and a particular proposition, there is only one rationally justified attitude that one can take (white, 2005). this view implies that if two epistemic peers disagree, at least one of them must be irrational or mistaken in their interpretation of the evidence. in contrast, permissivism holds that it is possible for two rational individuals to have different but rationally permissible responses to the same body of evidence. this position allows for a plurality of rational responses to the same evidence, suggesting that disagreement between epistemic peers can occur without necessarily implying that either party is irrational (schoenfield, 2014). the implications of these positions for disagreement are profound. if the uniqueness thesis is correct, then disagreement among epistemic peers should lead one to question their belief since there can only be one rational response. however, if permissivism is correct, disagreement does not necessarily require belief revision, as multiple rational responses to the evidence are possible. higher-order evidence refers to evidence about the quality of one's own evidence or reasoning process. in the context of disagreement, higher-order evidence might include the fact that a peer disagrees with you, which could be taken as evidence that your original evidence or reasoning might be flawed. the debate here focuses on how higher-order evidence should influence our beliefs. some philosophers argue that higher-order evidence should lead to significant belief revision, particularly in cases of peer disagreement (christensen, 2011). others contend that while higher-order evidence should be considered, it does not always require drastic changes in one's beliefs, especially if one has strong first-order evidence supporting their belief (kelly, 2010). a more recent area of debate within the epistemology of disagreement is the application of these principles to moral and political disagreements. these disagreements often involve deeply held beliefs that are central to an individual's identity, making them particularly resistant to revision. some philosophers argue that the epistemology of disagreement should apply equally to moral and political disagreements as it does to factual disagreements (vavova, 2014). however, others contend that the personal and emotional stakes involved in these types of disagreements make them distinct and perhaps less susceptible to the same epistemic norms. the epistemology of disagreement remains a vibrant and contested area of philosophical inquiry. the debates over how to respond to disagreement, the nature of epistemic peerhood, the uniqueness versus permissivism debate, and the role of higher-order evidence are central to understanding how we should navigate conflicting beliefs. as these debates continue, they contribute to broader discussions about the nature of rationality, belief formation, and the limits of human knowledge. 84 benedict michael & terzungwe emmanuel igyom the epistemology of disagreement:... hume's influence on skepticism and empiricism as we have seen, david hume—who is best known for his radical skepticism and his empiricist approach to knowledge—argued that human knowledge is fundamentally limited and that our beliefs should be proportioned to the evidence available to us. this skepticism towards the certainty of knowledge has significant implications for how contemporary thinkers approach epistemological disagreements. in modern debates, hume's influence is particularly evident in conciliatory approaches to epistemology of disagreement. these approaches suggest that when two parties have access to the same evidence but come to different conclusions, both should reconsider their positions and possibly adjust their beliefs. this is based on the humean idea that belief should be adjusted according to the weight of evidence and that certainty is often unwarranted. hume's emphasis on empirical evidence also supports the idea that beliefs should be subject to revision in light of new evidence, a key tenet of the conciliatory stance (feldman, 2006). hume's skepticism further contributes to the contemporary understanding that all knowledge claims are fallible and that even our most deeply held beliefs should be open to challenge. this aligns with the view that epistemic humility—acknowledging the limits of one's knowledge—is crucial in navigating disagreements (elga, 2007). thus, hume's philosophy encourages a more flexible and open-minded approach to disagreements, where the possibility of error is always acknowledged. kant's influence: reason and universal principles in contrast to hume's empirical-skeptical stance, immanuel kant, emphasized the role of reason and the necessity of universal principles in the acquisition of knowledge. kant argued that while empirical evidence is important, reason plays a crucial role in organizing and interpreting sensory experiences. he introduced the idea of a priori knowledge—knowledge that is independent of experience and grounded in rationality. kant's philosophy has significantly influenced steadfast approaches to the epistemology of disagreement. steadfast approaches maintain that it is sometimes rational for individuals to stick to their beliefs even when faced with disagreement, particularly when those beliefs are based on sound reasoning or are supported by a priori principles. kant's emphasis on the autonomy of reason supports the idea that individuals are justified in maintaining their beliefs when they are grounded in rational principles, even if others disagree (kelly, 2010). moreover, kant's notion of the categorical imperative—a universal moral law that is derived from reason—illustrates the steadfast approach in moral disagreements. according to kant, moral principles are not contingent upon empirical evidence but are instead universal truths accessible through reason. this framework supports the view that certain beliefs, especially moral ones, should remain steadfast even in the face of disagreement, as they are grounded in rationality rather than empirical contingency (o'neill, 1989). the contemporary epistemology of disagreement continues to be deeply influenced by the philosophies of hume and kant. hume's skepticism and focus on empirical evidence resonate with conciliatory approaches, advocating for flexibility and openness in the face of disagreement. in contrast, kant's emphasis on reason and universal principles underpins steadfast approaches, suggesting that some beliefs, particularly those rooted in rationality, may justifiably remain unchanged despite disagreements. together, hume and kant provide complementary perspectives that enrich contemporary debates on how we should approach and resolve disagreements in a rational and evidence-based manner. 85 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 evaluation of the humean and kantian approaches to disagreement hume's epistemology is deeply rooted in empiricism, emphasizing the role of sensory experience in forming beliefs. he recognized the diversity of human experiences and how these experiences shape individual beliefs. this perspective is valuable in the epistemology of disagreement because it acknowledges that people come to different conclusions due to their distinct experiences and contexts. hume's approach can promote tolerance and understanding in the face of disagreement, as it suggests that differing views may stem from equally valid but different experiences (hume, 1748). hume also emphasized the role of custom and habit in shaping our beliefs, which suggests that disagreements may arise because different individuals have been exposed to different customs and experiences. this empirical basis for belief formation implies that disagreements are natural and perhaps inevitable in a world where individuals have different experiences. however, hume's emphasis on the subjective nature of experience and the formation of beliefs can lead to a form of relativism if taken to its extreme. if all beliefs are seen as equally valid because they are all rooted in individual experience, it becomes difficult to adjudicate between conflicting views. this could undermine the possibility of resolving disagreements, leading to the view that all perspectives are equally true, which can erode the concept of objective truth (garrett, 1997). moreover, hume's skepticism about reason's ability to settle disagreements—given that reason is often guided by underlying passions and emotions—can further contribute to this relativistic outlook. if reason cannot arbitrate disputes, and all beliefs are grounded in subjective experiences, then there may be no rational basis for preferring one belief over another in cases of disagreement (hume, 1739). in contrast to hume, kant's approach to the epistemology of disagreement is more structured and grounded in the idea of universal principles. kant believed that certain knowledge could be achieved through the use of pure reason, independent of empirical experience. he argued that all rational agents are bound by the same a priori principles, which provide a common ground for resolving disagreements (kant, 1781). kant's epistemology offers a more systematic framework for addressing disagreements by appealing to these universal principles. according to kant, rational agents should be able to resolve disagreements by reflecting on the conditions that make knowledge possible, such as the categories of understanding and the principles of pure reason. this approach aims to transcend individual differences and reach conclusions that are universally valid, which can provide a robust means of resolving disagreements (allison, 2004). however, kant's reliance on abstract principles can be seen as a weakness, particularly when these principles do not align with empirical realities. kant's approach assumes that all rational agents will recognize and accept these a priori principles, but this may not always be the case. people with different backgrounds or experiences may not find kant's principles compelling or applicable to their particular situations, leading to a disconnection between the abstract framework and practical realities (guyer, 1987). furthermore, kant's focus on universal principles may overlook the importance of context and experience in shaping beliefs and disagreements. by prioritizing reason over experience, kant's approach might ignore the ways in which empirical evidence and practical considerations play a crucial role in resolving disagreements. this could lead to solutions that, while logically consistent, fail to address the concrete concerns of the individuals involved in the disagreement (bird, 2006). hume and kant offer contrasting approaches to the epistemology of disagreement, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. hume's emphasis on the diversity of human 86 benedict michael & terzungwe emmanuel igyom the epistemology of disagreement:... experiences is valuable for promoting tolerance and understanding, but it risks leading to relativism if not properly constrained. kant's structured approach, grounded in universal principles, provides a robust framework for resolving disagreements but may be criticized for its potential disconnect from empirical realities and practical concerns. together, their perspectives highlight the complexity of addressing epistemic disagreements and the need to balance abstract principles with empirical considerations. conclusion the epistemology of disagreement, no doubt, stands as a crucial field within philosophy, offering profound insights into how individuals can understand and resolve conflicts. the contributions of thinkers like hume and kant serve as foundational pillars in this discourse. hume's emphasis on skepticism and the limits of human reason highlights the challenges inherent in achieving consensus, while kant's focus on the role of rationality and moral duty underscores the importance of principled reasoning in the face of disagreement. these classical perspectives remain relevant as they inform contemporary discussions, which have expanded to address the nuanced dynamics of epistemic disagreements in today's polarized society. modern philosophers continue to develop and refine frameworks that account for the complexities introduced by diverse viewpoints, cultural differences, and the pervasive influence of social and political factors on belief formation. the ongoing exploration of these issues reflects the dynamic nature of the epistemology of disagreement, emphasizing the need for continuous dialogue and critical examination. by engaging with both historical and contemporary perspectives, scholars can better navigate the intricate landscape of disagreements, striving towards more effective and informed resolutions. ultimately, the study of epistemic disagreements not only enriches our understanding of philosophical concepts but also provides practical tools for fostering constructive discourse in an increasingly divided world. references baier, a. 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(2005). epistemic permissiveness. philosophical perspectives, 19(1), 445-459. 88 benedict michael & terzungwe emmanuel igyom the epistemology of disagreement:... 198 igbo-african philosophy of being and categories of being ikechukwu anthony kanu, phd department of philosophy, veritas university abuja ikee_mario@yahoo.com abstract metaphysics as a branch of philosophy, concerns itself with the determination of the nature of beingthe meaning, structure and principles of whatever is insofar as it is. thus, the fundamental question within the parameters of enquiry in metaphysics has been on the nature of being right from the pre-socratic period through the medieval and modern epochs to the contemporary era. this research focuses on the concept of being. however, while there are several articles on the meaning of being, it distinguishes itself by its discourse on the nature of being in igbo-african ontology, unveiling how in recent times, african thinkers have tried to redefine being, moving away from the elusive and unsubstantive concepts employed by their western counterparts. for this paper, the hermeneutic, analytical and critical methods of inquiry were employed. the paper submits that there is a distinct igbo-african concept of being, which is fundamental for the understanding of african metaphysics. keywords: being, categories, igbo, african, philosophy introduction the concept of metaphysics, a word first used by andronicus of rhodes, the editor of aristotle’s works around 70 b.c., according to whitehead (1929), concerns itself with the determination of the nature of beingthe meaning, structure and principles of whatever is insofar as it is. thus kanu (2012a) avers that the fundamental question within the parameters of enquiry in metaphysics has been on the nature of being. in the contention of andre (2005), it has remained evergreen right from the pre-socratic period to the contemporary era. this enquiry, as observed by bertrand (1975), was set in an articulated motion by parmenides when he argued that whatever is, is being. he further said that being is one, eternal and unchanging, meaning that whatever changes is not being. this notwithstanding, heraclitus of ephesus was chiefly famous in antiquity for his doctrine that everything is in a state of flux, as such, being is characterised by flux. plato, while disagreeing with heraclitus on his doctrine of flux, agrees with parmenides that reality is eternal and unchanging, however differs from parmenides in arguing that being is multiple rather than one; and these are the forms in the platonic world of forms. aristotle who defines metaphysics as the study of ‘being qua being’ identifies being with god. thus kanu (2013) avers that it is not surprising that in aristotle, metaphysics becomes theology. the emergence of the medieval epoch, in the contention of izu (2009), did not alter the centrepiece of metaphysical enquiry. st thomas aquinas followed aristotle in identifying being with god, an argument which duns scotus rejects and proposes that creatures are beings in the real sense of the word and not in an analogical sense as aquinas had taught. during the modern period, the problem of being did not feature prominently as philosophers were more concerned with the problem of substance. the problem, however, according to omoregbe aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 199 (2002), emerged in hegel, jean-paul sartre and gabriel marcel, in whom being became a mystery. these notwithstanding, in recent times, african thinkers have tried to redefine being, moving away from the elusive and unsubstantive concepts employed by their western counterparts. in this process, they have employed categories common to the experience of the africans. this piece would be concerned with an analysis of the igbo-african perspective on being and the categories of being. purpose of study the main purpose of studying being and categories of being in african philosophy is to gain a deeper understanding of the african reality, informing various aspects of human inquiry and enriching the appreciation of existence.therefore, the research aims at: 1. understanding the african reality and to grasp the fundamental nature of existence, what exists, and how things relate to each other. 2. exploring the meaning of being and what constitutes existence, addressing questions like: what does it mean to exist from an african perspective? 3. categorizing the african reality, which involves classifying entities, properties, and relations, providing a framework for understanding the world. 4. informing other disciplines and influencing fields like science, theology, and artificial intelligence, shaping our understanding of reality and its implications. 5. addressing fundamental questions such as: what is the nature of reality?, what is the relationship between mind and body?, what is the nature of time and space? methodology philosophy, just like other fields of human endeavor has its ordered ways through which it carries out its systematic enquiry and study. two methods will be employed for the purpose of this study. the first is the analytic method. it is a style of philosophy that became dominant in the western world at the beginning of the 20th century. it is characterized by an emphasis on argumentative clarity, conceptual analysis and precision. the analytic method focuses on words and meanings. the second approach is the hermeneutic approach. etymologically, hermeneutics is from the greek word, hermeneuo, meaning “translate” or “interpret”. it was launched into philosophy first in the classical work of the ancient philosopher, aristotle. the term hermeneutics relates etymologically to hermes, the mythological greek deity whose role is that of a messenger of the gods. the hermeneutic principle entails that thought must be derived from language according to the same law which regulates the expression of thought in language, the process alone being inverted. while the analytical approach is important given that concepts used in conveying meanings require analysis, clarity, and precision. the hermeneutic method is fundamental in the face of concepts that require interpretation ikechukwu anthony kanu, igbo-african philosophy of being and categories of being… 200 the igbo-african people of nigeria the igbo are found in the southeastern geographical zone of nigeria, which is made up of five states. however, igbo people are overflowing from the major igbo states and living in neighbouring states like delta, rivers, benue and kogi states. they are bounded by the north central region to the north and by the south-south region to the west and south. the zone has a population of over 40 million people, spread across 30,991.1 km2 (nnakamm, 2008). the area lies in the tropical rainforest zone characterized by high rainfall density, which is more pronounced in the southern part (nwaiwu, et al., 2013; afigbo, 1981). figure 1: map of igbo land ogochukwu (2010) historical development of the african concept of being in his work, la philosophie bantou published in 1945, placide tempels set out to help european missionaries understand the thought pattern or worldview of the bantu people. this he thought, according to imbo (1998), would make the work of evangelization easier for the european missionaries, and also help them to avoid misunderstanding the people and their culture. in the process of his research, tempels arrives at a fundamental and underlining factor in bantu philosophy, which he calls force. while for the westerner it could be considered as an attribute of being, for the bantu, it is identical with being in bantu ontology. tempels (1945) wrote: aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 201 i believe that we should most faithfully render the bantu thought in the european language by saying that the bantu speak, act, and live as if, for them, beings were forces. force is not for them an adventitious, accidental reality. force is even more than a necessary attribute of being; force is the nature of being, force is being, and being is force. (p. 431) having described being as force, tempels goes ahead to differentiate the degree of force in the hierarchy of being. god, spirits of ancestors, human beings, animals, plants and inanimate objects. god thus has a greater force, followed by the spirit of the ancestors, than human beings. however, the created universe of the bantu people is centred on the human force, for everything in the universe is understood only in relation to man. from this perspective, we gather that in bantu ontology, as in other african worldviews, the cosmos is anthropocentric. alexis kagame, in his work philosophie bantou-rwandaise de l’etre, shows that he was one among the african philosophers who tried to develop further tempel’s philosophy of force. he worked among the people of rwanda who were called kinyarwanda and tried to develop their thought through a linguistic ethno-philosophy. according to njoku (2010), he discovered that ntu is the category of being or the generic meaning of something. this he classified into four: umuntu (human beings); ikintu (non-human beings); ahantu (place and time); ukuntu (aristotelian category of quantity). ntu is the unifying notion among all these, even though god does not belong to it. there is an interaction between all these: umuntu being a being with intelligence has the consciousness that allows it to use other objects that do not have the same capacity. thus, ikuntu is at the disposal of umuntu for self-actualization. the absence of a place for god in kagame’s project of being reveals the limitation of the philosophy. emmanuel edeh, in his work towards an igbo metaphysics, was one of the earliest nigerian thinkers from the igbo-speaking area who tried to articulate igbo metaphysics, in which he tried to define being, using igbo categories. edeh posits a notion of being that is derived from a dual locus: from the igbo language and the igbo concept of the human person edeh says that it is born from the fact that human beings are the principal focus of the igbo physical world, basically comprising the human and non-human. he first employed the concept of onye in the igbo language to test-denote the concept of being. but he discovers that the onye hypothesis applies to human beings only. having understood the limitations of onye, edeh (1985) in his indefatigable spirit moves on to make further investigations on a more appropriate concept for being. in his investigation, he arrives at ife. according to edeh, “the igbo word ife primarily means thing, anything material or immaterial. it is used to refer to a happening, an event, an occurrence. ife can also be affixed to any adjective to mean specific things” (edeh 1985, p. 95). for instance, ife obuna (anything), ife ebube (thing of wonder), ife ojoo (bad thing), ife oma (good thing). after a wide and profound investigation, he realizes that there is no word in the igbo language outside ife that approximates the igbo concept of being. having arrived at the ife hypothesis, edeh (1985) realised that ife as a concept does not bring out all that being means. to find a solution to this problem, edeh (1985) combines ife and idi to get ife-idi. idi is the igbo verb to be. it can be used as an adjective and can also be suffixed to anything to show that it exists. for example, okwute di (the stone that exists), nkita di (the dog that exists), kanu di (kanu who exists). ikechukwu anthony kanu, igbo-african philosophy of being and categories of being… 202 iroegbu (1995), a nigerian igbo philosopher, in his metaphysics: the kpim of philosophy, avers that to be is to belong, thus for him, borrowing from igbo ontology, being is belongingness. he defines belongingness as ‘the synthesis of the reality and experience of belongingness’ (p. 374). iroegbu believes that the igbo world into which a child is born crying abatala m ya (i have come into it) is made up of seven characteristics: common origin, common world-view, common language, shared culture, shared race, colour and habits, common historical experience and a common destiny. without any choice of its own, with neither interrogations nor dialogue, the child is made to be an igbo in its prolixities. even as the baby sleeps in its cradle, it already has its being, performance and akaraka (destiny) partly enshrined and construed in the igbo world. the communal individuality of the igbo is expressed in proverbs such as ngwere ghara ukwu osisi, aka akpara ya (if a lizard stays off from the foot of a tree, it would be caught by man). this expresses the indisputable and inevitable presence of, not just the family, but the community to which the individual belongs. the community rejoices and welcomes his arrival, finds out whose reincarnation he is, gives the person a name and interprets that arrival within the circumstance of the birth. as the child grows, he becomes aware of his dependence on his kin group and community. he also realizes the necessity of making his contribution to the group. from this igbo worldview that is community-oriented, iroegbu arrives at the concept of being as belongingness. okere (1983), abanuka (2003) and njoku (2010) have proposed chi as an alternative concept for being. the idea of chi has created more problems than it set out to address. njoku argues that chi is preferable because everything in igbo, whether animate or inanimate has a chi. njoku forgets here that what we are looking for in igbo metaphysics is not a name for a thing that is contained in everything in the igbo world. chi would better serve as an underlying principle in igbo metaphysics than as a name for being in igbo. the idea of chi takes us back to the arguments of the ionian philosophers who speak of water, air and fire as the underlying principle in every reality. there is not enough ground to conclude from here that reality is water or air or fire. it is difficult to conclude that because a thing, say ‘a’, possesses another thing inside of itself, say ‘b’, that ‘b’ is now ‘a’. for instance, as human beings possess blood in their veins, it is not a sufficient reason to conclude that because every human being has blood therefore every human being can be called blood. chi cannot stand as a concept for being. that ‘all things possess chi’ does not easily translate into ‘all things can be called chi’. rethinking the conceptions of being in african ontology great efforts have been made by african philosophers to understand the african concept of being. temples attempted is a pioneering effort that requires great credit. however, his idea of force speaks more of the underlying principle of being and not of being itself. this is a confusion that would run through the ideas of being as expressed in the views of subsequent african philosophers. a more advanced effort we see in kagame’s ntu, however, there is a vacuum, in the sense that ntu encompasses all that exists except for god; a wonderful analysis of being, but incomplete in its extension capacity. over the years, many african thinkers have made attempts to criticize edeh’s work on metaphysics and his concept of being in particular. critics like iroegbu argue that the designation of edeh’s philosophical reflection as igbo metaphysics is wrong, and that it should rather be called edeh’s metaphysics. he sees edeh as a man who was not courageous enough aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 203 to own his metaphysics and, as such, feels more comfortable designating it to a people. contrary to this opinion, the researcher sees edeh’s step as a courageous one, because it is easier to own a thing to oneself than to attribute it to a whole people. as an individual, it is easier to sort out oneself than to achieve that as a group. the reverse is the case here: edeh is more a philosopher with courage than iroegbu who had developed his metaphysics of being. surprising is that iroegbu who speaks of being as belongingness should have a problem with someone who developed a philosophy that speaks of where he belongs. edeh saw himself as a being who belongs to a totality of people, and as a person who belongs, he developed the philosophy of the people to whom he belongs. moreover, the fact that it was edeh who wrote the metaphysics does not mean it has to be called edeh’s metaphysics. edeh is not saying that he is not aware that he wrote it by himself. all he is saying is that it represents the philosophy of the igbo people. we read different works by different philosophers from the west and we call them western philosophy. what problem do we have calling edeh’s articulation igbo metaphysics? a cursory glance at the philosophical positions proposed as a replacement for edeh’s concept of being as ife, reveals that they have not solved the problem of seeking a concept for being; so far, they have created new ones. what african philosophers should be looking for is a concept that would designate every reality, and not concepts that speak of what every reality possesses like the chi of t. okere, b. abanaku and f. o. c. njoku or iroegbu’s belongingness which is just an attribute of being, or better put the modality of being and not the name of being. being exists first before it can have a chi or before it can belong. so far, the concept of being by edeh as ife-di, with all its defects is still the most appropriate and defendable concept of being in african metaphysics. while edeh’s perspective is appreciable, it is also incomplete, and thus the need for a further research on the african concept of being. being as idi in igbo-african ontology the operative word in idi (to be) is di (be) and it comes from the word odi (it is) which is the third person of the singular idi which means ‘to exist’ or ‘to be’. it is an adjective and can be suffixed to anything to show that it exists. for instance, okwute di (stone exists), nkita di (dog exists), kanu di (kanu exists), uwa di (the world exists). as a concept, it goes beyond the limitations of the notions of being already analysed, and in fact, it is the missing link of the different conceptions of being already analysed. more so, everything that is, is because it has ike-ndu, that is ‘force’ and the quality and quantity of this force determines the nature of a being. the force of a being cannot be separated from the being itself, and as such, the force is the being. it is in this regard that tempels (1959) wrote about the bantu: “force is the nature of being, force is being, being is force” (p. 24). everything that the igbo-african does is towards the preservation of this force: when he prays to chukwu or the ancestors, when he offers sacrifices to gods, spirits, ancestors etc. when he pours libation, rites and rituals are all for the preservation of this force, which is life. ogugua (2003) wrote, little wonder, the igbo people work towards acquiring life, strengthening this life even if it entails doing too difficult things ‘iga aguu asaa, igwu mmiri asaa’ passing through seven thick forests invested with danger and swimming seven deep and deadly oceans. (p. 60) ikechukwu anthony kanu, igbo-african philosophy of being and categories of being… 204 force therefore is necessarily and essentially an attribute of being in igbo-african ontology. the appreciation of this reality of being, according to ogugua (2006), is the springboard of the igbo-african belief in the intimate relatedness, connectedness and interwovenness of reality. thus tempels (1959) wrote, “the world of forces is held like a spider’s web of which no single thread can be caused to vibrate without shaking the whole network” (p. 60). the existence-inrelation to the other or being-with-the other creates constancy in interaction and influence. igbo-african categories of being although every reality has a force, not all realities have the same force. the variety of the degree of forces is at the base of the categorization of being. in the hierarchy of forces, those with a greater force come first, with god at the apex as the source of all force. in igbo-african ontology, reality will be subsumed into the following categories: 1. muo (spirit): muo as a force has categories of forces. it includes god, the divinities and spirits. god is at the apex of the muo category as the source of all force, tempels (1959) wrote, “above all force is god... it is he who has force, power, in himself. he gives existence, power of survival and increase, to other forces. in relation to other forces, he is he who increases force” (p. 29). he wrote further, “he knows all forces, their orderings, their dependence, their potential and their mutual interactions” (p. 34). his existential cause is within himself and sustains resultant forces the subsistence and annihilation of other forces are within his power alone. while other creatures can paralyse, diminish or stop the operation of another being’s vital force, they cannot stop it to exist entirely, only god can. after the supreme being are divinities. they are intermediaries and share aspects of the divine status. they emanate from god; as such, it is incorrect to say that they were created by him, but more correct to speak of them as offspring of the supreme being. they are responsible to god for whatever act they perform in their relationship with human beings. they are not an end in themselves but a means to an end, and everything they do is dependent upon god’s approval they are functionaries in the theocratic governance of god, sometimes referred to as his messengers and at other times as his sons. awolalu and dopamu (1978) refer to them as the executive heads of various divine departments in the supreme being’s monarchical government. they are a lesser force compared to the supreme being, but generally, they are a great force. there are also myriads of spirits that occupy the african universe. death is not the end of man. after death, the soul nkpulobi goes back to chukwu. the afterlife for the africans is a life of continuing relationships with the living dead. after death, two groups of spirits emerge the benevolent spirit, known as the ancestors. the ancestors have a greater force than human beings. they bind men to god and exercise influence on the living, tempels (1959) wrote that “the strengthening of life, the preservation and respect for life, are by the very nature of creation the business of the ancestors” (p. 57). he further wrote, “they must not be injured or scorned, nor must they be threatened with a breaking off of relationships, for this would mean simply death for the living. when a disaster falls upon the clan, there must be no question of reproaching the ancestors, but simply of testifying from out of mourning to be re-established filial attachment to secure a new alignment with the vital influence of the forebears” (p. 69). apart from the ancestors, there are malevolent spirits, known as bad spirits. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 205 2. mmadu (human being): the human person (muntu) is a vital force endowed with intelligence and will. although god is the source of vital force, man is the sovereign vital force in the world, ruling the land and all that abides in it, however, “his fullness of being consists in his participation to a greater or lesser extent in the force of god” (p. 47) who possess the supreme force. he also shares an ontological relationship with his patrimony, relations and land. he has a will to choose between good and evil, which might be life-giving or lifedestroying. man is the centre of the universe, including the world of the dead. tempels wrote that “man is the supreme force, the most powerful among created beings” (p. 46). he can renew his vital force by tapping the strength of other creatures. he wrote, “each being has been endowed by god with a certain force, capable of strengthening the vital energy of the strongest being of all creation: man” (p. 22). in the category of human beings, there are the elders, who bind the ancestors with their descendants. according to tempels (1959) “ontologically and juridically, the elders who hold the ascendancy are the only ones to know fully, in the last resort. their wisdom exceeds that of other men” (p. 35). they are said to be closer to their ancestors. this explains why they serve as priests in their communities and clans, especially when it comes to the offering of sacrifices to the ancestors. 3. anu (animal, tame and wild): this category of being comprises forces not endowed with reason. they are ruled by instincts. they are all under the force of man and exist for man. according to tempels, “in fact, even inferior beings, such as inanimate beings and minerals, are forces which by reason of their nature have been put at the disposal of men, of living human forces, or of men’s vital forces” (p. 31). in another text, he wrote, “these lower beings exist, by divine decree, only for the assistance of the higher created being” (p. 46). they are used to feed human beings and also for offering sacrifices to god, divinities and ancestors. 4. ife (things): edeh (1985) avers that “the igbo word ife primarily means thing, anything material or immaterial. it is used to refer to a happening, an event, an occurrence. ife can also be affixed to any adjective to mean specific things” (p. 95). for instance, ife obuna (anything), ife ebube (thing of wonder), ife ojoo (bad thing), ife oma (good thing). ife as a force cannot act for itself, and thus can only become active when a greater force like god, divinities, spirits and man act on them. they have no will of their own and thus depend on the will of a greater force. 5. ebe (space): space talks about place. it is the relation of distance between any two bodies or points. it responds to the question of where. for instance, where did you see emeka? where did you pick up nnamdi? where was the sacrifice offered? according to ijiomah (2005), space in igbo ontology consists of three levels: they are the sky, the earth and the underworld: “the sky is where god chukwu or chineke and angels reside; the earth where man, animals, natural resources, some devils and some physical observable realities abide; and the underworld where ancestors and some bad spirits live” (p. 84). ekwealor (1990), corroborated ijiomah’s perspective when he categorized the igbo-african universe into three spheres: elu-igwe or sky, alammadu or the world of the living and alammuo or the land of the spirits. the idea of space is known through sight, touch and supra-sensory insight. ikechukwu anthony kanu, igbo-african philosophy of being and categories of being… 206 6. oge (time): time responds to questions such as: when did you see emeka? when did you pick up nnamdi? when was the sacrifice offered? mbiti (1970) defines the african concept of time as “the composition of events which have occurred, those that are taking place now and those which are immediately to occur” (p. 17). thus the african concept of time is concrete and substantive. it is epochal, as it is wrapped around events and activities. iroegbu (1995) avers that it is in time that an african performs or fails to perform and that his future and destiny are based on his use of time. 7. uzo (modality, manner or style): modality of being talks about the manner of being. and in igbo-african ontology, igwebuike is the manner of being. everything is in relation to the other: existence-in-relation to the other or being-with-the other. every being is by belonging. this is expressed in various igbo-african proverbs, such as ngwere ghara ukwu osisi, aka akpara ya (if a lizard stays off from the foot of a tree, it would be caught by man). this expresses the indisputable and inevitable presence of, not just the family, but the community to which the individual belongs. mbiti has classically proverbialized the communitydetermining role of the individual when he wrote, “i am because we are and since we are, therefore i am” (p. 108). the community, according to iroegbu (195), therefore gives the individual his existence and education. that existence is not only meaningful but also possible only in a community. tempels (1959) wrote that “the world of forces is held like a spider’s web of which no single thread can be caused to vibrate without shaking the whole network” (p. 60). the existence-in-relation to the other or being-with-the other creates constancy in interaction and influence. this interaction of beings is the modality of being in igbo-african ontology. conclusion navigating from the western concept of being, which is abstract and unsubstantive, to the african understanding of beings which is substantive and concrete, this piece has studied different african perspectives of being. after an analysis of these perspectives, it arrives at the igbo-african conception of being as idi as a concept that brings out the meaning and nature of being. it further studied the categories of being in igbo-african ontology. it submits that the hierarchy of being reveals the 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(1959). bantu philosophy. paris: presence africaine 195 questioning god’s omnipotence: a critical appraisal of leibniz’s theodicy titus awukane afatang department of philosophy university of uyo, akwa-ibom state, nigeria & stephen chibuikem okeke department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria. abstract this study is a critical appraisal of leibniz’s theodicy which centers on the perennial problem of evil in philosophy. it investigated the claim of god’s omnipotence in leibniz’s best possible world theory. the problem of evil consists in the attempt to reconcile the existence of a good and powerful god with the presence of evil in the world. this study explored the question of whether or not the presence of evil in the world serves as an evidence against god’s existence or any of the attributes traditionally ascribed to him by theists (all-powerful, all-loving, and all-knowing). the aim of this study was to examine leibniz’s attempt at resolving the problem of evil through his theory of the best possible world. this study focused on an investigation of leibniz’s claim to see whether or not the attribute of divine omnipotence is sustainable in the light of his theory since he claims that god allows some evil to take place so that greater good may be attained. this study sought a possible justification for the presence of evil in the world, and whether in fact evil is a “thing,” and whether it has great consequences for god’s existence. this study employed criticism as its philosophical method of research. the major finding of the study is that leibniz’s solution to the problem of evil is not entirely satisfactory since it leaves room for a number of questions. the study concluded that leibniz’s position that god allows some evil to take place so that from them greater good may come about questions god’s omnipotence although god is omnibenevolent and omniscient, he is not omnipotent. key words: theodicy, evil, problem, omnipotence, appraisal. introduction the question of evil and human suffering is a perennial one in philosophy. this question is particularly famous because of its connection with the theme of god a central issue in metaphysics and the philosophy of religion. god’s benevolence is brought to scrutiny when the presence of evil in the world is considered. in some cases, and for certain scholars, the existence of god becomes controversial in the face of so much evil in the world. undoubtedly, the problem of evil and the question of human suffering in the world have a whole lot of implications for the existence of god, and for the traditional attributes of god. this is so because the problem of evil has always surfaced as the bone of contention between theists and philosophers. while theists, aside believing in god uphold some fundamental attributes as being essential to god’s nature (such as goodness), some philosophers argue that titus & stephen questioning god’s omnipotence: a critical appraisal… 196 noticeable pain and suffering in the world is inconsistent with the nature of god as described by theists, and so, the reality of evil could even go beyond denying god and or a total dismissal of his existence. there is a problem as to how one can reconcile these two glaring contradictory facts: on the one hand that the world is put in place and sustained by a perfect being who is all-good and all-powerful, and on the other hand, that this same world is filled with so much evil. this problem therefore, is from evil: why should there be evil in a world supposedly created by a good god. leibniz contends that evil and suffering are necessary for the greater good. in other words, suffering and evil are necessary parts of the divine plan. these aspects of the divine plan, in the opinion of leibniz, serve as means to greater ends such as moral growth, spiritual development, and the realization of higher goods. leibniz contends that god in his infinite wisdom, and through the principle of sufficient reason, has chosen to create this best possible world with evil and suffering in it. in other words, there is a harmony in the world between good and evil. leibniz maintains the traditional attributes of god while proposing his best possible world theory. however, this raises a problem of god’s omnipotence. it is difficult to rationally accept god’s all-powerfulness considering leibniz’s view that he allows some evil so that greater good might come about. however, this position that god, due to his nature would not allow any evil except there is a greater good which will issue from it is quite problematic in that it shows some form of limitation of the power of god. the fact that an allgood god would allow some evil to occur so that from it he can achieve greater good is an indication that “all-powerfulness” is wrongly attributed to him. this study concludes that the affirmation of a god who is all-good and all-knowing but not all-powerful explains the existence of evil in the world. brief profile of leibniz leibniz was born in leipzig on the first of july 1646. this was at the time when the thirty years war was coming to an end, the war which had ravaged the whole of central europe at the time. one would not be surprised at the outstanding academic performance of leibniz considering his background. he came from a lutheran family which was part of the educated elites on both sides: his father friedrich leibniz was a jurist and a professor of moral philosophy at university of leipzig and his mother catharina schmuck was the daughter of a professor of law. after the death of his father in 1652, he, his mother and his uncle directed his own education from then on. at an early age he was granted access to his father’s library and he took time to study the volumes of ancient history and the church fathers. in 1661 he began his formal university education at leipzig; his philosophical training was chiefly scholastic in nature. he has some background in renaissance humanism. he met jacob thomasius at leipzig, who influenced him greatly. upon reception of his baccalaureate from leipzig, he continued his education at the university of altdorf where in 1666 he published dissertation on the art of combinations (dissertatio de arte combinatoria). leibniz met with baron johan christian von boineburg who helped him secure a position with the elector of mainz. he composed a series of works in philosophical theology. leibniz died on novermber 14, 1716 clarification of key terms omnipotence: this refers to the quality of having unlimited or very great power. this is a long-standing attribute of god as held by adherents of religion. it is an indication of the belief aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 197 that god’s power is unlimited and that god can do anything. this is one of the core beliefs of many monotheistic religions. this is a term used to express god’s all-powerfulness. appraisal: this refers to the act of carrying out an assessment of something or someone. it means the act of estimating or judging the nature or value of something or someone. it is an examination that is done in order to determine the quality, success, or needs of someone or something. theodicy: this is the vindication of divine providence in view of the existence of evil. this term was coined by the german philosopher gottfried wilhelm leibniz in his 1710 work “theodicies.” in the philosophy of religion, theodicy means an argument that attempts to resolve the problem of evil that arises when all power and all goodness are predicated of god. this term is derived from ancient greek (theos) which means god and (dike) which means justice. according to a. laytner, theodicy is an attempt to justify or defend god in the face of evil. evil: in simple terms, the problem of evil refers to the philosophical challenge of reconciling the existence of evil and suffering with an omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient god. it is important to understand the concept of evil while engaging in the philosophical discourse on the problem of evil. understanding the nature of evil is an advantage in resolving the problem of evil. as plotinus notes “those inquiring whence evil enters into being, or rather into a certain order of beings would be making the best beginning if they established first of all, what precisely evil is” (pourtless, 8). marcus singer notes that though evil is often used loosely as often the generic opposite of ‘morally good,’ used precisely, it is the worse possible term of opprobrium available (singer, 185). r.f. baumeister sees evil as an intentional interpersonal harm (baumeister, 34). in the view of smith ferguson, evil can be divided into two complementary, yet distinctive categories: perverse (or instrumental) evil and pure evil. perverse evil is the performance of evil acts under the guise of moral certitude or permittance. pure evil is the performance of evil acts for their own sake (ferguson, 6). in any case, evil has a number of dimensions. it refers to bad or unacceptable states of affairs which cause discomfort or pain. the problem of evil the problem of evil, as earlier stated, is a perennial one in philosophy. although it may have been formulated in varying ways, the core of the problems remains the same – the difficulty of attributing “all-good” and “all-powerful” to god in the midst of evil in the world. generally, one can think of three main propositions which are presented in the argument of the problem of evil: (i)god is omnipotent; (ii) god is good; and, (iii) evil exists. having these three propositions together constitutes this problem because they are mutually contradictory, even though many people hold all three of them to be true (walker, 25). in other words, while many people do not see a problem with having all three propositions stand as true, some philosophers think that it is unreasonable to be comfortable with all three put together. why is it so? it is so because our reason tells us that if god is omniscient he should know under what circumstances evil will occur, and since he is omnipotent he should be able to prevent it from happening, but since orthodox theism presumes his willingness by ascribing to him the attribute of being loving, then there is a problem with regards to the veracity of the claim of his existence or of his possession of some of the qualities being attributed to him, like the attribute of omnipotence. traditionally, orthodox theism takes some of these propositions for granted. some scholars have identified five propositions which are taken for granted by traditional theism: titus & stephen questioning god’s omnipotence: a critical appraisal… 198 (i) god exists; (ii) god is omnipotent; (iii) god is omniscient; (iv) god is wholly good; and, (v) evil exists. the conjunction of the above five propositions is exactly what philosophers find to be contradictory (walker, 25). now, the attempts to defend god in the face of evil is referred to as a theodicy. a glance at other attempts at resolving the problem of evil the ancient greek philosopher epicurus is often credited to be the first to state this problem clearly. he states that if god is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent, then how can evil exist in a world made by god? the philosopher plotinus equates sensible matter with primary evil or evil itself. for him, sensible matter is the part of otherness which is opposed to the things which in the full and proper sense exist, that is rational formative principles. it is a privation; evil lacks the characteristics of being. for augustine, evil is a kind of non-being (privation). basing his judgments on the scriptures, he insisted that god created everything and everything is good. evil is not a thing; hence it could not have been created. for thomas aquinas, god allows evil to exist in his presence so that he can create good from it. he subscribes to the theory of evil as a privation. in the modern period, it was david hume who re-ignited interest in the problem of evil. in his dialogues concerning natural religion, he corroborated the argument of epicurus on the question of god and evil. scholars identify the problem of evil in hume used as an evidential argument against the existence of god. fyodor dostoevsky imagines god as an architect of an edifice of human destiny with the goal of making people happy in the end but having it necessarily that a little child is unavoidably tortured. this fact, for him, questions especially the love of god. albert camus presented rebuttals to a variety of theodicies. for him the presence of human suffering shows the meaninglessness of human life which he often calls absurdity. j.l. mackie notes that none of the proffered solutions to the problem of evil has been able to stand to criticism, hence, the logical problem of evil still stands and god’s existence is threatened. alvin plantinga argues that the freewill defense shows that the existence of god is compatible both logically and probabilistically with the existence of evil. richard swinburne argues that it is not evil to bring about bad (evil) states of affairs so long as certain conditions are satisfied. he suggested that they are satisfied in the case of the evils of this world, and so the evil of this world do not provide evidence against the existence of god. for philip quinn, god as an omnipotent and superlatively good moral agent, would actualize a world of unsurpassable moral goodness if he were to actualize a possible world. eleonore stump criticizes the arguments of swinburne. he holds that natural evil is not justified by the value of knowledge necessary for serious exercise of freewill as swinburne had suggested. william hasker focused on the idea of gratuitous evil. his argument was that god would allow just those evils which are conducive to a greater good. the theodicy: leibniz’s solution to the problem of evil leibniz’s solution to the problem of evil is principally contained in the theodicy which was written in 1710. however, some earlier works of leibniz contain “patches” of arguments and demonstrations which together serve to bolster the chief argument of the theodicy. in fact, the theodicy is properly to be regarded a mature synthesis of the entire leibnizian ideas regarding the problem of evil. the term or expression “theodicy” should be understood here in two senses: first, as the book written by leibniz. secondly, as leibniz’s attempt to resolve the problem of evil. leibniz’s solution to the problem of evil is expressed clearly in his effort at justifying the goodness (justice or righteousness) of god. considering the fact that in contemporary time aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 199 the problem of evil is regarded as an argument for atheism, his focus here was not to prove the existence of god since for him the existence of god was a certainty. rather, he engages in proffering solution to the problem only because it has been taken as a drawback on the goodness of god. consequently, his solution is expressed through his claim that this world created by god is the best possible world and through the principle of sufficient reason. the best possible world leibniz’s solution to the problem of evil consists in the very resounding claim that this world as it is, is the best of all possible worlds. the world, tainted by evil, numerous kinds of evil, has been taken by many as argument against god’s holiness. the underachiever problem actually emphasizes this point. it contends that because there are several evils in the world, the world is therefore a very poor achievement on the part of a seemingly or allegedly perfect god. consequently, god is not fit to be loved or adored since he has allowed so much evil in the world he created. in response to this manner of thinking, leibniz composes the theodicy. what does he intend to achieve? our end is to banish from men the false ideas that represent god to them as an absolute prince employing a despotic power, unfitted to be loved and unworthy of being loved. these notions are the more evil in relation to god inasmuch as the essence of piety is not only to fear him but also to love him above all things, and that cannot come about unless there be knowledge of his perfections capable of arousing the love which he deserves, and which makes the felicity of those that love him (leibniz, 126). one thing that appears quite clear from the above passage is the fact that leibniz has the goal of restoring in men’s heart the love for god. he observes that god is the first reason of things, everything else is contingent. he is the reason for the existence of the world (which is the whole assemblage of contingent things), he is necessary and eternal. furthermore, he argues that this cause (reason) must be intelligent since the world being contingent and an infinity of other worlds being equally possible and having equal claim to existence with it, the cause of this world should have reference to all these possible worlds in order to choose one of them. the regard or relation of an existent substance to simple possibilities can be nothing other than the understanding which has the ideas of them, and to fix upon one of them (that is to choose one of them) can be nothing other than the act of the will which chooses. it is the power of the substance that renders its will efficacious. “power relates to being, wisdom or understanding to truth, and will to good. and this intelligent cause ought to be infinite in all ways, and absolutely perfect in power, in wisdom, and in goodness, since it relates to all that which is possible” (leibniz, 127). now, since all is connected together, there is no ground for admitting more than one. the understanding of this intelligent cause is the source of essences, its will is the origin of existences. through these few words, leibniz claims to have proven the existence of the only god with his perfections. god in his supreme wisdom, leibniz continues, which is united to a goodness that is no less infinite could not but have chosen the best. for as a lesser evil is a kind of good, even so a lesser good is a kind of evil if it stands in the way of a greater good, and there would be something to correct in the actions of god if it were possible to do better. he makes an allusion to mathematics, as he often does – it is just like in mathematics where there is no maximum or minimum, in short nothing distinguished, everything is done equally, or when that is not possible nothing at all is done, so it may be said likewise in respect of perfect wisdom, which is no less orderly than mathematics, that if there were not the best (optimum) among all possible worlds, god would not have produced any. by “world” leibniz means the titus & stephen questioning god’s omnipotence: a critical appraisal… 200 whole succession and the whole agglomeration of all existent things, lest it be said that several worlds could have existed in different times and in different places. everything put together must be reckoned as one world or one universe. again, even though one should fill all times and all places, it still remains true that one might have filled them in innumerable ways, and that there is an infinitude of possible worlds among which god must have chosen the best, since he does nothing without acting in accordance with supreme reason (leibniz, 128). the principle of sufficient reason as stated earlier, the principle of sufficient reason (psr) is a central principle of the philosophical system of leibniz. leibniz used this principle as a response to the argument of those who hold that god was not under any obligation to create the best world. leibniz rejected this position on the basis of this principle. according to this principle, for any state of affairs, there must be a sufficient reason that explains why that state of affairs and not some other state of affairs obtains (leibniz, 209). with regards to our world therefore, there must be some reason that explains why it, and some other world, obtains. now, there can be no such reason if it is the case that the goodness of worlds increase ad infinitum. hence, in order for the principle of sufficient reason to stand, leibniz concludes that there can be no infinite continuum of worlds. the idea of sufficient reason is clearly expressed in his conceptual containment theory of truth as can be seen in his 1686 letter to arnauld: in every true affirmative proposition, whether necessary or contingent, universal or particular, the notion of the predicate is in some way included in that of the subject. predicatum inest subject, otherwise i do not know what truth is … for there must always be some foundation for the connection between the terms of a proposition, and this must be found in their concepts. this is my great principle, with which i believe all philosophers should agree, and one of whose corollaries is the commonly held axiom that nothing happens without a reason which can always be given, why the thing has happened as it did rather than in another way, even though this reason often inclines without necessitating (leibniz, 337). critics may argue against this principle by stating that this principle could still stand even if there were an infinite continuum of good worlds. in this case then, god’s decree that this world should be actual would be the reason. leibniz rejects this view because in his opinion this response would only push the problem back because the principle of sufficient reason applies to free choices just as it applies to any other event or state of affairs. hence, there is a need to provide a sufficient reason for god’s choice of this world instead of some other world on the continuum of morally acceptable worlds. leibniz observes that it seems such a sufficient reason cannot be given on the infinite continuum of good worlds view. this is so because the sufficient reason cannot be derived from some feature or fact about the world that is actually chosen, for this would raise the obvious question: why this feature in particular serve as the sufficient reason for god’s choice? leibniz concludes that the only possible answer this question would be: (a) because god arbitrarily selected that feature as the one he would favour in deciding which world to create; or (b) because that feature made that world better than its competitors. neither of these answers is acceptable. the first is inconsistent with the principle of sufficient reason. the second is incompatible with the hypothesis at issue – that there is no best world (leibniz, 138). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 201 leibniz’s theodicy and the question of god’s omnipotence although leibniz’s work in the theodicy is as fascinating as it is compelling, it is not without some basic weaknesses. one may rationally hold on to the divine attributes of omnibenevolence and omniscience, it is quite difficult to maintain that god is indeed allpowerful considering the kind of world man finds himself in and the idea of god that theists always put forth. there is an obvious conflict between the qualities of omnibenevolence and omnipotence. in fact, it is precisely due to the attribute of benevolence that god’s omnipotence is brought into question. leibniz’s solution does not seem to have satisfactorily answered the question of evil. this is because the conclusion of leibniz still leaves room for a very important question with regards to god’s omnipotence. in his response to the socinians, leibniz affirms that it is god’s omnipotence which makes him able to create the best possible world. now, the concept of omnipotence leaves no room for inadequacies of insufficiencies. neither does it leave room for excuses or limitations. omnipotence is an absolute concept. the ordinary understanding of this term is quite in line with what many theists think when they use it with regards to god. the general conception of this term immediately gives one an impression of boundlessness. that is, there is no limit to what an omnipotent being can do. hence, if an omnipotent being has a specific nature, it is rational to expect that this omnipotent being would act boundlessly in accordance with this nature. however, leibniz maintains that in some occasions god condones some evil in order that good, or greater good might come from them. this is an indication of limitation of the power of god. in other words, his omnipotence should provide him the option to create good without evil and to create greater good without needing the cooperation or support of lesser evil. does this not seem to suggest that there is a limit to what an omnipotent being can do? or does omnipotence refer to something else rather than the “all-powerfulness” that theists often ascribe to god? by submitting to the seeming necessity of allowing some evil to occur so that some greater good (which is his own motive) will follow is a subjection to domain of boundaries or helplessness. it appears that god is in such a position that sometimes human beings find themselves – a position in which you have to allow something you do not want, or pass through some experience you do not like or approve of just so you can achieve another goal which is your original intention. in order to address this challenge, this study maintains that the all-good and all-knowing god is not all-powerful, and this does not deny him his right as creator and sustainer of the world. evaluation leibniz tends to justify the presence of evil in the world by considering it as a necessary part of the best possible world. this justification may not be satisfactory in equal proportion to everyone. the theist may find it meaningful. but whether he would continue to find it meaningful when confronted with the harsh realities of life remains to be seen. the atheist may see no sense in this justification. this does not in any way exempt him from rational puzzle faced by the human mind when suffering is involved. the philosopher may find the submission unsatisfactory for several reasons. one reason may be that the very existence of a god is still a matter of controversy for him. another reason would be that even if there were a god, leibniz’s reason of universal harmony is not satisfying because it would seem to human reason that an infinitely powerful god should be able to bring about a universal harmony without allowing evil and suffering. not only does this fact question god’s power, it also questions his goodness. if he is indeed infinitely good, he should find a way to prioritize the happiness of his creatures by excluding evil and suffering from the pre-established universal harmony. furthermore, the existence of evil and suffering in the world continue to titus & stephen questioning god’s omnipotence: a critical appraisal… 202 have unwelcome consequences with regards to god’s existence, or the belief in god. human rationality will continue to probe and doubt, at least to some extent, the credibility of the claim of god’s existence in the world that is pervaded by so much pain and suffering. conclusion the theodicy of leibniz is undoubtedly a worthwhile enterprise. it is significant to take note of the fact that his philosophical training was chiefly scholastic in nature. this fact is obviously expressed in style and in the subjects with which he concerned himself. one should not overlook the period in which leibniz undertook this project. it was a time when the church was still yielding a lot of power and the internal conflicts in the church were actually matters of general concern. his efforts were therefore timely and helpful. the best possible world theory and the principle of sufficient reason are key expressions of leibniz’s rationalist orientation. he was keen to show the powers of the human reason and what it is capable of achieving. human suffering is not arbitrary after all. god is not a despotic king who dispenses goods and evils arbitrarily, who damns and saves without any reason. god acts in accordance with supreme reason and so anything he allows to take place in the world, he allows for a reason. so, human suffering, in all its dimensions, take place with a sufficient reason for their occurrence. god, due to his nature, would not allow any evil except there is a greater good which will issue from it. however, this position that god, due to his nature would not allow any evil except there is a greater good which will issue from it is quite problematic in that it shows some form of limitation of the power of god. the fact that an all-good god would allow some evil to occur so that from it he can achieve greater good is an indication that “allpowerfulness” is wrongly attributed to him. this study concludes therefore, that the affirmation of a god who is all-good and all-knowing but not all-powerful explains the existence of evil in the world. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 203 works cited aquinas, thomas. summa theologica. online edition, xist publishing.2015. augustine confessions. trans.by sheed, f.j. 2nd ed. indianapolis, hackett publishing, 2007. baumeister, r.f. evil: inside human cruelty and violence. new york, w.h. freeman and company, 1996. camus, albert. the plague. trans. by stuart gilbert, new york, alfred knopf, 1957. epicurus, letter to menoecus. trans. by robert drew hicks. retrieved from http://classic.mit.edu/epicurus/menoec.html hasker, williams. “god and gratuitous evil,” the problem of evil: selected readings. second edition, edited by michael l. paterson, university of notre dame press. pp. 428-43, 2007. jstor, https://doi/org/10./2307/j.ctvpj7gm2.28. accessed 25 july 2024. hume, david. dialogues concerning natural religion. online publication, cambridge university press, 2012. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511808449 leibniz, g. w. discourse on metaphysics (1686). translated by benneth, jonathan, 2017. leibniz, g.w. philosophical papers, and letters, translated edited by l. loemker. second edition: dordrecht, 1970. leibniz, g.w. philosophical essays. translated by r. ariew and d. garba. indianapolis. hackett, 1989. leibniz, gottfried wilhelm. theodicy. bibliobazaar, south carolina, 2007. leibniz. g.w. the monadology. translated by robert latta. the monadology (1714) by leibniz, plato-philosophy.org, 1898. mackie, j.l. “evil and omnipotence” in the philosophy of religion, edited by basil mitchell, oxford university press, london., 1971. marshall, john. socinianism. routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. doi: 10.4324/9780415249126-da069-1, 1998. pourtless, john. toward a plotinian solution to the problem of evil. aporia, vol. 18, no.2, 2008. schopenhauer, authur. the world as will and representation. trans. by payne, e.f.j. vol. 1, dover pub. new york, 1969. singer, m. the concept of evil. philosophy, vol 79, issue 2, cambridge university press, pp. 185-214, 2004. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031819104000233 http://classic.mit.edu/epicurus/menoec.html https://doi/org/10./2307/j.ctvpj7gm2.28.%20accessed%2025%20july%202024 https://doi/org/10./2307/j.ctvpj7gm2.28.%20accessed%2025%20july%202024 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511808449 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031819104000233 145 peace education in nigeria, a practical antidote to violence approach in schools and the society at large okafor, gabriel ogechi ph.d department of peace studies and conflict resolution university of agriculture and environmental sciences, umuagwo, imo state. gabrielokafor73@yahoo.com gabriel.okafor@uaes.edu.ng abstract this paper is a critical attempt to highlight the role of peace educators in schools and the society at large as well as the relevance of peaceful relationship among individuals, groups and the society in general. the work covered the concept of peace and education. through qualitative method of rigorous research ranging from field work, use of libraries, review of books, the role of peace education was examined. interesting issues such as the meaning of peace, challenges of peace education and peace educators were studied. similarly, critical study on how to achieve peace both in schools and the society were highlighted. the paper, therefore, argues that, the introduction of peace education both in primary and secondary schools in nigeria will inculcate discipline in young ones and create a road-map for future leaders that are devoid of restless inclination. keywords: peace, violence, education, schools. introduction the peculiarity of peace education in schools is indispensable to the overall development of the society. this is true because, the work proposes in-depth understanding of the nature of our contemporary time and what the future holds for us, considering the targeted audience that revolved around young ones and adult in the society. in reality, for every community of people, there is a time when they must consciously recognize who they are, things that form the corner stone of their existence, excitement, things that characterize them [culture of peace], so that they may set their true representation in some form of behaviour and cultural expression (nwoga, 1984). the necessity of peaceful coexistence is one that stands at the epi-centre of socio-economic and political development of the society and schools in particular. it is a known fact that, human and material development cannot take place in an atmosphere of war, uncertainty, chaos and unfriendly situations. in most schools in nigeria, the menace of lack of peaceful atmosphere has not only created an irreconcilable issues among students and parents but also sow a seed of perpetual lack of understanding of what was taught in the classroom among students. consequently, the unfriendly situation among students in the classroom most times extends to parents who could not investigate properly before naively involving themselves. therefore, in consideration of the immediate few lines above, national open university handbook states that, “the core of peace education is the consciousness and conscience of the human being. it seeks to develop persons with rational, ethical minds whose vision of the world and its inhabitants is that of unity” (national open university, n.d. 105). violence which simply means, an act caused by physical force that is intended to hurt or kill somebody is the major reason for introduction of peace education at this point in our society. mailto:gabrielokafor73@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 146 also, at the core heart of peace education are the school children whom i earlier mentioned as one of the targeted group for a total compliance of the goal and objectives of teaching and learning peace education in schools. the over concentration on school children revolve around the-all-important status of children in the society. these are group of people some writers refer as “the future leaders”, meaning that, they are yet to become adult, and if the principles of peace is inculcated in them, the resultant effect should be in tandem with the objectives of peace education and by so doing, the society have achieved mass peace educators and leaders devoid of chaos and restless inclination. according to basic processes of growth and development in developmental psychology, the teacher should have knowledge of how children grow and develop in order to guide and shape their future development. it is at the early formative years that the child’s personality and behaviour are determined. the child is a product of both nature and nurture. this implies that, the hereditary factors interplay with the environmental factors to determine how the child grows and develops. (national teachers’ istitute, n.d, 76) therefore, developmental psychology which is primarily the function of teachers, deals with development, growth and behaviour in human beings right from the time of conception to the period of adolescent, when most functions of the body become matured. it also deals with the factors which determine what a child will be in future. admittedly, the mind and heart of a child is like an empty writing-board which is ready to be filled with either negative or positive impact. it is at this juncture that, teachers as peace educators should as a matter of utmost importance inculcate into school children the ingredients of peace for harmonious coexistence both in the school and outside the school. the concepts of peace and education peace to a layman, peace is defined as the absence of war, and war is defined as the absence of peace. in a broader sense, peace encompasses the above definition. there can be peace even when there is war, as in situations when there are peaceful interactions between countries that are engaged in active war. for instance, the war in ukraine/russia is still on, while they agreed on the use of sea to convey their food stuffs. also, palestinian and israel have been able to establish peaceful use of water resources, even as the war between them has raged (oke, 2006). therefore, the social conditions of war as against physical form, such as poverty, intimidation, oppression, fear, police brutality, monopolization of resources by few people are conditions of ill-peace. there is no peace in such a country experiencing the above threats, even when there is no war. the most common use of the concept of peace is in the absence of dissension, violence or war that makes peace associate with the happy and fortunate instead (greene, 1998). peace is also seen as a state of mind in concourse with serenity: a state of harmony, tranquility, concord and a balance of equilibrium of power. peace could also mean “the opposite of conflict; it abhors violence and war as well as a state of justice, goodness and civil government” (ikejiani-clark & ani, 2009, 3). succinctly put, peace refers to a situation and or condition that create room for life, free from threats which eventually enable individuals and groups to relate well with each other or one another (uwaoma, 2018). peace also involves inner calm, serenity, contentment, social justice, okafor, gabrie.. peace education in nigeria, a practical antidote to violence… 147 absence of war and conflict, non violence, harmony, reconciliation and forgiveness, cultural and religious understanding and personal growth and development (nwosu, 2024). finally, peace is generally defined as the absence of war, fear, conflict, anxiety, suffering, violence, torture, bag governance, etc., and about peaceful coexistence. education the term education is used in four main senses in which it is seen to connote a process, a product, a discipline and an institution. education as a process represents the conscious activity of either imparting and/or acquiring knowledge or skill or information whether in organized or not so organized ways with the intention of bringing about some desired behavioural outcomes in the participant. education as a product is the outcome of the teaching and learning activity which is the corollary of the process. it is evidenced by the skill or knowledge or attitudes which individuals posses after acquiring education. education as a discipline represents an organized branch of learning or a subject of study like physics, chemistry or geography, etc., which may form part of the curriculum of the teacher, while education as an institution represents all the enduring network of relationship, structures and establishments by which a society or country provides its members with the relevant educational experiences they required to function effectively within the society (obasi, 2004). there are three forms of education which includes informal education, formal education and non-formal education. informal education refers to the spectrum of teaching and learning activities that are not governed by any laid down rules, methods, contents and standards. learners usually acquire knowledge through observation, participation, imitation, practice, etc. formal education refers to the systematized educational experiences provided in a prescribed way by a cult of professional teachers in specifically designated teaching and learning environments called schools. it is carried out in a protracted period of time during which a desired outcome is supposed to have been accomplished while non-formal education refers to the organized education which is usually provided outside the formal educational system. in view of our discussion above, education is a system by which one generation imparts the ideals and cultural practices of its society to the next generation in an unending process, (national teachers’ institute, n.d. 1), thus; we can say that education started as soon as man was created. generally, education is about shaping or molding people, be they children, youth or adults to behave in certain ways, especially ways that will shun violence and preach peace. what is peace education? peace education is multidimensional and holistic in its content and process. peace education can be imagined as a tree with many robust branches. among the various forms of peace education practices are: disarmament education, human rights education, global education, conflict resolution education, multicultural education, interfaith education, genderfair/nonsexist education, development education and environmental education. each of these focuses on a problem of violence. generally, all forms of peace education is the process of imparting values, knowledge, attitude, skills and behaviours to live in harmony with oneself, others and things surrounding ones environment. peace education tends to develop knowledge and skills such as empathy, compassion, nonviolence, conflict resolution and social justice. peace education or education for non-violence involves training and impacting skills that foster a culture of peace based on human rights. it provides knowledge and also develops skills and aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 148 attitudes necessary for recognition and resolution of conflicts. it exposes people to learn about human rights and responsibilities that everyone needs in order to live in a peaceful and just society; to learn to appreciate various worldviews, equipping students to mediate conflicts with deeper understanding of underlying cultural or perspective based causes; to learn and practice social justice to promote fairness, equality, equity, rights and promotion of non-violence in all contexts. in short, peace education is based on a philosophy that teaches non-violence, love, compassion, trust, fairness, cooperation and reference for the human family and all life on planet earth. the role of peace educators in schools and society at large a teacher or a counselor who teaches peace, non-violence and train people to live in peace is a peace educator. the primary role of a peace educator/practitioner is to change behaviours associated with violence or non-peaceful into non-violence and peaceful behaviour. thus, peace educators seek to establish democratic classrooms that teach cooperation and promote positive self esteem among their students. teachers serve as peaceful role models to help counteract images of violent behaviour young people receive through popular culture such as, videos, internet, games, music, homes, etc. their teaching style will normally adjust to the developmental needs of their pupils, respecting the various identities and concerns about violence that students bring to the classroom (national open university, n.d. 107). consequently, the role of peace educators includes teaching students how to manage conflicts without violence, respect all forms of life and engage in social justice activities. they also teach students to appreciate intercultural diversity, inform students the consequences of war and social injustice as well as to learn the skill set for peaceful engagements and envision a future without war. above all, it is the duty of peace educators to care for the students and encourage the students to care for others and most especially, to shun selective justice and peace management with suppression tools. the challenges of peace education nigeria is a multi-ethnic society. this factor has a lot of implication on the unity of nigeria. most of the ethnic crises are caused by no other factor than tribal sentiments, greed, selfishness and chauvinism (uche, 2011). tribalism is used to describe situations where people are overly loyal to their own group as well as behaviour or attitude that stem from strong loyalty to one’s own tribe or social group and posed a serious challenge to peace education in schools. cultism and few other related social vices have dangerously infiltrated into primary, secondary and tertiary schools in nigeria. secret cults are the agents of murder, arson, victimization and oppression in educational institutions. recently, it had metamorphosed into cult of kidnappers, organized armed robbery, political thuggery, etc. cultism has had an extreme negative impact on learning and discipline in the schools. it has claimed the lives of students and teachers in a very alarming proportion and made teachers to seek for transfer out of those affected areas thereby lowering the standard of education. okafor, gabrie.. peace education in nigeria, a practical antidote to violence… 149 another challenge facing peace education in nigerian schools is inadequate funding of both materials and human resources on the part of government for effective teaching and learning. in most cases, materials meant for teaching are diverted for selfish purposes. also, policy formulators on education is yet to inculcate peace education fully into primary and secondary schools curriculum and that amounts to lack of political will and unacceptability of peace education by government at grass-root level. cultural intolerance among different ethnic nationalities in nigeria both in the classroom and in the larger society is also a serious threat to peace education in schools. culture, been the totality of the way of life evolved by a people in their attempts to meet the challenges of living in their environment is what gives order and meaning to the linguistics, social, political, economic, aesthetic, religious, philosophical modes and organization of a people, nation, ethnic or group (asiwaju, 1997). the belief of the ijaw, ibibio, itsekiri, eko, etc., who are in the riverine areas tended to be more in water spirit while those in the rain forest areas where tall trees existed, attached more importance to forest resources. those in the highland areas like jukun, chamba, etc., tended to worship at the foot of the hills and mountains and the cultural differences should be tolerated by all so as not to endanger the process of peace education. apart from the above challenges, cultural intolerance on symbols such as hair styles, tribal marks and body marks among different ethnic background is a threat to peace education in the society and schools in particular. the ethnic and cultural composition of nigeria with about two hundred and fifty ethnic groups as well as different languages, required cultural tolerance for smooth running of peace education in schools and the society in general (ukaegbu, 2010). inordinate name-calling such as igbos calling the yorubas, “onye ofe mmanu” even among the igbos, an anambra person will call the rest of igbo people; “nwa onye igbo”. the owerri people of imo state refer to other people outside owerri as “onye isoma” which they consider as an abusive words and most times lead to violence. how to achieve peace in the society peace could easily be achieved when one admits his mistakes and openly say “i am sorry”. this is true because, the highest point of human development is the ability for one to admit or accept his mistakes. there is a proverb among the igbos of nigeria which says, “okwu di nro n’eme ka onuma juo oyi”. meaning that, when one feel sorry of his offence, the anger of the person offended will calm down. there is a popular aphorism which says “to err is human and to forgive is divine”. therefore, always say i am sorry when you perceived that what you did was wrong. never allow your ego to supersede your sense of reasoning. conclusion peace education activities promote the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help people either to prevent the occurrence of conflict, resolve conflicts peacefully or create social conditions conducive to peace. it is an essential component of quality basic education that aims to build value and skills that will enable young and adults to prevent violence, resolve conflict peacefully and promote social conditions for peace and justice. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 150 the paper advocates for school managements and education authorities to introduce not just on a cursory basis, peace education as a compulsory subject to all cadre of nursery, primary and secondary education in nigeria. the tendency to tailor and catch them young towards peace education is in its ramification, the solution to the problem of education in nigeria and by extension, the problem of other sectors of the economy. references asiwaju i. a. (1997). “the evolution of nigerian culture”, in akinjide osuntokun and ayodeji olukoju (eds), nigerian peoples and cultures, davidson press, ibadan. eka w. n. “the role of peace educators in building a culture of peace in the schools: comparisons between indonesia and malaysia”, in international journal of evaluation and research in education, (ijere) vol. 99, no.1, july 2023. greene, r. (1998). the 48 laws of power, penguin books, new york, ikejiani-clark, m. and ani c. (2009). “the concept of peace”, in miriam ikejiani-clark (ed), peace studies and conflict resolution in nigeria: a reader, spectrum books limited, ibadan, national open university of nigeria. introduction to peace education. nwoga, d. (1984) “nka na nzere, the focus of igbo world view”, ahiajioku lecture series, unpublished paper, owerri, imo state. nwosu, c. (2024). “concept of peace, conflict and security in a multi-ethnic nation”, in gertrude kanayo ezekoka (ed), peace and conflict resolution, liu house of excellence ventures, owerri. obasi, e. (2004). citizenship education for nigerian students in tertiary education, new vision publishers, owerri. oke, i. (2006). “conceptualising peace”, in shedrack gaya best (ed), introduction to peace and conflict studies in west africa, spectrum books limited, ibadan, uche a. c. (2012). introductory islam for university and colleges, applaused multi-sectors limited, owerri. ukegbu, m. n. basic civic education for junior secondary schools, meybiks nigeria publishers, owerri, 2010. uwaoma n. c. (2018). introduction to peace and conflict resolution studies, mercy divine publishers, owerri. 47 pension payment in nigeria: challenges and ethical implications uchenna ofondu e. department of religious studies federal university of kashere, gombe state email: uofondu@gmail.com abstract pension is the payment intended to sustain a worker after service life. it is made of deductions from the workers’ wages while at work. successive administrations at all levels of government in nigeria have found it difficult, and to a large extent, impossible to pay retirees their pension. this challenge has so far defied all the feeble attempts made to tackle it due to several reasons. consequently, a great number of nigerian senior citizens languish in penury and a lot of them have been sent to their untimely graves. this situation has made retirement a nightmarish concept in the public service lexicon of nigeria. this paper analyzed both the historical, socioeconomic and ethical angles of the subject matter through the use of primary and secondary sources of information. this paper found out that it is unethical not to pay pension because the labourer deserves his/her wages. among others, corruption and lack of diligent enforcement of rules are the root causes of the problem. to mitigate and eventually solve this problem, this paper recommended for a better pay for workers and a more diligent enforcement of applicable laws. there is an urgent need for a thorough reform of the sector. keywords: pension, retirees’ challenges, social security, contributory pension scheme. introduction at a certain point in time an employee would have to retire from active service. retirement could be a function of age, length of service and health considerations. it marks the official withdrawal from service as stipulated by law. it is only after official retirement that the issue of pension comes into play. pension is a monetary remuneration given to a retiree after disengagement from service. however, nigerian pensioners have suffered severe deprivations due to the failure of their respective organizations to pay them. while a few lucky ones are owed only a few months arrears, the rest have not been paid for several years. in some states, laws were made to permanently deny pensioners of their legitimate income. this paper interrogates the issue of delay and non-payment of pension in nigeria with a view to highlighting the causes, the ethical implications of the malaise and to proffer some solutions. pension has been variously defined. oxford advanced learners dictionary (2010) says it is “an amount of money paid regularly, by a government or company to somebody who is considered to be too old or too sick to work”. this definition is germane as it puts a stress on the regularity of the payment. however, a pensioner may not necessarily be too old or too sick to work. another perspective conceives pension as a form of income maintenance which acts as a social security or a kind of social protection measure. furthermore, pension constitutes one of the mainstream government domestic issues involved in the public policy process. ethics has been described as the study of the science of human conduct with a view to determining what is good and right and what is bad and therefore wrong. every human activity possesses a certain level of ethical relevance. ethics acts as a form of guide to enable human uchenna ofondu e pension payment in nigeria: challenges and ethical.. 48 beings act within established limits of freedom. eze (1997) says an ethical consideration examines human actions to know how they reflect to human good. although much has been written about the challenges of pension payment in nigeria, the ethical perspective seems to have received trite attention. this is the lacuna that necessitated this paper. it is hope that it will provoke more deliberative action on the part of those concerned. the idea of pension prior to the industrial revolution in europe, people engaged in substance farming and worked for a daily pay. whoever can no longer work due to sickness or old age was left to his/her fate. many of such people encountered severe hardship and faced imminent death due to lack of resources. the pension plan was conceived to fill this terrible vacuum. pension is a futuristic plan by an employer to pay employees a stipulated amount of money after disengagement from service either due to age or length of service (allwell, 2010). it is designed to ensure that retired employees are appreciated for their faithful services and to guarantee them reasonable levels of life after leaving paid work. mboto (2002) corroborates the above assertion by emphasizing that retirees need to boost their purchasing power and also receive adequate medical attention. old retirees are usually confronted with age-related health challenges such as arthritis, pain and loss of strength among others. if such people lack regular sources of income, they face a sorrowful future. hill (2009) avers that pension is a social protection policy aimed at income stabilization. he stresses its importance with reference to the fact that some countries prioritized it for certain classes of workers even before regularized income provisions were made. hill concludes that pension involves an element of forced savings income maintenance system aimed at responding to such issues as old age, sickness, disability and several other contingencies. hooyman and kiyat (1996) posit that pension was never conceived as a measure to provide adequate income to a retiree. rather, it was to act as a basic protection measure and a first level of support to a retiree. ogletton (2010) agrees with hooyman and kiyat. he argues that retirees easily become vulnerable to income changes and social exclusion making them incapable of actively participating in economic activities. the above factors affect their self-confidence and increase their levels of dependence. without pension, this situation degenerates inexorably. continuing in the same line of thought, jhingan (2013) avers that pension being a form of social welfare must be properly monetized for it to be effective. he aligns with pigiou’s (2015) submission that for pension to be effective, it must ‘be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring rod of money”. jhingan insists that since social welfare is regarded as the summation of all individual welfares in a society, its effectiveness can only be measured in relationship to the extent it addresses individual needs. in accord with jhingan, schiller (2004) views pension as unarguably, the largest income transfer program in social security. to him, the importance of pension far weighs in favour of the aged retirees who in its absence could languish in severe poverty. pension has also been seen as an integral part of social and economic justice. as a theory of justice (rawls, 1971), pension strives to achieve the greatest benefit to the least advantaged, especially the aged and the sick. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 49 conceptualizing the cognitive value of pension all over the world, pension has become an essential part of the rule governing the workforce, especially the public service. the need for pension cannot be over-emphasized given its social, economic and physical importance in the society. pension is made up of a part of a worker’s emoluments which are deducted at source on a monthly basis. it is, therefore, a right—being part of the pensioner’s money that had accrued over the period of service years. perceived from this angle, some have argued that to deny such a worker of pension is tantamount to stealing. stealing is a punishable offence under nigerian legal code. more often than not, retirees are people who have advanced in age and may not be in the best physical and mental health to undertake any productive work. the retirement age for most public servants in nigeria is sixty years. it is only the teachers in the higher institutions of learning, and until recently, the primary and secondary school teachers, who retire at sixty five or seventy years as the case may be. at such an age, one has unarguably passed the most productive years of life. also, it is at this time of life that some age-related ailments begin to manifest thereby complicating the already complex situation. without pension, the fate of some of these retirees is likely to become “harsh, brutish and short” (hobbes). for several reasons— including the unstable economic and political environment in nigeria—most employees are unable to make adequate saving for the future. poor remunerations are common features of the nigerian workplace. the nigerian national minimum wage is n 30,000 following the approval of the demand of the nigerian labour congress (nlc) for increased wages by the federal government in 2019. this amount is barely a survival wage for any worker for a whole month. the present economic challenges resulting from the removal of petrol subsidy and the floating of the naira have exacerbated the trauma being faced by pensioners. consequently, labour unions are making demands for an upward review of the minimum wage. it is only when a worker has enough disposable income for basic needs that savings can make sense. there have been a lot of policy summersaults from the nigerian government over the years. these economic and political instabilities make savings difficult, if not impossible for the nigerian worker. the administration of mohamadu buhari from 2015 to 2023 has been accused of being nonchalant to the plight of workers and pensioners as its policies impoverished more nigerians. furthermore, some people are not good financial managers. there are several instances where employees exceed the limits of their salaries even before the end of the month. sadly, when salaries come, they are severely mutilated through numerous inexplicable deductions. this has further compounded the dilemma of the average nigerian public servant, in particular, and makes financial planning nonsensical. such people are almost always in debt and cannot make ends meet. since savings are constituted by what is left unspent, such persons lack what to fall back on when they retire from service. thus, without pension, life for them can only be imagined. as earlier adumbrated, the nigerian worker is, perhaps, among the most poorly remunerated in the whole world. nigerians are paid peanuts as salaries. this makes savings difficult, if not impossible. it was only in april 2019 that the government approved a national minimum wage of n30,000 (about 60% increments) for workers. prior to this time, the minimum wage was n18,000 per month (nigeria minimum wage act, 2019). despite the approval of n30,000 as minimum wage for the nigerian worker only an egligible number of them have received the uchenna ofondu e pension payment in nigeria: challenges and ethical.. 50 new salary several years after. it is doubtful if governments at all levels and private sector will implement whatever will be the outcome of the present negotiations between the labour unions and the government, as the labour unions agitate for the increase the national minimum wage to n70,000. the exchange rate of a dollar to the nigerian naira is about n1,600. at this rate, the newly proposed minimum wage will still amount to less than $60 for a whole month. the implication of the above scenario is that many people do not have enough to cater for the basic needs of life and thus are left with nothing to save for the future. the severity of this fact is made even more poignant by the observation of hubbard and obrien (2013) that one of the common traits of the average citizen is the reluctance to save money. pension serves as a modest way to appreciate a retiree for the services he/she rendered to the organization throughout the time of the retiree’s service life. this assures the people concerned that their useful contributions while in service have not been forgotten. consequent upon the above, those who are still in service are encouraged to put in their best in view of the fact that they will continue to be appreciated even long after leaving office. pension as right, not a privilege this aspect could be approached from two broad perspectives, the old and the modern. at the inception of the industrial revolution which gave birth to pension, it was largely considered as a privilege which the employers of labour gave to the retired employees as a compassionate gift. it was not codified because what would be paid was totally dependent upon the whims and caprices of the employer. consequently, the “pension” was largely a privilege. however, modern day pension is the right of any pensionable employee. pension laws have been codified and enacted by the appropriate arm of government. the provisions of the law are not negotiable as it stipulates some penalties for any breach. the pension reform act (2004) of nigeria introduced the contributory pension scheme whereby a part of the monthly earning of a worker is deducted as part of his/her contribution to a future pension. it is within the above context that pension has become a right and not a privilege. from another conceptual angle, pension is the right of the worker regardless of whatever amount of salary he/she had received during service life. the argument is hinged on the fact that no salary could be commensurate with the contributions of an employee in a workplace. every worker, it is believed, is always underpaid, and in view of that, is entitled to a pension. problems of pension payment the average nigerian pensioner has virtually become an endangered species because of nonpayment of his/her monthly pension. the federal government and the various state governments have found it extremely difficult to fulfill their monthly obligations to individual pensioners. and when pensions are paid, they often come in fits and in starts. some states owe their pensioners arrears that run into several years. here below are some of the factors militating against the prompt and regular payment of pensions in nigeria: corruption, perhaps, is the greatest social evil prevalent in nigeria. the pensions sector is not spared from the corruption monster. in 2016, the director of pension in the office of the head of service of the federation, alhaji s. s. teidi was alledged to have stolen n3 billion pension money. about n23.1 billion belonging to the police pension fund went missing and mr. john yusuf and his collaborators were tried and convicted for the crime. similarly, the former chairman of the pension reform task team (prtt), alhaji m. maina, is undergoing trial for aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 51 embezzling several billions of naira belonging to the organization. these are the notable ones but it is widely believed that more corrupt activities are carried out in that area. the pension fund administrators (pfas) in whose hands the huge pension resources are entrusted seems to lack adequate capacity to manage pension funds. these funds are usually invested in government bonds and other safe but low yielding schemes. this deprives pensioners of huge returns on investment. according to the national bureau of statistics (nbs), nigeria has about 69 million workers but only about 7 million have retirement savings accounts (rsas). this poor savings culture affects the amount of funds available to the pfas. contrarily, about 50% of employees in the usa and uk respectively, have retirement savings accounts. this challenge is largely attributable to the low level of awareness and education concerning pension matters. there is also the problem of non-remittance of pension deductions by some establishments, including government owned institutions. it was reported that the pension commission (pencom) imposed and collected about n7 billion penalties from certain employers for nonremittance in 2018. this is in accordance with the 2% penalty as stipulated by the law. small and medium scale business establishments have resisted and restrained their workers from following any kind of retirement plan. this is contrary to the pension laws of the country which says any organization with 15 workers is expected to join in a contributory pension plan (pra, 2014). furthermore, hill (2009) had contended that part of the problem bedeviling the payment of pension in several parts of the world is that most pension laws were made during a period when life expectancy was lower than what obtains today. according to him, rising settlement of entitlements as fresh retirees join the long queue puts so much pressure on available pension funds. perhaps, this is one of the main reasons for which the contributory pension scheme came into operation. ethical implications of non-payment of pension the ethical implications of non-payment of pensions to retirees are not farfetched and can be fairly deduced from the angles already addressed by this paper. 1. high sense of indignation: pension serves as a way of expressing appreciation for the years the retiree offered in service and when it is not being paid, it generates a high sense of indignation in the mind of the retiree. he/she wonders if the services provided over the years were indeed worth the effort and the sacrifices. this corroborates the assertion of bond (1997) that the society rewards, usually, the present and not the past. concomitant with the above is the fact that pension encourages those who are still in service to put in their best, cognizant of the fact that their contributions shall be well appreciated on retirement. when this expectation is not fulfilled, it tends to breed a lackadaisical attitude to work. some people see it in local nigerian parlance as “monkey dey work, baboon dey chop”. 2. encouragement of fraudulent conduct: the sufferings which befall retirees as a result of non-payment of pension usually encourage some workers to get involved in fraudulent conduct. a large portion of the fraud that occur in different places of work is traceable to the attempt by some employees to gather as much as possible from their various organizations since they are most likely to die in penury after retirement. the uchenna ofondu e pension payment in nigeria: challenges and ethical.. 52 objective here is to “draw” your own pension plan and equally “collect” it while in service. 3. age falsification and alteration of records: this is one of the prominent and common issues related to non-payment of pension. many workers out of fear of an uncertain future after retirement falsify their ages as an alternative so that they can spend more time in service and avoid, at least for a time, the drudgeries that come with retirement in nigeria. others alter their service records to bring forward their years of resumption of duty. 4. untimely death of retirees: it is common for retirees to take ill and die not long after disengaging from work. this syndrome is easily attributable to nonavailability of funds to take care of their basic needs. such needs include proper medication for those who are sick, good housing, food and other family related issues. inability to address such needs often lead to avoidable untimely death. elderly retirees who hardly receive pension have been subjected to all forms of deprivations, especially those who have no children or relatives capable of caring for them. oluwabamide (2007) aptly captures this situation while arguing that most aged retirees in africa are poor and cannot cater for themselves. the dilemma of the aged retiree is aggravated by the breakdown of the much cherished african culture of care for the elderly and the spirit of communalism. 5. contradiction of divine injunction: the holy bible (jer. 22: 13) expressly states that the worker deserves his or her wages, therefore, whoever withholds the wages is already in breach of divine injunction. pension is constituted by a portion of a worker’s monthly pay and for that reason belongs, unconditionally, to the retiree. consequently, there could be no acceptable reasons for retirees not to be paid their entitlements. as earlier adumbrated, pension is a right and not a privilege that could be negotiated. unfortunately, certain state governments have made laws designed to short-change pensioners. 6. corruption: corrupt practices in the pension sector seem to suggest that the younger generations which are still in service are desperately stealing the savings made by their elders. this unconscionable action presents a case of double jeopardy where those in service and therefore receive regular salaries are depriving retired and often tired and old workers of their due entitlements. 7. erosion of trust in government: the inability or outright unwillingness by the government to abide by the pension laws which it freely enacted makes the ordinary citizen to lose confidence in the ability of the government to protect him/her. the general implication of this development is that people easily resort to self-help with its dire consequences. 8. crime: retirees who have young children, especially those who are still in school, can no longer afford school fees and sundry needs because their pensions are unpaid. this exposes the children to all sorts of criminal tendencies. furthermore, a retiree who can no longer make basic provisions for his/her family easily looses self-esteem and the dependants often consider them as disposable liabilities. the bible alludes to this (i timothy 5:8). recommendations and prognosis for action 1. proper supervision: a thorough and efficient supervisory system should be put in place to ensure that the rules and regulations guiding all pension matters are strictly aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 53 followed. it is not enough to make laws, it is more important to enforce such laws. nigerian public officers easily over-reach themselves and break laws with impurity. 2. punishment of offenders: following from the preceding point, it is necessary to visit the full sanctions of the law on any confirmed offender. this will act as a deterrent to others with similar intentions. when people in breach of the law are not swiftly punished or in extreme cases, not punished at all, criminals are more emboldened to wreck havoc on law abiding citizens. 3. use of technology: developments in science and technology have made it easier to computerize pensioners and their monthly benefits. diligent application of technology will make it difficult for fraudulent persons to manipulate the system for their selfish interest. it will also curtail the seemingly endless verification exercises with its attendant implications and challenges. 4. more stringent law against non-remittance of deductions: pension laws should be tightened, especially, with regard to non-remittance of deductions by mdas and other corporate bodies. the current 2% penalty seems not be enough encouragement for them to remit their pension deductions to pencom. also, any reluctance on the part of employers to remit deductions and subsequent failure of pencom to wield the big stick should be criminalized. 5. capacity building for pencom and other pension managers: the inability of pension fund administrators (pfa’s) to invest in high yielding ventures could be traced, largely to a lack of capacity. these organizations must be run like the business venture which they are. capable business-minded people should be recruited to fill this gap and the civil service oriented ones should be retrained so as to equip them to fit into the new paradigm. in many countries, pension funds constitute the main source of funding groups and therefore, control the capital exchanges where they operate (nawal and noura, 2020). conclusion this paper has perused the issue of non-payment of pension in nigeria and concludes that it is unethical not to pay retirees their due benefits. most pensioners are elderly people and are prone to a lot of vulnerabilities. emphasis on the youth for the realization of economic goals and the erosion of the extended family system for which africa was known has made life unbearable for retirees. non-payment of pension could simply imply a death sentence. therefore, those who engage in any organized, interdependent system of corruption to deny pensioners of their money should be visited with the appropriate severity of sanctions. nigerian pensioners should be treated with the highest level of decorum and as first line charge in the financial system. uchenna ofondu e pension payment in nigeria: challenges and ethical.. 54 references allwell, d. (1998). thinking future. prentice hall. cavanaugh et al (2002). adult development and aging (4thed). wordsworth, thomson learning. dzurgba, a. (2008). politics and ethical behaviour. john archer. eze, p. (2010). studies in christian ethics. akins dress. hill, m. (2008). the public policy process. pearson educational ltd. hoyman, n. r. and kiyak, h. a. (1996). social gerontology. allyn and bacon. hornby, a. s. (2006). advanced learners dictionary (7thed). oxford university press. hubbard, g. r. (2013). economics. edingburgh pension educational ltd. jhingham, m. l. (2013). modern micro-economics. vruinda publishers. kaunda, k. (1978). humanism and community in africa. heiunenian press. mbiti, j. s. (1990). african religions and philosophy. heineiman press. mboto, w. o. (2002). introduction to the society of the aged. clearlines publishers. mudaire, p. u. (2013). abuse of the aged in nigeria. american international journal of countemporary research, 3 (9). nawal, n. and noura, h. (2020). pension funds and ethics (an article accessed on researchgate.net 5/8/2021). mbs/cbn/pencom.com (accessed on 6/6/2021). ndukwe, o. (2011). celebration of life. cirace publishers. odineka, s. (2018). utilizing christian religious ethics for the development of the nigerian well-being (an article in religion: journal of nasr, 28(1)). oglleton, p. (1989). income changes and social exclusion. prentice hall. rawls, j. (1971). a theory of justice. cambridge university press. schiller, b. r. (1990). essentials of economics. mc grawhill. aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr abstract this paper examines the impact of social media on african politics focusing on how these platforms have influenced political discourse, citizen engagement, and government responsibility and accountability. the paper uses secondary sources of data and the data is analyzed within the arguments of the network society theory by manuel castells which postulates that societies are shaped by relationships between individuals and groups through the interplay of technology and networked forms of communication. findings from the data reveal that social media has transformed the political landscape in african countries by shaping their structural, political and governance processes through public opinions and public policy mobilization and action. the findings also reveal that while social media has provided new avenues for political participation and information dissemination, it has also presented challenges such as the spread of misinformation and the manipulation of negative public sentiment. the paper therefore recommends a moderation of social media through legislation that guarantees freedom of speech but also protects individuals and government against falsehood and blackmail. keywords: africa, social media, politics, internet, democracy, elections introduction in recent years, the proliferation of social media platforms has revolutionized the way information is disseminated, opinions are formed, and political discourse is conducted worldwide. this digital revolution has not spared the african continent, where social media has emerged as a powerful tool for communication, mobilization, and engagement among both political elites and ordinary citizens. the impact of social media on african politics is a topic of growing significance and relevance, as it shapes the dynamics of governance, activism, and public participation in the region. africa, a continent known for its diverse cultures, languages, and political landscapes, has seen a significant increase in internet penetration rates over the past decade. this growth has been accompanied by the rise of social media platforms such as facebook, twitter, whatsapp, and instagram, which have become integral parts of everyday life for millions of africans. the accessibility and reach of social media have enabled individuals to connect, share information, and express their opinions on a scale never seen before, transcending traditional barriers of time and space. interrogating the impact of social media on african politics john tor tsuwa department of political sciences benue state university, makurdi, benue state johntsuwa@gmail.com and terver akase department of political sciences benue state university, makurdi, benue state terryakase@gmail.com 13 mailto:johntsuwa@gmail.com mailto:johntsuwa@gmail.com against this backdrop, the intersection of social media and african politics presents a complex and multifaceted terrain for exploration. from facilitating political campaigns and mobilizing mass protests to exposing corruption and amplifying marginalized voices, social media has exerted a profound influence on the political landscape of many african countries. however, this influence is not without challenges, as the spread of misinformation, hate speech, and online manipulation has raised concerns about the potential negative impacts of social media on democratic processes and social cohesion. jibo, (2014) states that social media has brought enormous transformation into the political space globally. the internet has recently quickened political change in countries as diverse as tunisia, the us, britain and libya, for example. the use of facebook and twitter has linked people who share ideas across all human divides and this has brought about fundamental political change as was witnessed in the so-called arab spring and elsewhere in the world. the biggest gain of humanity from the internet, it is generally believed, is the diffusion of democratic ideals for all mankind to appreciate and aspire to achieve. jibo is not alone in his succinct submission that the internet has had profound influence on politics in africa and elsewhere. vromen (2018) shares similar views. most other forms of political engagement tend to favour those with the most wealth or access. not social media. it gives voice to anyone with a phone. in a time when political power is synonymous with economic power, the type of collective action social media makes possible is giving more people a say in the conduct of their governments and the society they live in. before the advent of social media, conventional media such as television, radio, newspapers and magazines had significant and monopolistic influence on political discourses. that was the era when gagging or censorship of the press was high. most of the media organizations were owned and controlled by the government. in nigeria for instance, jibo, (2003) stated that, …it is significant to observe that on the eve of the olusegun obasanjo's presidency, nigeria had liberalised media ownership, thanks to decree 38 of 1992 which ibrahim badamasi babangida had promulgated to allow private ownership of the electronic media. until then, it was entirely government-owned. a number of individuals and organizations took advantage of this development and established radio and television stations; these include ray power f.m. radio, african independent television [ait] and minaj broadcast international [mbi] to mention a few examples. the above scenario was prevalent in most african countries until social media emerged and became a potent tool for citizen journalism where the people could now take active part in information dissemination. with social media, as far as one owns a phone, he/she can sit in the comfort zone of his/her house and express their opinion on any political discussion and such information can reach a good number of people in a very short time. one of the greatest advantages of social media is that it creates space for everybody irrespective of their social status in the society unlike other conventional means such as radio, television and newspaper where the elites and the government monopolized the media space. through social media, both the rich and the poor contend for political space without the former dominating the latter. vromen (2018) agrees with the above view by asserting that, while other forms of political engagement tend to gravitate towards members of the society with most wealth or access, social media does not. rather; it provides opportunity to anyone with a phone. similarly, shirky (2008) provides further illumination on how social media has eliminated many barriers by noting that: “social tools” spur group14 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 formation and collective action by reducing the costs of communication and removing “two old obstacles – locality of information, and barriers to group reaction”. in other words, social media has broken down many hurdles to open up more political space for people irrespective of class or status to add their voices on major political developments in their societies. there are 4.95 billion social media users globally (statista, 2024). this means 61% of the global population uses social media. the global social media users are estimated to reach 5.17 billion by the end of 2024. according to statista (2024), the number of social media users in africa has risen continuously, amounting to over 384 million as of 2022. social media penetration is considerably higher in northern and southern africa than in other regions. as of february 2022, some 56 percent of the population in northern africa used social media, while the share was 45 percent in southern africa. central africa was significantly behind, with a share of only eight percent. in ghana, kenya, nigeria, and south africa, social media users favoured whatsapp. statista (2024) reported that approximately 95.4% of internet users in south africa use whatsapp every month. in nigeria, 91.9% of internet users use whatsapp; in kenya, 93.5% and in ghana, 89.9%. the more people use the internet, the more they use whatsapp. this is because whatsapp has data privacy, end-to-end encryption, video and call functionality, and group function which makes it indispensable for companies, schools, churches, associations, groups of friends and many others. many people rely on information from these platforms and use it to share information. on the other hand, egyptian and moroccan users preferred facebook. the data reveals that nigerians spend the most time on social media on the african continent. as of the first quarter of 2023, nigerians spent, on average, three hours and 44 minutes on different social media platforms. south africans and kenyans followed, spending three hours and 34 minutes and three hours and 32 minutes on social media, respectively. though the initial intention of its invention was not to be used as a medium for political mobilization and engagement, the social media has turned out, as it were, a major platform where people ventilate their opinions on major political, social and economic developments in their respective countries. zuckerberg (2014) admitted to this fact by asserting that facebook was not in the beginning created to be a company; it was designed to accomplish a social mission with the primary aim of linking people together. vromen (2018) corroborated that social media platforms were not initially intended to be used as news or political stage, but to a large extent, that is what they have become. one area the usage and impact of social media has been felt in africa is in the aspect of democratization. since its inception, individuals, groups, political parties and civil society groups have greatly used social media to deepen democratic culture. however, there is lack of consensus among researchers as regards the impact of social media as a political tool in the democratization process. while some scholars commend the role of social media in this regard, others have argued that social media is a threat to democracy. arguing on the positive side of social media on political advancement scholars such as stoycheff, nisbet, & epstein (2016), bartlett, krasodomski-jones, daniel, fisher, jesperson (2015), ruijgrok, (2017) reuter &szakonyi (2015) cited in placek (2018) espoused that social media can create a higher demand for democracy, intensify protest against autocrats, promote greater political awareness, increase awareness on issues of electoral malpractices and promote civic awareness and engagement. other scholars such as deb, donohue, &glaisyer (2017), fitzpatrick (2018) and chakrabarti (2018) intimated that social media platforms, together with the rise of partisan media in traditional channels, have worsened political divisions and polarization. furthermore, some social media platforms reinforce divisions and create echo chambers that propagate more and 15 john tor tsuwa &terverakase interrogating the impact of social media on african politics more extreme or biased views over time. similarly, the problems of hate speech, fake news, and smear campaigns have also raised some controversy on the role of social media as a democratization tool. sunstein (2018, p.1) has summarized the threat that social media poses to democracy as follows: for social media and democracy, the equivalents of car crashes include false reports (“fake news”) and the proliferation of information cocoons and as a result, an increase in fragmentation, polarization and extremism. if you live in an information cocoon, you will believe many things that are false, and you will fail to learn countless things that are true. that's awful for democracy. it can, therefore, be stated with some level of certainty that there are mixed perceptions among scholars regarding the impact of social media on africa politics. it is against this background that this paper seeks to appreciate these divergent views in the literature, by examining the impact of social media on africa politics. clarification of concepts social media kaplan and haenlein (2010) view social media as a technology that permits for usercollaboration as well as user generated content (usg) which concentrates on individual participation and content creation. they added that, social media encompasses platforms such as blogs, social networking sites (such as facebook and twitter), content communities (such as youtube), and collaborative projects (such as wikipedia). social media is also defined as a set of information technologies which enable interactions and networking (oestreicher-singer &zalmanson, 2013). similarly, kietzmann, hermkens, mccarthy and silvestre (2011) described social media as a web-based application which offers functionality for sharing, relationships, group, conversation and profiles. social media as used in this paper refers to a network of technological platforms (i.e. facebook, whatsapp, instagram) that provide political space for people to be involved in the governance of their society. politics the changing nature of politics makes it intricate, complex and more difficult than the physical sciences. this is due to the changing nature and the complexities of man. however, the word 'politics' is derived from a greek word polis which means city state. the inhabitants of the city state were, naturally, citizens (kepedi, 2013). the greek polis, or city-state, was a resilient and adaptable political institution founded on the principles of citizenship, freedom, and equality. again, politics can be seen from subjective idealism or an ideal philosophical concept and existentialism which is the view from the point of reality. in the words of a danish philosopher popularized by sarte (1905) it is an indifferent and hostile world. this statement was corroborated by aristotle (384-322 bi) when he observed that man by nature is a political animal and by this, he meant that the essence of social existence is politics and that two or more men interacting with one another are invariably involved in a political relationship. this is so because man from time immemorial prefers social companionship to isolation. several proponents conceptualized the term of politics as follows. laeswell (1937) in his famous book 'politics' defined it as who gets what, when and how. he attempts to expand the horizon of the enquiry to look at politics in many other social settings other than formal public government. it helps underline the fact that politics is about decisions made by people concerning certain objectives which they consider desirable. harold laeswell in his definition, laid emphasis on, the role of power in the distribution of scarce resources. david 16 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 easton in his political system (1953) looked at politics as a process through which binding decisions on the distribution of scarce values are made for a society in a world of change. it is in this light that he viewed politics as the authoritative allocation of values in an organized society. in the understanding of ola (1995), politics is dealing with power. to him, it is the management and administration of power within an existing nation state and community which is an aggregate of people with shared boundaries, values and some mutual interests, feelings and behaviour. from a pluralist perspective, politics involves competitiveness between a varieties of interest group each pressing for its own advantage. since no one group is seen to be dominant, politics is, therefore, a business of bargaining and compromise, essentially. methodological framing this paper is qualitative in nature and uses secondary sources of data such as books, journals, term papers and of secondary sources to obtain data. theoretical framing the paper adopted the network society theory which was developed by manuel castells in the 1980s. castells assumes that technological development is the most important individual precondition for the resurge of networks (castells, 1996). castells (1989, p. 32) wrote that, these networks, which could not exist on such a large scale without the medium provided by new information technologies, are the emerging organizational form of our world, and have played a fundamental role in ensuring the restructuring process---. he supports his view with a claim that the emergence of networks as an efficient form of social organization is the result of three features that have proved their usefulness in the emerging techno-economic environment, namely flexibility, scalability and survivability (castells, 2004a, p. 5-6; castells, 2009, p. 23): flexibility: they can reconfigurate according to changing environments, keeping their goals while changing their components. they go around blocking points of communication channels to find new connections. scalability: they can expand or shrink in size with little disruption. survivability: because they have no center, and can operate in a wide range of configurations, they can resist attacks to their nodes and codes, because the codes of the network are contained in multiple nodes that can reproduce the instructions and find new ways to perform. to castells (2004a; 2009), networks are sets of interconnected nodes, which process financial and other value flows with the help of new technologies. they are self-configurable, complex structures of communication and power, which cooperate and compete internally and externally according to interests expressed within the nodes using ultimately a binary logic of inclusion/exclusion. they have the capability of self-renewal in the sense that they may introduce new actors and content as conditions change. their dynamic nature makes them flexible, scalable and survivable, which are needed in a continuously changing techno-economic environment. the network society theory emphasizes the transformative impact of digital communication technologies, including social media, on various aspects of society, including politics. according to this theory, social media have the potential to enable new forms of political participation, mobilization, and organization, and to facilitate the rapid dissemination of information and ideas. in the context of african politics, the framework has helped us to understand how social media have significant implications for political communication, citizen engagement, and the dynamics of social movements and political activism. 17 john tor tsuwa &terverakase interrogating the impact of social media on african politics social media and politics social media plays a pivotal role in democracy and democratization processes all over the world. though, as correctly observed by omojuwa (2015), elections may not be won on social media but they shape perceptions. in other words, social media has the capacity to deepen democratic thinking all over the world. for instance, barack obama made massive use of social media in his 2008 presidential campaign to mobilize the support of american youths to win election (dipanwita, 2015). as a matter of fact, a study conducted by a public relations firm edelman concluded that the “landslide victory” of barack obama in the 2008 election was due to his positive use of social media (lutz, 2009). similarly, the social media contributed in forcing the then prime minister of iceland sigmundurdavíðgunnlaugsson to quit over the panama papers scandal (polonski, 2016). case studies of social media influence on african politics africa has not been left out of the social media wind blowing across the world. what is famously today referred to as the “arab spring” was triggered by the power of social media. the arab spring uprisings of 2011 demonstrated the transformative power of social media in contemporary global politics. social media platforms such as twitter and facebook were instrumental in mobilizing citizens to participate in mass protests and demonstrations across the middle east and north africa. by allowing for the rapid sharing of information and coordination of protests, social media played a crucial role in the success of the movement. the arab spring highlighted the potential of social media to challenge oppressive regimes and promote political change, ushering in a new era of activism and political engagement online (wolfsfeld, et al., 2013). african case studies are presented below: the nigerian case study in nigeria, social media has continued to shape political events especially in the 2015 general election. prior to the 2015 elections, many nigerians used to congregate on social media platforms like twitter and facebook to ventilate their frustration against government policies and actions (omojua, 2015). the pressure from different social media users across nigeria did help in no small measure in repositioning the political situation of the country at that time. the trend began a few years earlier when social media users in the country organized protests like "enough is enough" in april of 2010 which eventually led to the then-vice president goodluck jonathan to be made acting president, a move that eventually led to the "doctrine of necessity" that got the national assembly to pronounce him acting president following the illness of president umaruyar'adua (omojua, 2015). in a similar vein, bartlett, krasodomski-jones, fisher and jespersen (2015) also provided evidence which suggested that twitter was mostly used to mobilize and influence the electorates to vote for certain candidates in the 2015 election in nigeria. in a similar analysis, udoka (2015) observed that the 2015 general election was decided, dominated and directed by social media because the online platforms played a key role as watchdogs. as votes were still being counted at the polling units, the outcomes were immediately reported on various social media within minutes and when announced officially, the results were the same (udoka, 2015). this means that most of the results provided by different social media platforms did not contradict the one officially announced by the electoral umpire. suntai and targema (2015) have provided evidence which suggest that social media played a critical role in democratization process in nigeria. 18 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 they explained that in the build up to the 2015 general election, “tweet meets and hangouts” were the in-thing within nigerian online networks. they observed that during the 2015 election, hashtags such as #meetgej, #febuhari, #, #whyiwillvotegej, #marchforbuhari, #gmb15, #lagosforyou and #ihavedecided were promoted by politicians and their friends; while #nigeriadecides, #nigeria2015, #ipledgetovote, #mypvcnow, #govote, #votenofight, etc, were promoted by civil society groups to increase citizens' awareness and involvement. different social media platforms also provided the nigerian public with pictures and videos on facebook and whatsapp showing how party agents were nabbed by security operatives in the act of vote buying as well bringing into limelight the issue of underage voting in some states of the federation, consequently forcing inec to swing into action (apuke&tunca, 2018). in a similar manner, oseni (2015) also restated that during the collation of results, journalists and civil society groups used social media to update the nigerian public as regards the results in different states of the federation. it is also on record according to temitope and ahmad (2017), that social media was used by apc in the 2015 election as an avenue for mobilizing people to vote and also collate and preserve results which greatly forestalled possible manipulation of election results in nigeria. apuke and tunca (2018) also opined that nigeria has witnessed a significant rise in the use of social media platforms. they observed that in the nigerian 2015 general election, facebook was used due to its participatory nature. apuke and tunca (2018) argued further that different social media platforms were used by political parties in nigeria for political organization, electioneering campaigns and mobilization of voters. for instance, while there is no doubt that many political parties contested for elections in nigeria, the role played by the two major political parties in nigeria (pdp and apc) cannot be overemphasized. for instance, omojua (2015) contended that, the main opposition party, the all progressives congress (apc) was the major beneficiary of the role of social media in political change. the all progressives congress (apc) greatly made massive political gain out of the social media. the party used different social media platforms to capitalize on the dwindling political fortunes of the then ruling party, the people's democratic party (pdp). for instance, the then spokesman of the apc, alhaji lai mohammed constantly used social media to mesmerize the nigerian public on how the ruling people's democratic party (pdp) was not able to deal with the issue of insecurity, corruption and bad governance. on the other hand, social media posts by the spokespersons of the then ruling people's democratic party (pdp) such as femi fani-kayode, doyinokupe and reno omokri attracted more enemies than friends for president goodluck jonathan. omojuwa (2015) observed that, doyin okupe and reno omokriwho were presidential aides on political matters and media respectively, wrote on their tweets accounts that: "retweet if you won't be voting president jonathan because of omokri and okupe”. the result from the twitter poll showed that over 300 people retweeted that they would not be voting for president goodluck jonathan (omojuwa, 2015). by employing this strange strategy, it showed the duo were unethical and had little or no idea of the ropes of the profession which brought serious damage to the re-election bid of former president goodluck jonathan. this was a clear indication of how the social media posts of presidential aides contributed in decimating the political balance sheet of the then president. both the ruling people's democratic party and the then opposition all progressives congress employed the use of social media as a major tool in electioneering campaign in nigeria. the then opposition party, the apc benefited a lot from the social media usage. for example, muhammadu buhari, the presidential candidate of the apc opened a twitter account in december, 2014 with 19 john tor tsuwa &terverakase interrogating the impact of social media on african politics 900 tweets but as the 2015 general election drew nearer, he had over 117,000 followers (omojuwa, 2015). similarly, the twitter followers of his running mate professor yemi osinbajo rose from 430 tweets to 80,000 (omojuwa, 2015). comparatively, the twitter account of the then president goodluck jonathan had only 32 tweets with 25,000 followers (omojuwa, 2015). besides, the tweeter account of the then president was not functional as at may, 2014, a clear indication that there was a gap between the government and the people (omojuwa, 2015). as observed by polanski (2017), it would be a grave mistake to disregard the voices from the internet. this was what actually happened to the pdp in the 2015 elections. as a result, the apc greatly exploited this gap by convincing the nigerian public to vote for change. it was, therefore, surprising and contradictory that president buhari who immensely benefited from social media influence to win the 2015 election, placed a ban on twitter. from 5 june 2021 to 13 january 2022, the government of nigeria officially banned twitter, which restricted it from operating in the country. the ban occurred after twitter deleted tweets made by, and temporarily suspended, the nigerian president muhammadu buhari, warning the southeastern people of nigeria, predominantly igbo people, of a potential repeat of the 1967 nigerian civil war due to the insurgency in southeastern nigeria (maclean, 2021). still in nigeria, the emergence of peter obi of the labourparty (lp), prior to the 2023 elections, is another example of how social media can have enormous influence on politics. flowing from the endsars nationwide protests of 2020, youths of the nation began to agitate for a new nigeria. peter obi, a former governor of anambra state, who had just left the people's democratic party and joined the labour party (lp), became the beacon of hope for the youths, most of who were active on social media. the obi campaign rapidly spread across the country via facebook, twitter, youtube, instagram and other platforms and indeed threatened the two major political parties, the ruling all progressives congress, apc and peoples democratic party, pdp. obadere (2023, p. 4) wrote on the peter obi phenomenon thus: in the following months, the odds of obi becoming nigeria's next president changed, in a dramatic election season, from totally implausible to not unlikely to very possible, tracking the evolving mood of young people who felt at first that obi stood no chance against the formidable machine of the old guard before becoming totally convinced that he stood as good a chance as any of disrupting the entrenched two-party system. it was the fervency and energy of these young people, the “obi-dient” as they came to be known, that drove obi's startling ascendancy, raising the hope that their candidate could overcome a series of formidable structural hurdles. in benue state, nigeria, the victory of the governorship candidate of the all progressives congress, reverend father hyacinth alia, in the 2023 election, was largely attributed to the wave of campaign his team mounted on social media known as “yes father movement”. alia's official facebook page which was created less than two months before the election had over 30,000 followers, mostly young people. though father alia's popularity, as a catholic priest who was known for conducting healing masses for about three decades was a key factor, his presence on social media also played a pivotal role in his victory at the polls (the guardian nigeria news, 2023). the liberian case study in liberia, civil society groups rose to caution the government against restricting access to social media before the country's elections of 2023. as the people of liberia were preparing to vote on 20 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 october 10, 2023, two groups known as access now (2024) and the #keepiton coalition urged the then president, george weah to ensure that the election process was inclusive, free, and fair — starting with upholding access to information and avenues for free expression via the internet. when a government interferes with internet access during an election, it's the people who lose. liberia's history of blocking social media during democratic movements must come to an end. #keepiton this election and beyond (access now, 2023, p.5). in 2019, following anti-corruption protests against the government, liberian authorities restricted access to popular social media platforms including x (formerly twitter), facebook, instagram, snapchat, and whatsapp across the country, the civil society groups had issued a similar warning stating that: access now and the #keepiton coalition won't stop fighting until we put an end to internet shutdowns globally. this trend of shutting down information to control the narrative — in africa and beyond — hurts democracy, endangers online expression, and attacks our right of freedom of association. no more shutdowns (access now, 2024, p.6) the 2019 social media blackout in liberia made it extremely difficult for journalists to report, access critical information, and share updates on the protests with the public. internet shutdowns also cut people off from their loved ones, which can create uncertainty during political unrest. for example, in 2019, people in liberia reported being unable to communicate with their relatives abroad during the shutdown (access now, 2023). shutting down the internet during a crisis exacerbates existing tensions, spurs the spread of misinformation, and may even instigate or conceal violence and human rights violations perpetrated by both state and non-state actors. during electoral periods, human rights defenders, election observers, civil society actors, and other stakeholders rely on the internet to monitor and report on elections, facilitating transparency and openness in the democratic process. internet shutdowns make it difficult for citizens and stakeholders to participate in the electoral process (access now, 2023). political candidates cannot engage with their supporters, and the documentation of electoral irregularities is impeded. this not only undermines civic engagement and electoral integrity; it also threatens human rights such as the right to freedom of expression and access to information. the chadian case study since july 22, 2020, the government of chad has blocked access to whatsapp, and up until august 18, 2020, authorities also cut access or slowed down the internet in parts of the country. citing the need to prevent the spread of messages “inciting hate and division” on social media, government authorities reportedly took these drastic measures to prevent dissemination of a video and images, taken on july 14, 2020, showing a chadian military officer opening fire on a mechanic who also attacked him with a knife during a dispute (access now, 2023). the implication of this ban on democracy could be expressed in the violation of fundamental rights of citizens of the country such as freedom of speech and expression. in chad, the government lifted a 16-month social media ban in july 2019 thereby ending what was the longest social media blockade seen in any african country. the chadian government argued that the lengthy ban was necessary for “security reasons” dwyer and molony, (2019). the chadian case highlights the way social media has increasingly been framed as a threat, especially by authoritarian leaders. since the beginning of 2019 at least nine other african countries have also experienced government ordered internet shutdowns. dwyer and molony went further that “political leaders often view social media as a threat because it can provide the public with greater access to 21 john tor tsuwa &terverakase interrogating the impact of social media on african politics information. it, also, has the potential to mobilize and challenge leadership. some authors found ways in which digital platforms were creatively used to expand political participation. the case of zimbabwe in zimbabwe, macmillan (2020) stated that during the 2018 elections, twitter became a space where the physical violence prevalent in zimbabwe's previous elections was enacted through discourse. it was also a space where opposition supporters challenged the hegemony of the ruling party and provided a space for political resistance. the july 2018 zimbabwe national elections were characterized by one unique feature: the extensive use of social media especially twitter, whatsapp and facebook, especially by the key presidential contenders nelson chamisa and emmerson mnangagwa in the struggle for hegemony. the cyber-contestation also became evident between chamisa's followers nicknamed “nerorists” and mnangagwa's followers nicknamed “varakashi” (chibuwe, 2020, p. 12). fake news and mudslinging became defining elements during these digital propaganda battles. social media gained prominence in the election, its contribution to democracy is paradoxical. the anonymity and open nature of social media provides an opportunity for participation, but it is precisely this that is also its downside: it provides rooms for emergence of cyber ghosts. the space's invasion by cyber storm troopers and/or cyber ghosts and netizens serving elite interests undermined social media's liberative potential as it resulted in irrational debates, mudslinging, insults, and outright lies. arab spring the arab spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings, protests, and revolutions that swept through the arab world in 2010 and 2011. the movement was characterized by mass demonstrations, calls for political reform, and demands for greater social justice and economic opportunities. the arab spring had its roots in long-standing grievances against authoritarian regimes, corruption, economic inequality, and lack of political freedoms in many arab countries. the spark that ignited the arab spring was the self-immolation of mohamed bouazizi, a street vendor in tunisia, in december 2010. bouazizi's act of protest against government corruption and repression resonated with many tunisians and sparked widespread demonstrations and calls for president zine el abidine ben ali to step down (wolfsfeld, et al., 2013). the 2011 arab spring upheavals showed how social media may have a revolutionary effect on modern international politics. people all around the middle east and north africa were mobilized to take part in large-scale rallies and demonstrations thanks, in large part, to social media sites like facebook and twitter. social media was important in making the movement successful because it made it possible for information to be shared quickly and for protests to be organized. a new era of online activism and political involvement was ushered in by the arab spring, which demonstrated social media's capacity to oppose repressive governments and advance political change (wolfsfeld, et al., 2013). the demonstrations were caused by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption, a lack of political freedoms (such as freedom of speech), and poor living conditions. there were series of protests and uprisings in late 2010 and early 2011 that challenged some of the middle east and north africa's entrenched dictatorships. protesters demanding greater political rights, economic equality, and government accountability often faced violent repression by their countries' security forces. in december 2010 for instance protests began in central tunisia against what the people described as corrupt and authoritarian government and quickly spread to the rest 22 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 of the country due to massive use of social media platforms. protesters soon overwhelmed the capital, forcing the tunisia president zine al-abidine ben ali to resign and flee in january 2011 (sofi, 2019). black lives matter the black lives matter movement has emerged as a powerful force for social and political change in contemporary global politics, with social media playing a crucial role in its growth and impact in parts of the world including africa. the movement began in july 2013, with the use of the hashtag #blacklivesmatter on social media after the acquittal of george zimmerman in the shooting to death of an african-american teen, trayvon martin, 17 months earlier in february 2012. the movement returned to national headlines and gained further international attention during the global george floyd protests in 2020 following his murder by minneapolis police officer derek chauvin. an estimated 15 million to 26 million people participated in the 2020, black lives matter protests in the united states, making it one of the largest movements in the country's history (wikipedia, 2024). it comprised many views and a broad array of demands but they centered on criminal justice reform. the popularity of black lives matter has shifted over time. in 2023, about 51% of adults in the united states expressed their support for the movement, while in 2020 some 67% of americans expressed support for the black lives matter movement (statista, 2020). african countries like nigeria, ghana and south africa also joined the global protests in response to the death of george floyd and called for an end to police brutality in the usa. this again brought to bear, the power of social media. the #bringbackourgirls hashtag campaign was initiated by nigerian activists to highlight the kidnapping of over 200 schoolgirls by boko haram in 2014. the first lady, michelle obama, later tweeted the hashtag to garner supported the campaign. it was primarily driven by nigerians and international supporters to raise awareness and press for action (tufekci, 2017). the hashtag gained global traction, becoming a symbol of solidarity with the girls and their families, and a call to world leaders to secure their release. it sparked widespread outrage and condemned boko haram's actions, putting pressure on the nigerian government and the international community to intensify efforts to bring the girls back safely. the campaign highlighted the broader issue of violence against women and children in conflict zones and served as a powerful tool for advocacy and mobilization, highlighting the need for concerted action to address the threat posed by extremist groups and prioritize the protection and empowerment of women and girls worldwide. on the whole, the case studies of some african countries above underscore the undisputed impact of social media on contemporary politics in africa and other parts of the world. while social media has played a key role in mobilizing citizens to demand political change (shirky, 2011) and raise awareness about critical issues, it has also been used to spread misinformation, sow political polarization, and undermine democratic processes (tufekci, 2017). the spread of misinformation and fake news has been particularly evident during political campaigns, where candidates or political parties can use social media to disseminate misleading or false information about their opponents or issues. this can have real-world consequences, such as swaying public opinion, suppressing voter turnout, or even influencing the outcome of elections (baum, & potter, 2019). furthermore, the spread of misinformation and propaganda on social media can also contribute to the polarization of society. false information that reinforces existing beliefs and biases can create a sense of distrust and hostility towards those with differing 23 john tor tsuwa &terverakase interrogating the impact of social media on african politics viewpoints, leading to an "us vs. them" mentality (howard, et al., 2016). these examples highlight the complex and nuanced relationship between social media and politics, underscoring the need for greater regulation, transparency, and accountability in the digital sphere. overall, these case studies provide valuable insights into the evolving influence of social media on the political landscape, offering important lessons for policymakers, activists, and citizens alike. challenges of social media in democratization process in africa there is no doubt that social media has become one of the major agencies of the democratization process across the world. however, there are many challenges facing social media as a democratisation tool. ideas are the critical issues in a democracy and lack of cogent ideas mar the democratic process. one of the major limitations of social media as a democratization tool is that it disseminates mostly lopsided ideas. therefore, without efficient communication of ideas, mobilization is ineffectual. it is interesting to note that on one hand, while majority of social media users in africa who criticize political developments are youths, on the other hand, most of these youths neither have voters' cards nor go out to cast their votes during elections. this is what ihembe (2018) referred to as “twitterian and whatsapparian” generation. though, the social media helped in sharing information which shape people's opinions and mobilizations, its limited access to people in the hinterlands and illiterate population require that, we must go out and mobilize people to participate in the political process. the effects of sharing information on social media without engaging the excluded population can be debilitating on our democracy. this is because all activities start with being informed; next is conviction; and ultimately for some, direct involvement in rallies and sometimes direct confrontation with authority. therefore, the consequence of not involving all and sundry, can best be compared to montesquieu (1748) view that the tyranny of a prince in an oligarchy is not as dangerous to the public welfare as the apathy of the citizens in a democracy. sharing ideas on social media without actually engaging in the process is an exercise in futility. to further buttress the above argument, the independent national electoral commission in 2019, stated that there were 11,228,582 million uncollected voters' cards in its custody as at 20th february, 2019 (channels television, 2019). change cannot be effected online but through the ballot box. the implication of this is that, if the people disparage or malign each other on the social media without actually coming out to vote or mobilise others to do so, the change they desire to make may end up being a mirage. even the collection of voters cards can be enhanced by social media messages. the spate of fake news and hate speech on social media on political events is also a serious threat to the democratization process. the proliferation of fake news and hate speech on social media is a significant issue in nigeria, as it can lead to violence, societal divisions, and undermine trust in institutions, a concern prevalent in many other nations. one instance of fake news in nigeria was that of lauretta onochie, a media aide to president buhari, who was accused of sharing fake news on social media. she posted a new road which she claimed was constructed by president buhari. it turned out that the road was actually a picture from rwanda. ms onochie later apologized on her twitter account saying “my big mistake, apologies to all, friends and wailers alike. it won't happen again” (cnn, 2019). she also shared on her twitter handle, photos of a rally by the presidential candidate of the people's democratic party (pdp), alhaji atiku abubakar sharing food packs with money bearing the caption “keep them in poverty, then give them handoutsatiku in sokoto yesterday,” (cnn, 2019). it turned out that this was another fake news. 24 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 the then minister of defence, mansur-dan ali conceded that fake news was a serious problem in nigeria by stating that the federal government planned to monitor social media accounts of prominent nigerians to contain “the propagation of hate speeches” (wakili, 2018). many nigerians criticized the move and alleged that it was a plan to gag people's freedom. it also became curious to note that the all progressives congress (apc) that made massive political gains out of social media usage during the 2015 general election would turn around to gag the social media community in nigeria. the all progressives congress (apc) wanted to prevent the transmission of false statements or declaration of facts in nigeria as well as end the financing of online mediums that transmit false statements. equally important is the demarcation line between hate speech and constructive criticism. hate speech is any speech that has the intent of denigrating, repressing, harassing and causing the death of a person or group of persons on the basis of tribal affiliation, sex, religion or ethnic group. for instance, the hate speech expressed by oba akiolu of lagos: on saturday, if anyone of you, i swear in the name of god, goes against my wish that ambode will be the next governor of lagos state, the person is going to die inside this water … for the igbos and others in lagos, they should go where the oba of lagos heads to …. (godwin 2015, p.1). this is because many political leaders in africa term constructive criticism as hate speech in order to deter people from bringing into limelight the inadequacies of the government in power to public knowledge. the problem of unequal access to the internet also limits the role of social media as a democratization tool. this is what technology experts call “digital divide”. mehra (2004) defined the term 'digital divide' as “the troubling gap between those who use computers and the internet and those who do not". the divide is associated with several factors but majorly, the issue of digital divide is linked to illiteracy, income and poor telecommunication facilities. in many less industrialized economies, low literacy rates limit the usage of internet services users. poverty is another major factor limiting access to the use of social media in africa. according to statista (2023), in 2022, the extreme poverty rate in africa stood at around 50 percent among the rural population, compared to 10 percent in urban areas. together with poverty, malnutrition is also widespread in africa. limited access to food leads to low health conditions, increasing the poverty. the brooking institution reported that 87 million nigerians live in extreme poverty and that six people fall below poverty line after every six minutes (vanguard newspaper, 2018). how can such a huge population who are struggling to survival be able to afford data for social media? in addition, despite the fact that nigeria has the biggest market in africa in the telecommunication industry, the cost of data is still out of reach of many people. the poor state of telecommunication infrastructures in africa has also not helped matters. poor network is the leading problem associated with the infrastructure. conclusion the impact of social media on politics in africa is significant and multifaceted. it has transformed political communication, mobilization, and engagement, providing a platform for citizens to voice their opinions and hold their leaders accountable. social media has also been instrumental in facilitating political movements and protests, leading to both positive and negative outcomes. it has influenced election campaigns and the dissemination of political information, contributing to both transparency and misinformation. overall, the influence of social media on politics in 25 john tor tsuwa &terverakase interrogating the impact of social media on african politics africa cannot be understated, and it continues to shape the political landscape on the continent. recommendations i. governments and relevant authorities in africa should establish clear regulations and oversight mechanisms to ensure responsible use of social media in political contexts, while also safeguarding freedom of expression. ii. efforts should be made by african governments to expand the school curriculum to media literacy to equip the people with the ability to apply critical thinking skills and evaluate political information as well as news shared on social media by political actors and their supporters. references access now, (2023). liberia elections: unrestricted internet, social media is a requirementhttps://www.accessnow.org/press-release/liberia-elections-unrestrictedinternet/ africa union (2015). release of aueom. preliminary statement on nigerian's elections. baum, m. a., & potter, p. b. 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(2013). social media and the arab spring: politics comes first. the international journal of press/politics, 18(2), 115-137. zuckerberg, m (2014) mark zuckerberg's ipo letter: why facebook exist yahoo finance, february 2, 2012. 28 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 page 21 page 22 page 23 page 24 page 25 page 26 page 27 page 28 page 29 page 30 page 31 page 32 page 33 page 34 page 35 page 36 75 the media, truth and the ethics of public opinion in the age of propaganda stephen emmanuel department of philosophy, prince abubakar audu university, anyigba emmanuelstephen864@gmial.com & fasiku, gbenga cornelius phd department of philosophy, prince abubakar audu univeristy, anyigba, cfasiku@gmail.com or gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng abstract the rapid growth of digital media and the proliferation of social platforms have radically transformed the landscape of public opinion, creating new challenges for the relationship between media, truth, and ethics. in the age of propaganda, the media’s role in shaping public perceptions is increasingly scrutinized as information is often manipulated or distorted to serve political, corporate, or ideological interests. this paper explores the complexities of media ethics in the contemporary information age, focusing on how propaganda and misinformation challenge the concept of truth in public discourse. the ethical responsibility of the media in maintaining truth, objectivity, and fairness while navigating the tension between freedom of speech and the potential harms of manipulated narratives is central to this discussion. by analyzing the role of media in shaping public opinion, the paper proposes strategies for promoting ethical journalism and protecting democratic integrity in the digital era. keywords: media, truth, ethics, public opinion, propaganda introduction in the modern era, the media plays a fundamental role in shaping public opinion; acting as both a conduit for information and a powerful tool for influencing societal beliefs and behaviors. with the rise of digital platforms and 24-hour news cycles, the volume and speed of information dissemination have drastically increased. however, this expansion has come with significant challenges, particularly regarding the truthfulness of information and the ethical responsibilities of media outlets. in today’s media landscape, the line between fact and opinion has become increasingly blurred, and the deliberate manipulation of information—often referred to as propaganda has become a common tool used by political actors, governments, and corporations to sway public opinion and promote specific agendas. mailto:emmanuelstephen864@gmial.com mailto:cfasiku@gmail.com mailto:gbenga.fc@ksu.edu.ng aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 76 the ethical implications of such practices are profound. media organizations are tasked with the duty of presenting facts in a way that is both objective and accurate, yet the economic pressures of sensationalism, the influence of corporate sponsors, and the rise of partisan media often undermine this responsibility. as a result, the trust between the public and the media has eroded, and the concept of “truth” has become more subjective, with competing narratives presenting conflicting versions of reality. this paper examines the ethical dimensions of this issue, exploring the responsibilities of media organizations in promoting truth and combating the harmful effects of misinformation and propaganda. furthermore, it will address how these ethical considerations relate to the broader democratic processes, highlighting the crucial role of the media in upholding public trust and informed decision-making in society. the role of the media in shaping public opinion the media has long been a powerful force in shaping public opinion, acting as a key vehicle for disseminating information, framing political discourse, and influencing societal norms. in the modern era, with the advent of digital platforms and 24-hour news cycles, the media’s role in shaping public opinion has only intensified. from news broadcasts to social media platforms, the media has the capacity to inform, persuade, and sometimes manipulate public views, often serving as the primary source through which individuals understand and interpret the world around them. one of the most significant ways in which media shapes public opinion is through framing the manner in which news and information are presented. media outlets often choose which events to cover, how to describe those events, and which voices or perspectives to emphasize, thus shaping the public’s understanding of the issues at hand. for example, the framing of political events, such as elections or policy debates, can significantly influence how the public perceives candidates or political parties. according to entman (1993, 52), framing “selects some aspects of a perceived reality and makes them more salient in a communicating text.” this selective emphasis guides the audience toward specific interpretations and judgments, subtly influencing their beliefs and actions. the agenda-setting function of the media is another powerful mechanism by which public opinion is shaped. while the media may not directly tell people what to think, it often tells them what to think about. by focusing on particular issues and elevating them to public prominence, the media can influence which topics dominate political discourse and public concern. mccombs and shaw’s (1972) agenda-setting theory asserts that “media doesn’t tell people what to think, but it tells them what to think about.” for instance, when media outlets extensively cover issues like climate change, immigration, or economic inequality, these topics gain prominence in public discussions, influencing policymakers and the public alike. social media platform have further amplified the media’s role in shaping public opinion. in contrast to traditional media, social media allows individuals to share information, opinions, and news at an unprecedented scale, giving rise to a more interactive and participatory form of media consumption. however, this new form of media consumption also comes with challenges, stephen emmanuel & fasiku, gbenga the medical truth and the ethics of public opinion in…. 77 including the spread of misinformation and the creation of “echo chambers,” where users are exposed primarily to viewpoints similar to their own. the algorithmic nature of platforms like facebook, twitter and instagram often prioritizes sensationalist or emotionally charged content, which can exacerbate polarization and reinforce pre-existing beliefs (pariser, 2021, 20). the result is an environment where the line between credible news and misleading content becomes increasingly difficult to discern. the economic pressures faced by media organizations also play a role in shaping public opinion. many traditional media outlets are subject to financial incentives that prioritize sensationalism, scandal, or controversy in order to attract higher ratings, views, or ad revenue. as a result, news stories may be presented in a way that maximizes audience engagement, sometimes at the cost of accuracy or balance. this phenomenon, often referred to as “infotainment,” blurs the line between news and entertainment, and can lead to the distortion of facts or the oversimplification of complex issues (bagdikian, 2004, 89). despite these challenges, the media also has the potential to play a positive role in shaping public opinion by providing informative, balanced, and fact-based content. the rise of independent journalism, fact-checking organizations, and media literacy campaigns has increased the public’s ability to critically evaluate the information they consume. as the media landscape continues to evolve, the role of journalists, media producers, and consumers in upholding the integrity of public discourse becomes ever more critical. however the media plays a significant role in shaping public opinion, from framing issues and setting agendas to influencing political attitudes and social behaviors. while media outlets have the power to inform and engage the public, they also have the responsibility to present information accurately and ethically. as digital platforms continue to evolve, the ability of media to shape public opinion remains a double-edged sword, capable of both enriching democracy and exacerbating divisions. media literacy, ethical journalism, and public accountability are crucial in ensuring that the media remains a force for positive social change rather than a tool for manipulation. propaganda techniques and misinformation in the modern information age, propaganda and misinformation have become powerful tools used by various actors including governments, corporations, and political groups to shape public opinion and influence behavior. propaganda, by definition, is the strategic use of communication to promote specific ideas, ideologies, or interests, often through the manipulation of information. while propaganda can take various forms, it typically involves the distortion or selective presentation of facts to manipulate the beliefs and actions of an audience. misinformation, on the other hand, refers to the dissemination of false or inaccurate information, regardless of intent, and has become increasingly pervasive in both traditional and digital media. understanding the techniques of propaganda and misinformation is essential for discerning their impact on public discourse and democracy. one of the most common propaganda techniques is card-stacking, which involves the selective presentation of facts to promote a particular agenda. by highlighting only favorable information aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 78 and omitting negative details, those wielding propaganda create a biased narrative that influences the audience’s perception of an issue. this technique is frequently seen in political advertising, where a candidate’s strengths are emphasized while their weaknesses are minimized or ignored. for example, during electoral campaigns, political parties may focus on a candidate’s achievements while downplaying controversies or failures, creating an artificially positive image (herman and chomsky, 2002, 132). another powerful propaganda technique is the use of fear-mongering, where emotional appeals are made to provoke fear in the audience. by exaggerating threats or dangers, propagandists seek to manipulate public sentiment and mobilize people to take certain actions. a classic example of fear-mongering can be seen in wartime propaganda, where the enemy is depicted as an existential threat to national security. this technique also plays a significant role in shaping public policy, particularly in areas such as national security, immigration, and public health. for instance, the portrayal of immigrants as criminals or economic burdens can fuel xenophobia and support for restrictive policies (lasswell, 1927, 120). demonization is another frequently used technique in propaganda, wherein an opposing group or individual is portrayed as inherently evil, immoral, or dangerous. this strategy is designed to simplify complex issues by framing them in black-and-white terms, thus eliminating any nuance or opposing viewpoints. historically, demonization has been used in political and military contexts, such as the portrayal of communists during the cold war or the demonization of political opponents in authoritarian regimes. in the context of modern media, demonization is often seen in the way certain political groups or movements are vilified, contributing to polarized and divisive public discourse (jowett and o’donnell, 2012, 45). misinformation (the dissemination of false or inaccurate information) often overlaps with propaganda, although it can occur unintentionally as well. the rise of digital platforms has made misinformation more widespread, as rumors, hoaxes, and fake news can be shared quickly across social media, often with little regard for accuracy. one significant form of misinformation is fake news, which refers to deliberately fabricated stories that are presented as legitimate news to mislead or deceive the audience. the proliferation of fake news during significant political events, such as elections, has been shown to influence voter behavior and public trust in democratic processes (vosoughi, roy, and aral, 2018, 1146). the spread of misinformation can also undermine public health efforts, as seen during the covid-19 pandemic, when false claims about the virus and vaccines created widespread confusion and hindered efforts to curb the disease’s spread. another form of misinformation is seen in conspiracy theories, which are often propagated through social media and fringe websites. these theories involve complex, unfounded claims about hidden agendas or covert actions, typically involving powerful groups or institutions. while they may seem far-fetched, conspiracy theories can have a profound effect on public opinion, particularly when they are presented in ways that resonate with individuals’ preexisting beliefs or fears. the widespread belief in conspiracy theories, such as those surrounding the 2020 u.s. presidential election or the origins of covid-19, highlights the dangers of unchecked misinformation in shaping public perception (goertzel, 1994, 734). stephen emmanuel & fasiku, gbenga the medical truth and the ethics of public opinion in…. 79 the effects of social media on truth and public discourse social media platforms have dramatically transformed the way information is disseminated, consumed, and interacted with in the modern world. once primarily a tool for social interaction, platforms like facebook, twitter, instagram, and more recently, tiktok, have become central in shaping public discourse and influencing perceptions of truth. while these platforms provide unprecedented access to diverse viewpoints, they also pose significant challenges to the accuracy of information and the integrity of public debate. the impact of social media on truth and public discourse is multifaceted, involving both positive and negative consequences for the way we engage with information, politics, and societal issues. one of the most significant effects of social media on truth is the phenomenon of echo chambers. echo chambers are environments where users are exposed primarily to information that aligns with their existing beliefs and opinions, while dissenting voices are either marginalized or excluded. research has shown that social media platforms, particularly those with algorithm-driven content feeds, exacerbate this effect by prioritizing content that generates strong emotional reactions, which often leads to the reinforcement of existing biases (pariser, 2011, 42). as a result, individuals in echo chambers may become more polarized, less open to alternative perspectives, and increasingly resistant to information that contradicts their views. this creates a fragmented public discourse, where competing narratives of truth are perpetuated without the possibility of meaningful dialogue. another challenge posed by social media is the rapid spread of misinformation and disinformation. unlike traditional media, where there are editorial processes and fact-checking mechanisms, the decentralized nature of social media allows for the rapid dissemination of both false and misleading information. misinformation refers to the sharing of false information without malicious intent, while disinformation is deliberately fabricated to deceive or manipulate an audience. social media platforms are particularly susceptible to the spread of misinformation because of the speed at which content can go viral and the lack of effective oversight in many cases. for example, during the covid-19 pandemic, false claims about the virus, its transmission, and treatments circulated widely on social media, causing confusion and hindering public health efforts (fraser et al., 2021, 163). the spread of such content highlights the need for greater accountability in how information is shared and consumed online. fake news, a type of disinformation designed to deceive and mislead audiences, has become one of the most dangerous consequences of social media’s impact on public discourse. fake news often presents itself as legitimate journalism, making it difficult for the average user to discern between credible sources and fabricated content. the intentional spread of fake news has been used for political purposes, influencing elections, spreading propaganda, and distorting public opinion. a notable example is the role of fake news in the 2016 united states presidential election, where false stories circulated on social media were found to have had a significant impact on voters’ perceptions of the candidates and their policies (allcott and gentzkow, 2017, 213). the widespread availability of fake news has undermined public trust in traditional news sources, creating an environment in which the truth becomes harder to discern. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 80 additionally, algorithmic biases on social media platforms further complicate the relationship between truth and public discourse. social media companies use complex algorithms to determine which content appears in users’ feeds, prioritizing posts based on engagement metrics such as likes, shares, and comments. this system often amplifies sensational, emotional, or polarizing content, which can distort the public’s understanding of events and issues. for example, studies have shown that false news spreads faster than true news on platforms like twitter, partly due to the virality of sensationalized headlines (vosoughi et al., 2018, 1147). these algorithms, designed to maximize user engagement, inadvertently prioritize content that is often misleading or divisive, contributing to the erosion of trust in information and public debate. despite these challenges, social media also has the potential to play a positive role in shaping public discourse and promoting truth. the democratization of information on social media has enabled marginalized voices to be heard and has facilitated the rapid dissemination of important social and political movements. the arab spring, for instance, saw social media platforms being used to organize protests, share real-time information, and challenge oppressive regimes. social media has also enabled greater accountability, with platforms serving as spaces for public debate, fact-checking, and exposing corruption (tufekci, 2017, 111). in this sense, social media can be seen as a tool for transparency and truth-telling, providing an alternative to traditional media outlets that may be influenced by corporate interests or political affiliations. however, to fully realize the potential of social media as a force for good, there is a need for stronger mechanisms to combat misinformation and promote digital literacy. fact-checking organizations, digital literacy programs, and algorithmic transparency are essential components of this effort. additionally, social media platforms themselves must take greater responsibility for curbing the spread of harmful content and ensuring that users are exposed to reliable information. without these efforts, social media risks further exacerbating the challenges to truth and public discourse, undermining the integrity of democracy and informed citizenship. conclusion in recent years, public trust in the media has significantly declined, largely due to concerns about misinformation, bias, sensationalism, and the financial pressures on media outlets. this erosion of trust presents a critical challenge to the role of the media in a democratic society, where informed citizens are essential for effective participation in civic life. to restore public trust, a multi-faceted approach is necessary one that involves media organizations, journalists, governments, and the public. addressing issues of ethical standards, transparency, and accountability in media practices is paramount in rebuilding confidence in the media and ensuring that it continues to serve its vital role in society. a foundational step in restoring public trust is the promotion of ethical journalism. ethical journalism is grounded in principles such as fairness, accuracy, impartiality, and the commitment to truth. media organizations must adhere to strict ethical guidelines that prioritize the public interest over commercial or political pressures. the society of professional journalists’ code of ethics emphasizes that journalists should “seek truth and report it” and “minimize harm” by stephen emmanuel & fasiku, gbenga the medical truth and the ethics of public opinion in…. 81 ensuring that their reporting is balanced, respectful, and fact-based (“code of ethics”). media outlets that consistently uphold these principles are more likely to earn the trust of their audiences. in addition, the increasing reliance on citizen journalism, fueled by social media, requires an emphasis on the ethical responsibility of ordinary people sharing information. encouraging ethical behavior in this sphere such as verifying information before sharing can reduce the spread of falsehoods and reinforce a culture of integrity in public discourse. another essential strategy for restoring trust is enhancing transparency within media organizations. the public has a right to understand how news is produced, funded, and disseminated. one way to achieve this is through greater transparency about the editorial processes and decision-making that shape media content. media outlets should disclose their sources of funding, ownership structures, and any potential conflicts of interest. the establishment of independent editorial boards or factchecking organizations within media companies can provide additional layers of oversight, ensuring that content is produced with integrity. when news organizations make their editorial processes visible and understandable to the public, they demonstrate accountability and foster trust. in addition to transparency, accountability is crucial in rebuilding public trust. media organizations must be held responsible for their reporting, especially when errors are made. this can be achieved through prompt corrections, public apologies, and clear acknowledgment of mistakes. a commitment to accountability also includes addressing bias and sensationalism in reporting. one way to combat bias is through the use of diverse and inclusive editorial teams, which can help ensure that news stories reflect a wide range of perspectives. regular media audits and independent oversight, such as by public regulators or independent commissions, can help identify and address issues of bias or misrepresentation. fact-checking plays an increasingly important role in the effort to restore public trust in the media. as misinformation and fake news continue to spread across digital platforms, fact-checking organizations are vital in verifying the accuracy of claims made by politicians, public figures, and media outlets themselves. prominent organizations like politifact, factcheck.org, and the washington post’s fact checker have become trusted sources of accurate information, especially in the context of political discourse. media outlets can collaborate with such organizations to ensure that the information they disseminate is verified and reliable. fact-checking should be integrated into the daily operations of media organizations, making it a routine part of news reporting rather than an afterthought. additionally, educating the public on how to recognize and evaluate credible sources of information can empower individuals to critically engage with the news they consume. the promotion of media literacy is another critical strategy for restoring trust. media literacy programs, both in schools and through public campaigns, help individuals develop the skills necessary to critically evaluate the information they encounter. by teaching people how to assess the credibility of sources, understand biases, and identify misinformation, these programs can reduce the influence of falsehoods and conspiracy theories. media literacy also helps people understand the economic and political forces that shape media content, fostering a more informed and discerning public. as digital platforms increasingly serve as news sources, educating users aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 82 about the dynamics of algorithms, data privacy, and the spread of fake news is essential to fostering a media-savvy society. finally, media organizations and social media platforms should work together to curb the spread of misinformation. given the central role that social media plays in the dissemination of news, platforms like facebook, twitter, and youtube must adopt stronger measures to monitor and flag misleading content. these platforms have a responsibility to ensure that their algorithms do not prioritize sensational or false information simply because it generates engagement. increased cooperation between media outlets and social media platforms, as well as the use of artificial intelligence to detect and block fake news, can help mitigate the negative effects of misinformation. however, this must be done with respect for free speech and without overreach that stifles legitimate discourse. thus, restoring public trust in the media is a complex long-term process that requires the active involvement of media organizations, journalists, social media platforms and the public. by promoting ethical journalism, ensuring transparency, prioritizing accountability and encouraging fact-checking and media literacy, media organizations can begin to rebuild the trust that has been lost in recent years. in a time of rampant misinformation and divisive rhetoric, it is crucial for the media to reassert its role as a reliable, ethical source of information that serves the public good. stephen emmanuel & fasiku, gbenga the medical truth and the ethics of public opinion in…. 83 references allcott, h., and gentzkow, m. 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(1972). “the agenda-setting function of mass media.” public opinion quarterly, 36(2), pp. 176-187. mcchesney, r. (2008). the political economy of media: enduring issues, emerging dilemmas. monthly review press. pariser, e. (2011). the filter bubble: what the internet is hiding from you. penguin press. tufekci, z. (2017). twitter and tear gas: the power and fragility of networked protest. yale university press. tully, m. (2014). the ethical journalist: making responsible decisions in the digital age. oxford university press. vosoughi, s., roy, d., and aral, s. (2018). “the spread of true and false news online.” science, 359(6380), pp. 1146-1151. http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp http://www.politifact.com/ 162 the role of boundary situations in karl jaspers' epistemology and their implications for human understanding isaac iorember keryongu. department of philosophy, benue state university, makurdi. isaaciorember16@gmail.com. & benedict michael ph.d department of philosophy benue state university, makurdi benmike3@gmail.com, bmichael@bsum.edu.ng abstract this paper delves into karl jaspers' epistemology, focusing specifically on the role of boundary situations in shaping human understanding. boundary situations, such as death, suffering, guilt, uncertainties and conflict, are moments where the limits of human knowledge are confronted, challenging the individual to transcend conventional forms of knowing. jaspers argues that in such moments of crises, the human capacity for understanding is forced to confront its own limits, sparking a deeper, more existential mode of knowing. jaspers' existential framework presents these situations not as purely negative experiences but opportunities for profound insight, self-realization which enables man move to a higher form of understanding. when individuals face with limits of experience, they are pushed beyond everyday rationality and begin to engage with what lies beyond comprehension, what jaspers calls “philosophical transcendence.” this engagement is not about achieving absolute knowledge, but about recognizing the mystery and openness of existence. through this confrontation with the unknown, individuals are liberated from illusion of total knowledge and enter a space where they confront both their own subjectivity and the ambiguity of the world around them. the implications of boundary situations for human understanding are profound: reveal the essential incompleteness and contingency of human knowledge. instead of presenting knowledge as objective, fixed entity, jaspers’ philosophy highlights the dynamic, existential and subjective nature of understanding. ultimately, this paper argues that jaspers provides a crucial lens through which contemporary human understanding can be interrogated, emphasizing the continued relevance of boundary situations in discussions about understanding and existence. keywords: karl jaspers, boundary situations, existence, experience, subjectivity. introduction karl jaspers, a prominent existential philosopher, is renowned for his exploration of the limits of human understanding. central to his philosophy is the concept of "boundary situations," which are experiences that confront individuals with the limits of knowledge, existence, and rationality. these boundary situations include death, suffering, guilt, uncertainties and conflict experiences that challenge the rational and empirical frameworks typically used to understand the world. rather than viewing these as purely destructive forces, jaspers considers them as critical moments for transcendence and deeper existential insight. this paper will examine how jaspers' epistemological framework integrates boundary situations as essential to human understanding. specifically, it will analyze how confronting mailto:isaaciorember16@gmail.com mailto:benmike3@gmail.com mailto:bmichael@bsum.edu.ng isaac & benedict the role of boundary situations in karl jaspers' epistemology… 163 these boundary situations leads to a more profound understanding of human existence. furthermore, this analysis will incorporate various philosophical reactions to jaspers' work, including both positive and critical perspectives, to assess the relevance of his philosophy in contemporary debates on epistemology and human understanding. the nature of epistemology in jaspers' philosophy jaspers' epistemology is situated within his broader existential philosophy. unlike traditional epistemological approaches, which focus on the objective, scientific acquisition of knowledge, jaspers emphasizes subjective experience as central to the human understanding of the world. for jaspers, knowledge is not a static collection of facts but a dynamic, existential process that involves confronting one's own existence and limitations (2003, 16). in his work, philosophy of existence, jaspers stresses that traditional methods of knowledge such as the empirical sciences or logical reasoning are limited by their inability to address the ultimate questions of human existence. instead, jaspers proposes a philosophy that embraces the limits of human understanding. these limits, he argues, are not to be feared but accepted as essential to the human condition (jaspers, 2003, 53). this confrontation with boundary limitation becomes the cornerstone of his epistemology and the experience of boundary situations. jaspers conception of boundary situations jaspers identifies boundary situations as those experiences in life that force the individual to confront the limits of their understanding. these situations expose the inherent limitations of human knowledge and reason. while these moments of existential crisis may appear to threaten an individual’s sense of meaning and purpose, jaspers argues that they can instead provide opportunities for profound insight and self-awareness. boundary situations cannot be resolved by empirical data or logical reasoning, as they lie beyond the reach of such systems. for jaspers, these moments are existential, not merely intellectual (2003, 79). precisely, these "boundary situations" (grenzsituationen), refer to moments in life when individuals confront the fundamental limitations of their existence. these situations include death, conflict, guilt, and suffering, all of which provoke profound reflection on human existence. jaspers views these boundary situations not as mere obstacles to be avoided, but as opportunities for selfawareness, transformation, and a deeper understanding of the human condition death he considers death as the ultimate limit; death marks the boundary of human existence, forcing individuals to confront their own finitude. according to jaspers, it is through the contemplation of death that human beings realize the necessity of authentic existence (jaspers, 2003, 92). jaspers views death as the ultimate boundary because it represents the end of all human experience, knowledge, and comprehension. he asserts that "death is the limit of all human understanding and experience" (jaspers, 2003, 118). death marks the cessation of life and the impossibility of further experience. in confronting the reality of death, individuals are forced to confront the finitude of their existence, realizing that all life, including their own, will eventually come to an end. for jaspers, awareness of death is a critical catalyst for existential aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 164 reflection. it compels individuals to ask meaningful questions about how they live their lives in light of their inevitable mortality. jaspers also differentiates between "objective death" (the biological fact of death) and "subjective death" (an individual's awareness and contemplation of their own death). while objective death is a fact of life, subjective death is an experience of consciousness and existential reflection. in jaspers' thought, the realization of one's inevitable death can lead to a more authentic existence, where one is compelled to make choices with greater awareness of their finitude. by confronting death, individuals have the opportunity to transform their approach to life, embracing authenticity and personal responsibility. suffering jaspers sees suffering through physical illness, emotional trauma, or existential anguish, suffering confronts individuals with their vulnerability and limits. it is through suffering that humans can experience a deeper awareness of the fragility of existence. suffering is perhaps the most significant boundary situation, as it encompasses both the individual and universal aspects of human existence. suffering, whether physical or existential, brings individuals faceto-face with their vulnerability and limitations. for jaspers, suffering is not simply something to be endured or overcome, but an essential aspect of human life that has the potential to lead to deeper self-awareness. he writes, "suffering reveals to us the depths of our existence; it exposes our vulnerability, but it also opens us to the possibility of transcendence" (2003, 150). jaspers distinguishes between different kinds of suffering: physical suffering, which is tied to the body; emotional suffering, which arises from interpersonal relationships; and existential suffering, which involves the deeper question of meaning and purpose in life. existential suffering, in particular, is related to the awareness of life's inherent absurdity and the limits of human existence. this kind of suffering often leads individuals to question the meaning of life, and it is through confronting this suffering that they can achieve a higher level of selfunderstanding. moreover, jaspers views suffering as a means of transcendence. in moments of extreme suffering, individuals are forced to confront the meaning of their existence, and in this confrontation, they can experience a transformation of consciousness. suffering, in this sense, is not an end in itself but a path to personal and philosophical growth. through suffering, individuals can gain deeper insight into the nature of existence and their place within it. guilt the burden of freedom, moral responsibility brings an individual face-to-face with their past actions, creating an unavoidable confrontation with the self. guilt forces a reckoning with the limits of personal agency and understanding. jaspers' treatment of guilt is closely tied to his existential philosophy, which places emphasis on individual freedom and responsibility. guilt, in jaspers' view, is not simply a moral failing but an existential condition that arises when individuals realize their freedom to make choices and the consequences of those choices. jaspers writes, "guilt arises when we are confronted with the consequences of our free actions, when we face the reality that we have chosen in a way that affects others and ourselves" (2003, 134). for jaspers, guilt is tied to human freedom and the recognition that individuals are responsible for their actions. it arises from the recognition that, despite external influences, individuals ultimately have the freedom to choose their own path. this realization is both liberating and isaac & benedict the role of boundary situations in karl jaspers' epistemology… 165 burdensome, as it places the weight of responsibility squarely on the individual's shoulders. guilt, therefore, is not merely a feeling of remorse for wrongdoing, but a profound existential awareness that arises when individuals confront their freedom and its consequences. jaspers' notion of guilt also involves the recognition of the "unavoidable guilt" inherent in human existence. even when individuals strive to live ethically and justly, they are still complicit in the broader human condition, marked by suffering, conflict, and the limitations of existence. guilt, in this sense, is not something that can be resolved or eliminated but is a continuous aspect of the human condition, a reminder of the responsibility that comes with freedom. conflict jaspers conception of conflict, the clash of values and existence, personal or societal conflict can disrupt the sense of normalcy and force individuals to reconsider their understanding of the self in relation to others and the world. jaspers maintains that these situations are not simply negative. they hold the potential for transcendence, opening up new avenues of understanding beyond conventional intellectual frameworks. conflict, both internal and external, is a very critical boundary situation in jaspers' philosophy. internal conflict arises when an individual faces a contradiction within their own values or identity, while external conflict often manifests in social, political, or interpersonal struggles. conflict forces individuals to confront the limitations of their power and control. jaspers writes, "conflict, whether external or internal, is not a mere disruption but a revelation of the truth of who we are" (2003, 105). in this sense, conflict reveals the unresolved tensions within the human psyche and in social relations. jaspers acknowledges that conflict can be destructive, but he also views it as an essential aspect of human life. conflict is not simply an obstacle to be overcome but a means through which individuals encounter deeper existential questions. external conflicts, such as wars or political struggles, challenge individuals to consider the larger ethical and philosophical implications of their actions. internal conflicts, on the other hand, force individuals to examine the complexities of their own identity and moral choices. for jaspers, resolution of conflict does not always involve the elimination of the conflict itself, but rather a deeper understanding of one's position and responsibility within the conflict. through conflict, individuals encounter their own limitations, an encounter which leads to a greater sense of self-awareness. in a broader sense, conflict is a manifestation of the struggle for meaning and coherence within a fragmented world. this struggle, according to jaspers, is intrinsic to the human experience and provides an opportunity for growth and self-discovery. precursors of jaspers’ notion of “boundary situations” jaspers’ conception of boundary situations was heavily influenced by various philosophers and religious traditions such as, soren kierkegaard, martin heidegger, immanuel kant, friedrich nietzsche and religious mysticism. for instance, in soren kierkegaard existential dilemma jaspers derived the concept from the concept of individual despair and anxiety as an essential aspect of the human condition. kierkegaard’s philosophy revolves around the individual’s confrontation with existential despair, which can only be transcended through a leap of faith. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 166 kierkegaard’s notion of existential anxiety, or angst, highlights the feeling of being overwhelmed by the infinite possibilities of life, yet simultaneously being trapped by finite existence. from martin heidegger, he took over the notion that we are being unto death and that desein, as fundamentally defined by the finitude, its awareness of death, and its potential for self-interpretations. for jaspers, death is not just an intellectual concept but an experiential reality that defines human existence. he adopts heidegger’s notion of confronting one’s own finitude but emphasizes that existential challenges such as, guilt, suffering and conflict essential to the process of self-realization. jaspers writes, “the boundary situations are experiences in which we are confronted with what limits us, which we cannot escape” (2003, 174). jaspers was also influenced by immanuel kant, particularly by kant’s epistemological notion that knowledge is constrained by the boundaries of human perception. kant in his critique of pure reason argues that humans can only know phenomena, how things appear to us, not things-in-themselves, which remain beyond our cognitive grasp (kant, 1965, 29). jaspers, similarly, saw boundary situations as moments when humans are reminded of their inability to transcend the limitations of human understanding. this is an acknowledgement of human finitude, important philosophical insight. here, true freedom and self-realization come from recognizing the boundaries of our knowledge and being open to the unknown. jaspers argue that boundary situations involve confronting the unknown, which, in turn, reveals the limits of human understanding and invites the possibility of transcendence. he suggests that, these situations whether through suffering or contemplation of death, can open up the possibility for individuals to engage with the unknown in a transformative way, enabling them to experience freedom beyond the confines of rational thought (jaspers, 1951, 181). jaspers’ boundary situations, in many ways mirror nietzsche’s concept of the struggle for selfovercoming. for nietzsche, the individual must engage with the chaos and suffering of life, embracing it as a means of self-affirmation. jaspers, similarly, sees boundary situations as opportunities for personal growth, where the individual either bows to despair or transcends their limitations. as nietzsche declares in thus spoke zarathustra, “what does not kill me makes me stronger,” a sentiment that echoes jaspers’ understanding existential crises as moments that, while difficult, can lead to greater self-awareness and freedom (nietzsche, 2008, 123). jaspers ideas was also shaped by religious and mystical traditions, particularly, christian existentialism and mystical thought. jaspers acknowledged the importance of religious transcendence in confronting the boundary situations. he believed that moments of spiritual crises or mystical experience could help individuals transcend their limitations and confront the unknown. his own work explored the intersection of faith and reason, jaspers emphasized that boundary situations can be moments of spiritual insights or even divine revelation, where individuals confront their limitations in a way that opens them to a higher, transcendental reality. in his book philosophy of existence, jaspers writes, “religion for me is not the end of philosophy, but existential possibility to go beyond the limits of reason to experience” the transcendent” (jaspers, 1951, 240). this engagement with the divine or the transcendent is key to jaspers’ theory, suggesting that boundary situations can lead to a form of spiritual enlightenment that transcends the confines of rational thought. isaac & benedict the role of boundary situations in karl jaspers' epistemology… 167 jaspers’ notion of existential knowledge and transcendence jaspers proposes a form of knowledge distinct from the empirical knowledge sought by the natural sciences. he calls this "existential knowledge," which is concerned with questions of meaning, existence, and self-understanding rather than observable facts (jaspers, 2003, 101). existential knowledge arises when individuals confront the limitations of their own understanding in boundary situations. jaspers suggests that while empirical knowledge is necessary for navigating the world, it cannot address the deeper existential questions that arise in moments of crisis. transcendence, for jaspers, involves moving beyond the limits of knowledge as it is conventionally understood. in the philosophy of world history (1949), jaspers explains that transcendence is not the escape from limits but an embrace of them. confronting the unknown allows individuals to experience a deeper sense of being and a fuller understanding of their place in the world (jaspers, 2003, 125). the influence of jaspers’ concept of boundary situations on philosophy after him jaspers boundary situations influenced several scholars after him, particularly with his concept of death. his notion of death as a limit that defines human existence resonates with other existential scholars who perceive that the awareness of death forces a deeper engagement with the self and the world. for both, the encounter with death is not a moment of despair but one of existential awakening and self-realization (heidegger, 1962, 250). hannah arendt’s concept of “the human condition” can be also seen as a reaction to karl jaspers epistemology of boundary situations. arendt’s work builds up jaspers’ ideas, incorporating and expanding upon them in her own concept of the human condition. arendt’s emphasis on human finitude and the limitations that comes with it is reminiscent of jaspers’ concept of boundary situations. as arendt states “the human condition is characterized by its inherent plurality, natality and mortality.” (arendt, 1958, 9). this emphasis on human finitude is similar to jaspers’ concept of boundary situations, which highlights the ways in which human existence is bounded by its own limitations. “boundary situations are situations we cannot avoid, which we cannot overcome, and which we cannot escape,” (jaspers, 2003, 178). arendt’s concept of the human condition also emphasizes the importance of human existence and the need to take responsibility for one’s own life. arendt’s concept of human condition also focuses on human experience and the ways in which human beings exist in the world; “the human condition is characterized by its inherent ambiguity and uncertainty” (arendt, 1958, 22). this focus on human experience is similar to jaspers’ concept of boundary situations, which underscores the ways in which existence is bounded by limitations. jaspers states,” boundary situations are situations which reveal to us the true nature of human existence” (jaspers, 2003, 182). arendt’s concept of the human condition also stresses the significance of human freedom and the need for individuals to take responsibility for their actions. for arendt, “human freedom is the freedom to act, to begin something new, and to take responsibility of one’s actions” (arendt, 1978, 30). this thought is similar to jaspers ideas. furthermore, arendt’s concept of the human condition critiques traditional philosophy for its failure to take cognizance of human existence and experience; the same way jaspers views traditional philosophy as failing to account for the complexities and limitations of human existence. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 168 in addition, similar to jaspers thought in his boundary situation, arendt concept also expresses the importance of human plurality and the need for the individuals to engage with others in order to fully realize their own humanity. human plurality is the yardstick of human existence, and it is only through our engagement with others that we can actually acknowledge our own humanity, says arendt (1958, 40). emmanuel lévinas builds on jaspers’ ideas by focusing on the ethical implications of boundary situations, especially in terms of the encounter with the "other." in totality and infinity (1961), lévinas argues that ethical responsibility arises from the confrontation with the other, which can be understood as a boundary situation in itself. this confrontation is not merely intellectual but involves an existential shift that demands ethical responsibility. lévinas sees this as a fundamental disruption in the self’s normal understanding, which aligns with jaspers’ emphasis on boundary situations as moments of existential growth (lévinas, 1969, 72). lévinas takes jaspers’ concept further by emphasizing the ethical duty that emerges when individuals confront the limits of their own subjectivity and face the reality of the ‘other’. for lévinas, the boundary situation of encountering another person is both a limit to the self and an invitation to transcend the self’s understanding. in the same way, hans-georg gadamer, in truth and method also echoes jaspers' focus on the limits of human knowledge. gadamer’s hermeneutics emphasizes the importance of engaging with the other, and by extension, confronting the boundaries of one’s own historical and cultural context. in this sense, jaspers’ idea of boundary situations can be seen as analogous to gadamer’s notion of the "fusion of horizons," where individuals come to understand their own perspective only by engaging with the limitations and perspectives of others (gadamer, 2004, 311). edmund husserl and maurice merleau-ponty further develop jaspers’ ideas on boundary situations. in phenomenology, boundary situations are moments when the self encounters the limits of its own perception and understanding. husserl's concept of "epoché," or the suspension of judgment, mirrors jaspers’ understanding of the boundary situation as a moment when the individual must suspend conventional thought to engage more authentically with experience (husserl, 1931, 79). similarly, merleau-ponty’s focus on embodied perception highlights how boundary situations challenge the individual’s understanding by forcing them to engage with the physical and existential limits of their body (merleau-ponty, 2002, 115). as good as jasper position may seem, however, some philosophers such as karl popper criticize jaspers’ emphasis on boundary situations for its perceived undermining of systematic knowledge. popper’s philosophy, which values empirical falsifiability and scientific reasoning, challenges jaspers' existential approach as overly subjective and irrational. according to popper, the limits of knowledge identified by jaspers cannot serve as the foundation for a philosophy of science. for popper, the goal of knowledge is to create theories that can be rigorously tested and falsified, something that boundary situations, by their very nature, resist (popper, 2002, 54). similarly, jaspers’ notion of transcendence through boundary situations is too vague and lacks concrete methodological grounding. while jaspers speaks of transcendence as an essential part of confronting the limits of knowledge, critics question how such transcendence can be systematically understood or measured. this ambiguity has led to doubts about whether jaspers’ framework can truly offer reliable knowledge or if it is merely an existential notion without substantial epistemological value. isaac & benedict the role of boundary situations in karl jaspers' epistemology… 169 the implications of jaspers’ boundary situations for human understanding karl jaspers' concept of boundary situations (grenzsituationen) holds significant implications for human understanding, particularly for how individuals confront the ultimate limitations and possibilities inherent in human existence. this existential notion, introduced in his works, identifies those critical life events or conditions such as death, suffering, guilt, conflict, and existential isolation that force human beings to confront their fundamental finitude and limitations (jaspers, 2003, 68). jaspers suggests that in these moments of confrontation, individuals are given the opportunity to transcend their ordinary experience and reach a deeper understanding of life, existence, and freedom (jaspers, 2003, 70). boundary situations mark moments when individuals are confronted with the limitations of human existence, often unearthing fundamental questions about life, suffering, and death. in these moments, jaspers argues, the individual encounters the true "boundaries" of existence (jaspers, 2003, 72). these limits are not only inevitable but also inescapable, as all humans must face the realities of death, guilt, or despair in some form. yet, rather than leading to despair, jaspers believes these confrontations present an opportunity for a renewed awareness of freedom. this occurs because confronting one's limits paradoxically creates the possibility for transcendence beyond those very boundaries. the awareness of limits becomes a catalyst for personal freedom, which jaspers defines as the ability to make meaningful choices within the boundaries of human existence (jaspers 74). as jaspers notes, "in encountering limits, a person becomes aware of the depth of freedom that lies within their own choices" (jaspers, 2003, 75). thus, the recognition of finitude—whether through the prospect of death or suffering—forces individuals to re-examine their existence and their choices. through this confrontation, individuals may become more attuned to the fragility and transient nature of life, empowering them to make choices that reflect deeper values and personal freedom rather than simply conforming to societal norms or expectations (jaspers, 2003, 77). another significant implication of boundary situations is the profound sense of self-reflection they provoke. jaspers argues that moments of existential crisis or suffering compel individuals to question their previously unquestioned assumptions about life, meaning, and identity (jaspers, 2003, 108). these situations demand a deep, often painful examination of the self, which may lead to a new understanding of one’s purpose or a more authentic engagement with life. for instance, in the face of death, individuals are forced to consider the meaning of their existence and the legacy they will leave behind. in the context of suffering, one might question the fairness of life and whether there is any inherent meaning in human suffering. jaspers claims that existential reflection, sparked by boundary situations, is the cornerstone of authentic human existence. it is through confronting one’s own limitations that the individual can break free from the surface-level concerns of everyday life and delve into more profound existential questions (jaspers, 2003, 110). for jaspers, the "existential question" arises when one becomes fully aware of the self in relation to death, suffering, or isolation. the search for meaning is not simply about answering these questions but about engaging with them in a way that transforms the individual (jaspers, 2003, 112). this process, although unsettling, opens the path to a more profound understanding of human existence. jaspers is perhaps best known for his emphasis on transcendence in the face of boundary situations. for him, boundary situations do not merely represent limitations but present aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 170 opportunities for human beings to transcend the finite nature of existence and reach a more profound state of being. in moments of great existential crisis whether faced with the inevitability of death or the isolation that often accompanies suffering individuals are often led to explore spiritual or metaphysical avenues to make sense of their reality. for example, jaspers argues that, in the face of death, humans can experience a "metaphysical freedom" that transcends the mere physical reality of mortality (jaspers, 2003, 120). this transcendence is not merely an escape from suffering but an elevation of the human spirit through philosophical reflection or, for some, through faith. he notes, "to transcend is to find meaning beyond the confines of the here and now, to achieve a sense of wholeness in the midst of fragmentation" (jaspers, 2003, 122). the possibility of transcendence is thus directly linked to the boundary situation itself; it is through the confrontation with limits that one is invited to explore the very meaning of existence beyond the material world. moreover, transcendence in jaspers' framework is not restricted to religious or metaphysical concerns but also includes the possibility of achieving a more profound and holistic understanding of the self through philosophical inquiry and introspection. boundary situations, therefore, provide a pivotal opportunity for individuals to push beyond their immediate existential fears and engage with the broader questions of human existence (jaspers 124). jaspers also emphasizes the role of human solidarity in facing boundary situations. these situations often leave individuals feeling isolated, as they confront the ultimate limits of human existence alone, whether through personal suffering, the fear of death, or existential despair. yet, for jaspers, this isolation is not an absolute condition but can be mitigated through communication and shared human experience. he believes that it is through dialogue and mutual understanding that individuals can overcome the alienation often felt in boundary situations (jaspers, 2003, 132). for instance, when confronting guilt or suffering, individuals often feel that their experience is uniquely their own, leading to a sense of isolation. however, by engaging with others who share similar experiences, individuals can find a sense of solidarity that connects them to the broader human experience (jaspers, 2003, 134). in this sense, boundary situations not only challenge individuals on a personal level but also invite them to form connections with others who are navigating similar existential struggles. this solidarity becomes an essential aspect of the human experience, offering the possibility of mutual understanding and shared meaning. jaspers writes, "the shared experience of our limits brings us into community with others, creating a bond that transcends individual suffering" (jaspers, 2003, 136). through such communication, individuals can transform their personal confrontation with life’s boundaries into a shared, collective experience, thus fostering empathy and a deeper understanding of the human condition. conclusion karl jaspers’ concept of boundary situations is an integral component of his epistemology, offering a unique perspective on the limits of human knowledge and the potential for existential transcendence. while his approach has garnered positive responses, particularly within existential philosophy and phenomenology, it has also faced criticism, particularly from proponents of scientific rationalism. despite these criticisms, jaspers’ ideas about the role of isaac & benedict the role of boundary situations in karl jaspers' epistemology… 171 boundary situations continue to provide valuable insights into the nature of human understanding. the exploration of these boundary experiences can lead to a more profound engagement with life and knowledge, transcending the limitations of traditional epistemological approaches. references arendt, h. (1951). the origins of totalitarianism. harcourt brace and company. arendt, h. (1958). the human condition. the university of chicago press. arendt, h. (1978). the life of the mind. harcourt brace jovanovich. gadamer, h. (2004). truth and method. translated by j. weinsheimer and d. g. marshall. continuum. heidegger, m. (1962). being and time. translated by j. macquarrie and e. robinson. harper & row. husserl, e. (1931). ideas: general introduction to pure phenomenology. translated by w. r. boyce gibson. macmillan. jaspers, k. (1951). way to wisdom: an introduction to philosophy. translated by r. manheim. yale university. jaspers, k. (1955). the philosophy of existentialism. translated by e. b. ashton. university of pennsylvania press. jaspers, k. (1970). the perennial scope of philosophy. translated by r. manheim. yale university press. jaspers, k. (2003), philosophy of existence. translated by r. f. grabau. university of pennsylvania press. kant, i. (1965), critique of pure reason. translated by n. k. smith. st martin’s press. kierkegaard, s. (1980). the sickness unto death. translated by d. f. swenson. princeton university press. lévinas, e. (1969). totality and infinity. translated by a. lingis. duquesne university press. merleau-ponty, m. (2002). phenomenology of perception. translated by c. smith. routledge. nietzsche, f. (2008). thus spoke zarathustra. translated by t. common. project gutenberg. popper, k. (2002). the logic of scientific discovery. routledge. aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr 12 abstract this paper explores the communitarian themes in chinua achebe's arrow of god, revealing the complex social fabric of the igbo village of umuaro. through a critical analytic method, this study examines how achebe's narrative embodies core communitarian principles: prioritisation of collective well-being, interdependence of individual and communal identity, and the contextualisation of moral agency within cultural traditions. it also examines the position of the individual as an integral part of the commune. this research argues that achebe's work presents a culturally nuanced communitarianism, highlighting the importance of collective life, and concludes that a delicate balance must be struck between individual responsibility to the community and communal responsibility to the individual. keywords: arrow of godcommunitarianism, individual, achebe, community, introduction “communitarianism is a social philosophy that, in contrast to theories that emphasize the centrality of the individual, emphasizes the importance of society in articulating the good.” ( the idea of communitarianism considers individuals as part of a community etzioni, 2015, p. 1). that defines their identity and their modes of existence. thus, it is a position or tradition that emphasises the role of the community to which one belongs in defining one's realities and as an identity-giving agency. achebe expressed communitarian ideas in by showing the arrow of god relationship between the individual and community as a good number of scholars have done; only that achebe situates these ideas in eastern nigeria as a brilliant and entertaining work of literature. he knits the two types of communitarianism expressed by scholars – radical or extreme communitarianism and moderate or restricted communitarianism – in the events and characters of the book, showing their merit. the present paper shall analyse the notion of communitarianism as expressed by different scholars and discuss how it is expressed in achebe's arrow of god adopting the critical analytic method. the notion of communitarianism communitarianism is a social and political theory which emphasises that the community and individuals within it have duties to each other for the furtherance of their needs, that is to say that, for the needs of an individual to be met, s/he must play certain roles for their community; and the community's needs can be met in recognition, and the fulfilment, of the needs of the individual. of course, every individual has duties and obligations s/he owes to their community and vice versa regardless of the operational social system. given this, one may want to ask what distinguishes communitarianism from other social systems. it is pertinent to state clearly that communitarianism is essentially different from other social systems; otherwise its emergence as a theory would never have occurred. communitarianism is a reaction to liberal individualism which glorifies the individual over the community or society within which s/he lives. individualism places the individual before societal structure meant to regulate individuals within communitarianism in achebe's arrow of god idubamo daniel agbada department of philosophy, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. iddagbada@gmail.com society. this disposition of individualism necessarily brings about a tension between the individual and community/society leaving room for the evaluation or revaluation of the role of society in the individual's life, and that of the individual to the community. as much as one may want to rule out the bearing of the community of individuals on one's life and choices, it is quite impossible to do so given that man is a social being who necessarily interacts with his fellows in society. in interacting with others, there is an inevitable onus to share certain values aimed at ensuring peaceful coexistence and human flourishing. helen buss mitchell agrees with this point by expressing that, “if we see ourselves as exclusively isolated, atomic individuals, rather than as linked by shared values and goals with others in a community we share, the result may be an unhealthy society that is inhospitable to the individual.” (2011, p. 433). communitarianism is sometimes used to mean communism, and other times, communalism; however these terms are to be conceived as different, though slightly related. kwame gyekye uses them interchangeably ( . ifeanyi menkiti relates communitarianism with 1992, p. 102) communism. for him: communism we understand as a political ideology, stretching out the idea of the communal, with governance as its focus. … communitarianism, although it also plays with the idea of the communal, is not itself a political ideology. it could become a political movement if the right conditions arose, in which case communitarianism and communism become then one and the same thing. (2017, p. 467) polycarp ikuenobe relates or compares communitarianism with communalism. he espouses that: 'communitarianism' in philosophical literature has socialpolitical connotations involving how a state is organized to engender a sense of common belonging and collective obligations to the state as the locus of the monopoly of force, and the prioritization of collective interests over individual rights.… 'communalism' in african traditions has a broader connotation: it is rooted in the traditions of a group of people with common kinship, aspirations, values, and beliefs, living together proximately, sharing, and organizing aspects of their lives cooperatively in a community. (2020, pp. 129-130) for menkiti, communitarianism is not originally a political ideology, whereas, ikuenobe . for it is there is, however, an agreement on what is involved in a communitarian system; the idea of a communal, a commonness that exists within a communitarian society that downplays an excessive expression of the individual as an atomic self-sufficient entity. olatunji oyeshile points out some of the values held within a communitarian society as including “sharing resources, burden and social responsibility, mutual aid, caring for others, interdependence, solidarity, reciprocal obligation, social harmony and mutual trust.” (2006, p. 104). one may be moved to ask whether the qualities and features of care and respect for common good seen and considered as strengths and laudable aspects of a communitarian society are inexistent in atomic or liberal societies – where the individual formulates the good however they see fit. it is crucial to note that this paper does not suggest that communitarian societies are the only societies possessing these features; however, such as are found in liberal societies cannot be compared with communitarian societies. individuals who conform to the communitarian ethos see it as second nature to extend an arm of care and friendship within the community to which they belongs, and bear the burden of others as though it were theirs; whereas those who do not 13 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 subscribe to the communitarian ethos in liberal societies show care non-obligatorily. gyekye captures this in the following expression: even though such duties as caring for one another, concern for the welfare and needs of others, may not be said to be idiosyncratic to the communitarian system alone and an individualistic system can also evince or practise them, it seems to me that the pursuit of those duties in the latter system will be less spontaneous and less successful because of its obsession with individual rights. (1992, p. 117) menkiti observes that the conception of person in africa is not removed from the ambit of the community. the relationship between the individual and the community is such that the individual acknowledges the role of the community in his life, informing the idea that without the community he is nothing, or that his existence is meaningless. it must be understood that this idea is not forced on the individual; rather, the individual identifies his personhood as actualised by the community. (2004, p. 324) communitarian ideals make provision for reciprocal relations in society, what may be termed the golden rule as henry tam notes in his book ; acting in the evolution of communitarian ideas ways one would accommodate others to act in (2019, p. 1). some consider it as: [a]n ethic that accents the community as the ultimate concern, pronounce it as the criterion of truth, laud it as the source of value, and hold that its structures constitute the meaningful order for individual lives in it, secure the integrity of interpersonal interactions, and provide the foundation for communion. (wariboko, 2020, p. 147) this is an extreme view of communitarianism as it alludes the last word on social order and human reality to the community when in fact, the community is an aggregate of atomic individuals. nimi wariboko notes that african scholars who advocate communitarianism for some reason(s) tend to deny individualism in african social ethics, painting a false picture of africa being historically communitarian. he thus disagrees that individualism was never a part of pre-colonial africa. on this disagreement wariboko sets the stage for the essay, “between community and my mother: a theory of agonistic communitarianism” according to adeshina afolayan and francis offor: for communitarians, the entire philosophy of liberal ontology of the self together with the neutrality of the state is both dangerous and false. the philosophy is dangerous because such a market ordering of the subjective preferences of the individual, portents a serious threat to the well-being of the society itself. for instance, to take mill's liberty principle to its logical conclusion, your personal preferences and consumptive choices may be served by your promoting the sale and distribution of fake drugs, impure bottled or packaged water, and other substandard products. however, the fulfillment and expansion of your sphere of freedom would harm many others and limit their range of options to worthwhile preferences. it will also significantly compromise the existence of future generation yet unborn. thus, the state may have to intervene in this context with regulations and legislations to ensure the survival of the society. (2014, p. 55) 14 idubamo daniel agbada. communitarianism in achebe's arrow of god where one is at liberty to make conscious decisions geared towards the satisfaction of one's preferences over and above such provisions as would ensure the collective growth and sustenance of society, society will inevitably disintegrate as there will be a multiplicity of opposing preferences. kwame gyekye ( and d. a. masolo ( 1992, pp. 103-104) 2004, p. 495) stating their opposition to extreme/radical communitarianism note that political leaders and scholars of post-colonial africa subscribed to extreme communitarianism which does not allow for the exercise of the rights of the individual. for gyekye, communitarianism sees the community as: [a] group of persons linked by interpersonal bonds, …, who consider themselves primarily as members of the group and who have common interests, goals, and values. the notion of common interests and values is crucial to an adequate conception of community, that notion in fact defines the community. it is the notion of common interests, goals, and values that differentiates a community from a mere association of individual persons. members of a community share goals and values. …; as long as they cherish them, they are ever ready to pursue and defend them. (1992, p. 104) this idea of communitarianism, known as moderate communitarianism, does not elevate the community above the individual as the individual is an integral part of the community whose goals and interests are jointly pursued by the community. it strikes a balance between the responsibility of the individual to the community and vice versa. the moderate communitarian is interested in the survival of the community within which the individual necessarily thrives, for without the individual there is no community. this is the view wariboko fronts; a communitarianism that allows for a sort of individualism that does not pose a threat to the community. wariboko terms this individualism a “covenantal individualism wherein the needs of the communal relationship and social justice take priority over the needs of the individual without necessarily stifling individual creativity and actualization of potentiality.” (2020, pp. 148-149). elucidating the idea of a moderate communitarianism and showing its import and strength, gyekye asserts that: even though in its basic thrust and concerns it gives prominence to duties toward the community and its members, it does not – can not (sic) – do so to the detriment of individual rights whose existence and value it recognizes, or should recognize, and for a good reason. (1992, p. 121) arrow of god: a synopsis in 1920s nigeria, chinua achebe's delves into the complexities of cultural arrow of god transformation in the igbo village of umuaro. ezeulu, the revered chief priest of ulu, struggles to maintain his authority as colonialism and christianity erode traditional practices. a bitter dispute over the harvest festival—a vital ritual ensuring communal prosperity—sets the stage for ezeulu's confrontation with modernity. his unwavering commitment to ancient customs creates tension, particularly with one of his most vocal detractors, nwaka. meanwhile, ezeulu's son, oduche, becomes increasingly drawn to christianity, driving a wedge within the family, prompting him to question his father's beliefs and authority. the arrival of t. k. winterbottom, a condescending british district officer, intensifies umuaro's internal strife. as 15 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 ezeulu grapples with the rapidly shifting landscape, his mental and spiritual well-being deteriorates. his once-harmonious relationship with ulu, the deity he serves, becomes increasingly strained. through ezeulu's poignant narrative, achebe deftly explores the tensions between cultural identity, tradition, and colonialism. poses profound questions arrow of god about faith, community, and the resilience of traditional values in the face of modernity. ultimately, ezeulu's tragic downfall symbolises the disintegration of umuaro's cultural fabric, leaving the village vulnerable to the forces of change. in chinua achebe tells the story of a community made up of six villages that came arrow of god together to form an alliance to face their oppressors. initially these villages were atomic, and independent of each other; however, for the purpose of preserving the lives – and by extension culture, tradition, and values – of their people they formed an alliance and installed a deity which would ensure an unbreakable bond needed for defeating their enemies. although the six villages of umuaro – umuachala, umunneora, umuagu, umuezani, umuogwugwu, umuisiuzo – were held together by communitarian ideals, there were in some points and certain people an expression, of what wariboko calls “expressive individualism,” (2020, p. 148) that undermined societal ideals. such expressions brought about certain consequences which shaped the lives of those individuals, and in some cases, determined the fate of the community. the igbo of south-eastern nigeria whose history achebe captures as fiction in are arrow of god an egalitarian people who nevertheless live in what may be described as communal harmony. given that they had no kings, their societies were democratically run. members of the igbo communities who had achieved certain levels of success were permitted to take up chieftaincy titles, but never to rise to the level of obtaining rule over the rest of society (onyibor, 2016, p. 111). communitarianism in arrow of god ezeulu's contemplation of individualism is seen in his consideration of the power he wields over the people of umuaro; that the declaration of the planting, harvesting, and festive seasons was solely in his place to do. by virtue of this he was the most important man in umuaro, if he decides not to declare a day – say, for harvest then there would be no harvest and consequently no new planting season. no priest had done that before but thinking about the possibility of acting in that way implies the possibility of one expressing one's individuality over the community. ezeulu's prayer to ulu first shows individualism before a communion of the six villages. he approached ulu first as an individual before presenting the interest of the community he represents. in a communitarian system, it is expected that the people live in unity and solidarity and so ezeulu was always angry whenever he had to pray for umuaro given the division among the six villages it was composed of. ezeulu went against the communitarian ethos of his community by sending his son – oduche – to learn the ways of the new religion, when he was in fact, the custodian of his own people's religion (bogers, 1989, p. 169), ( one would consider this dieng, 2004, p. 10). action as an utter disregard for the community as its priest should never have acted in that manner. eric sipyinyu njeng posits that ezeulu's ambition for power was his motivation for instructing oduche to be diligent in his learning in order to possess mastery of the white man's knowledge ( .njeng, 2018, p. 104) given his knowledge of the system of togetherness in the community, obika anticipated that ibe's kinsmen would support him so he took his friend, ofoedu along to umuogwugwu where he dealt a heavy hand on his half-sister's husband for beating her. it was in solidarity ibe's kinsmen came to ezeulu to inquire as to why their kinsman was treated so badly. they acknowledged that obika 16 idubamo daniel agbada. communitarianism in achebe's arrow of god was justified in defending his sister given that their kinsman did not do well by her, but that he – obika – was not justified in bundling ibe away from his village as though he had no family who could stand up for him the way obika stood up for his sister ( .achebe, 1974, pp. 11-12) decisions in the community are reached by consensus and not on individual sentiment; whether or not those decisions are ill-fated or ill-informed, they are carried out insofar as the community agrees on it – individual differences give way to the voice of the community. akukalia emphasised the place of the community in the expression: “it is not our mission to ask them any question, except the question which umuaro wants them to answer.” ( achebe, 1974, p. 21). hence, despite one's reservations about the community's decision or position on an issue, one is obligated to act in line with that decision or position. despite the fact that akukalia knows the place of the community, he acts contrary to the directives of the community expressing his individuality – for which he pays with his blood ( .achebe, 1974, pp. 24-25) after akukalia was killed in okperi, and his body was taken to umuaro his action was condemned as what he did was unthinkable and unforgivable. let us put ourselves in the place of the man he made a corpse before his own eyes. who would bear such a thing? what propitiation or sacrifice would atone for such sacrilege? how would the victim set about putting himself right again with his fathers unless he could say to them: rest, for the man that did it has paid with his head? nothing short of that would have been adequate. (achebe, 1974, pp. 25-26) this clearly indicates that the community considers the appropriateness of punishment for any member who disregards it. punishment may be internal or external – external in akukalia's case given that he suffered punishment outside his community – however, the punishment of a member of one community by another community may undermine the community whose member was punished. umuaro was undermined as the people of okperi offered no explanation as to the death of their kinsman – this was also the grievance ibe's kinsmen held against ezeulu's family when ibe was beaten and taken away. thus, there was a contention as to whether or not umuaro was to wage war against okperi, not on the account of akukalia being killed, but instead on the account of okperi's failure to send a message across. this contention however brought about confusion and a consequent division within umuaro, enabling some express their individuality – since there was no communal agreement. disagreement, strife, enmity, between two individuals from different communities or villages is capable of influencing the relations between those communities. each community acts in solidarity with their member as was the case of umunneora and umuachala due to the enmity between nwaka and ezeulu. for the enmity between two individuals to extend to their communities was a normal phenomenon. in fact, it would be abnormal for such rancour to not extend to the communities of the individuals concerned. as achebe expresses it: as was to be expected this enmity spread through their two villages and before long there were several stories of poisoning. from then on few people from one village would touch palm wine or kolanut which has passed through the hands of a man from the other. (achebe, 1974, p. 40) while this is so, in times of communal celebration or festivities, individual and sub-communal differences are set aside. disputes are not allowed to come in the way of communal gatherings geared towards fostering peace and unity. achebe notes that during the festival of pumpkin 17 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 leaves, the hostility between ezeulu and nwaka which had extended to their villages seemed insignificant. the communitarian spirit at such times towers over every other to the extent that: a stranger to this year's festival might go away thinking that umuaro had never been more united in all its history. in the atmosphere of the present gathering the great hostility between umunneora and umuachala seemed, momentarily, to lack significance. yesterday if two men from the two villages had met they would have watched each other's movement with caution and suspicion; tomorrow they would do so again. but today they drank palm wine freely together because no man in his right mind would carry poison to a ceremony of purification; he might as well go out into the rain carry potent, destructive medicines on his person. (achebe, 1974, p. 68) it is important to note that even though in a communitarian society it is expected that people act in ways as would benefit society over and above themselves, not everyone would do things in the same way – there is bound to be differing opinions and actions as a result of the individuality of every member of that society. edogo's recollection of his mother's account of ezeulu's fault captures this: [t]hat ezeulu's only fault was that he expected everyone – his wives, his kinsmen, his children, his friends and even his enemies – to think and act like himself. anyone who dared to say no to him was an enemy. he forgot the saying of elders that if a man sought for a companion who acted like himself he would live in solitude. (achebe, 1974, p. 94) the point here is that, in a communitarian society there is bound to be persons who prefer to express their individuality over the community. the elevation of some persons in the community may make them emphasise their individuality over and above the community by lording themselves over those above whom they are elevated. this can be likened to a lawyer who is elevated to the bench – that is, made a judge – and thereafter acts as though he is superior, in learning and sound judgement, to other lawyers. captain t. k. winterbottom notes this tendency in his account of james ikedi whom he had made warrant chief in okperi. the man was a complete nonentity until we crowned him, and now he carries on as though he had been nothing else all his life. it's the same with court clerks and even messengers. they all manage to turn themselves into little tyrants over their own people. (achebe, 1974, p. 109) in a communitarian society, guests are treated as family, such that one doesn't turn one's guest away without entertaining him; as was the case of ezeulu and akuebue. admonition of children who err is not left for the biological parents alone; it is the duty of the community. the social bonds established as a result of a communitarian system makes the pain and misfortune of an individual or a family the burden of the community such that townspeople always create time to visit those who are needing of care and moral support as was the case of amalu who was stricken with an incurable sickness that quickly saw to his deteriorated health. it must be noted that townspeople do not only share in the burden of those who experience misfortune, they also partake in the joys of those who attain a new or better social status. when obika's bride came to 18 idubamo daniel agbada. communitarianism in achebe's arrow of god finally settle with him in his home, people from both their villages came to celebrate with them, and contributed to the setting up of the new home by bringing items – mortar and pestle, ladle, mats, bowls, palm oil, and fish among others – they considered would be useful to the couple ( .achebe, 1974, pp. 113-118) in deciding on matters, the clan, tribe, or village is considered more knowledgeable than the individual. an individual cannot be wiser than the collection of people in the community. this is reiterated by akuebue to ezeulu after ezeulu emphasised his moral victory over the community in the case between umuaro and okperi. ezeulu noted that everything happened as he envisaged they would, and akuebue responded thus: i do not doubt that, but you forget one thing: that no man however great can win judgement against a clan. you may think you did in that land dispute but you are wrong. umuaro will always say that you betrayed them before the white man. and they will say you are betraying them again today by sending your son to join in desecrating the land. (achebe, 1974, p. 132) in a communitarian society, the community decides what is right; rightness and wrongness is not arbitrated by the individual. thus, the individual must act in ways that promote the good or cause of the community even though such actions are discouraged or frowned at within the community – in ezeulu's case, not giving an account of what he conceived as untrue. this goes to say that one could be involved in lying, killing, or any other activity considered a vice within his community insofar as it does not affect members of one's community and it serves as a way of helping the community achieve its goals. crucial to note is the possibility of sacrificing the life and/or luxury of an individual for the community where need arises in a communitarian society. given that the community is considered more important than the individual – even though without the individual, the community cannot exist – it can, for the sustaining of the whole sacrifice a number of individuals. it should also be noted that the community is never in haste to sacrifice individuals in order to overcome the challenge they face or meet a particular need. the use of individuals for such ends is a last resort; for even when a human is needed to be sacrificed, they look for one outside the community, a member of the community is used when it cannot be avoided. this idea is supported by ezeulu's exposition of how certain challenges are addressed. in his words: a disease that has never been seen before cannot be cured with everyday herbs. when we want to make a charm we look for the animal whose blood can match its power; if a chicken cannot do it we look for a goat or a ram; if that is not sufficient we look for a bull. but sometimes even a bull does not suffice, then we must look for a human. ..., we do it because we have reached the very end of things and we know that neither a cock nor a goat nor even a bull will do. and our fathers have told us that it may even happen to an unfortunate generation that they are pushed beyond the end of things, and their back is broken and hung over a fire. when this happens they may sacrifice their own blood. this is what our sages meant when they said that a man who has nowhere else to put his hand for support puts it on his own knee. that was why our ancestors when they were pushed beyond the end of things by the warriors of abam sacrificed not a stranger but one of themselves and made the great medicine which they called ulu. (achebe, 19 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 1974, pp. 134-135) even though the community is placed above the individual in a communitarian society, every individual is considered important. for this reason the people of umuaro observed a retreat called oso nwanadi to appease the spirits of those who harbour resentment over losing their lives – in any way: sacrifice or war – for the sake of umuaro (achebe, 1974, p. 196). when strangers visit a clansman his kinsmen who are around come to express solidarity; whatever the cause of the visit would be made known in their presence, and where the need arise that they make inputs or deliberations, they do. in the same vein, where an inquiry of or a visit to a clansman would cause embarrassment to the clansman, his clansmen and clanswomen avoid being involved in aiding the inquiry or visit. this is shown clearly in john nwodika's pretence of being sick seeing that ezeulu was to be arrested. he did not consider the former visit a problem since it was only a summons which could be said to be in ezeulu's favour as he was to be made warrant chief in umuaro, hence, he served as escort to winterbottom's messenger without qualms. in the same way the first three people the policemen asked for direction to ezeulu's house evaded extending help considering that the visit was not a friendly one, given their appearance. it took the threat of force to make the fourth person they asked for direction to comply after trying to be evasive like the earlier three; even so, he did not go into ezeulu's compound with them. according to him, “it is not our custom to show our neighbour's creditors the way to his hut. so i cannot enter with you.” ( on saying this, he ran away so no one in the achebe, 1974, p. 153) compound would see him and associate him with the policemen and whatever it was they were to do. despite the fact that john nwodika's village, and ezeulu's village, were not in friendly conditions; nwodika ensured that ezeulu was fed during his stay at okperi waiting to see captain winterbottom. the inter-village strife within umuaro did not prevent nwodika from being hospitable to ezeulu in a strange land – outside umuaro. even when ezeulu was to send for his younger wife to come prepare his meals, nwodika refused, insisting that his wife would be responsible for preparing ezeulu's meals. this gesture made ezeulu consider that warring clansmen could be friends in strange lands. the enmity between umuachala and umunneora caused akuebue to be alarmed by the information that a man from umunneora was giving his friend, ezeulu food that he made to go to okperi to ensure that all was well with ezeulu. that disputes are left at home is emphasised in nwodika's statement: “that is for the people at home, i do not carry it with me when i travel. our wise men have said that a traveller to distant places should make no enemies. i stand by it.” (achebe, 1974, p. 169) the community generally does not associate with those whom are blameworthy in any matter, hence, when umuaro found that ezeulu had no fault in his arrest they started paying him visits bearing gifts. upon ezeulu's release he set out for home with john nwodika who had refused to let him embark on the journey alone. this clearly shows the support rendered by members of the community to other members, even when not solicited (achebe, 1974, pp. 178, 183). given all he had suffered in his time away from home, especially since he was unable to perform his duties as ulu's priest, ezeulu had the intention of making umuaro suffer, for while away he considered umuaro his enemy with whom he was going to wage a war. however, upon his return his anger began to dissipate on account of the concern shown him during his arrest and his return. visitors from umunneora, the supposed enemy village also came to visit him; a gesture that shows that there must be respite even in conflict ( .achebe, 1974, pp. 184-190) in time of crisis or impending communal crisis, the people come together to resolve or prevent it. so when it was time for harvest and the chief priest of ulu had not announced the day of the feast of new yam, his assistants – the priests of the deities of each of the six villages that made up 20 idubamo daniel agbada. communitarianism in achebe's arrow of god umuaro – came to inquire of ezeulu the day of the feast. umuaro was thrown in a state of panic and confusion when ezeulu sent his assistants away without an explanation for the delay in proclaiming the day of the new yam feast that men of the highest title – representing the people as leaders – paid him a visit for the same inquiry, and seek a solution to the problem where necessary in order to prevent the community's harvest from being ruined. the essence of this account is to show the role of the people in solving communal problems; no one person reserves the right to making decisions having the potential of affecting the community (achebe, 1974, pp. 204-211). umuaro suffers untold hardship following ezeulu's adherence to ulu's 'dictates' – regarding the feast of new yam. his family also suffers isolation from the rest of the community owing to his unwavering position. the family was considered to be against the whole community, and so when aneto requested that obika performed a function in preparation for his – aneto's – father's second burial, obika agreed even though he was not feeling well. this agreement was to show solidarity and absolve his family from the accusation of wanting to ruin their clansman's burial. in obika's words, “if i say no, they will say that ezeulu and his family have revealed a second time their determination to wreck the burial of their village man who did no harm to them.” (achebe, 1974, p. 226). unfortunately, this solidarity cost him his life. with obika's death came ezeulu's humiliation which caused his insanity. ezeulu's fate brought about an idea in the minds of the people emphasising that the community ranks higher than the individual and that in the end the community wins. so in the end only umuaro and its leaders saw the final outcome. to them the issue was simple. their god had taken sides with them against his headstrong and ambitious priest and thus upheld the wisdom of their ancestors – that no man however great was greater than his people; that no one ever won judgement against his clan ( .achebe, 1974, p. 232) to stress the point that the individual is given social status as society allows and consequent of that no one wins a wrestle with his clan, koen bogers states that ezeulu's priesthood was determined by the people. he was given a responsibility which could be taken from him, and was eventually taken from him (bogers, 1989, p. 169) when the people turned their backs on him and took their yams to the church. ezeulu's interests as a member of the community would have been met had he not been bent on expressing his individualism in a radical manner, and by that radical expression of his individuality he brought himself to ruin. instead of doing the will of the people he expressed his individuality over them, forgetting or choosing to ignore the fact that the people make and dispose gods as fit for their reality (onyibor, 2016, p. 114). conclusion achebe's depicts a picture of communitarianism where members of the community arrow of god are held together by social bonds which demand that they act in ways as would promote the ideals of the community. we find that even though they had a communal worldview they had the agency for and by which they could create and recreate themselves within the community. as with every society or group there were individuals who acted out on their own disposition without regard to community's edicts. it is our submission that, while it is important to uphold communitarian ethics or ideals, such should be done insofar as they are not self-injurious. thus, obika's acceptance to aneto's appeal in spite of his poor health was ill-informed regardless of what members of the community would have said. his strict adherence to the communitarian ethics of 21 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 solidarity cost him his life. in the same way ezeulu's expressive individualism was of no benefit to him. communitarian ideals in any society must be moderated, covenantal – as wariboko's calls it – if individual and the community's flourishing is to be made possible. references achebe, c. 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(2020). african communal ethics. in n. wariboko and t. falola (eds.), the palgrave handbook of african social ethics , pp. 129-145. cham: springer nature switzerland ag. masolo, d. a. (2004). western and african communitarianism: a comparison. in k. wiredu (ed.), , pp. 483-498. malden: blackwell publishing.a companion to african philosophy menkiti, i. (2004). on the normative conception of a person. in k. wiredu (ed.), a companion to african philosophy, pp. 324-331. malden: blackwell publishing. menkiti, i. (2017). community, communism, communitarianism: an african intervention. in a. afolayan & t. falola (eds.), , pp. 461-the palgrave handbook of african philosophy 473. new york: springer nature. th mitchell, h. b. (2011). 6 ed. boston: roots of wisdom: a tapestry of philosophical traditions. wadsworth. njeng, e. s. (2018). appropriating writing in chinua achebe's . arrow of god prague journal of english studies, 7(1), 97-110. doi:10.1515/pjes-2018-0006. onyibor, m. i. s. (2016). igbo cosmology in chinua achebe's arrow of god: an evaluative a n a l y s i s . , 6 , 1 1 0 1 1 9 . o p e n j o u r n a l o f p h i l o s o p h y http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpp.2016.61011. oyeshile, o. (2006). the individual-community relationship as an issue in social and political philosophy. in o. oladipo (ed.), , pp. 1 0 2 1 1 9 . core issues in african philosophy ibadan: hope publications. tam, h. (2019). . cham: the evolution of communitarian ideas: history, theory, and practice palgrave macmillan. wariboko, n. (2020). between community and my mother: a theory of agonistic communitarianism. in n. wariboko and t. falola (eds.),the palgrave handbook of african social ethics springer nature switzerland ag, 2020., pp. 147-163. cham: 22 idubamo daniel agbada. communitarianism in achebe's arrow of god http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpp.2016.61011 91 open wound and the nigerian civil war: a metaphorical reading of kainene’s loss in chimamanda adichie’s half of a yellow sun. iwunze davidson chimezie (ph.d) english language and literature department nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria abstract notwithstanding the diverse motivations behind wars and the justifications given by their perpetrators, the magnitude of agony, suffering and trauma which culminate into loss as experienced by war victims are quite monumental. hence, after wars, efforts are made towards reconciliation through which healing is predicted. in half of a yellow sun (2006), therefore, chimamanda adichie through the character of kainene metaphorically demonstrates the sociopolitical, cultural, economic and psychological loss the igbos experienced collectively during and after the biafran /nigerian war. the notion of traumatized individuals has dominated the criticisms of the novel so far. however, in seeking to advance this opinion, this paper interrogates the collective wound/loss the igbos experienced during the war and how this wound is still ongoing as an open wound that refuses to be healed, which the critics of the novel have paid little attention to. therefore, focusing on cathy caruth’s trauma theory, which depicts trauma as an open wound, and through which this paper is analyzed, this article concludes that the disappearance of kainene after the war symbolically embodies an open wound in the lives of the igbos as a group that is yet to be healed indicating a denial of closure. keywords: trauma, open wound, nigerian/biafran war, chimamanda adichie introduction chimamanda adichie’s literary incursion into global limelight, partly, hinges on her deep commitment to the projection of socio-political, economic and cultural obstructions the igbos endured particularly during the biafran/nigerian war (1967-1970). these obstructions, however, culminated into a recurrent loss that has dominated the post war ambiance of the igbo ethnic group. narrating the historical account of any war has been the major preoccupation of many writers. both the historians and fiction writers have, over the centuries, demonstrated profound fidelity in chronicling violent events that had changed the diverse course of human history. therefore, when half of a yellow sun (2006) was published the ovation that overwhelmed its reception, simply revolves around the dexterity of its historical accuracy. coupled also, with the fact that the author is not among the “eye witness” generation rather she was born seven years after the war! adichie’s imaginative prowess came to bear as she adeptly navigates the traumatic paradigm of the nigerian civil war in half of a yellow sun (2006) revealing the psychological and physical disproportions that epitomized the survival of the igbo people caught up in the nigerian civil war conflict. this coincides with spleth’s (2017: 137) affirmation that “adichie’s narrative dramatizes the real human dimension of the… struggle, finding the courage to survive in the face of constant ‘displacement, insecurity, and deprivation, and learning to depend on each other in solidarity, born out of experience rather than ideology”. iwunze davidson open wound and the nigerian civil war: a metaphorical… 92 the novel conscientiouslytraces the tragedies that define the socio-political structure of the nigerian state between 1967 and1970. employing various voices of account typical of trauma narrative, adichie captures the nigerian civil war in its most horrendous dimension as well as the underlying consequences both have on the geographical and human spheres. functioning as an intellectual power arena, odenigbo’s house, provides not only a favorable environment for socio-political engagements but also a rallying point for academic interactions of some university lecturers, which gradually disintegrates into chaos as the university town fell to the federal troop. from this house, all the characters involved in the interactions except miss adebayo, is taken into the ordeals of the civil war including ugwu, the houseboy. the characters’ encounters before and during the war reveal that the human tragedy of the war was not only a colossal loss but also that the individuals witnessed a gradual psychological disenchantment that ravaged their lives. given the fact that the igbos lost the war, it is not far-fetched that they seemed to have remained marginalized in almost every facet of nigerian polity. in relation to the thematic preoccupation of this article, mabura (2008:206) reveals that “kainene serves to foreground her disappearance and its wider ‘implications of igbo loss of political, judicial, and sovereign powers under, first, the colonial government and, second, the nigerian federal state”. by implication, this loss in its entirety symbolically represents an open wound that defies healing in the psyche of the igbos long after the war has ended. to nwankwo (2008, p.6), “the nigeria civil war, tells its own story, too … probably of a tragedy that is still unfolding. in other words, the tragedy of the civil war still festers in the present-day polity of the nigerian nation. abayomi (2017:5), while describing the character of kainene emphasizes that “this ‘amphibian’ character carries with her extra baggage, which are the burden of history and the collective angst of a ‘defeated’ people who have had to wait for over forty years to be reabsorbed and reintegrated into the country nigeria.” half of a yellow sun (2006), therefore, establishes a connection between the revived biafran agitation and the author’s conceptions of the war experience through the employment of trauma as an open wound. a wound that is synonymous with the historical violence against the igbos, partly under the colonial government and post-colonial nigeria especially during and after the war; and its apparent manifestation of their socio-political, economic and cultural marginalization. lending credence to nnolim’s (2010:145) assertion that “the world created by adichie is one of betrayal, death, conflict and loss. the igbo were victims, also, of the residual shenanigans and schemings of british imperial policy in nigeria”. trauma, as a subject, has been employed immensely in the analyses of nigerian civil war literature. this is so because it captures not only the magnitude of loss but also the severity of such loss. also, it helps to access the level of healing from such loss whether there is progress or not. the echoes of this loss, however, has continued to resonate eloquently in the form of resurgence of biafra nation in varying degrees of agitations from the separatist groups of ralph uwazurike’s movement for the actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob) through nnamdi kanu’s indigenous people of biafara (ipob) to simon ekpa’s eastern security network (esn). undoubtedly,the aspect of subjecting half of a yellow sun(2006) tothe socio-political, economic and cultural experiences of the igbo’s after war as an open wound that refuses to be healed has not received much critical attention. although novak (2008:34) appraises the novel from the traumatic viewpoint; she merely contends that the work is a “site of trauma: the lingering effects of colonialism”. her concern focuses on the effects of colonialism that aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 93 eventually metamorphosed into civil war with its attendant trauma. her analysis, however, addresses the trauma of the past experiences and does not point to the ongoing trauma that is obtainable in the lives of the igbos in contemporary nigeria. again, abayomi (2017:6) posits that the novel uses kainene as anarchetype for the igbo’s quest for integration within the social framework of the nigerian state. he interrogates that “if kainene and olanna are one, and olanna is in retrospect adaobi, then it behoovesadichie as the creator of this reconstruct to remind her people of the biafran archetype in their search for acceptance within the nigerian state.” abayomicompares the character of kainene as an archetypal loss of the igbos to the loss of the warbut did not expose the various manifestationsof the loss. moreover, he did not subject the article to any theoretical framework to substantiate his narrative. however, not only employing kainene’s loss symbolically as a wound that is still ongoing in the collective vibes of the igbos, this article relies on the trauma theory of cathy caruth to demonstrate that kainene’s loss is a metaphor of an open wound in the psyche of the igbos within the contemporary nigerian state. open wound and trauma theory trauma study seems a well suited theory for war novels. this is because as a theory, trauma relives the story of wounds that are induced during and after conflict or violent situation. de mey explains that “trauma as field of study goes back to the early twentieth century which is the time when sigmund freud developed his theory of psychoanalysis. he was the one who changed the meaning of the term “trauma” from indicating “physical injury” to psychological injury” (34). this theory started with his study of the cause of psychosis in hysterical women whose investigation is similar to that of the french neurologist jean martin charcot (qtd, in bessel van der kolk and onno van der hart (158). charcot’s examination of hysterical women led to the comparison between mental illness and trauma paying particular interest to the uniqueness of traumatic symptoms like sudden paralysis, amnesia, sensory loss and convulsions. trauma is considered as a devastating situation that affects the psychology of people who were confronted with an injury. etymologically, trauma originates from the greek word “wound” which originally means an injury to the body. as time progresses, there is a shift which redefined the wound from a bodily infliction to that of the mind. studies show that trauma is a medical term used to refer to a wound or external bodily injury, or a mental injury, triggered by emotional distress. cloete and mlambo citing rodi-risberg considers trauma as a phenomenon that is too shocking to be fully registered upon occurrence. it is only experienced belatedly. it offers specific challenges to traditional notions of referentiality (14). however, in the words of caruth the “wound of the mind is not like the wound of the body, a simple and healable event, but rather an event that is experienced too soon, too unexpectedly, to be fully known and is therefore not available to consciousness until it imposes itself again repeatedly, in the nightmares and repetitive actions of the survivor” (4). thus, trauma is both an immediate experience of the wounding, and the belated effects of that wound in form of dreams, hallucinations, flashbacks, repeated actions which are the hallmark of trauma theory. from the definitions so far, trauma manifests not only in the physical body and the psychic realm but also in the emotional makeup of a person. in other words, the continuation of violence in man’s immediate surroundings had a bearing on their psychological formation. fanon argues that “man’s chronically neurotic state of mind cannot be alienated as long as the social economic structure that brought it on him remained unchanged” (120). marder’s assertion becomes a confirmation that because traumatic events often happen due to social forces as well iwunze davidson open wound and the nigerian civil war: a metaphorical… 94 as in the social world, trauma has an inherently political, historical, and ethical dimension (1). stevens concurs that trauma is figured as a cultural category which circulates among various social contexts that give it differing meanings and co-produce its multiple social effects (1). it is instructive to note however, that the incidence of wound primarily does not elicit a lasting impression initially on the individual but a subsequent wounding that informs an undying pain which usually manifest through a voice – a voice that is out to tell the truth. (freud, 31-32). narrating traumatic incidents through a voice depicts the fact that a storyline is inextricably bound with trauma. therefore, according to many researches on the application of trauma to literature, it becomes conspicuous that literature serves as the best intermediary of trauma representation than history or any other discipline that relates factual happenings only. literary texts go beyond facts presentation like history, to recreate artistically experiences of trauma. these texts reveal the entire scenario of making the unknown known, which is exposing the hidden fragments, capturing the belatedness that characterizes a wound as well as the incomprehensibility that figures trauma. therefore, for the purpose of this study, the string of trauma theory employed is the one advanced by cathy caruth. this is because not just that caruth’s conception of trauma had basis on the works of sigmund freud which considered hysterical women and the second world war neurosis victims but her theory also employs the survivors of wars as case studies. moreover, caruth describes trauma as the response to an unexpected or overwhelming violent event that are not fully grasped as they occur, but return later in repeated flashbacks, nightmares, and other repetitive phenomenon (91). this explanation encapsulates the experiences of the battlefield survivors whose cases caruth studied. this also captures the experiences of the characters in the novel understudy. apparently, it logically follows that this work which explores the implication of trauma in chimamanda ngozi adichie’s half of a yellow sun (2006) should adopt the theoretical framework advanced by caruth since both have war victims as their common case studies. a metaphorical reading of kainene’s loss in the nigerian civil war kainene’s disappearance in half of a yellow sun (2006) demonstrates the compelling exemplification of the wound inflicted on the igbos by the biafran/nigerian war. it conveys the unsettled trauma, identity fragmentation and the botched promise of unity and nationhood, underlining the apprehensions between igbo identity and nigerian citizenship even in contemporary times. the novel also symbolizes kainene’s disappearance not only as a replication of the disintegration of igbo identity, which has been enmeshed in the struggle to maintain their cultural heritage, but also the systemic marginalization and violence. for uko (2008, p.54): in symbolic terms, prior to the nigerian civil war, the people of the eastern region, in particular the igbo, felt marginalized and relegated in the national polity. that the state of biafran was declared was a manifestation of their lack of a sense of belonging on the one hand, and a climax of their feeling of dissatisfaction, on the other. before delving into the traumatic proportions and their effects in the novel, it is significant to establish kainene’s disappearance not only as an individual catastrophe but also as a national tragedy. adichie’s portrayal of kainene’s personal traits such as innovation, resilience, doggedness, hard work, risk taking, entrepreneurial spirit etc., underscores the micro reflection aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 95 of the socio-cultural and economic identities through which the igbos are known for. interestingly, this could have informed abayomi’s (2017:6) representation of kainene as “the epitome of a biafran undying spirit. though vanished, she remains ever present in the minds of her people and admirers.” kainene’s characterization in the novel delineates her as a creative, resourceful and strong willed person. instances abound in the novel how she ingeniously unveils such traits in challenging moments of trauma, pain, sorrow and uncertainties. however, her responses to traumatic occurrences in the narrative will be examined first, before verifying how her personal traits foregrounded her character as an emblematic open wound of the igbos. kainene’s traumatic itinerary begins after the gruesome murder of her uncle and the members of his household. through kainene’s traumatic memory, one is able to see the after effects through the description given by richard. having wept before olanna and her parents when she learnt of the death of uncle mbazei, aunty ifeka and arize, she goes home only to be affected by the continued remembrance of that brutal news. according to richard, kainene shows signs of withdrawal typical of traumatized patients: her aura of distance had returned since she came back from visiting olanna in nsukka. she had put up a photograph of her murdered relativesarize laughing in her wedding dress, uncle mbazei ebullient in a tight suit next to a solemn aunty ifeka in a print wrapperbut she said little about them… she often withdrew into silence in the middle of a conversation. (emphasis mine, p.167) kainene’s trauma at this point is double faced. earlier on her twin sister, olanna had terribly wounded her psychologically by having sex with her boyfriend, richard. she is still keeping a distance at richard when the horrible death of her relatives happened. so, with these incidences her behaviour changes“she resumes her distance and often withdraws into silence in a middle of a conversation”. these are features of a traumatized mind. krystal describes this as “survivors living in withdrawn depression” (77). in a similar occurrence during the fall of port harcourt, ikejide one of kainene’s servants is hit by shrapnel and dies horribly: a piece of shrapnel, the size of a fist, wheezed past. ikejide was still running and, in the moment that richard glanced away and back, ikejide’s head was gone. the body was running, arched slightly forwards, arms flying around, but there was no head. there was a bloodied neck. kainene screamed. (317) kainene becomes shocked and momentarily dazed. richard refuses to look at the headless body as harrison buries the body and the separated head. kainene watches forlornly sitting on the bare ground: are you all right? richard asked her. she did not respond. there was an eerie blankness in her eyes. richard was not sure of what to do. he shook her gently but the blank look remained, so he went to the tap and splashed a bucket of cold water on her. (317) it is only a traumatized psyche that could react the way kainene did during the gruesome but sudden death of ikejide, who a moment ago was bustling with energy and life. it is surprising that that kainene admitted that she “never really noticed” ikejide. but, his death really devastates her terribly. later after they have reached orlu, kainene reminds richard about olanna seeing a mother carrying her child’s head. her memory has started haunting her by iwunze davidson open wound and the nigerian civil war: a metaphorical… 96 reenacting a similar incidence. she has really come to identify with mourning and trauma like olanna. her memory continues to haunt her: how could shrapnel cut off ikejide’s head so completely? kainene asked, as if she wanted him to tell her that she was mistaken about the whole thing. he wished he could. at nights, she cried. she told him she wanted to dream of ikejide but she woke up every morning and remembered his running headless body clearly while, in the safer blurred territory of her dreams, she saw herself smoking a cigarette in an elegant gold holder. (318) richard’s observation about kainene’s trauma is quite revealing “she often withdrew into silence in the middle of a conversation, and when she did he let her be; sometimes he envied her for her ability to be changed by what had happened. (emphasis mine, 167). the italicized statement suggests the ability of trauma to change ones disposition. moreover, these traumatic confrontations seemed to have reinforced kainene’s resilience as she wades through the grueling times of the war making her personal traits becoming expressively identifiable. earlier in the novel, kainene’s entrepreneurial demeanor is clearly established as she handled some of her father’s businesses: so kainene will manage the cement factory?’ chief okonji asked, turning to her father. she’ll oversee everything in the east, the factories and our new oil interests. she has always had an excellent eye for business. (31) having recognized her managerial competence in business, kainene consistently carried out these tasks effectively within her capacity even in war times. in fact, it was during the war that her ability for innovation, risk taking and resourcefulness were made manifest. what she learnt from her father’s diverse businesses helped her to stand out during the war. her innovative approach to problem-solving clearly shows as she birthed the idea of opening and running a relief organization. “things were normal until port harcourt fell. i was an army contractor, and i had a license to import stockfish. i’m in orlu now. i’m in charge of refugee camp there” (343). additionally, she combines the management of the refugee camp with other activities that complement her efforts in ameliorating the sufferings of people during the war. “kainene launched a plant our own food movement, and when she joined the men and women and children in making ridges, olanna wondered where she had learned to hold a hoe.” (389) olanna’s skepticism about her twin’s farming abilities accentuates kainene’s skill of improvising and adapting quickly to challenges especially as the war progressed. in fact, olanna keeps wondering at kainene’s entrepreneurial spirit fuelled by her confidence. “olanna watched kainene speak. she did not hear much of what she said, because she was thinking of how unrelenting kainene’s confidence was” (347). kainene’s ability to navigate her diverse visions during the war with equanimity not only reveals her courage but also her commitment to the cause of biafra. as the war degenerates with its attendant implications of hunger, disease and death, kainene, in alignment with her entrepreneurial spirit, delves into the risk-taking venture of “afia attack” where individuals cross to the enemies’ border to buy and sell. people detest this kind of business because of the inherent risks. unfortunately, in one of her numerous engagements, kainene embarks on the journey of “afia attack” and never returns. therefore, reading kainene’s disappearance as a metaphor of open wound to the psyche of the igbos in contemporary nigeria simply compares kainene’s personal qualities to that of the aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 97 igbos in general. this recalls abayomi’s (2017:8) argument, “that she (kainene) is archetypally projected through what carl jung regards as the collective unconscious to symbolize the general loss of the biafran people in the novel.” her innovation, resilience, doggedness, hard work, risk taking, entrepreneurial spirit in moments of emergency, challenges, and trauma reveal the natural abilities the igbos are known for. and when kainene disappears in the traumatic narrative during the war and never returns, metaphorically the igbos seemed to have lost their socio-political and cultural identity in the post biafran/nigeria civil war. during the war, like kainene, the igbos entrepreneurial acumen came to limelight. throughout the three years’ war, the igbos improvised greatly in almost every sphere of life in order to sustain themselves. they were able to refine petrol without refineries, produce ogbunigwe – a weapon of mass destruction, and build an airport among others. describing the manufacturing of ogbunigwe in the novel, ekwenugo narrates: “about what he and his colleagues were making: high-impact landmines called ogbunigwe, brake fluid from coco-nut oil, car engines from scrap metal, armored cars, grenades” (198). from the above narrative, it is clearly shown how the igbos during the war were able to improvise technological necessities by making “brake fluid from coconut oil” “car engines from scrap metal” and “armored cars and grenades”. such ingenuity of a people becomes so conspicuous in a war riddled situation, reflecting the old adage that “necessity is the mother of invention”. years later, contemplating on the aftermath of the war, malife (2009) boldly reveals that: today, nnewi, for instance, is referred to as the japan of africa because of the people’s genius in technology. this could have been part of the knowledge gained and utilized in the manufacture of ogbunigwe. (106) if freud’s (31-32) submission that the occurrence of wound largely does not stimulate a lasting imprint on the individual but a consequent wounding that establishes an endless agony which usually reveal through a voice – a voice that is out to tell the truth. then, the invasion of war against the igbos does not provoke a wound per se but the subsequent wounding in the demonstration of marginalization after the war has become an endless pain that has refused to be healed. the wound, however, has become a recurring decimal that queries the belongingness of the igbos in nigeria. in uko’s estimation (2008, 54): it signifies the fact that even though the war in nigeria has been over since 1970, and a ‘no-victor-no vanquished’ declaration was made to douse all nerves and tempers, biafrans, the people from eastern nigeria, though still in nigeria, neither fully belong nor are they independent and free to harness their resources for their own welfare. adopting a multifaceted nature, the diverse voices of agitation like the separatist groups of ralph uwazurike’s movement for the actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob), nnamdi kanu’s indigenous people of biafara (ipob) and simon ekpa’s eastern security network (esn), are only an expression of a wound whose cries reflect the truth that is yet to be confronted. considering the avalanche agitations from former biafran enclave, and the seemingly disinterestedness of the nigerian government to theses cries, the solution seems unattainable. the indifference of the federal government towards theses agitations seems quite ambivalent. citing chinua achebe, okafor (2008, p.34) contemplates “the portrait of nigeria/biafra conflict as the ambivalent gaze of a mother on her unwanted child”. substantiating this claim further, he noted that: iwunze davidson open wound and the nigerian civil war: a metaphorical… 98 chinua achebe has argued quite convincingly, one of the major issues that confront the real nigeria is its ambivalent attitude towards the igbo people. on the one hand , most of the other ethnic nationalities in nigeria are envious of the spectacular advances made by the igbo people in all fields of human endeavor and consequently, would love to get rid of them. on the other hand, the same ethnic groups want to preserve the territorial integrity of nigeria; hence, they do not want the igbo people to secede from nigeria and become an independent state. this “ambivalent gaze” has generated violent squabbles between the nigerian government and the separatist groups especially in the south east states of nigeria where many lives and properties have been lost. proffering solutions to this continued imbroglio, nwachukwu (2022) identifies the effectiveness of social justice in the peace building that will restore healing which: involves acts such as reparation or compensation for damage inflicted, restoration for past losses, moral and political restitution, social, economic and cultural restructuring, as well as sharing of power, responsibility and resources. considering the nature of the grievances underlying the biafran separatist struggle, the social-justice approach to peace building appears to be the most plausible way of addressing the problem. conclusion kainene’s disappearance in half of a yellow sun (2006) endures as a lingering exemplification for the unsettled ordeal of the nigerian civil war; an ordeal that has continued even to the present day nigeria navigating through the socio-cultural, economic and political realities of the igbo ethnic group. through her loss, adichie depicts the silences, obliterations, ambivalences and paradoxes that distinguish the nation’s fight with its vicious past; a past which udezo and ajakor (2009: 230) succinctly recalled: after the war the gowon administration declared ‘no victor’ no vanquished’ concerning the war which was merely in principle not in practice. the aftermath of the war continues to be seen in the running of the nation. for instance, in the south east zone of the country which consists of five states where as other zones are made up of six states despite agitations from the zone something reasonable is yet to be done. there is a notion that some parts of the nation are marginalized which is attributed to the effects of nigerian civil war. the above reference to marginalization parallels kainene’s unaccounted fate which confronts the narrative thrust toward closure, indicating the larger cultural and political denial that inhibits national healing. by leaving her fortune uncertain, adichie constrains her audience to challenge the emotional and historical vacuums that endure long after the war ends. in doing so, the narrative transfigures individual loss into a compelling emblem of communal mourning, making kainene a persistent “open wound” in the igbo’s memory ambience. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 99 references abayomi, a. (2017). the archetypal search for kainene: adichie’s half of a yellow sun. leeds african studies bulletin 78. adichie, c. (2006). half of a yellow sun. farafina. 2006 caruth, c. (1995). recapturing the past: introduction. trauma: explorations in memory. ed. cathy caruth. trauma: explorations in memory. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. 151-157. caruth, c. (1996). unclaimed experience: trauma narrative and history. johns hopkins university press. de may, j. the intersection of history, literature and trauma in chimamandaadichie’s half of a yellow sun”. retrieved from http://foriegnliterature.com.web. franz, f. (1967). black skin white masks. groove press, inc. freud, s. (2010). beyond pleasure principle. pacific publishing studio. ina, c. and mlambo, n. (2012). a literary exploration of trauma and resilience in tagwira'sthe uncertainty of hope. 2012. retrieved from http://www.jster.org/stable/11500052. web. mabura, l. g. n. (2008). ‘breaking gods: an african postcolonial gothic reading of chimamandangoziadichie’spurple hibiscus and half of a yellow sun’ in research in african literatures, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 203-222. malife, m. (2008). trauma and literary studies: some ‘enabling questions’ reading on 1.(1), 1-6. nnolim.c (2010). chimamanda ngozi adichie’s half of a yellow sun. in e. emenyonu (ed), war in african literature today, 27. (pp, 145-151). james currey imprint. novak, a. (2008). ‘who speaks? who listens?: the problem of address in two nigerian trauma novels’ in studies in the novel, vol. 40, nos. 1 & 2, pp. 31-51. nwankwo, c. (2008). the muted index of war in african literature & society. in e. emenyonu (ed), war in african literature today, 26. (pp, 1-14). james currey imprint. okafor, c. a. (2008). sacrifice & the contestation of identity in chukwuemeka ike’s sunset at dawn.in e. emenyonu (ed), war in african literature today, 26. (pp, 33-48). james currey imprint. stevens, m. (2009). from the past imperfect: towards a critical trauma theory” letters 17. (2), 1-5. spleth, j. (2017). the biafran war & the evolution of domestic space in half of a yellow sun. a companion to chimamanda ngozi adichie. ed. ernest emenyonu. james currey. http://foriegnliterature.com/ http://www.jster.org/stable/11500052 iwunze davidson open wound and the nigerian civil war: a metaphorical… 100 uko, i. i. (2008). of war & madness: a symbolic transmutation of the nigeria-biafra war in select stories the insider: stories of war & peace from nigeria.in e. emenyonu (ed), war in african literature today, 26. (pp, 49-59). james currey imprint. udezo c. and ajakor, c. (2009). the implications of pauline concept of reconciliation for rebranding nigeria. in l. ugwueye (ed) journal of religion and human relations.vol. 1 no. 2 (222-239) ikenga vol. 23, no.2, june 2022 nkwachukwu orji https://doi.org/10.53836/ijia/2022/23/2/005 16 van der kolk, b. and van der hart o. (1995). the intrusive past: the flexibility of memory and the engraving of trauma. trauma: explorations in memory. ed. cathy caruth.baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. 158-182. 158 gender, land ownership, and development: a social relations analysis of women's experiences in igboland, nigeria. hyginus chibuike ezebuilo petersixtus emenike department of philosophy, & university of westminster, london. nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. abstract gender inequality remains a major impediment to inclusive development worldwide, and nigeria and igboland in particular exemplifies this reality in complex ways. although the nation possesses abundant human and natural resources, systemic gender disparities have hindered its socio-economic transformation. this article uses the social relations approach (sra) to examine how gender inequality in igboland, southeast nigeria, limits socioeconomic development, with a focus on women’s access to and ownership of land. despite nigeria’s legal frameworks, such as the 1978 land use act, which offers gender-neutral land ownership rights, traditional customs in igboland favor men in land inheritance. the study highlights how institutional frameworks—state, market, community, and family—reinforce gender disparities, often overlooking the structural inequalities that prevent women from acquiring land. at the community level, customary laws rooted in igbo culture further limit women’s access to land by favoring men in inheritance and land-related rituals. the research also reveals how these gender-based barriers extend to economic and political participation, limiting women’s financial independence and decision-making power. using kabeer’s sra framework, the study suggests key reforms, including restructuring policy implementation, training, advocacy, and promoting gender redistributive laws. it emphasizes the role of collective action, grassroots organizations, and community engagement in challenging genderinsensitive cultural practices. the article argues that addressing these systemic barriers will not only improve women’s access to land but also advance broader socio-economic development in nigeria by fostering gender equality in critical sectors. key words: gender inequality, gender redistributive policies, land ownership, social relations approach (sra). nigeria: geographical, socio-economic situation with special reference to the igbos of south eastern nigeria. nigeria, is a nation of immense diversity, complexity, and contradictions. it is the most populous country in africa and the sixth most populous in the world, with an estimated population of 237.5 million (world population review, 2025). as a federation comprising 36 states and the federal capital territory (abuja), nigeria is a multi-ethnic and culturally diverse nation, home to over 250 ethnic groups, each with distinct languages, traditions, and sociopolitical structures (the world bank group, 2023). despite its vast human and natural resource wealth, nigeria grapples with profound socio-economic and political challenges, including poverty, gender inequality, ethnic tensions, and governance deficits. nigeria is situated in west africa, bordered by benin to the west, niger to the north, chad to the northeast, and cameroon to the east, with the atlantic ocean forming its southern coastline. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 159 covering approximately 923,768 square kilometers, nigeria’s geography is highly varied, featuring coastal plains, tropical rainforests, savannas, and semi-arid regions in the far north (central intelligence agency [cia], 2023). nigeria’s three largest ethnic groups—hausa-fulani (north), yoruba (southwest), and igbo (southeast)—compete for political and economic dominance. religious divides (51% muslim, 46% christian) further complicate national cohesion (pulse newspaper (2025). the southern region, particularly the niger delta, is characterized by mangrove swamps and dense rainforests, which support agriculture and oil exploration—nigeria’s primary revenue source. moving northward, the landscape transitions into the fertile middle belt, known for its agricultural productivity, before giving way to the arid sahel and sahara desert in the extreme north. nigeria’s climate varies from the tropical monsoon in the south to a hot, dry sahelian climate in the north. the south experiences heavy rainfall (up to 4,000 mm annually), supporting cash crops like cocoa, rubber, and palm oil (food and agriculture organization [fao], 2022). in contrast, the north faces recurring droughts and desertification, exacerbating food insecurity and farmer-herder conflicts. environmental degradation, particularly in the niger delta due to oil spills and gas flaring, has devastated local ecosystems and livelihoods. climate change further intensifies these challenges, with rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and flooding displacing thousands annually (united nations environment programme [unep], 2023). nigeria’s population is not only large but also rapidly growing, with a fertility rate of 5.3 children per woman (world bank, 2023). this demographic explosion strains infrastructure, healthcare, and education systems. urbanization is accelerating, with cities like lagos (africa’s largest metropolis), kano, and port harcourt experiencing overcrowding, housing shortages, and unemployment. despite economic potential, poverty remains pervasive. as of 2023, 40% of nigerians (approximately 83 million people) lived below the poverty line, while another 25% (53 million) were classified as vulnerable (the world bank group, 2023). the world bank projects that by 2024, an additional 7.7 million nigerians will fall into extreme poverty, driven by unemployment, inflation, and inadequate social services. on the socio-economic realities, nigeria’s economy is the largest in africa by gdp, yet it remains heavily dependent on crude oil, which accounts for over 90% of export earnings and 60% of government revenue (international monetary fund [imf], 2023). this over-reliance on oil has stifled diversification, leaving sectors like agriculture and manufacturing underdeveloped. the informal sector dominates employment, with over 80% of nigerians engaged in smallscale trade, subsistence farming, and artisanal work (international labour organization [ilo], 2023). however, informal workers lack social protections, fair wages, and job security. youth unemployment stands at 42.5%, fuelling social unrest and migration (national bureau of statistics [nbs], 2023). hyginus & petersixtus. gender, land ownership, and development: a social.. 160 in addition, education disparities persist across regions and genders. while literacy rates have improved to 62% (unesco, 2023), northern states lag behind due to cultural resistance, inadequate infrastructure, and insurgency (e.g., boko haram’s attacks on schools). girls’ enrolment remains low in the north, where early marriage and patriarchal norms prevail. nigeria’s human development index (hdi) ranking is 163 out of 191 countries (undp, 2023), reflecting poor healthcare access, malnutrition, and high maternal mortality (512 deaths per 100,000 live births) (world health organization [who], 2023). gender disparities in nigeria are stark. the global gender gap index (2023) ranks nigeria 123rd out of 153 countries, a decline from 94th in 2006 (world economic forum, 2023). key issues include:  economic disparities: women constitute 60% of nigeria’s informal workforce but earn significantly less than men (british council nigeria, 2012).  political underrepresentation: only 3.6% of parliamentary seats are held by women (un women, 2023).  education gaps: girls in northern nigeria have a 47% secondary school completion rate compared to 77% for boys (unicef, 2023).  health inequities: maternal mortality is exacerbated by limited access to healthcare, especially in rural areas. nigeria operates a federal system, but power remains centralized, exacerbating ethnic and regional tensions. since independence in 1960, nigeria has oscillated between military rule and fragile democracy. the igbo, predominantly in the southeast, have historically been traders, entrepreneurs, and educators. pre-colonial igbo society was decentralized, organized around village republics (ofo title system) and age-grade governance (afigbo, 1981). however, british colonialism imposed centralized structures, disrupting traditional systems. the nigerian civil war (1967–1970), sparked by igbo secession (biafra), left deep scars. postwar policies like the "abandoned property" decree marginalized igbo businesses, while structural imbalances persist in federal appointments and infrastructure allocation (nwogu, 2015). despite these challenges, igboland thrives commercially, with cities like onitsha (west africa’s largest market), aba (manufacturing hub), and enugu (administrative center) driving regional trade. today, igboland has an extensive network of urban centers like enugu, aba, onitsha, and owerri, known for commerce, education, and manufacturing. despite this, economic development has often been hampered by infrastructural neglect and political marginalization, which also reflect broader patterns of inequality—especially gendered inequality. from the foregoing it is evident that nigeria’s geographical diversity, socio-economic challenges, and complex political landscape present both obstacles and opportunities. while aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 161 the country possesses immense potential, systemic issues, poverty, gender inequality, ethnic tensions, and governance failures, hinder progress. coming to gender inequality, “women in nigeria face several challenges because of social, cultural, and institutional factors” (british council nigeria, 2012). gender inequality can be seen in employment, mortality rates, school drop-out rate and the proportion of women in elected and appointed posts in government. gender inequality continues to hinder global progress toward inclusive development, and nigeria—particularly the igbo-speaking south-eastern region—demonstrates this challenge in multifaceted ways. despite constitutional guarantees of equality, deeply rooted cultural norms, economic disparities, and political exclusion perpetuate gender-based discrimination. in nigeria, women face systemic barriers in education, employment, and leadership, with only 3.6% of parliamentary seats held by women (un women, 2023). the igbo society, traditionally entrepreneurial and egalitarian in pre-colonial times, now grapples with patriarchal structures that limit women’s autonomy. for instance, land inheritance often favours male heirs, and women’s participation in governance remains minimal. additionally, girls in rural igboland frequently drop out of school due to early marriages or financial constraints economic opportunities for women are further restricted by limited access to credit and discriminatory workplace practices. while igbo women dominate informal trade, their contributions are undervalued in formal economic metrics. addressing these disparities requires legal reforms, gender-sensitive policies, and grassroots empowerment initiatives to dismantle structural biases and foster equitable development. objectives of the study this paper will examine, 1. how institutions work and interact with one another to create, maintain, and reinforce gender inequality, and how this prevents women in igboland, southeast nigeria, from accessing and owning landed assets. 2. how policies and laws could be created to elevate women's status in igboland in terms of property ownership. 3. women's ability to challenge their subjugation collectively and the role of grassroots organisations in making this possible. theoretical framework: gender inequality and the social relations approach gender inequality is not an isolated phenomenon but rather a deeply entrenched consequence of historical, social, and institutional processes. tackling this issue requires more than surfacelevel interventions that seek to empower women within existing societal frameworks. instead, a fundamental re-evaluation of the political, economic, familial, and communal structures that shape lived experiences is necessary. one particularly insightful framework for understanding and addressing these systemic inequalities is the social relations approach (sra), developed by feminist scholars in the 1990s, including naila kabeer. hyginus & petersixtus. gender, land ownership, and development: a social.. 162 the social relations approach (sra) shifts the focus from viewing women as passive beneficiaries of development aid to analyzing the institutional mechanisms that sustain gender disparities. rather than advocating for the mere inclusion of women in development initiatives, the sra emphasizes the need to transform the very institutions that perpetuate inequality (kabeer, 1994; march et al., 1999; razavi and miller, 1995; equilo, 2022). this perspective asserts that gender disparities stem from structural and systemic causes, meaning that meaningful change requires altering the social relationships, processes, and institutions that sustain women's subordinate status. moving beyond women’s inclusion: the need for structural transformation a critical limitation of conventional development strategies is their tendency to focus on integrating women into existing systems without questioning the underlying power structures. the sra challenges this approach by arguing that if socio-economic and political institutions remain unchanged, women’s participation may simply reproduce existing inequalities rather than dismantle them. true progress, therefore, depends on restructuring the hierarchies, power dynamics, and value systems that govern gender relations (kabeer, 1994). for instance, policies that encourage women’s entry into the labor market without addressing wage gaps, workplace discrimination, or unpaid care responsibilities fail to confront the root causes of gender inequality. the sra insists that institutions must be reimagined to promote equitable social relations, rather than merely accommodating women within flawed systems. key concepts of the social relations approach 1. development as human well-being the sra redefines development as enhancing human well-being, encompassing survival, security, and autonomy, rather than prioritizing economic growth alone (miles, 2016). social relationships determine individuals' roles, rights, obligations, and claims over resources, meaning that inequality is perpetuated through institutionalized norms and practices (kabeer, 1994). 2. institutions as reinforcers of inequality institutions play a crucial role in shaping social relations by either reinforcing or challenging inequality. according to kabeer (1994), institutions "ensure the production, reinforcement, and reproduction of social relations," thereby sustaining social differences and disparities. the four primary institutional domains are: o the state (laws, policies, governance structures). o the market (economic systems, labor relations). o the community (cultural norms, social networks). o the family (household dynamics, care responsibilities). each of these domains interacts to either perpetuate or mitigate gender disparities, making institutional analysis essential for gender-aware policymaking. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 163 3. institutional attitudes toward gender the sra categorizes institutional responses to gender into five distinct levels, ranging from ignorance to active redistribution of power (kabeer, 1994; kabeer and subrahmanian, 1996): o gender-blind institutions: these institutions fail to recognize gender disparities, treating men and women as if they occupy equal positions in society. policies from such institutions often inadvertently reinforce existing inequalities. o gender-neutral institutions: while these institutions acknowledge gender differences, they do not take active steps to address them. they apply uniform policies, assuming an equal playing field where none exists. o gender-aware institutions: these institutions recognize gender inequalities and incorporate measures to mitigate them, such as genderdisaggregated data collection and impact assessments. o gender-specific institutions: these institutions design targeted interventions for women or men, acknowledging their distinct needs and societal roles. o gender-redistributive institutions: the most progressive category, these institutions actively challenge and restructure power relations to achieve equity. from the foregoing, the fundamental question is, why does institutional transformation matter? the sra’s emphasis on institutional change highlights a crucial insight: individual empowerment alone is insufficient if the systems governing social relations remain oppressive. for example, microfinance programs that provide loans to women may improve individual economic agency but fail to address broader market inequalities or discriminatory banking policies. similarly, quotas for women in politics are ineffective if legislative structures remain male-dominated and resistant to gender-sensitive policymaking. by focusing on structural transformation, the sra provides a roadmap for moving beyond temporary fixes toward sustainable gender justice. this requires:  reforming legal and policy frameworks to eliminate discriminatory practices.  redistributing care work to reduce women’s unpaid labour burden.  challenging cultural norms that reinforce patriarchal values.  ensuring equitable resource allocation in economic systems. so, the social relations approach (sra) offers a robust theoretical framework for understanding and addressing gender inequality as a systemic issue. by shifting the focus from individual empowerment to institutional transformation, it challenges policymakers and activists to rethink conventional development strategies. true gender equality requires dismantling the structures that perpetuate disparity—moving beyond gender-blind or gender hyginus & petersixtus. gender, land ownership, and development: a social.. 164 neutral policies toward gender-redistributive reforms. only then can societies achieve meaningful and lasting change. analysis of the four institutions shaping gender inequality in land ownership in nigeria gender inequality in land ownership remains a persistent challenge in nigeria, shaped by a complex interplay of legal frameworks, economic structures, communal traditions, and household dynamics. while formal institutions such as the nigerian constitution (1999) and the land use act (1978) purport to guarantee equal rights to land, customary practices and socio-economic barriers continue to disadvantage women, particularly in patriarchal societies like igboland. this analysis examines how four key institutions—the state, market, community, and household—influence land ownership patterns, reinforcing or challenging gender disparities. 1. the state: formal legal frameworks and their limitations he nigerian constitution (1999) enshrines the principle of non-discrimination, asserting that every citizen has equal rights to property ownership, irrespective of gender. similarly, the land use act (1978), which nationalizes land ownership under state control, theoretically allows both men and women to acquire land through leasehold or purchase (oriaghan, 2018). however, these laws are gender-neutral rather than gender-transformative. they do not actively dismantle patriarchal structures but instead assume that removing overt legal barriers will automatically lead to equality. in practice, women face systemic obstacles in accessing land due to socio-cultural norms, economic marginalization, and weak enforcement of these laws. despite constitutional provisions, customary law often supersedes statutory law in rural and semi-urban communities. courts frequently defer to traditional authorities in land disputes, meaning that even when women have legal rights, cultural norms prevent them from exercising them. additionally, bureaucratic bottlenecks in land registration disproportionately affect women, who are less likely to have the financial resources or political connections to navigate these processes. 2. the market: economic barriers to women’s land ownership at the market level, institutions such as banks and land registries do not explicitly discriminate based on gender. however, women face structural barriers that limit their access to land financing and ownership:  limited access to credit: women are less likely to secure loans for land purchase due to lack of collateral, as most family properties are registered under male names (adegoke et al., 2016).  lower financial literacy: cultural norms often restrict women’s participation in economic decision-making, reducing their ability to engage in land transactions (ajala, 2017). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 165  political exclusion: since land allocation in nigeria is often politicized, women’s underrepresentation in governance means they have less influence over land distribution policies (oladokun et al., 2018). many women acquire land through informal means, such as family allocations or community grants, rather than formal purchases. however, these arrangements often lack legal security, leaving women vulnerable to dispossession, particularly in cases of divorce or widowhood (chigbu, 2019). 3. the community: customary laws and patrilineal inheritance in many nigerian communities, customary laws dictate land ownership based on ancestry, tradition, and male primacy (idrisu, 2021). in igboland, land is primarily inherited through patrilineal succession, meaning that sons inherit family land while daughters are often excluded (enwerem, 2023). the igbo cultural practice of bride price (payment made by the groom’s family) reinforces the notion that women themselves are property, further entrenching the idea that they cannot own land (nwabude, 2022). this perception is compounded by traditional beliefs that women who marry outside their natal community lose their inheritance rights, as they are no longer considered part of their father’s lineage (lawrence-hart, 2022). efforts to reform customary land laws face resistance from traditional leaders, who view gender-equal inheritance as a threat to cultural identity. even educated igbo women who challenge these norms often face social ostracization, discouraging legal claims to family land (ezumah & di domenico, 1995). 4. the household: male domination and spiritual exclusion at the household level, land ownership is exclusively male-dominated. men typically control family land, making decisions about its use, sale, or inheritance without consulting female members (basden, 2013). also, inheritance or sale of land has a spiritual meaning with rituals which women cannot participate in igboland. widows, in particular, face the risk of land dispossession by male relatives, a practice justified under customary law (odoemelam et al 2014, ezumah & di domenico 1995). limitations of current literature academic and policy literature addressing women’s ownership and access to land in igboland has historically exhibited a significant gap in gender sensitivity. many of these writings either overlook gender entirely or adopt a neutral stance that fails to acknowledge the deeply entrenched inequalities between men and women. while some recent studies have introduced improvements in framing and analysis, they still often fall short of critically examining the structural advantages that men have long held in relation to land rights and property ownership. in numerous cases, the literature treats land access as a universal issue, applying broad frameworks that do not differentiate between male and female experiences. this gender-blind approach assumes that all individuals face similar challenges in acquiring and controlling land, hyginus & petersixtus. gender, land ownership, and development: a social.. 166 thereby masking the unique barriers that women encounter due to cultural norms, legal constraints, and socio-economic dynamics. by failing to disaggregate data or analyze genderspecific outcomes, such studies inadvertently reinforce the status quo, where male dominance in land ownership is normalized and unchallenged. even when gender is mentioned, it is often addressed superficially—without a deep interrogation of the historical and institutional factors that have privileged men. for instance, customary inheritance laws in igboland typically favour male heirs, excluding women from land succession and perpetuating their economic dependence. yet many texts fail to critique these customs or explore their implications for women’s autonomy and development. instead, they may present land tenure systems as culturally fixed or inevitable, thereby sidestepping the need for reform or advocacy. moreover, the neutral tone adopted in some literature suggests an attempt to avoid controversy or cultural sensitivity. while this may be intended to respect local traditions, it often results in a diluted analysis that does not confront the real power imbalances at play. neutrality in gender discourse can be problematic when it obscures the fact that men have historically enjoyed privileged access to land through both formal and informal mechanisms—ranging from legal recognition to community influence and political leverage. this lack of critical engagement with gender disparities has practical consequences. policies and interventions derived from such literature may fail to address the root causes of women’s exclusion or may implement solutions that are ineffective because they do not consider the socio-cultural context. without a gender-aware lens, development programs risk perpetuating inequality rather than resolving it. to move forward, it is essential for future research and policy analysis to adopt a more genderresponsive approach. this means not only recognizing the historical disadvantages faced by women but also actively seeking to redress them through inclusive frameworks, participatory methodologies, and transformative advocacy. by highlighting the systemic privileges that men have held—and continue to hold—scholars and practitioners can contribute to a more equitable discourse on land rights in igboland. only then can meaningful progress be made toward empowering women and fostering sustainable development in the region. steps to be taken in line with social relations approach, addressing these inequalities requires multi-layered strategies: 1. legal reform and enforcement of inheritance rights, anti-gbv legislation, and affirmative action measures at both national and sub-national levels. 2. investment in girls’ education, especially in rural areas, with targeted scholarship and mentorship programs. 3. economic empowerment initiatives that expand women’s access to credit, entrepreneurship training, and cooperative models. 4. engagement with traditional institutions to reform discriminatory customs and amplify women’s leadership in community governance. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 167 5. data collection and gender budgeting to ensure policies are informed by evidence and trackable metrics. through advocacy and networking with civil society organisations, academia, government ministries, we will sensitize policy makers (legislative, judiciary and executive arms of government) on the implications of gender neutral or gender-blind laws to the individuals and society at large (kabeer, 1994, p.229). all levels in government to explicitly enshrine, promulgate gender redistributive laws and policies and show law enforcement means to balance gender redistributive laws and policies (kabeer, 2008, p.27). most of the government policies are either gender neutral or gender blind, but through advocacy and networking with civil society organisations, academia, government ministries, we will sensitize policy makers, legislative, judiciary and executive arms of government on the implications of gender neutral or gender-blind laws to the individuals and society at large (kabeer, 1994, p.229). there is need to facilitate each government parastatal to explicitly enshrine, promulgate gender redistributive laws and policies and show law enforcement means to balance gender redistributive laws and policies (kabeer, 2008, p.27). private corporations should enshrine gender redistributive policies, laws and implement them like employing affirmative action towards women in job opportunities, capacity building, accessibility to financial services, remunerations and eliminating pay gaps, provision of incentives to boost women’s active participation in businesses. the government should monitor and check regular compliance to these too. on the community and household levels, enlightenment programs for community leaders, men, and women on the implications of gender insensitive cultural practices and customs will be organised. engaging community stakeholders is crucial to dropping gender oppressive cultures (kabeer, 2005, p.14) ultimately, it is women themselves who will be vanguards of this cause. different programs will be organised to empower, train, educate and motivate women to live-out gender redistributive laws and policies themselves. also, creating more opportunities to network with ngos, unions and civil society organisation is essential. this is so because, for kabeer, to challenge gender inequality and diffuse its effects, empowerment, and collective action on the part of the disempowered, through which existing power relations can be renegotiated (kabeer, 1999). conclusion gender inequality remains a central barrier to nigeria’s socio-economic development—and igboland, despite its cultural vibrancy and economic vitality, is not exempt. in igboland, land remains a critical asset for economic security, social status, and cultural identity. however, access to and control over land is largely governed by patriarchal norms and customary laws that favor men. women are often excluded from inheritance rights and hyginus & petersixtus. gender, land ownership, and development: a social.. 168 land transactions, particularly in rural areas where traditional practices dominate. even when statutory laws provide for gender-neutral access to property, their implementation is frequently undermined by cultural resistance and institutional inertia. the notion that women are not rightful landowners is deeply embedded in societal beliefs, often reinforced by rituals and spiritual customs that bar women from participating in land-related ceremonies. this exclusion has far-reaching consequences, limiting women’s ability to invest, build wealth, and contribute meaningfully to community development. without secure land rights, women are less likely to access credit, engage in agricultural production, or participate in local governance—further entrenching their marginalization. to address these entrenched inequalities, it is essential to adopt frameworks that go beyond legal reform and tackle the underlying social structures that perpetuate gender bias. one such framework is naila kabeer’s social relations approach, which emphasizes the importance of analyzing institutions—such as the state, market, community, and household—not just in terms of their formal rules but also their informal norms and power dynamics. this approach encourages a shift from gender-neutral policies to gender-redistributive strategies that actively transform relationships and resource allocations between men and women. in the context of igboland, applying kabeer’s framework would involve rethinking land governance systems, challenging discriminatory customs, and promoting inclusive decision-making processes. it would also require engaging with traditional leaders, religious institutions, and community networks to foster cultural change. by recognizing the interconnectedness of social, economic, and political institutions, this approach offers a holistic pathway toward gender equity and sustainable development. empowering women through equitable access to land and resources is not merely a matter of justice—it is a strategic investment in nigeria’s future. numerous studies have shown that when women have control over assets, household welfare improves, children’s education outcomes rise, and communities become more resilient. in igboland, where women are already active in trade, education, and informal enterprise, removing barriers to land ownership and financial inclusion could unleash a wave of economic growth. women’s participation in agriculture, for example, could be significantly enhanced if they had secure land tenure and access to credit. similarly, enabling women to own property would strengthen their bargaining power within households and communities, leading to more balanced and democratic decisionmaking. the ripple effects of such empowerment would extend beyond economics, influencing social cohesion, psychological well-being, and even religious and political engagement. in essence, gender redistribution is a catalyst for comprehensive development. beyond economic empowerment, closing gender gaps also requires political inclusion and institutional reform. women remain underrepresented in nigeria’s political landscape, with minimal participation in elected offices and policy-making bodies. in igboland, traditional governance structures often exclude women from leadership roles, reinforcing the perception that political power is a male domain. to change this narrative, deliberate efforts must be made to promote women’s leadership at all levels—from local councils to national assemblies. this includes implementing affirmative action policies, providing leadership training, and creating safe spaces for women to engage in political discourse. institutional reforms should also address gender biases in public administration, law enforcement, and judicial systems to ensure that women’s rights are protected and enforced. by integrating gender perspectives into aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 169 governance, nigeria can build more responsive and inclusive institutions that reflect the needs and aspirations of all citizens. achieving gender equality in nigeria, particularly in regions like igboland, requires a multifaceted approach. legal reforms must be strengthened and enforced, ensuring that statutory rights override discriminatory customs. economic policies should prioritize women’s access to credit, land, and vocational training, while community engagement initiatives must challenge patriarchal norms through education and dialogue. men must be included as allies in this process, recognizing that gender equality benefits everyone by fostering more stable and prosperous societies. international organizations, civil society groups, and the private sector all have roles to play in funding and implementing these changes. ultimately, unlocking the full potential of nigerian women is not just a matter of justice—it is a prerequisite for sustainable development. only by dismantling systemic barriers can nigeria harness the talents of all its citizens and build a future defined by equity, resilience, and shared prosperity. it follows that, the social relations approach offers a powerful framework for understanding and addressing gender inequality. it moves beyond simplistic notions of inclusion and instead advocates for systemic change. by focusing on the institutions that shape social relations, the sra provides a roadmap for creating a more just and equitable society. this approach challenges us to rethink development, not as a process of economic expansion, but as a means of enhancing human well-being. it urges policymakers, scholars, and activists to look beyond individual empowerment and toward the transformation of the structures that define our collective lives. only by doing so can we hope to dismantle the deeply embedded systems of inequality and build a future where all individuals regardless of gender can thrive. references adegoke, b. f., adegoke, o. j., & oyedele, j. b. 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(2023). nigeria factsheet 2023: education analyses for learning and equity using mics data. unicef nigeria country office. available from https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/media/9211/file/nigeria%20education un women (2023) country fact sheet | un women data hub: nigeria available from https://data.unwomen.org/country/nigeria the world bank group (2023). the world bank in nigeria. available from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/overview. accessed 5 march 2023. world economic forum (2023). global gender gap report 2022 insight report july 2022. available from https://www3.weforum.org/docs/wef_gggr_2022.pdf. accessed 5 march 2023. world population review (2025) nigeria population 2025. available from https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/nigeria https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2022.102016 https://www.landesa.org/a-quick-look-at-womens-land-and-inheritance-rights-in-nigeria https://www.landesa.org/a-quick-look-at-womens-land-and-inheritance-rights-in-nigeria https://data.unwomen.org/country/nigeria https://www3.weforum.org/docs/wef_gggr_2022.pdf.%20accessed%205%20march%202023 https://www3.weforum.org/docs/wef_gggr_2022.pdf.%20accessed%205%20march%202023 https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/nigeria aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr the concept of death in the changing world of african worldview dr. james n. nnoruga department of religion & human relations nnamdiazikiwe university awka, nigeria email: jn.nnoruga@unizik.edu.ng abstract death is considered a scary phenomenon among many people in different cultures of africa and many things are done to prevent it by all means. but finally, it comes when it will come, african interpretation of death and how it occurs are viewed from different perspectives in relation to its rituals and ceremonies being performed by the people of africa. the conception of death from the pristine era is being eroded daily by the influence of some factors that affect the african worldviews with the advancement of science and technology or put in another way the globalization of the world. these factors changed the view of africans' conception of death from rigid conception to flexible acceptance of death as yet painful phenomenon. the write-up brought out the changes that are taking place daily in the life of the africans towards the notion of death when compared to the previous conception of death in africa. the scholarly african works on this issue from different parts of africa were carefully studied and their views were synthesized through a philosophical approach. the result of this shows that the conception of death has changed in africa for good but with some effects on the lives of people in the society. keywords: death, african worldview, fatalism, funeral rites, reincarnation. introduction the notion of death in the african worldview has been a kind of fatalistic view both by the way the africans think about it and towards its belief concerning its preparation and the process of burial after death. hence death is dreaded so much among all cultures judging from the world view of different cultures and the fearful names that designate the phenomenon of death. though death itself is seen as part of life cycle, because of the role it plays in ushering people among the ancestors, which is the dream of any african who departs from this world to join their forefathers. that is why in old age, africans will always gladly announce that he/she will soon join his/her ancestors. even the view about how one dies in africa, is of much importance to africans because not all deaths are acceptable to africans especially when it concerns the death of children or certain deaths of ill health and deaths of accident victims like falling from tree or automobile accidents and so on. they are naturally regarded as bad deaths. this is why achebe (1958) noted that “when a man was afflicted with swelling, he was not allowed to die in the house. he was carried to the evil forest and left there to die” (p. 18). whatever is being thought about death in the pristine time by the africans, is changing fast, this is seen in the burial rites being conducted by the africans in their different traditions, sequel to these changes, it shows that the notion of death is fast changing in the african worldview. even the mythology of death in different african traditions clearly shows that events of death or its notions can change judging from the stories behind them. so, these changes may be necessitated by the fact that some concepts especially the ones relating to metaphysical issues have not been 156 analyzed, compared, or threatened by other higher concepts from other world views relating to the same issue. this is the reason why oguejiofor (1996) notes that societies that encounter no intellectual threat to their religious beliefs hardly resort to philosophical or metaphysical arguments to prove their assumptions and beliefs. in the same way, a general cursory look shows that the concept of death in the african worldview has not been debated, analyzed, compared, or threatened by any superior arguments or notions towards its earlier assumptions or beliefs. but recently it has been challenged especially now that the majority of worldviews are being influenced and challenged by technological advancement or globalization in general. what is common among african scholars about the concept of death is continuous affirming of the earlier notion of death which is common to most africans. one of the earlier notions of the death in african worldview is that most deaths are caused by one thing or the other, either by bad people or by the bad spirits or belief that the person has committed or breached natural law or moral law against the land/gods thereby disrupting the cosmic balance in nature. hence the gods strike the person for having offended or disrupted the peaceful balance in the land of the dead and the land of the living. so, no death is ordinary in itself, it must have been caused by something else and that is why most of africans go to diviners to know the cause of the death in a family or in a village where many people died at the same time. this is sometimes done to prevent another death from occurring again in the same family or the same village. however, the death of people who died in ripe old age is celebrated because it is believed that they have joined their ancestors but those who died younger, of abominable diseases, or struck by thunder as the case may be are regarded as a curse which resulted in death. whatever be the cause of the death, god in the case of old people, or an evil agency in the case of the unexpected death of a young person, death is conceived of as ultimately part of the harmony of nature (anyanwu, 1981). so, among other things, this write-up seeks to x-ray the change of attitudes towards death by africans, and how the influence of other religious traditions concerning death affected the understanding of death today in africa. fortunately, this understanding again reshapes the african mentality of death in most places, this is seen in most ritual and burial rites being carried out before, during, and after the death of an individual. for example, some clerics in the eastern part of nigeria tried to control the wastage in funeral being experienced in burial ceremonies which ejiofor (2002) regarded as funeral pomp, by reducing the cost of burial ceremonies stressing the fact that too much spending on the burial ceremony does not show that the person has joined his ancestor or that the burial went well. sequel to the above, burial law is being enacted in some states to reduce and guide the process of funeral rites for the dead. hence the issue of befitting burial is declining among the people in the eastern part of nigeria, thereby upholding the befitting living among the people. this has led to the celebration of life rather than death among the people of africa. the notion of death: african perspective the african people like other people in other continents of the world, fear or dread the occurrence of death at any time, and the causes of death are normally searched for especially when the explanation is not visible to members of the family, even when it is visible the intension behind it, is sought by the living members of the family. the western culture hence turns to the process of autopsy to find out the real cause of death around human beings especially when the cause of death cannot be established easily. a good example of such was the recent pandemic disease called coronavirus disease (covid-19) which affected the whole world, and where millions of people were dead, its cause has to be established and measures are taken to curb it. africans in the 157 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 time of their forefathers engaged in divination even when the cause of the death was sensible to the eyes or an autopsy had been carried out. the africans still seek the metaphysical or internal cause of death because no death is ordinary or happens by chance, for africans recognized the existence of secret forces (invisible forces) acting or ready to act in the universe like ancestors, divinities, or god himself (anyanwu, 1984). even most myths of death in the african worldview show that death is not ordinary or it is a direct consequence of one thing or the other. the notion of death may differ among africans just like the myths of death in africa differ, but death generally remains inevitable and natural (mbiti, 1969). in all cultures of the world, death is believed to be an inevitable end; kanu (2015) states that it has become a mystery to human beings and since it is shrouded in mystery, its knowledge and eradication remain a mirage. hence it is an enigma, though africans see it as a transition into the world of their ancestors. so, in the face of death, we are defenceless and weak, because life belongs to god which is the highest gift to human beings. mbefo (2001) beautifully described the defenceless of man before death in his description of the igbo attitude to death thus: death is seen as the end of all ambition; the onwudinjo. every effort must be deployed to stave it off or, at least delay its inevitability. this can be done through prayers, onwubiko or through suspension, onwuteaka. death has no fear, onwuatuegwu, not even of a whole town, as evident in times of pest, onwuasomba. it is no respecter of persons or of rank; it is the leveler, onwuasoanya. experience shows that every igbo dies, onwuzuruigbo because not even their best medicine men had even halted its advance, onwukadibia. not even the might of the brave had survived its attack, onwukadike. to understand it surpasses the power of reason, onwudiegwu, and its fury is simply implacable, onwudiwe. it has always claimed the victory, onwuemelie. (p. 37). from the above, the author describes the view of igbo people about death. this is also described from different points of view from different cultures in africa. this is the reason why ezenweke (2012) is of the view that death takes a glaring place in the socio-religious life of the african people. it is the end of a physical and less important part of man which is the physical body. so, death is perceived as the beginning of communication between the visible and the invisible worlds. the goal of life for africans is to become an ancestor after death. this is why good deaths must be accompanied by proper burials with religious ceremonies. if this is not done, the dead person may become a wandering ghost, unable to be with his/her ancestors after his/her death, and therefore a danger to those who remain alive. this is the belief of the africans about death. in the same vein, mbiti (1969) avered that: it is clear that people view death paradoxically, it is separation but not annihilation, the dead person is suddenly cut off from the human society, and yet the corporate group clings to him. this is shown through the elaborate funeral rites, as well as other methods of keeping in contact with the departed. (p. 159). however, mbiti observed that the majority of african people do not believe in judgment after death and as such do not expect any form of reward in the hereafter unlike the christian religion whose reward is in heaven. though idowu (1962) refers to yoruba as one of the few exceptions to this issue of reward after death. the yoruba according to idowu believe that “all we do on earth, we shall account for kneeling in heaven… and we shall state our case at the feet of god” (p.199). but mbiti (1969) insisted that we have no concrete evidence of the hereafter being pictured in terms of punishment or reward. for the majority of the african people the hereafter is only a continuation of life more or less as it is in its human form. the above view is in line with onwubiko (1991) that most african people believe that punishment due to the life lived on earth 158 nnoruga the concept of death in the changing world of african worldview is received in this world, so also is the reward. for him, this is why the religion of many african communities is world-affirming. the african concept of death and its meaning can also be seen or understood from funeral ceremonies done during the burial of any dead person, though not everybody is given a full burial or befitting burial. according to onwubiko (1991) funeral ceremonies in africa are elaborate and highly expensive and are relatively celebrated according to the status of the dead person. the basic characteristic of all funeral ceremonies in africa is that they are believed to determine the place the dead person would enjoy in the spirit world and hope of reincarnation. the dead who do not receive these ceremonies are believed to be in a state of unrest and they wander about disturbing the living beings. bosah (cited by onwubiko, 1991) states that the period between a person's death and funeral ceremonies is called in most communities of africa a period of “ita okazi” the eating of raw okazi leaves. okazi is a festive vegetable used during some festivals, the enraged ancestors are believed to be waiting for their relatives beside the leaves of okazi who want to enjoy and celebrate without first giving them a befitting burial. even nzekwu (1971) explained that the dead yet to take their places in the spirit world are sleeping and hiding under the okazi shrub, and that their relatives must liberate and send them home. however, the notion of death differs greatly among the african people judging from what plays on during the burial and rituals performed for the dead whether he is rich or poor while he/she was alive. often some animals are symbolically and ritually killed with the hope that they will influence the state of the dead man. again, the implements of the dead person referring to his profession are burial with him/her with the hope that he/she may need them in the spirit land and may come back with them in his/her reincarnated life. the case of unoka in “things fall apart” who according to the condition of his death was not given a proper burial or given no funeral at all, for achebe (1958) relates that when they carried him away, he took with him his flute. this explains further why kings and priests are buried with slaves so that these will continue to run errands for them in the spirit world. quarcoopome (1987) also stated that: for this reason, articles such as clothing, sponges, towels, combs, pomades, and in the case of the wealthy or those of royal descent gold trinkets and precious ornaments are put into the coffin. in every case small sum of money and treasured possessions are also put into the coffin to help the dead on the last stage of the journey to the next world. the money is to enable him to cross the river of no return. it is believed that chiefs and lineage heads continue to occupy their position of importance after death. as a result, some people are killed to accompany and serve them in the afterlife. some of their wives either volunteer to be killed or are forcefully killed to keep the dead chief's company. (p. 127). in fact, the notion of death in africa is understood more from the rituals about the burial of the dead, from the status of a dead person, to the second or final burial. kinds of death the notion of death in africa can also be understood clearly from the way the africans clarify deaths. for some authors, different kinds of deaths speak volumes of how the africans perceive death hence their attitude to it through their rituals and ceremonies. africans believe most times that evil person or evil spirit is always behind most of the deaths that happen in africa, hence divination is always sought to determine the real cause of any death. from the above reasons one finds out why many scholars believe that there are three kinds of deaths in africa, like metuh (1981), okafor (1996), kanu (2015), muonwe (2021), and many others. they all divide death in 159 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 africa into three kinds namely: devil's death or violent death, bad/shameful death, and natural or good death. but most scholars still divide it more, like some scholars classify the deaths of ogbanje as another kind of death different from the above three kinds of deaths. some people refer to the death of ogbanje as a violent death because he/she died before his/her time but another condition that qualifies as a violent death to be so is that the person may die in a violent automobile accident, or killed for stealing or falling from the tree and so on. but ogbanje children do not often die this way, they die more through sickness. however, it seems that one must die through any of these kinds of deaths but the natural death is highly preferred by african people (metuh, 1981). violent death or devil's death this is the death of any young person or aged person when the person suddenly dies violently without any just cause. most scholars classify violent death as woeful because of its nature especially when it affects the young as they have not accomplished the full course of their lives. here he/she has not achieved his/her destiny. but what defines this type of death is the fact that someone dies suddenly and violently irrespective of his/her age, unlike natural death among other conditions is to die peacefully or pass away peacefully that is what is regarded as going home. but for violent death, he/she is believed to have been snatched away by the evil spirit and he continues to wander about until he comes back in the next life to complete his/her term of life. there is a ritual for sending them away so that they will not come back again in that form or purpose. they are believed to bring misfortune to the parents and the living. if the evil spirit is the cause of the death, chukwuelobe (1998) states that some remedies are prescribed to prevent such recurrence. the remedies like offering of bleak sacrifices in which discarded, old, and useless items are used to show the spirit that humans are unhappy. bad/shameful death in the olden days, bad or shameful deaths according to kanu (2015) are those who died of leprosy, smallpox, cholera, swollen stomach, or killed by an anti-wickedness deity like amadioha through lightning. such people are not given full funeral rites of the dead because there is no happiness accompanying such deaths. again those who committed suicide are regarded as those who died a bad death even when they are old, no one is allowed to cry for the person who committed suicide, cooking and drinking of any kind are not done rather the priest is called by the family of the deceased to perform cleansing sacrifices so that the evil will not happen again and that the family will not be affected in one way or the other. hence it is seen in africa as an abomination and sin against the earth goddess for the land has been desecrated. achebe (1958) succinctly showed how one who committed suicide is treated at his/her death, in the life of okonkwo the great warrior and wrestler of umuofia in his days, achebe recorded the conversation between obierika the friend of okonkwo, and the district commissioner as thus: then they came to the tree from which okonkwo's body was dangling and they stopped…. “perhaps your men can help us bring him down and bury him,” said obierika. we have sent for strangers from another village to do it for us, but they may be a long time coming “why can't you take him down yourselves?” he asked. “it is against our custom,” said one of the men. it is an abomination for a man to take his own life. it is an offense against the earth, and a man who commits suicide will not be buried by his clansmen. that is why we ask your people to bring him down because you are strangers…. oberika turned 160 nnoruga the concept of death in the changing world of african worldview suddenly to the district commissioner and said ferociously: that man was one of the greatest men in umuofia. you drove him to kill himself, and now he will be buried like a dog. (pp. 207-208). bad death like suicide death is highly abhorred in every culture in africa and the process of burial differs from place to place, this shows that suicide is not an option in africa. however, in recent days most communities have tried to bury the person because of the understanding that suicide death may be out of neglect of care by the family or community to the individual concerned. natural or good death many believed that natural death was a blessing from god. as metuh (1981) stated that it is the subject of constant prayer for africans in most of their prayers to die a good death in old age. though it is not a condition for admittance into the company of ancestors in the spirit land which is the hope of the traditional africans but in one sense it shows that the person is already blessed by the gods for giving him a long life while he was in the world of men. here proper burial and funeral rites are accorded to the deceased person by the family and relatives, and natural death is seen as going home and not actually dead because the person fulfilled all his/her intentions and destiny while on earth. again, the rites of passage of death and funeral rites are performed amidst eating, drinking, and other merriments. achebe (1958) has a good example of the celebration of a good death in some traditions in africa. he reported that when ezeudu died the people of umuofia celebrated his death with lots of food and other merriments. at the funeral, there were gun salutes, the beating of drums, and the clanging of machetes. and various types of masquerades came to perform to pay their last respect to the dead. death, burial and funeral rites in the pristine age of africans it will be a good idea to look into the past to see how burial and funeral rites were done by early traditional africans and compare it with the practices being done today. this will give a good conception of death in the african worldview as of today. of course, one will find out that many things have changed a lot for good. ideally, to understand the conception of death in africa one has to view or study the burial and the funeral rites in african tradition. this exposes to a great extent the hidden meanings and traditions attached to death in general. according to basden (1966), women attend to the corpse as soon as one dies depending on the tradition of the place concerned, like in the igbo tribe of nigeria in west africa, the corpse is washed and stained all over with “ufie” (camwood). in some districts, especially the riverine areas where gin is a regular commodity the corpse is sprinkled with the liquor. the body is clothed in the finest garment from the deceased wardrobe and placed in a sitting position in the case of a man, but this position lasts for a few hours, and friends and relatives available will come to pay their last respects to the dead. the women are normally laid flat on the ground but not in all places, for some communities also place the woman in sitting position. when the time has elapsed for this sitting position, the young men put the corpse in grass mats and carry it to the burial ground or his/her grave and bury the corpse. this is for a normal death and its burial. but there are exceptions to the above, which are governed by considerations of birth, rank in the society, and the cause of the death. for example, in the case of a slave scanty attention and no unnecessary expenses are incurred in carrying out his/her burial rites. no one is accused nor diviner consulted because he/she will still retain the position of slave in the land of the dead. for free-born, the best possible arrangements must be made. the bodies of dead lepers and smallpox 161 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 are hurriedly thrown away in the big forest even before they are dead in some cases. this means that their deaths are not regarded as anything, in fact, they are seen as abominations. and those dying as a result of accidents, during childbirth, lunatics, and those being murdered, drowned, or burned are considered as having come to their untimely ends by the instrumentality of the devil. they are buried without delay. generally, burial follows within twenty-four hours of death, though not in all cases, because for men of high rank, arrangements are made corresponding to their rank. the announcement of the death of the king takes almost one year or more depending on the tradition of the place in africa. the underlying idea is that the throne is never vacant for the king is always greeted with long live king. in the case of a woman or daughter married to another town, she is brought back to her original home for burial except if she has grown-up children, they will bury their mother in her own house. it is always the desire of the africans to die in their locality. in the case of death occurring at a distant place, the brethren will bring the body home for burial at all costs. some days of mourning are maintained depending on the tradition of the place. normally the husband or the wife would restrict himself/herself for 28 days or more with shaving of heads as a symbol of grief and bereavement. during these days, friends, in-laws, and relatives visit the house with singing and dancing, drum beating, and consumption of food, gin, and palm wine. these in a bit are done to distract the attention of the bereaved one from the thought of his/her loss and as tradition requires. the second burial is a day fixed for the festival though this is not done in most places in africa as of today. this is always costly, according to basden (1966) heavy debts are incurred in the desire to give the best possible send-off to a dead one. in most traditions, the second burial of a chief, it was a custom to put to death one or more slaves to provide attendant spirits to accompany the chief into the great beyond. for the chief or king must not enter the spirit world unaccompanied by a retinue. he must have his messengers and personal servants and slaves to attend to his needs. after the second burial, the departed spirit finds a home in the land of the ancestors. there are other minor and major ceremonies being performed before, during, and after the burial of an aged person. the factors that influenced the changing conception of death in africa the changing nature of culture shows its strength and stability when influenced by factors that either threaten its existence or modify its continuous existence. with the passage of time, the conception of death in the traditional african setting began to change from its original conception to a situation whereby death is seen as part of life in the african setting. the revival of african culture also affects the conception of death in africa today. some other factors killed or removed entirely some notions of death as the africans used to have it or think about it in the pristine ages. many factors have influenced the conception of death as it is been conceived today in africa other than the way it was seen from the earliest times. this modern conception also affected how death is celebrated from burial rituals to social celebrations. however, some burial rituals and some social celebrations are strengthened while some are jettisoned or while some are modified for the convenience of people and for the health of the people. throwing the dead bodies into the bush openly constituted a great health hazard to the community or people in general, so with the influence of modernism dead bodies are buried in the grave properly, even the criminals or robbers who are killed while in the process of robbery activities are also buried in the grave. the tradition of keeping the corpse overnight with the people also has been a thing of the past in most of the african communities. 162 nnoruga the concept of death in the changing world of african worldview among the influences that modified the conception of death in africa was the emergence or coming of christianity and islamic religions that came into the culture of african people with their missionaries. the christian missionaries in the first place gathered all the people who were regarded as having died of bad deaths or with bad diseases who had been thrown into the bush for proper burial and curing for their diseases as the case may be. some they buried properly and those with some bad illness like smallpox, or swollen stomach were treated to become healthy again, in this way they taught the africans that it is not bad to be ill or suffer from such diseases which africans regarded as abomination and that some illness can be treated rather than seeing them as punishment from the gods. with this, the death of young people is no longer regarded as a great calamity or abomination, and proper burial is given to them as loved members of the family rather than burying them hurriedly as if they are nobody. the burial ceremonies in most places or communities take about weeks or more according to tradition of the place in the early times of the african people, efforts have been made to reduce the number of days the burial ceremonies take place in many places. the great pandemic that enveloped the whole world recently in the form of coronavirus (covid-19) equally fastened the burial ceremonies across the world. even though these days people are going back to the funeral pomp that was rejected in the past. people are now going for fitting burials instead of befitting living, ejiofor (1984) stated that the fitting burial involved a lot of ceremonies and spending in the case of the well-to-do. cows and goats are killed and gifts of assorted types are given out to people who attended the burial, this of course comes with a lot of eating and drinking for the whole days of burial ceremonies. normally the bodies of the dead person are not kept more than twenty-four hours in the olden days before it is buried. but these days the dead bodies are preserved through many means in order to prepare for the burial of the dead person, this may reach up to three or four months some even one year where there is a crisis in the family or the dead body ceased by the government officials for one reason or the other. in the case of royal deaths, the bodies of the chiefs or kings were mummified, and kept for a long time until appropriate arrangements for the burial were completed (ejiofor, 1984). this makes death in modern times not to be a source of sorrow but an opportunity to show off wealth acquired by families or individuals, and conspicuous consumption after which the family or the individual concerned goes bankrupt. the burial of kings and chiefs which required human heads or the burying of slaves alive was normally a practice in the earlier times because the africans believed that their kings must be accompanied to the spirit world for their errands and other needs. but these days or modern times a lot has changed towards such obnoxious notions. no one is treated as a slave nor buried alive in the grave of any king. hunting of human heads or selling of people as a slave is seen as an abomination. in place of this, the body of the dead is richly dressed, no matter his/her rank, he/she is buried amidst booms of cannons, firing guns in the air, delivering of funeral orations, laying of gardens of wreaths with many people around the family. though this is lavishly done but it is better than killing of another human being in the name of burial traditions as practiced in the earlier times. bad deaths viewed from the earliest conception of death from african worldview by africans, is no more seen as such, rather all deaths are mostly seen as god's intention to call one through one means or the other. however, this belief does not in any way debar the africans from consulting the diviners to seek the cause of some deaths that they could not understand its source. the recent covid-19 pandemic and a magnitude of 7.8 earthquakes in turkey near the northern border of syria on february 6, 2023, where many lives were lost may be regarded as bad deaths because 163 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 many lives were wasted in a twinkle of an eye, but the africans in the olden days will still look for spiritual connotations of such deaths because cosmological balance has been breached by the living. even in the death of little children, they are buried and funeral rites done as for the grownup people, they are no more thrown away or seen as bad omen or sometimes as ogbanje which was obtainable in most parts of nigeria. one can affirm that the notion of death keeps changing with the changing of african world views even as of today. conclusion one of the negative effects of the changing view of the notion of death among africans is that belief in different notions of death has divided the african families coupled with the fact that the modern-day preachers harp on these previous notions of death in africa to deceive people and cause more harm to the families of the african people. while the africans have tried to balance from the changing view or factors that have influenced their notion of death in the previous years, the modern-day preachers are trying to drag them back to the pristine conception of death and its practices. another effect of this changing view of the notion of death is that burial ceremonies has led to a significant increase in the cost of burial ceremonies. modern funerals now involve various expenses that were not traditionally part of the process such as providing burial attire for a large number of relatives and friends, elaborate decorations in the house of the deceased, public announcements in the media, accommodating a large number of people invited and those who are not invited. ultimately, this shift in the funeral or burial practices reflects a changing cultural and traditional values leading to new and complex expressions 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(1996). death, burial, funeral and widowhood in the catholic diocese of awka: guidelines and directives. okpuno: fides. onwubiko, a. o. (1991). christian mission & culture in africa: african thought, religion & culture. enugu: snaap press. quarcoopome, t. n. o. (1987). west african traditional religion. ibadan: african university press. 165 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 page 164 page 165 page 166 page 167 page 168 page 169 page 170 page 171 page 172 page 173 151 environmental pollution as a threat to human security in urhoboland omorovie ikeke & kenneth n agetue department of religious studies and philosophy, delta state university, abraka, nigeria drikeke@delsu.edu.ng; kennethagetue@delsu.edu.ng abstract one of the manifest problems in the contemporary environmental crisis is environmental pollution. environmental pollution is the injection into the atmosphere, land, or marine bodies of poisonous or unhealthy substances or elements. some of the negative effects of environmental pollution are that it can lead to health problems, environmental degradation, climate change, degradation of social infrastructure, occupational hazards, and impede human security, which is necessary for people to obtain an optimal good life. while environmental pollution is present in almost every region of the world, there are places where it is common as a result of intensive oil exploitation and other industrial and human activities. one of such regions and places is the urhoboland of nigeria’s niger delta. environmental pollution in urhoboland is precipitated or caused by some of the factors previously listed and many others. it has led to the destruction of biodiversity, and health hazards, and indeed limited the attainment of human security in the region. through critical hermeneutics and analytic methods, this paper argues for the need to curtail or eradicate environmental pollution in urhoboland and thus promote human security. the paper reveals that environmental pollution is occurring in urhoboland and frustrating the attainment of full human security. the paper concludes that if environmental pollution is abated, it will help in promoting human security of the people of urhoboland. and this can be possible by adopting effective legal and other measures to safeguard the environment and ensure human security. keywords: environment, environmental pollution, human security, niger delta, multinational companies, urhobo. introduction human security is crucially important for human beings to thrive and live meaningful lives. without human security, human beings are extremely endangered in any environment. in general, human security can be understood as all that brings about safety and well-being, wellness, and welfare for human persons. whatever brings harmto humans or that is against the welfare of human beings is a threat to human security. numerous things and activities endanger human security such as terrorism, banditry, kidnapping, political assassination, hunger, starvation, malnutrition, various forms of modern-day slavery, racism, apartheid, social discrimination, police brutality, ethnicism, nepotism, cronyism, electoral violence and so on. while the things just mentioned may seem obvious in endangering human security, others seem mailto:drikeke@delsu.edu.ng mailto:kennethagetue@delsu.edu.ng aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 152 not obvious. this paper is thinking of a thing like environmental pollution. a person, for instance, maythrow plastics into the water, it may not seem obvious that that act can pollute the waters, and endanger the lives of fish and marine animals on which human beings depend. but it does. it is now recognized that: “pollution is the largest environmental cause of disease and premature death. pollution causes more than 9 million premature deaths, the majority of them due to air pollution. that is several times more deaths than from aids, tuberculosis, and malaria combined” (world bank group, 2023, para 3). it is shown that air pollution that comes from industrial and vehicle emissions, and wildfire is the greatest external threat facing public health, and if the world health organization’s guidelines were followed, 2.3 years would be added to the life of the average person (air quality life index, 2023). because of the devastating impact of pollution, it must be researched and studied. all pollution is environmental for it happens in the environment. no matter how many papers have been written on the subject matter, it is still worth researching, for it continues to pose a grave danger to human welfare and wellbeing. it is in this light that this paper studies environmental pollution as a problem to human security in urhoboland. this paper aims to probe into the negative impact of environmental pollution and its effect on human security in urhoboland and the urhobo people of nigeria. in carrying out the aims of the paper, conceptual clarifications are made, followed by an examination of human security in urhoboland, and environmental pollution in urhoboland. this will be followed by looking at environmental pollution as a threat to human security in the area. then the way forward in outlining some recommendations will be offered, both from the legal and general perspectives. the methods adopted through the paper are analysis of the issues and hermeneutics (interpreting the issue for better understanding). conceptual clarifications environmental pollution (ep) can be defined as: “… any addition of erroneous substances or energies to the environment, that causes a change to the composition of the environment. these variables can be air, water, soil, noise, and light and changes to their natural values can have profound consequences for ecosystems and human life” (studysmarter, 2025). according to the us environmental protection agency, pollution is “any substances in water, soil, or air that degrades the natural quality of the environment; offends (the senses); causes a health hazard; or (impairs) the usefulness of natural resources” (gordon, 2024, para 3). it could also be defined as the effect of undesirable changes that harm humans, animals, and plants as a result of the overconcentration of a substance beyond its natural abundance resulting from human activities (khasanova, alieva, and shemilkhanova, 2023, p. 1-2). ep could also be defined as: “… the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected;” or as defined by obafemi in 2004, it is “… the process whereby various harmful substances are added to the environment (i.e. land, water, air, and the acoustic environment etc) by human and natural activities” (obafemi, eludoyin and akinbosola, 2012, p. 233). the next concept that requires clarification is human security. the human security approach privileges human beings as the subject of security, more than the security of states; and omorovie ikeke & kenneth n. environmental pollution as a threat to human security in.. 153 emphasizes that individuals should be protected from traditional (military) and nontraditional threats to human well-being such as diseases, and poverty (gregoratti, 2018). it is generally agreed that the concept of human security does not mean that national or state security is not important. but there can be no state security if the human beings in the state are endangered by or suffer from social, economic, political, and other deprivations. it is the independent commission on disarmament and security issues in 1982 that first articulated the fact that security is beyond state security and argued it should be extended to individuals’ welfare (gregoratti, 2018). after the cold war, it was realized among progressive scholars that the disappearance of superpowers did not necessarily bring about higher levels of security as there were still many other social problems confronting people in a globalized world; so in 1994, the united nations development report enunciated that human security is focused on human life and dignity (gregoratti, 2018). the report classified the threats against human security in seven forms (economic, community, environmental, health, food, political, and personal). note that, “human security and national security are complementary concepts and need not necessarily contradict each other. both seek protection against harm. to organize and ensure human security, armed forces are necessary. to provide for national security, the removal of threats, at home and abroad, is needed” (dorn, 2025, para 15). also, human security, in its broadest sense, embraces far more than the absence of violent conflict. it encompasses human rights, good governance, access to education and health care and ensuring that each individual has opportunities and choices to fulfil his or her potential. every step in this direction is also a step towards reducing poverty, achieving economic growth and preventing conflict. freedom from want, freedom from fear, and the freedom of future generations to inherit a healthy natural environment -these are the interrelated building blocks of human and therefore national security. (annan, 2000) this paper is concerned with the urhobo people who predominantly live in urhoboland in nigeria’s niger delta. they inhabit mainly the western niger delta which is “…bounded by latitudes 5° 15' n and 6° n and longitudes 5° 40' e and 6° 25' e with an area of about 5,000 square kilometers” (ojameruaye, 2007, para 7). they constitute more than 50% of the population in the delta state of nigeria, and much of the land is a flatland under 50 meters above sea level (ojameruaye, 2004, para 7). the urhobo people speak the urhobo language as their native and indigenous language. because of cultural diffusion, they also speak other languages today such as english, pidgin english, french, etc. urhoboland is one of the areas in the niger delta where oil has been discovered and where oil and gas resources are exploited. the urhobo are considered the 5th largest ethnicity in nigeria with a land blessed with abundant natural resources such as gas, oil, timber and other forest products, rivers, and many marine products (erhiurhoro, 2024). the situation of human security in urhoboland as a result of various industrial activities such as oil extraction and other resources from the land of urhobo, both the natural environment and human lives are now endangered. social problems such as poverty, invasion of farmlands by herdsmen due to open cattle grazing, waste mismanagement, armed robbery, kidnapping, etc have all endangered human security. there aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 154 are many threats to human security in urhoboland. human security is facing a lot of challenges and problems in urhoboland. being a part of the niger delta region, much of what is affecting the whole niger delta is also affecting urhoboland. emphasizing the threat of environmental pollution to human security in the niger delta, the following author asserts that: it is important to note that in the niger delta, people are dependent on their natural environment as the traditional source of livelihood through agricultural activities like farming and fishing. however, issues of environmental pollution have become a significant threat to their means of survival. this has become a human security concern, as community members in the niger delta are vulnerable to the impacts of extractive-led development like exploration and exploitation activities in their community. (siloko, 2024, p. 412) there are many threats in contemporary times that cause human insecurities in urhoboland. these threats include: herdsmen invasion of farmlands, armed robbery and kidnapping, petroleum fires, dilapidated roads, high cost of living and incessant rising prices of goods and services, mismanagement of waste, gender disparity and discriminations, interethnic and intraethnic conflicts, youth militancy, unemployment, etc. it should be recognized that: security is a very important aspect of all human societies and states. however, the traditional understanding of the term security is limited to the state security alone at the expense of some important aspects that deal directly with the humans in the state. issues like poverty, unemployment, corruption, child labour, kidnapping, etc. undermine the worth and dignity of human person; and their prevalence in any society becomes a human security threat. (sajo, 2018, p. 144) can we find some of these issues that threaten human security in urhoboland? yes. for instance, in the past, nigeria has been called the poverty capital of the world. there is still much poverty in nigeria today. urhoboland is part of nigeria and is affected by poverty also. poverty is high in urhoboland land, with more than 70% of them living below the poverty line and many youths are unemployed, so crimes and criminality are common ravaging the land (erhiurhoro, 2024). in the past, there used to be constant clashes among people, especially youths of the ethnic groups of urhobo, ijaw, and itsekiri regarding the city of warri and its ownership. in 1997, there was an outbreak of violence over the relocation of the local government headquarters from ogbe-ijaw town to ogidigben, an itsekeri town, and also, in 1999, there were clashes in the city of warri between urhobo and ijaw (immigration and refugee board of canada, 2001). while it is true that these conflicts in the city of warri seem to have died down and there are no violent conflicts in the city due to the government implementing various measures to resolve the issues, the fact remains that the tensions have remained and people are always apprehensive that violence can erupt. there are occasional conflicts between aladja an urhobo town, and ogbe-ijaw town. in these conflicts, people have been killed and properties destroyed. even among different urhobo communities, especially those sharing common boundaries, conflicts have erupted. there is no doubt that conflicts, especially violent ones, make life insecure and impede human security. the nigerian federation is troubled. and this is why there are so many struggles for autonomy and self-determination. agitations for either more autonomy or full self-determination have omorovie ikeke & kenneth n. environmental pollution as a threat to human security in.. 155 come from groups like movement for the actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob), movement for the sovereign state of biafra (massob), ijaw youth congress, movement for the survival of ogoni people (mossop), urhobo progress union,oduduwa nation,etc. the nigerian federation privileges the three dominant ethnic groups of hausafulani, yoruba, and igbo to the detriment of other ethnic groups who are seen as minorities. connected to these agitations is the movement for resource control, some of whose major champions are in urhoboland, etc. the urhobo people like some other ethnic groups in nigeria are marginalized, economically raped, and suffer from deprivations of many of their individual and group rights as a result of failures of the federal government (tareri, 2008). these socioeconomic marginalizations that people suffer seem to cause a great deal of human insecurities across the country. environmental pollution as a threat to human security in urhoboland having outlined some of the aspects of human security above, it is now important to discuss some of the environmental pollutions in urhoboland. environmental pollutions have a lot of negative effects on society, and urhoboland is not an exception. some of the effects of environmental pollution include: climate change, human health, biodiversity, etc. some major polluters of the environment are factories and industries. it should be noted that environmental pollution is not a new problem but today it appears to be humanity's greatest problem. human activities like mining, industrialization, urbanization, and exploration all cause pollution (khasanova, alieva and shemilkhanova, 2023). in urhoboland, one of the major causes of environmental pollution is sand dredging. there is hardly any part of urhoboland that you go to that you will not find sand dredging sites by the beaches and rivers in the area. you drive along the effurun-ughelli-evwreni road, facing patani, you find dredging sites. on the effurun-eku road, on the effurun-sapele road, you also find dredging sites. as sand is being dredged, sand particles and other dust elements are being blown into the air and the environment. there is also the challenge with the big tippers that carry the sand. many of them are rickety, and not road-worthy, and as they drive on the road they emit poisonous smoke from their exhaust pipes. some are not properly covered and as they move, some of the sands fall away into the road, creating hazards on the road to other road users.and some of these dredgers go about their business without following the proper legal framework that guides their activities, especially with regards to the protection of the environment to ensure human security. hence, it should be noted from the above that it is not only oil and gas exploration in urhoboland that causes environmental pollution although it is the major factor. the level of pollution in urhoboland is very high and increasing and this is attributable to many factors: absence of urban sewer system, improper waste management, lack of adequate disposal system, unreliability of public water supply, burial of people in homes, burning of refuse, rickety motor vehicles, generator use, and refinery and petrochemical factory in ekpan (ojameruaye, 2004, sec. 4.5). in all these, people should follow the legal frameworks laid down by the government fully. there is no doubt therefore that environmental pollution poses a threat to human security in various ways. let us continue to examine this issue from some of the core areas or domains aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 156 that the united nations pointed out as aspects of human security. economic well-being is an important aspect of human security and human life. without basic economic well-being, such as having food, water, and shelter, life becomes burdensome. social infrastructure such as roads, airports, railways, electricity, and water supply, are necessary for people to have the optimal good life. environmental pollution seriously affects economic well-being. oil spillage and oil exploration activities destroy sources of food such as farmlands, pollute sources of drinking water, and make it unsafe, and poisonous gases from gas flares corrode people’s roofs. in searching for oil, oil companies cut down trees, and forests, and blast through people’s farmlands and backyards. in urhoboland in some of the places where oil companies drill for oil, you see pipelines crisscrossing people’s farmlands. all these endanger people’s farmlands. some years ago there was a petroleum fire near the bridge at okpare in ughelli south local government area, in which the palm trees and other economic trees and people’s farms were burnt down. till the present moment, you can see that many of the trees in the area are yet to recover and grow to cover the land. some other petroleum fire disasters have happened in urhoboland in places like jesse and so on. then there is the community dimension to human security. human life is lived in a community and has a social dimension. among african societies and other indigenous places, community life is highly esteemed and valued. you are not a person if you cannot participate in community life by being a person of good character and making contributions to community life and development. pollution in whatever form negatively affects the land, marine bodies, and the atmosphere. a community does not exist in a vacuum or outer space. community exists among people in a territory, though some communities can be trans-territorial. pollution can lead to fragmentation among community members as they are stressed and experience trauma over the effects of pollution. communal well-being is important for adequate human flourishing. in warri and ekpan effluents released from the refinery in ekpan have affected both the atmosphere and water, causing harm to human health (obafemi, eludoyin and akinbosola, 2012, p. 238). perhaps the most crucial aspect of environmental pollution is that it affects the natural, built, and even social environment. in pollution, dangerous substances and elements are emitted into the atmosphere, land, and even water bodies that possess those aspects of the environment. pollution remains one of the greatest dangers to a healthy environment and human security. when the environment is polluted, human life becomes insecure, fragile, and vulnerable to sickness and diseases. pollution can cut human life short, hence reducing people’s life span. the effects of pollution can be extremely devastating. keep the following in mind: pollution of all types hinders development outcomes. air pollution, exposure to lead and other chemicals, and hazardous waste including exposure to improper e-waste disposal, cause debilitating and fatal illnesses, create harmful living conditions, and destroy ecosystems. pollution stunts economic growth, exacerbates poverty and inequality in both urban and rural areas, and significantly contributes to climate change. poor people, who cannot afford to protect themselves from the negative impacts of pollution, end up suffering the most. (world bank group, 2023, para 2) https://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/supporting-breath-fresh-air-lagos https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/how-air-pollution-accelerating-himalayan-glaciers-melt https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2022/09/01/what-you-need-to-know-about-climate-change-and-air-pollution omorovie ikeke & kenneth n. environmental pollution as a threat to human security in.. 157 pollution also has serious effects on the health of the people. it has made people sick. gas flaring is a serious cause of environmental pollution. realize that: “a variety of pollutants are discharged during gas flaring and these are detrimental to animals and the environment. these pollutants are linked to a range of adverse health impacts including cancer, neurological, reproductive and developmental effects. furthermore, some of the pollutant-chemicalssuch as sulphur-dioxide cause environmental issues including acid rain as well as the production of greenhouse gases and these contribute to climate change” (obi, bwititi, and nwose, 2021, p. 1). there is an equally political dimension to human security. human beings are social and political by nature. they live in a political society, no matter how small the society may be. politics relates to the struggle for power for the management of the resources and infrastructures of society. in political disorder, it is difficult for human beings to live their lives to the full. environmental pollution can lead to the degradation of social infrastructures, which are vital for maintaining order in political society. when people get sick due to environmental pollution, it affects their decision-making and active participation in political society. personal welfare and well-being are also vital aspects of human security. security is not just the security of groups and collectives. internal and mental well-being is important in people securing their lives. in various ways as noted above, environmental pollution does affect the health and wellbeing of individuals. think of people in urhoboland who live under 24-hour gas flaring. they are exposed to the flares and the fires that come from the flares. they are subjected to health stress as a result of their constant inhaling of poisonous gas. the way forward in ameliorating environmental pollution in urhoboland human security is crucial for the welfare and wellbeing of people in urhoboland, and elsewhere. this is because it hinges on the question of human rights and dignity. whatever harms any of the dimensions of human security affects the quality of life that people can live and their livelihood. it is important then in urhoboland that environmental pollution is curbed and eradicated or reduced to the barest minimum. there is indeed no way some human activities will be carried out when there will be no pollution at all. the argument here is that even in these cases it should be reduced to the barest minimum. many things can be done to eliminate or reduce environmental pollution in urhoboland and secure the security of people in urhoboland land. educating and creating awareness of environmental pollution is crucial. while some pollution is caused by individual and private groups, a great deal of pollution of caused by the extractive and exploitation activities of corporate companies like oil and gas companies. concerning individuals, they should be educated on the negative implications of polluting the environment. they should be made aware of the need to cultivate healthy environmental habits. these habits include proper disposal of domestic waste and waste generated in marketplaces. they should be educated on the need not to throw away dirt and garbage on roads, streams, and bushes. the educational curriculum in urhoboland should be re-jigged and reformed. even though the curriculum comes from a higher authority outside the area, the government at both federal and aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 158 state levels should ensure that in subjects such as history, social studies, civics education, government, economics, etc, issues of environmental protection are discussed and taught. religious bodies and other non-governmental bodies also must ensure that they promote environmental awareness in their programs. in the rio declaration, it is stated in article 10 as follows: environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. at the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. states shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided. (united nations, 1992, p. 2) many in urhoboland are not even aware of the environmental pollution taking place on the land and the negative effects that it has on the land and the people. pollution will not simply end or be mitigated when the government and companies. there is also the pollution caused by individuals, small and medium businesses, and non-governmental bodies. it is crucial then that all are involved in cultivating healthy environmental habits that reduce pollution. oil and gas companies and other companies have a corporate duty to ensure that they carry out their activities, reducing their negative impact on the environment. in many other parts of the world, gas flaring has been stopped. but in nigeria, it is painful to note that there is still gas flaring. the government has made many laws in the past to stop gas flaring; these laws must be enforced and implemented. some air pollution and degradation of the environment in urhoboland is caused by sand dredging. while it is true that some form of land dredging is necessary, many who dredge sand have no measures in place to curtail air pollution, and the transporters who transport sand from the dredging site to where they are needed, employ rickety tippers in the process. these tippers pollute the air with carbon dioxide from their exhaust fumes. there should be stricter regulations by the government. vehicle inspection officers (vio) and road safety officers should ensure enforcementof vehicle safety laws. government officials should ensure that they enforce laws guiding oil exploration and other natural gifts in urhoboland. it appears that oil multinationals have taken advantage of the lack of political will on the part of some governmental administration to enforce environmental laws in nigeria and punish defaulting firms to perpetuate unacceptable and sharp practices as it concerns environmental safety and human security (ogbonnaya, 2011). this environmental crisis has over the years engendered unprecedented level of poverty among the people of the region and a general underdevelopment of the region. of many extant laws on these activities the government seem not effectively employ these laws in order to ensure human and environmental security. there must be deliberate efforts, especially on the part of government to end pollution or reduce it to the barest level required by the world health organization. funds to tackle air pollution omorovie ikeke & kenneth n. environmental pollution as a threat to human security in.. 159 are extremely low compared with than invested into treating malaria, hiv/aids, and other health threats yet the fact is that air pollution reduces people’s life span than these health problems; and it should be noted that the whole of africa receives less than $300,000 to combat air pollution (air quality life index, 2023). a place in africa where you have some of the highest levels of air pollution is the niger delta, in which urhoboland is located. the problem is very serious in urhoboland because there are oil wells in the area, and a lot of drilling for oil and a lot of gas flaring takes place there. there is a serious need for government to pay more attention to urhoboland and other communities in the niger delta. conclusion the paper has examined the issue of environmental pollution as a threat to human security in urhoboland. it showed that environmental pollution is humanity’s greatest challenge. environmental pollution is the release into the atmosphere or other environment of poisonous substances or elements that are undesirable for the health of the environment. in urhoboland, environmental pollution has been caused by oil and gas exploitation, gas flaring, industrial activities, sand dredging, mismanagement of waste, rickety vehicles, and many other factors. all these the paper indicated have negatively impacted the state of human security in the region. in urhoboland, people are living painful and difficult lives as a result of environmental pollution. there is a need as discussed above for ecological solutions to promote the state of human security in the region. among the solutions that the paper proposed are creating environmental awareness/education to enable people to help avert pollution, oil and gas companies taking responsibility to mitigate pollution, government enforcing strict environmental laws, and more funding to curb pollution. hence, government at all levels should reassert stringent enforcement of environmental laws in nigeria to punish adequately all defaulting firms involved in environmental pollution in carrying out their activities, whether it is oil spillage, sand dredging or gas flaring. hence, all existing environmental laws should be reviewed to fill any existing legal lacuna (if any) which these firms have taken advantage of to continue to perpetuate sharp practices against ecological safety practices. the government can achieve these through the concerned agencies like the federal and state ministries of environment, and many other environmental agencies, who are saddled with the responsibilities of enforcing environmental laws in nigeria, and these agencies should be well funded. this paper expects that if these solutions are put in place, they will help to promote not only human security in urhoboland but a safer environment for all inhabitants of the ecosystem. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 160 references air quality life index. 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(2008). a rights-based approach to indigenous minorities: focus on the urhobo and ogoni peoples of the niger delta in nigeria. https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/8004/avwomakpa.pdf;sequence=1 united nations. (1992). report of the united nations on development and environment. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalc ompact/a_conf.151_26_vol.i_declaration.pdf world bank group. (2023). pollution. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/pollution#:~:text=pollution%20is%20the%20largest%20 environmental,them%20due%20to%20air%20pollution. https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmentalhttps://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmentalhttps://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/8004/avwomakpa.pdf;sequence=1 https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/ aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr abstract housing is a very important aspect of human development. people who lack construction experience often overlook critical factors such as climate, building design and interior décor when constructing a house. whereas, these analyses are important in order to arrive at a quality accommodation for human beings. sometimes, the plan and willingness to create a pleasing environment through architectural work are impeded by the economic challenges of providing decent housing and the inadequate implementation of housing policies. the failure to adhere to guidelines for constructing or establishing a comfortable environment deprives inhabitants of the satisfaction of a contented life. although some people do not see the relevance of the artist (the architect) in converting the environment into the pleasurable use of human beings, however, the focus of this research work therefore suggests how to improve the environment for the benefit of mankind. to achieve this, we shall employ the phenomenological method of research. the study concludes that prioritizing human well-being is crucial in architectural designs and environmental modifications. keywords: architect, bioclimatic, interior decoration, house, nature introduction arts and artists play great roles in the well-being of human beings. the works of art both beautify the environment and create sensational or psychological satisfaction for those who appreciate them. “just as modern physics teaches that every physical object is the center of a field of force which radiation outwards occupies all space and time” (auden, 1935, 11), so do architectural works in the thought and consciousness of those in whom they elicit profound satisfaction. the metaphysical nature of artworks has drawn the attention of many disciplines such as architecture, music, philosophy of art, psychology of art, etc. according to okoye and ukanwa (2019, 84), “architecture is an aspect of material culture as well as an element of cultural identity”. the above authors state that igbo traditional architecture reminds the indigenes of their cultural values and even reflects their belief, religion, social class and climate (okoye and ukanwa, 2019, 84). this means that there are two dimensions to what is known as architecture – the physical and the immaterial. however, the role of the architect as an artist in modifying the natural environment is contestable. on the one hand, there is the opinion that nature in itself is beautiful, intelligent, and orderly (nketo-lumba, 2015, 121). this perception has little or no value for the artistic creation of the architect. on the other hand, there are arguments that despite the wonderful qualities of nature, the ability of an artist to add, change, or restructure nature produces the feeling of having achieved one's expectations (chansigaud, 2013). these divergent points of view raise a pertinent architecture and the environment: african consideration of spatial and human development onah, aloysius uchechukwu saint thomas aquinas' major seminary, makurdi, benue state. onah4u2000@yahoo.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4606-5080 29 question: do architectural works contribute to the well-being of human beings? i argue that construction provides a framework for the fulfillment of the human person. in other words, construction is a process of using what is available in nature to create a suitable living condition; it involves harnessing natural elements to serve human beings properly. effort in this direction explains the engagement of the architect in creating a satisfactory environment for mankind. i am going to explain my point of view in three points: the first point will give a theoretical description of the parameters that architects look at before construction. the second point will examine the role of nature in providing a habitable environment for human beings. the third point will propose the african perspective in building advocating for the ecological architectural plan. 1. theoretical consideration in creating the plenitude for human existence in recent times, the growth in science has given rise to different areas of specialization. each discipline develops principles, methods, and objectives to affirm its authenticity and uniqueness, but also to show its importance in serving humankind. even though the role of artists (architects) consists of making the mental picture of their clients, they also make projections of how their work would satisfy other people who are not their clients. these projections could be in terms of aesthetic value, cost of maintenance, comfort, or even in terms of exotic value. according to deleuze & guattari (1942, 177), “when dubuffet sought to define a certain state of art brut, he turned first to the house”. this is because the sketching of the plan requires the architect to have a certain disposition and competence. with regards to disposition, the nature of his work demands some quietness which would permit the architect to bring out his or her pure ideas to life. the process of producing a plan is done without any desire to outdo another person neither is it inspired by the expectation of the public; a particular work of art is rather brought into being because of the preoccupation to give human beings unique work that would add value to their well-being. it could be argued that houses are not the only works produced in the state of art brut, artists such as musicians, writers, and poets are equally obliged to carry out their activities with inherent qualities proper to a perfect realization of specific work. in addition to the notion that “the house is part of a whole becoming, it is also life, the 'nonorganic life of things'. in every possible mode, it is the junction of plans with a thousand orientations that defines the house-sensation” (deleuze&guattari, 1942, 170). this means that the artist (in this case, the architect) is bound to have a mental conception of the design (planning, building, and architectonics), the structure (layout, framework, make-up, shape), and the actual construction (style). the building has to reflect a specific purpose (church, school, market, playground, etc.); it should be situated at a particular angle, considering natural forces and most especially the comfort of those who will use it. the conceptual grounds for undertaking the construction of any edifice become part of human accomplishment. for this work, i shall examine three conceptual aspects of creating the plenitude of human existence: bio-climatic factors, the compositional part/building plan, and the interior decoration. a. bio-climatic factors for this work, i describe bio-climatic factors as a specific combination of temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind patterns, and sunlight that influence the distribution and abundance of life forms in a particular region or ecosystem. these factors affect the pattern of designing homes based on the climate of the region to provide an agreeable dwelling place. the bio-climatic factors are to be taken into consideration before building any structure, and they give orientation to the architect who is interested in them because of their importance in pleasuring the human person. this can be 30 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 achieved either with the use of modern apparatus (such as theodolite) or by having recourse to the natural distribution of trees, plants, and vegetation. any of the above means is important to know the ideal angles to build a house. from the foregoing, heating, ventilation, and cooling (hvac) are indispensable means of controlling the climate inside any home. supposing that a house is to be built in a cold climate, the architect would have to think of how to increase the interior temperature of the house by creating “blind walls” against wind, snow, and rain. climate control can be achieved by making the best use of the heat gained on the southern side during the day through the passive systems; or through the use of bricks or stones. while the heat gained could be direct gain, indirect gain, or isolated gain, it is good to mention that bricks and stones that absorb heat during the day serve as insulators to maintain heat during the night. before this century, continuous weather barriers outside, fireplaces, and wood stoves helped people to stay warm but in our time, modern appliances are used to heat the rooms to make them habitable for the occupants. in a related perspective, for the igbo people of nigeria, “climatic conditions are controlled mainly by two air masses, the equatorial maritime air mass from the south-east and the tropical air mass from the north-east, both of which are of tropical origin” (nsude, 1987, 62; 76-78). conversely, in a tropical region, the architect will make an effort to use the natural vegetation to reduce the temperature to make the house good enough to live in. we know that the sun rises from the east and sets in the west. from where the sun rises, it heats everything that is before it because that is its route. if it is going to point in a direction, it could heat all day long, the architect will be obliged to put up a blind wall, and the person who is in the church for example is protected. however, the user of the house enjoys the light. from this point of view, an architect might ask one or more of the following questions: if i place the house at this angle, will there be a sun that will rise at a certain time of the day and then pass at a certain time of the day? during the 24 hours of the day, where will the inhabitants be and at which angle will i place the building? which time of the day is most useful to me about the sunlight and wind? besides, the architect would probably think of the potential dangers (such as earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions) of erecting any building. the angle of a building is very important, not just because of the aesthetic value but most importantly because of the comfort it could give to human beings who will use it. b. composition/building plan building plan is a graphic representation of what a home would look like after construction. this comprises the site plan, floor plan, elevation (external and internal elevations), and landscape plans. essentially, the components just mentioned are put together to form what will eventually be called a house. what defines a house are floors, doors, windows, and french windows. other parts which compose what we call a building are walls, ceilings, roofs, etc. my interest in what composes a house is to show that the function of each of these parts is very important for the comfort of those who will use the building. for instance, the doors of any building are means of going in and coming out of it. the windows are protective panels used to regulate the amount of sunlight in a house. the roof of any building is the external covering at the top. it is intended to prevent direct sunlight from heating human beings, to give them a shed when it rains, or to protect them from snowfall. meanwhile, the meaning of the wall differs depending on the context in which it is used. in sports especially football, it is “a row of players who stand ten yards away from where a free kick is taken to make scoring directly from the free kick more difficult” (cambridge dictionary, wall), but in psychology, it would mean “a way of feeling or behaving that completely prevents two groups of people from communicating with or understanding each other”. (cambridge 31 onah architecture and the environment: african consideration of spatial and human development dictionary, wall). however, about buildings, walls are structures that serve to defend those who live in a building against strong wind, cold, and other threats. there are blind (or closed) walls and open walls. to have light, the builder takes advantage of the open walls, and to protect the occupants of the house from wind and heart, the builder takes advantage of blind walls. the blind walls are the external parts of the building that have neither doors nor windows while the open walls are parts of the building which have doors and windows. they are called open because they let sun and air in; while the other is called close because they defend human beings against excess wind. likewise, different functions are attributed to the wall, the ground floor, the roof, the panels (wall panel, window panel, floor panel, slope panel), the frames, etc. it is good to note that “it is on this compositional plane as on 'an abstract vectorial space' that geometrical figures cone, prism, dihedron, strict plane are traced” (deleuze&guattari, 1942, 177). any of those components are capable of producing sensations of concern, enthusiasm, excitement, interest, pleasure, etc. the sentiment that a building plan elicits will be explained in detail as i focus on the interior decoration. it is however important to note that this depends on the techniques and the materials used in furnishing and finishing the building. c. interior decoration according to cottington (2005, 46), “decoration was 'the specter that haunts modernist painting'”. this is because the works of some painters do not allow those who see them to go beyond the visual pleasure to “the world of interiors”. spectators are either incapable of transcending the external qualities they see due to a lack of understanding or are fixated on the here and now. irrespective of the nuances in the meaning and use of the terms interior decoration, interior designer, and interior elevation, i would like to observe that they express the yearning for what is beyond the physical. with regards to interior decoration, it should be noted that the appreciation varies in terms of differences in age (child, adolescent, adult), gender (male or female), socio-cultural backgrounds, lived experience and the sense given to a particular work of art, etc (francès, 1979, 22). another perspective in the appreciation of interior decoration has to do with “'formal' qualities of painting – colors, shapes, volumes, spaces, and their interrelations, independent of their mimetic value – (…) visual pleasure of decorative surfaces such as carpets or wallpaper” (cottington, 2005, 45). it is important to explain that the use of particular elements of nature such as sunrise, moon, star, etc. in painting, is an imitation or representation of nature. this attitude of mimetic artists fashions the minds of human beings and their conscience to recognize that they have the same capacity to comprehend (epistemology), behave (psychology) and act (ethics). contrary to plato's critique of mimetic art in the republic (bk x), its significance should be understood against the background of aristotle's empiricism. in this regard, cottington (2005, 45) remarked that denis made screens and wall panels for the drawing rooms of wealthy parisians and friezes for the city's public buildings, but i state that interior decoration is not limited to these. it comprises lightning types, furniture design and floor patterns. they create emotional effects on those who live in a building and add to their social importance (auden, 1935, 2). moreover, the internal state of being and involuntary physiological response or reaction to the representation of artwork which is part of the finissage of any building are manifestations of satisfaction and contentment. in a way, this could be the objective for which the architect undertook the project of construction. an important element in interior decoration among the igbo people of nigeria is “the use of carved wooden doors as well as uli painting” (okoye and ukanwa, 2019, 87). different things 32 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 are given preeminent importance while considering uli wall painting and mural decoration: although it is normal for most titled men to use carved wooden panels at the entrance of their compounds the paintings (of animals) on the walls have sacred representations. more so, the setting and organization of igbo villages reinforce the idea of togetherness and oneness. i shall explore the next subtopic, natural consideration by showing how a perfect harmonization of nature's gift to mankind by the architect can procure the plenitude of human existence. natural consideration in creating the plenitude for human existence it is worth noting that the term “nature has over sixty-five different meanings, which makes it a challenging subject to discuss the relationship between humans and nature (congar, 1974, 687). some authors argue in favour of the connection between human beings and nature (king, 2001, 64; grasse, 1971, 19), while others argue against it (casañas, 1980, 10). nature can be described as that which in “appearance is neither standardized nor valued (…) until this appearance is annexed by art or by social movements that value it” (francès, 1979, 21). as an artist, the architect re-creates the appearance of nature according to a particular vision of human beings. deleuze&guattari (1942, 166) are of the view that nature is not silent; nature speaks to human beings and adds value to the existence of human beings. they also believe that it would not be an exaggeration to say that in the absence of human society, nature can serve as a companion to human beings. in this sense, nature satisfies the deepest yearning of human beings – companionship. however, it is the creativity of the artist that makes it possible for nature to be able to play this role. the architect finds nature already in existence. he does not create nature. the architect only influences our perception of what he or she has modified in nature. they present their work to us and through them, “appeal” to us to share in their accomplishment. even though architects “discover” nature, they still must plan or prepare in advance by putting into an orderly arrangement what they see in nature. aron (1987, 150) tries to interpret this job of the architect to mean that human beings have a responsibility towards the environment. this task does not destroy but develops the environment so that people can savour the effort of these specialists in construction. the thought of nature permits one to talk about the habitat of animals. deleuze & guattari (1942, 174) relied on classical works to describe the life of birds in the rainforest in australia and how a perfect choice of place of construction could create a feeling of accomplishment in human beings. by implication, art is not limited to the treatment of materials, but consists of the postures and colors of the body, in the songs composed by birds of their notes and cries of the animals that mark the territory. these authors do not distinguish between colors and sounds insofar as they become expressive (the philosophical concept of territory) (deleuze & guattari, 1942, 174). the therapeutic effect of living in the environment just described is beyond measure. deleuze & guattari (1942, 174) claim that it is these blocks of sensation in the territory, of colors, postures, and sounds, that sketch out a total work of art. this is why the planning of the cities should make provision for a holistic accomplishment of man in the following dimensions: acoustic, aesthetic, cultural, ecological, psychological, social, spiritual, etc. from the above, it can be concluded that architects' most crucial responsibility is to plan and design structures that meet the various needs and desires of those who utilize them. in essence, their primary goal is to create buildings that cater to the diverse yearnings of their clients. “planning is the process of particularizing and, ultimately, of harmonizing the demands of environment, use, and economy”. this involves creating space for various purposes – recreation, 33 onah architecture and the environment: african consideration of spatial and human development refuse dump, shopping, worship, etc. nonetheless, the traditional igbo people of nigeria do not build close to the evil forest because of the belief that they could be haunted by evil spirits (nsude, 1987, 119). nevertheless, in a world dominated by the forces of industrialization and modernization, the natural considerations are either abandoned or, where they are considered, technicians try to manufacture what looks like nature (synthetic turf, camouflage trees, artificial flowers, animals, etc) just for aesthetic values and not for their significance in purifying nature (carbon dioxide removal). for instance, moss and algae could become serious problems in certain regions and under specific weather conditions. while the ecological impact of the endless expanding range of industrialization continues to be “politicized”, it seems reasonable to propose the african perspective as a solution to conceiving, designing, planning, and building modern cities. african consideration of spatial and human development the fact of thinking about the plenitude of human existence from the african point of view is an approach that intends to reveal the fundamental concern of every school of architecture about the threat of climatic change. by implication, the idea of improving the environment for the benefit of mankind should be ultimate. it is worthy to note that the african appreciation of art is determined by cultural developments which are at the same time divergent in terms of characteristics but convergent with regards to value. in other words, different historical experiences orient the creation of artistic works of architects but the importance given to them is almost always the same. this reality is widespread in the sub-saharan region, especially when one takes a critical look at their belief system. from this perspective, the idea of “home” among the igbo people of nigeria expresses “the ideal world where everything is supposed to be at peace” (nsude, 1987, 43). this truly depicts the philosophy that guides the architecture of the igbo people. from the foregoing, nsude (1987, 92) states that igbo architecture conforms to the igbo cosmological worldview on the existence of three worlds and the association of god, the living, being forces, the dead, and the unborn. hence, the architectural plan could make provision for temples in the form of mbari or mbaja (among the owerri and umuahia people); statues, drawings, and paintings that have religious connotations, and even shrines for market (which is considered a sacred institution) (nsude, 1987, 110). there are many other sacred objects, carvings, and spaces in the architectural plan of the igbo people that explain their religious life, social life, and philosophy of life. based on their inclination and indebtedness towards chukwu (god), the igbo people see the home as a perfect place for the realization of all the ideals of religion and moral principles (nsude, 1987, 99-100). this goes contrary to the objectives of building a house for prostitution, strip clubs, or for pimps/madams to hawk sex. it can be said that in africa, building and transforming the environment are done according to cultural values and philosophical conceptions of the world. in making a shelter for their dwelling, human beings create forms of habitat and adapt spatial constructions between the tangible and the intangible. using his knowledge and know-how, he expresses the artistic and architectural values and expressions of his community in the field of construction (cisse, 2016, 2). in most african villages, it is possible to still find houses that reflect traditional african 34 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 architecture but the cities are full of emerging “foreign” architecture that is “inappropriate and illsuited to the economic and bio-climatic context (cisse, 2016, 2). some foreign architectural buildings are “inappropriate,” not because of the building designs but because of their geographical locations. thus, the ambition to build houses that reflect foreign architectural designs divides people along social classes. on the one hand, this is evident in the noncompliance with specifications on whether to build a bungalow or upstairs. when a person builds upstairs where the development plan specifies that it should be a bungalow, this violates “dwellers' sense of belonging, privacy, enjoyment, self-worth and well-being” (imrie, 2004, 422). on the other hand, defiance of regulatory laws of construction has motivated the enactment of laws for the demolition of “old buildings”, for instance, the destruction of part of the old zaria city (nsude, 1987, 36). in any case, those who go against the regulations of the development plan of a village/city/town forget that nonconformity goes against the “interest of public health and safety” (imrie, 2004, 420). african architecture is characterized by its objective to enhance architectural integrity and environmental quality, it is also imbued to promote adherence to green architectural principles of energy efficiency and utilization of local materials (okoye and ukanwa, 2019, 85). in their quest to know how african architecture is relived by urban dwellers onuorah, agbonome, and obiadi (2023, 100) note that the goal of african architecture includes “maintaining cultural aspirations and ensuring housing pleasure in a harmoniously built environment”. the goals that guide construction in africa are seen in the use of the same material to build a house irrespective of the design. this does not create class division but reinforces unity. from this point of view, traditional forms of construction among the igbo people of nigeria could either be circular and oval or square and rectangular. while the circular shape of the building reflects the ideal of social success and achievement, and the oval reflects the continuity of tradition, the square and rectangular shape of buildings indicate that there could be the possibility of future expansion (okoye and ukanwa, 2019, 85; nsude, 1987, 74). whatever meaning one chooses to give to the term “expansion”, it does not discriminate nor differentiate. this point of view gives one possibility to talk about traditional african architecture and modern/contemporary african architecture. traditional african architecture is represented in the practice of harmonizing inhabited space and landscape planning which continues among the dogon people. they use techniques for interweaving the cultural and natural elements that make up their environment. they take advantage of what they find in nature (landscape, materials, etc.) to conceive and develop their socio-cultural realities as well as their religious beliefs and precepts (cisse, 2016, 4). this tradition hopes that the materials in its immediate environment which have resisted harsh weather or climatic conditions could protect human beings and provide the latter with conducive habitat. in opposition to the disposition to use available resources in one's environment, the studies of nsude (1987, 57) revealed that the igbo people generally do not use stones for building, even when they are readily accessible. his research made it clear that this could be either due to a lack of traditional building mortar that is highly cohesive or a preference for mud houses in local conditions. in this regard, the capacity to explore, discover, and use available natural resources is being tested. in the same perspective, many cultures in africa believe that human beings “have been charged to take care so that the initial energy put by god in nature grows according to the plan that he judiciously pre-established for him” (buakasa, 1988, 33). conversely, modern/contemporary african architecture may consist of the use of local materials to realize modern structures. it is the application of ancient and modern techniques that are economical to maintain in construction. this could alter the social organization of life and modify 35 onah architecture and the environment: african consideration of spatial and human development the values related to fraternity and communal life. meanwhile, the idea of modern and contemporary african architecture raises important questions: “what is contemporary architecture in african architecture? what are the integrating elements of good contemporary architecture? is it a creative concept? or is it modern architecture that integrates local cultural values by using locally available, sustainable, and economically viable materials while respecting the landscape context” (cisse, 2016, 7). however, the complete alteration of modern african architecture does not express the african way of life, culture and tradition (nsude, 1987, 41). furthermore, the finishing of the building is always done with materials that are symbolic of humanity such as mud/clay (ajaoto/ejaotto, in igbo language) (chukwu, 2015, 8). in the precolonial era, africans mixed mud with dyes and used it as paint to decorate the inner part of the building. the finishing was equally achieved through the use of materials that were symbolic of african civilization such as wood (for the suspended floor, which is replaced in most places by the use of floor tiles), a mat made from raffia palm was used for doors and window but has been replaced with wooden or metal doors and windows. while i do not advocate the use of those materials for finishing today, i would like to enumerate some of the values inherent in their use in the time past: injurious chemicals were not used as paint to beautify the house, theft was minimal, the cost of the building was not much and it did not create imaginary or physical categorization of people. this means that maintaining indigenous architecture in the sense of “continuity by employing and improving the underlying architectural principles of many generations of the people” (nsude, 1987, 40) is very important. finally, african architecture should revolve around the ideals that africans cherish. as a symbol of pride, i propose that government houses in the major cities in africa (and state capitals) should bear the characteristics of what is indigenous to her people. modernism has caused a disconnection between human beings and their buildings, and this has a great impact on the style of life especially, “the violation of collective memory acquired over centuries (nsude, 1987, 37). this does not mean that a foreign architectural plan is bad but my objective is to draw attention to the fact that the social significance of architecture in africa and nigeria in particular should be seen and this should be manifested in the ardent desire, wish, and disposition of everyone. conclusion this research reveals that architectural designs have consistently prioritized the well-being of humans. this shows that the most important factor in determining the appropriateness of a building is the level of comfort it provides to those who inhabit it. aesthetic considerations come second to this primary concern. this idea obliges the architect to look for a good angle to build to control the effects of the heat (due to the direction of the sun) or cold (due to the direction of the wind). architects of different cultures and civilizations take note of the comfort of human beings who will use the building they constructed, whether it is a residential, office, church, market, etc. they are aware that the sun moves and that it could be captured or avoided depending on whether one wants heat or to escape cold. they also understand that good control of the bio-climatic factors can add to the beauty of the house and make the inhabitants comfortable. the difference in architectural designs and constructions in the western world and africa could be attributed to several factors – belief, conservation/modernization, historical experiences/needs, technology, weather conditions, etc. in any case, traditional african architecture envisaged communal life in the same way modern architecture is planning for a more cohesive society where provisions are made for the establishment of different sectors that will cater to the multiple needs of human beings. to achieve its purpose, authorities have provided development plans and building plans. 36 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 notwithstanding the expansion in the areas of industrialization and modernization, recent development plans of modern cities always make recourse to traditional realities/culture and the necessity to safeguard the environment. this tendency to integrate what is cultural and traditional is well represented in what i exposed as modern/contemporary african architecture. there, i examined the difficulty of taking from what is exotic and also the measures to take. the management of natural resources for the comfort of human beings is at the heart of most architectural artwork. given further research on the impact of architectural works in helping humanity to lead a fulfilled life, i would like to ask: what aspect of the natural environment should be taken into consideration? owing to the enormous work of arrangement, ordering, and care of nature, the architect and those in charge of urban planning could envisage models of construction that do not destroy the forest for various purposes during the stages of building. this will contribute to a balanced ecosystem. references aron, r. 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(1943). the republic. new york: books, inc. 38 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 page 37 page 38 page 39 page 40 page 41 page 42 page 43 page 44 page 45 page 46 aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr metaphysical dualism in eboh: a philosophical exposé rev. fr. john justice nwankwo, ph.d department of philosophy faculty of humanities rivers state university, nkpolu, port harcourt john.nwankwo@ust.edu.ng abstract africa has come of age in critical studies. as a continent, africa has developed various great minds in various fields. writing about marie pauline eboh's philosophy of dualism reveals africa's greatness in the academic field. eboh did not set out to write about metaphysical dualism but addressed various aspects of the human life both physically and spiritually. she had written extensively on the existence of earthly life and the reality of life beyond the physical world through the existence of the soul. human beings live and die to live again. as such, in eboh's philosophy, life does not end on earth but continues to eternity. she highlighted the african traditional belief of human existence and the survival of the soul after death and held that it takes the virtuous life to attain eternal rest after death. the study is an exposition of eboh's position on the metaphysical existence of the human person and cautions them against the merits and demerits of eternity. it adopted a descriptive analysis method and concluded that eboh's position on human existence is plausible, although not without some weaknesses. it recommends that eboh's philosophy on metaphysical dualism should be received and more emphasis should be placed on her position, to assist young scholars to understand the metaphysical foundation of their existence. introduction marie pauline eboh's philosophy on metaphysical dualism is found in a number of her works and expressed in several forms under different themes. in all her works, eboh's concept of metaphysical dualism, unlike the popular cartesian metaphysical dualism, expresses the dualism of human existence in different worlds and at different levels. human life on earth is life at the stage of continuous becoming until it reaches its perfect state of living as a pure soul. as such, even in death, there is no loss universally. life continues at a different level. in her introduction to philosophy and philosophizing, eboh was descriptive in her position on metaphysical dualism. however, in her book titled a tapestry of folklores, insights, and proverbs, eboh took a narrative approach to analyzing the concept of dualism. she also used the same analytic approach in two other books titled: fables, proverbs and critical thinking and witty tales and proverbs for moral renewal in pushing her philosophy of metaphysical dualism. using stories, fables, proverbs and folklores to express her position, eboh showed how the life of the human person exists both in this temporarily life and in the life beyond. in all these works, eboh expressed the idea of life as being both physical and spiritual. she upholds that life is transient and immanent. for her, death plays a big role in mediating between life at the physical level and life at the spiritual level. so, eboh's metaphysical dualism dwells on the two spheres of existence of the human person; living bound here on earth and living beyond the phase of the earth. eboh agrees that at the earthly level of living, the human person looks forward to a more fulfilling life that transcends the present life and either consciously or unconsciously yearns for it. death becomes a very important point of breaking away from the limitations of this life and a medium to cling to the other form of life. 69 the phenomenon of death in eboh's philosophy humanity has grappled with the phenomenon of death but it keeps eluding the full grasp of the human mind. death is so unique that only a personal experience reveals its reality in full. yet great minds have continued to delve into the reality of death. unfortunately, no one dies to return to give reliable knowledge of what happens in/after death. all we know about it is from mere observations, yet death itself is non-extended and cannot be observed. she described death with certain characteristics like; death as a natural reality, death as a control measure (2011, p. 215), death as a journey (2011, p. 220), and death as a leveler (eboh, 2011, p. 219). in fact, during one of our verbal conversations, she said; “there is something that i always emphasize about death; uwa bu alaba aghara”, loosely translated as “life in the world means the abandonment of everything at the point of death.”(eboh, 21st may 2020, personal conversation). eboh posits that “…the earth is not really our home…. it is rather a marketplace where people ought to buy, sell and go home. our home is the world of the ancestors and god.” (2011, p. 220). death therefore becomes that journey that takes us to world of the ancestors and god. the igbos say “uwa abughi ebe obibi” loosely means “the earth is not a dwelling place” (eboh, 2011, p. 220). for this reason, when one dies in igboland, it is said ohapula which means “he or she is reported to have left” (eboh, 2011, p. 220). life is a journey and “death, therefore, means going home” (eboh, 2011, p. 220). the burial of the dead is therefore taking seriously, to bid the dying farewell and help his or her soul to rest in peace. to aid them in the journey, the dying is encouraged by all means to eat before dying, which in christian praxis could be the same thing as viaticum (food for the journey). death is therefore not an annihilation but a transition to the great beyond. yet, death is for all living things and therefore, a leveler for all of them. for this reason, “death, according to hegel, is 'an absolute lord' that levels all persons under its authority.” (eboh, 2011, p. 219). each person owns his or her death and no one else can die another person's death. therefore, “death is the only event that a person owns alone; it is authentic because it is uniquely one's own” (eboh, 2011, p.218). once conceived, a person is qualified to die. the idea of life as universal, indivisible, and holistic in eboh's metaphysics metaphysical dualism is a philosophy that embraces the existence of life as universal, indivisible, and holistic. in the tenth chapter of her book titled introduction to philosophy and philosophizing, eboh treated the topic “life as universal, indivisible and holistic.” (2011, p. 203). under this topic, life is treated as a collective whole irrespective of its form. whether it is physical life or spiritual life, there is a common point of meeting called death. eboh sees the various forms of life as the way in which it gradually evolves until it stabilizes in eternity. “life is an enigma. it only unfolds itself in stages as it is being lived.” (eboh, 2011, p. 203). life actually is made up of different stages of its evolution. it is so complex that even death itself is part of life. yet, life cannot be experienced except through the existence of beings. speaking about life, eboh states; “it presents itself as coming into being, developing, ripening and decay.” (2011, p. 203). life therefore, transcends what we see with the physical eyes. yet, “…it depends on physical forces for its sustenance, and that living things reveal through their pluralistic behavioural pattern that they operate not only synchronously, but also synergistically and symbiotically, thereby suggesting a web of life” (eboh, 2011, p. 203). eboh explained her idea of life as universal, indivisible and holistic through a logico-scientific approach as well as through african holistic concept of life. she continued that “being an indivisible whole, therefore, life is, logically speaking, a singular universal.” (eboh, 2011, p. 203). being a whole means that living things exhibit similar tendencies that portray their state as living. part of these traits is the fact that life is 70 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 metaphysical in all beings. “in addition, it is also a universal by virtue of the fact that it is a metaphysical entity that remains constant throughout a series of changes or changing relations.” (eboh, 2011, p. 203). thus, eboh says; “life reveals itself as a constant becoming and an inexhaustible, multi-faceted self-development that proceeds from the inside as opposed to the rigidity and opaqueness of lifeless bodies.” (2011, p. 204). dynamism thus, forms part of the basic things observed in all living beings. in this immanent stage, life continues to reveal itself through a process of becoming, until it reaches its fulness of becoming in death. better put: “the full richness of this life is restricted in every species to narrowly limited possibilities of change and it exhausts itself in withering and death.” (eboh, 2011, p. 204). nevertheless, through the process of reproduction, every species makes itself immortal. a such, we could affirm that; all living things tend to follow an inherent logic of selfconsistency, and they manifest a sense of awareness in the ability to withdraw from stimuli that have deleterious effects on them and when complete avoidance of such environmental influences is impossible, they modify their behavior or structure so as to accommodate themselves to such influences. (eboh, 2011, p. 205). to the last citation above, we have an introduction of withdrawal and adaption as parts of the characteristics of living things. living things naturally, withdraw from discomfort and threats. thus, life involves a chain of various manifestations by different categories of beings. life involves a unification of living things through certain similar traits. from the african perspective, eboh portrays life as cyclic. she says; “african world-view is imbued with the awareness of the cyclic nature of life and with the synergistic rapport between the kingdoms of nature.” (2011, p. 206). this simply shows that life in living beings always has a point of meeting through the form of a cycle. “the african participates in the creation of the cyclic time; he prays to the genii of the earth and the sky, who create the season; the season, in turn, determines the time and the concomitant human activities.” (emenyonu, 1990, p. 89). for this reason, africans are traditionally termed as polytheists. they recognize the cyclic nature of life and the interactions of reality in general. africans know quite well that in the chain of life, one circumstance leads to another. pain leads to joy as happiness can also lead to sorrows. this is built on the fact that “life is a creative power that has been coursing through the universe from time immemorial. it manifests cyclically and so does not end.” (eboh, 2011, p. 207). africans believe that once people are born, their perpetual death will only be if they failed to live a good life. this is such that even when they die, they will return through reincarnation. africans also believe in metempsychosis, that is, the movement of the soul from one being to another. but in all these, africans believe that there is only one source of life; god. “for the african, life flows from one source – god.” (eboh, 2011, p. 208). as such life goes beyond the physical one to a greater one, being the spiritual one. it is only within the context of metaphysical dualism that african concept of life finds its basis. life as both immanent and transcendent in eboh's thought life is as real as it can be perceived. it exists both within the scope of sensual perception and beyond what the senses can perceive. eboh says that “life is both immanent and transcendent” (2011, p. 203). in this present existence, life is comprehensible through what we can see, touch, hear, taste and feel. at this level, life is perceived through living things and can be manifested only by living things. as beginners in the study of living things, we were acronymically taught that the characteristics of a living thing could be represented by mr. niger d, where; m = movements, r = respiration, n = nutrition, i = irritability, g = growth, e = excretion, r = reproduction, 71 rev. fr. john justice nwankwo metaphysical dualism in eboh: a philosophical exposé and d = death. death, along with other characteristics, is a property of a living thing. however, death does not necessarily mean “…the end of life or a person or organism.” (oxford, 2021, p. 1). it is cross over to another level of life. that is why life is not only immanent but also transcendent. “life reveals itself as a constant becoming and an inexhaustible, multi-faceted self-development that proceeds from the inside as opposed to the rigidity and opaqueness of lifeless bodies” (eboh, 2011, p. 204). for this reason, it is said that “all living things tend to follow an inherent logic of selfconsistency, and they manifest a sense of awareness in the ability to withdraw from stimuli that have deleterious effects on them ….” (eboh, 2011, p. 205). but among other living organisms, human beings find it easy to adjust and this makes the human life dynamic. in its dynamic nature, human life looks forward to a higher level of existence called transcendental life. life is transcendental because it goes beyond what the sense can experience to a more spiritual reality. this is what eboh explained thus: life, in any organism, is unique and irreplaceable. it is one, and the organism either has or does not have it. being an individual whole, therefore, life is, logically speaking, a singular universal…. in addition, it is also a universal by virtue of the fact that it is a metaphysical entity that remains constant throughout a series of changes or changing relations (2011, p. 203). from this above cited quotation, death becomes one of those series of changes or changing relations that forms part of life. what eboh means is that life, both at the immanent and transcendent phases form one reality. she explains this further while explaining the african holistic concept of life. according to her, “african world-view is imbued with the awareness of the cyclic nature of life and with the synergistic rapport between the kingdoms”. (eboh, 2011, p. 207).. for africans, eboh explains; “life is a creative power that has been coursing through the universe from time immemorial.” (2011, p. 207). therefore, for africans, life is a cycle and manifests cyclically. this means that for eboh and for africans, life does not end in death and in fact, life does not end at all. as such, “african world-view categorizes humans into the livingliving, and the living-dead (ancestors).” (eboh, 2011, p. 208). the use of the paradox “livingdead” summarizes african notion of death. speaking about death, eboh maintains that “rather it is a kind of bridge that links the world of the living-living with that of the living-dead (2011, p. 208). she adds “it is noteworthy that under this bridge life continually flows uninterrupted. necromancy and the doctrine of the immortality of the soul stem from here.” (eboh, 2011, p. 208). african concept of life, is therefore, in agreement with tibetan's concept of the “sutratma” which holds that life; is the direct stream of life, unbroken and immutable, which can be regarded symbolically as a direct stream of living energy flowing from the centre to the periphery, and from the source to the outer expression or the phenomenal appearance. it is the life. it produces the individual process and the evolutionary unfoldment of all forms ….. it is one and indivisible. it conveys the energy of life and finds anchor in the centre of the human heart and at some central focal point in all forms of divine expression. naught is and naught remains but life (eboh, 2011 209-210). the realization that life is one, has driven various forms of evolution but unfortunately, evolution cannot go beyond the level of life on earth. life proceeds from that central source and enlivens every living organism. beyond human evolution lies life at the spiritual level. 72 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 death and the immortality of the soul; eboh's conception beyond discussing life as both immanent and transcendent, eboh discusses the place of death in life and the immortality of the soul. eboh's philosophy of the immortality of a person ensues from the possession of the soul. it is the soul that survives death and decay. the soul is the form and the body is the matter. the matter would die, decay and pass away. but the form persists. eboh saw the immortality of the soul as fundamental to gabriel marcel's advocacy for fidelity to the dead. eboh says; “for him, the dead die twice, first their natural death and second when they are forgotten by the living.” (2011, p. 225). for this reason, praying for the dead and wishing them well becomes important, to avoid the second death that evolves from forgetfulness. on the reason for the belief in the immortality of the soul, eboh says; people ask: “what makes us absolutely sure that there is immortality” we believe in the immortality of the soul for many reasons, but perhaps the most convincing one in scientific age should be this scientific proof. the principle of persistence or conservation has it that nothing in the universe is ever lost, just as some spiritualists hold that nothing really dies. whatever is, both was and shall be. (2011, p. 225). eboh's point therefore, is that, if nothing is really lost and nothing really dies, the human beings when they leave this physical world should therefore remain somewhere. the theory of conservation accepts that changes may occur or take place in a particular form of energy, but it still insists that the energy persist either in the old form or in the new form. for conservatists, the sum of energy in this world remains. this follows that even the energy of life still persists even if death occurs. it could persist in the old form but since death ends the old form, it therefore persists in the new form; that is life beyond physics. eboh agrees thus with the science of conservation: “what science has discovered about the conservation of energy is only the physical equivalent of what religion has discovered about the immortality of the soul.” (2011, p. 226). besides, the soul as an animating principle cannot die, since it is the basic source of animating life. life therefore persists in the soul after death. african stories on metaphysical dualism eboh has several african tales that buttress her position on human dualism, but this discussion shall pick just two to show the versatility of eboh's approach to this discourse. a discourse of the philosophy of “the mysterious leaf” in eboh's metaphysics the philosophy of “the mysterious leaf” is one of those ideas that eboh raised from existing traditional short stories called “fables”. it speculated around “…a man who climbed trees very fast and with so much agility that people said he had the dexterity of the monkey in tree climbing.” 92015, p. 27). “…his name was eburuche” (eboh, 2015, p. 28). on one occasion, eburuche has an encounter that confirms that realities transcend what the eyes see physically. it is a social position that “from above, climbers observe many untoward things that people do below”. (eboh, 2015, p. 28). an igbo dictum has it that “diochi anaghi ekwucha ihe ohuru n'elu nkwu – a palm wine tapper does not say everything he sees from on top of the palm tree.” (eboh, 2015, p. 28). eboh narrates that “in ancient times most of the thieves caught harvesting other people's crops and stealing other people's livestock were mostly caught by tree climbers” (2015, p. 28). this showcases the vantage position one enjoys if enabled to tower above the normal level of ordinary existence. from such a vantage position, one is said to have a lot of experiences that buttress metaphysical dualism. it was an experience of that nature, according to eboh that showed the relationship between earthly existence and spiritual existence. 73 rev. fr. john justice nwankwo metaphysical dualism in eboh: a philosophical exposé one evening, as he was on top of a tree, eburuche saw a person trudging towards an unusually tall palm tree. such very tall palm trees are termed nkwu agboro. he was not a familiar person. he stopped and stooped down by the foot of the palm tree. eburuche remained motionless in order to observe what the fellow was up to. the stranger plucked particular leaves crushed them by rubbing them in between his palms in an anticlockwise direction. then he squeezed the liquid into his eyes like drops and vanished instantly. (eboh, 2015, p. 28). from this, one sees two levels of existence, facilitated by the manipulation of natural leaves. a philosopher has a lot of questions to ask about this. is it the leaves that caused the vanishing of the stranger or the way it was squeezed? is it a combination of both the leaves and the squeezing? does the place where this occurred have any influence in the vanishing? however, the main thrust in this case is the fact that a person could exist both in the human form and can also vanish into a spirit. eburuche was dazed by such experience. he wondered if it was a ghost or human, still pointing to different levels of existence and decided to explore his curiosity. he had to quickly come down after doing all sorts of things to be sure of what he experienced was real. on coming down, “he looked at the extraordinary leaves and did the same thing, which the fellow did and he began to see both men and the spirits of the dead whom he knew while they were alive.” (eboh, 2015, p. 28). so, it means that the leaves did not have the same effect on eburuche as it did to the stranger. they rather opened eburuche's 'inner' eyes and aided him to see things beyond what the physical eyes can see. some of these leaves and their functions are best known to strong herbalists, diviners or soothsayers. the leaf used by the spirit is said to possess the capacity to turn spirits into humans for transactions and also to turn back into spirits. but its effect on eburuche was the breaking down of the barrier preventing the normal human eyes to see realities beyond the physical realm. it must be stated that the existence of realities does not depend on human knowledge to be real. that will be tantamount to the erroneous teaching of the sophists that man is the measure of all things. a lot of realities transcend our sensible experiences. as an effect of the leaf, when eburuche attends funerals, he saw both those living here on earth and those who had died. the act of seeing realities beyond the physical realm is described as a use of the third eye. eburuche was said to be using his third eye which is not always common. the use of the third eye is more common among traditional medicine men and women. however, the take-in of this work is to establish in this fable, the ideology of metaphysical dualism. eburuche's experience remains original to him, irrespective of how it is doubted. for him to see realities beyond the physical realm, they need to exist first. eboh herself says that “the folktale poses the issue of death, immortality of the soul and the nature of death.” (eboh, 2015, p. 30). she therefore sees death as a passage to immortality and bridge into the other world. according to her, “the experience of the tree climber depicts a dual world of the living-living and of the living-dead (eboh, 2015, pp. 30-31). she believes that the rites of passage where the living bid farewell to the dead and dead receive the living when they die posits dual worlds. she concludes that “it means there is life after death, and the two modalities of living are a continuum.” (eboh, 2015, p. 31). this means that there is crosslink between the metaphysical world and the physical world. so, the practice of necromancy by africans is built on the philosophy of metaphysical dualism. the idea of the eagle's roving ghost postulation in eboh's metaphysics another instance where eboh exposes her philosophy of metaphysical dualism is in the tale of the eagle's roving ghost. in her book a tapestry of folklores, insights & proverbs, eboh narrated 74 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 the experience of the nzu-visiting-visa offered to a visitor in the land of iduu n'oba, to grant them free and unmolested passage through the land. nzu is the igbo name for white chalk and was used to guarantee the goodwill of the people towards the visiting stranger. this was against the suspicion that was surrounding visitors who were strangers in the land. this practice was not only a mere social practice without metaphysical correspondence. “similarly, people depended on the goodwill and collaboration of their communities to obtain their visas of welcome to the world of the ancestors.” (eboh, 2013, p. 1). the people expressed such goodwill by organizing befitting funerals for the beloved dead persons, to aid their smooth passage in the spiritual world, and later reincarnation and return to this world. eboh states that “funeral obsequies served as rites of passage through mystical checkpoints.” (2013, p. 1). it is believed that befitting funerals accorded to the dead aided their reception into the company of the ancestors. eboh, states that “…a person not accorded a befitting burial faced entry denial into the company of venerable ancestors.” (2013, p. 1). for this reason, you hear people who say that dead elders who did not have the benefit of benefitting funerals keep requesting for it from their family members. the reason for this request is to aid the dead rest in peace. the seriousness of this belief was so important that people who lacked loved ones made arrangements for them to be accorded befitting burials. consequently, even childless widows diligently made provision for their burial by rearing domestic animals so that at their demise the community would find animals needed to perform the customary rites because nobody trapped in the no-man's-land between the land of the living and the community of venerable ancestors would enjoy eternal bliss. (eboh, 2013, p.1). from the foregoing, it is understood that beyond this physical life, there is another life that demands some efforts from us, in order to attain it. it is that other life that warrants all the efforts to give the dead a befitting burial. the philosophy of a good funeral is therefore built around the belief in the existence of another world beyond this physical world. a tale is narrated of a king who died in a war with the animals in the latter's kingdom. and due to the form of death, he died (at war front with the animals), his body could not be recovered. the loss of his body deprived him of the befitting state burial that is due for him as a noble king. thus, the igbo proverb “ọnwụ ama eze; ọnwụ ama egbu-death knows no king; death knows not how to kill” (eboh, 2013, p. 5) remains valid. otherwise, the death of such a great figure attracted even the elements of nature such as the heavens that wept as rainfall, the gale that swayed the trees and buzzed the whole day to the point of deroofing houses, the cyclone that caused whirls of dust to swirl and dance to the point of billowing people's dresses and blowing gusty and dusty wind to mourn the departure of the king, the sun that refused to shine and the moon that did not eat its supper, the comets and meteor showers that appeared in the night sky, all marking the exit of the one great hero (eboh, 2013, p. 5), suggest the greatness of the diseased whose corpse unfortunately could not be recovered. indeed, death has no regard for wealth, fame and position. otherwise, being royal and majestic, the king deserved a better form of death. it is obvious that “…the manner his royal majesty died in no way befitted his status.” (eboh, 2013, p. 6). an igbo adage has it that “etie dike na' ala, anụ ụzụ ya-knock down a valiant and tremendous tumult is heard.” (eboh, 2013, p. 6). this time around the story was different. the corpse of the king could not even be retrieved and the interment of his royal highness did not attract the pomp and pageantry, fame and publicity due him as the prominent and eminent personality that he was. this was an obstacle in the passage of the king into the ancestral world. eboh puts it thus: “as a result, the late king could neither rest in peace nor join his ancestors. like ụsụ kwụ n'ᴉga-the bat that is neither bird nor land animal, the spirit of the late king was in limbo.” (2013, p. 6). such a state lives no good taste on any tongue. the king was dead but not resting. “his spirit was earthbound 75 rev. fr. john justice nwankwo metaphysical dualism in eboh: a philosophical exposé and so his ghost roamed round the kingdom and appeared to his subjects one by one so that nobody would say that it was a hallucination.” (eboh, 2013, p. 6). here, we not only see a dualism of the physical and spiritual world, but we also see a clear postulation of the existence of the soul and a sharp distinction between the soul and the spirit. the spirit is the animating power of consciousness whereas the soul is a pure spirit-being. the puzzling question of mind-body dualism now sets in. if we acknowledge the existence of the soul, how then does it interact with the body? rené descartes unsatisfactorily says the meeting point of the soul and the body is the pineal gland. when asked, is the pineal gland matter or spirit? if matter, how does it interact with the soul being a spirit? if spirit, how does it interact with the body? eboh did not answer this question but went ahead to say that the subjects of the late king saw the soul of the late king with their own eyes and heard him with their ears.the people labored to find a possible solution to aid the soul of the king to rest in peace. the people could not abandon the soul of the king to keep roaming restlessly. a mock burial could not be celebrated to rest him because an igbo adage says “ugo chara acha anaghi echu echu-mature eagle remains immaculate white, never dirty.” conclusion metaphysical dualism in eboh's philosophy is different from metaphysical dualism in western philosophy. eboh approached metaphysical dualism from an african perspective of being, with a special interest in the human person. she has an expansive literature on the subject of both the ontological and cosmological dimensions of metaphysical dualism. she discussed metaphysical dualism both from the angle of being and the universe. she concluded that the human person is composed of the body and spirit. the body covers all aspects of the human being that are visible to the physical eyes; the head, the neck, the trunk, the hands, the legs and so on. on the other hand, the human person is also a spirit. in the spiritual realm, the human person cannot be seen with the physical mortal eyes. the spirit of the human person is composed of what we describe as spirit and soul. also, the research discovered that most african communities do not have a clear distinction between spirit and soul. the research study came out with the discovery that the concept of the soul is newly introduced in african cosmology. hence, one can easily deny such african traditions as believing in both spirit and soul. however, this study discovered that africans believe in the soul which is also a spirit. as such, the modern-day african believes that the human person is a composite of body, soul and spirit. whereas his body dies and decays at death, the soul and spirit persist in life after death. instead, they believe that they return to the world beyond, from where it reincarnate into new bodies. as such, life is recycled through reincarnations and people are encouraged to live well, living virtuously to enjoy eternity and perpetuity in the best possible form. but if the person is bad; especially if he indulges in stealing and murder and other dishonorable involvements, it is believed that except atonements are made, such soul is bound to roam in pains and unfulfillment. good living therefore becomes necessary for peace after death. although, the philosophy of reincarnation lacks a lot to the critical mind, it however, supports the notion of life both on earth and beyond. the study, therefore, notices some interesting issues in african metaphysics and recommends that more attention should be given to it, to bring out the best from it. eboh sets a pace that we should, therefore, follow to achieve great heights in african studies. 76 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 references bbc english dictionary (1992). london: bush house eboh, b.o. (1973). the concept of the human soul in igbo traditional philosophy. ph.d dissertation. rome: pontifical gregorian university. eboh, m.p. (1987). african philosophy and what it can contribute to world culture. journal of social sciences and humanities, vol. 2, 45 – 51. eboh, m.p. (2011). introduction to philosophy and philosophizing. port harcourt pearl publishers. eboh, m.p. (2013). a tapestry of folklores, insights & proverbs. port harcourt: pearl publishers. eboh, m.p. (2015). fables, proverbs and critical thinking. port harcourt: pearl publishers international ltd. eboh, m.p. (2015). witty tales & proverbs for moral renewal. port harcourt: pearl publishers international ltd. edeh, m.p. (1985). towards an igbo metaphysics. chicago: loyola university press. emedolu, c.c. (2021). critical thinking in fables: in praise of marie pauline eboh's text. in m. elechi and c.c.m.n. idika (eds). philosophy, universal dialogue and intersectionality: philosophical essays in honour of marie pauline eboh. enugu: rhyce kerex publishers. pp. 437-449. emerenonye, b.n. (1990). literature and black aesthetics. calabar: heinemann. iyer, c.a.s. (2020). what is the full meaning of mr. niger d. quora.com/what-is-the-full meaning-of-mr-niger-d. nwankwo, j. j. (2021). death and responsibility: a philosophical review of the myth “why men die” in elechi m. and idika c.c.m.n. (eds). philosophy, universal dialogue and intersectionality: philosophical essays in honour of marie pauline eboh. (pp. 497-512). enugu: rhyce kerex publishers. ogbujah, c.n. (2021). “death and immortality of the soul in marie pauline eboh's philosophy: a critical review” in elechi m. and idika c.c.m.n. (eds). philosophy, universal dialogue and intersectionality: philosophical essays in honour of marie pauline eboh. (pp. 513536). enugu: rhyce kerex publishers. oxford. (2021) death, oxford languages dictionary.https://www.google.com. rabbit, e. (1986). cosmology for all the mercier. cork: the mercier press ltd. robinson, h. (2020). dualism. in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. https://plato.stangord.edu. silverman, a. (2014). plato's middle period metaphysics and epistemology. in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. .https://plato.stanford.edu sinclair, j. et al (eds), (1991). dualism. in bbc english dictionary: a dictionary for the world. london: bbc english and harpercollins publishers ltd. stefon, m. (2021). dualism. in encyclopedia britannica. .https://www.britannica.com 77 rev. fr. john justice nwankwo metaphysical dualism in eboh: a philosophical exposé https://www.google.com https://plato.stangord.edu https://plato.stanford.edu https://www.britannica.com 129 rethinking the imperative of teachers' competences in inclusive education: a phenomenological approach johnson ugochukwu ofoegbu phd department of educational foundations/management alvan ikoku federal university of education, owerri, imo state, nigeria orcid id0009-0007-2628-7977 emailjohnson.ofoegbu@alvanikoku.edu.ng abstract education is integral in any nation's march to development. this makes teacher education and lived experiences of teachers something to be taken seriously. teacher professional development (tpd) should focus more on the well-being of the teacher in inclusive educational settings. it is imperative that teachers are equipped not only with the necessary knowledge and skills but also with the emotional resilience and support to navigate the complexities of inclusive education. this holistic approach to teacher professional development can lead to more effective and inclusive educational practices in schools. inclusive education demands that teachers be equipped with a variety of competencies that allow them to cater to students or learners with diverse abilities, backgrounds, and needs. however, the conventional comprehensions of teachers' competencies, abilities that are largely defined in terms of technical and pedagogical skills, fail to capture the complex lived experiences of educators in inclusive settings. this paper employs a phenomenological approach to rethink teachers' competencies by exploring the subjective, emotional, and ethical dimensions of teaching in inclusive classrooms. it unveils how proficiency or competence is not merely a laid-down, predefined skill but a dynamic, evolving process shaped by real-life interactions, challenges, and personal growth. overall, this paper calls for a reform in teacher education programs advocating for the inclusion of reflective practices where the teacher puts a premium on assisting him/herself by developing the skill to cogitate on his/her teaching and learning experiences, thoughts, and practices; and continuing professional development (cpd) to meet the demands of inclusive education. keywords: inclusive education, phenomenology, teachers’ competence introduction inclusive education as a nascent operational term in academic and professional practice in special needs education is unavoidable in this post-modern world (ofoegbu & umeadi, 2022). inclusive education undoubtedly has really become a global priority, aimed at ensuring that all students, regardless of their physical, intellectual, emotional, or social abilities, have access to equitable learning opportunities. they have the right to enjoy the value education brings, which is a process of imparting knowledge to someone, particularly in school or higher education. it is the knowledge, skills, and comprehension that one gets from going to school, college, and university (ofoegbu, 2017). inclusive promotes the integration of students with disabilities, special educational needs, and other marginalized groups into mainstream classrooms. teacher professional development plays a crucial role in the successful implementation of inclusive education practices within school systems worldwide. silam also maintains that teacher professional development plays a critical role in driving positive outcomes in inclusive aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 130 education by empowering educators with the knowledge and skills needed to create inclusive and supportive learning environments that benefit all students, regardless of their backgrounds or abilities (silam, 2024). as inclusive education develops, teachers are increasingly expected to handle a divergent range of learners, which requires a rethinking of the competencies they must possess in order to function in school environments. the importance of teachers' competences in 1944, the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco) described inclusive education (ie) as a practice aimed at acknowledging and responding to the diverse needs of all learners. this effort involves contributions to learning, cultures, and communities, while also striving to reduce marginalization within the education system. inclusive education isn't just about making changes to content and methods; it's about fundamentally reshaping approaches to ensure that every child, regardless of their circumstances, receives an education that’s their right (unicef & unicef, 2003, as cited in hina, tarique& jameel, 2025). the effectiveness of inclusive education hinges on teachers' ability to foster environments that are supportive, adaptable, and accessible. this educational model is essential for making quality education available to all students, no matter their backgrounds or abilities. however, many traditional definitions of teacher competencies— focused primarily on pedagogy, classroom management, and subject expertise—fall short when it comes to addressing the unique challenges that arise in inclusive classrooms. these challenges can include catering to students with diverse learning needs, navigating institutional barriers, and managing the emotional demands that come with fostering inclusion. phenomenology in educational research phenomenology explores the fundamental structures of consciousness by examining experiences through a first-person lens. central to this exploration is the concept of intentionality, which refers to the way experiences are directed toward specific objects or phenomena (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy 2003, ofoegbu & anyanwu 2016). within the context of educational research, phenomenology serves as a crucial methodology for investigating the lived experiences of educators. it provides a deeper understanding of their perceptions regarding their roles, the obstacles they encounter, and their paths toward professional development. this research approach often reveals the emotional, ethical, and relational dimensions of teaching that conventional competency frameworks frequently neglect. by employing a phenomenological perspective in the study of inclusive education, researchers can gain valuable insights into how teachers navigate the intricacies of inclusion, thereby facilitating a reflective examination of their professional identities and teaching practices johnson ugochukwu.. rethinking the imperative of teachers' competences in... 131 philosophical foundations of phenomenology phenomenology, drawing from the insights of thinkers like edmund husserl and martin heidegger, dives into the essence of lived experiences and the significance that individuals assign to their everyday interactions. it highlights the concept of intentionality, which suggests that our consciousness is always aimed at something specific. this approach invites us to deeply explore how people perceive and make sense of the world around them. husserl (1913) says phenomenology is the science of the structure of subjective experience or consciousness…it is the systematic and rigorous examination of conscious experience or perception, without making assumptions or presuppositions or presuppositions about the nature of reality. heidegger, drawing from husserl’s assertion, phenomenology is the letting-be-seen of the things themselves, in opposition to all constructive and speculative thought…it is the attempt to let the things themselves be seen, without any preconceptions. phenomenology, as a philosophical methodology, provides a significant framework for understanding the experiences of individuals within inclusive education contexts. by exploring these phenomenological principles and foundations, we can enhance our comprehension of people's experiences in inclusive education and strive to create more supportive and inviting learning environments applying phenomenology to the teachers’ competencies when we look at teachers' competences in inclusive education through a phenomenological lens, we can really dig into what goes on inside their minds as they work with diverse students. it highlights how they see their own effectiveness, manage emotional hurdles, and adjust their teaching methods based on the interactions happening in their classrooms. instead of thinking of competence as just a fixed skill set, phenomenology shows us that it's actually a dynamic and evolving concept influenced by their day-to-day experiences. emotional intelligence is a key factor in creating a positive and inclusive classroom environment (goleman, 1995, p.34) teachers with high emotional intelligence are better able to manage their own emotions and those of their students, creating a more positive and inclusive learning environment (mayer & salovey, 1997). culturally competent teachers are able to understand and appreciate the diverse and supportive learning environment educators frequently convey that competence encompasses more than merely possessing a collection of technical abilities; it represents a dynamic form of knowledge that evolves through continuous engagement with their students. numerous teachers emphasize how they gain insights from their students, adapting their instructional methods to align with the distinct dynamics of the classroom and the specific requirements of each learner. teachers’ competence in the light of phenomenology reinterpreting competence this paper significantly challenges, in the light of phenomenology, conventional notions of competence by emphasizing that it is not merely a fixed attribute but rather a dynamic quality that develops over time through experience. the competencies of teachers are not immutable; they are consistently shaped by their interactions with students, their emotional responses, and the ethical dilemmas they encounter in the classroom. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 132 implications for teacher education teacher education programs must evolve beyond the mere instruction of technical skills. it is essential to incorporate reflective practices and training focused on emotional resilience. in the realm of professional development for inclusive education, it is crucial to establish environments where educators can exchange their experiences, contemplate the challenges they encounter, and devise adaptable strategies to address these issues policy implications educational policies must prioritize robust support for inclusive education. this entails the establishment of smaller class sizes, guaranteeing access to specialized personnel, and providing resources that accommodate various learning styles. additionally, it is essential for these policies to recognize the emotional and ethical dimensions of teaching within inclusive settings, which involves creating support systems for educators. the need for adopting the phenomenological approach to teachers’ competencies while traditional frameworks like classroom management, subject mastery, teaching strategies, and media play a crucial role in enhancing teaching and learning, they often miss out on the personal, lived experiences of teachers. in the realm of inclusive education, the spotlight is usually on the learner, particularly those with special needs. the national policy on education emphasizes the importance of including children and youth with special needs in regular schools (national policy on education, 2008). the goal of inclusive education is to ensure that every student has access to learning by catering to their diverse needs, including those with unique requirements (buenaño-barreno, 2024) as noted in (navas-bonilla, guerra-arango, oriedo-guado& murillo-noviega, 2025). this approach is grounded in several key principles, one of which is that the inherent worth of every individual in our society isn't determined by their abilities or accomplishments; rather, those with disabilities or special educational needs should be welcomed into the educational environment (shmeleva and litovchenko, 2022) as referenced in (navas-bonilla, guerraarango, oriedo-guado& murillo-noviega, 2025). adopting a phenomenological approach, which aims to grasp individuals' experiences from their own viewpoints, can shed light on the intricate realities of teaching in inclusive settings. by delving into the emotional and cognitive journeys of teachers, we can develop a richer understanding of what it truly means to be "competent" in the context of inclusive education. furthermore, adopting a phenomenological approach can shed light on the real experiences of teachers working in inclusive education environments. this method focuses on grasping the meaning and structure of conscious experiences (husserl, 1970). in the realm of inclusive education, such an approach can reveal the competencies teachers need to nurture in order to assist diverse learners effectively. johnson ugochukwu.. rethinking the imperative of teachers' competences in... 133 competences for inclusive education ainscow (2012) affirms the essence of teacher education in promoting inclusive education. he argues that teachers need to develop the skills and knowledge to support diverse learners. florian (2014) emphasizes the imperativeness for teachers to have indebt understanding of inclusive education. she maintains that teachers need to move above a deficit model of disability and focus more on creating inclusive learning environment. teachers need to create supportive and inclusive learning environment that encourages socio-emotional learning (mittler, 2013) furthermore, norwich (2013) pointed out the tensions and dilemmas teachers are confronted in implementing inclusive education. he argues that teachers need to navigate these tensions and dilemmas in order to create inclusive learning atmosphere numerous studies have pinpointed the specific competencies that teachers should develop for inclusive education. for instance, the european agency for development in special needs education (2012) outlined several key competencies: 1. valuing diversity: educators must appreciate diversity and acknowledge both the strengths and challenges faced by various learners. 2. creating inclusive learning environments: teachers should strive to foster inclusive settings that encourage participation and engagement from all students. 3. using differentiated instruction: it's crucial for teachers to implement differentiated instruction to cater to the varied needs of their learners. in summary, the significance of teachers' competencies in the realm of inclusive education is immense. a phenomenological approach can offer valuable insights into the experiences of teachers in inclusive settings and help identify the skills they need to develop to effectively support diverse learners. conclusion this paper advocates for a reevaluation of the concept of teacher competence in inclusive education, approached from a phenomenological perspective. by focusing on the lived experiences of educators, we can gain a deeper understanding of how their competence is shaped by authentic interactions, the emotional labor they engage in, and the ethical dilemmas they encounter. it is essential for teacher education programs and policies to adapt to this complexity by providing ongoing support and opportunities for reflection, thereby enabling teachers to thrive in inclusive classroom settings. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 134 references ainscow, m. (2012). moving knowledge: understanding the role of research in shaping educational practice. journal of educational change,13(2), 151-165.doi: 181007/s10833-0129183-3. buenaño-barreno, p. n. b. (2024). políticas y prácticas de educacióninclusivaenlatinoamérica: unarevisiónsistemática. rev. investig. educ. niveles 1, 14–30. doi: 10.61347/rien.v1i2.61. european agency for development in special needs education. (2012). teacher education for inclusion: profile of inclusive teachers. odense, denmark: european agency for development in special needs education. florian, l. (2014). teacher education for inclusive education. in c.j. mcloughlin & a.m. o’donnell (eds.), what counts as evidence in education settings? (pp. 157-172). new york: peter lang florian, l., & spratt, j. (2013). preparing teachers for inclusive education: a critique of the current approaches. in l. florian (ed), the sage handbook of special education (pp.407-422) |. london, uk: sage publications goleman, d. (1995). emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than iq. bantam books heidegger, m. (1927). being and time. trans. macquarie and e. robinson. tubingen: max niemeyer verlag husserl, e. (1913). ideas pertaining to a pure phenomenological philosophy. first book. trans. f. kersten. hague: nijhoff publishers husserl, e. (1970). the crisis of european sciences and transcendental phenomenology (d. carr, trans.). evanston, il: northwestern press kaloyan, d.(2024). differentiation of educational content through artificial intelligence systems in inclusive education. international journal of education(ije) vo.12,no.3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383749724 mayer, j.d., salovey, p. (1997). what is emotional intelligence? in p. salovey & d.j. sluyter (eds), emotional development and emotional intelligence: educational implications (pp.3-31). basic books mittler, p. (2013). working towards inclusive education: social contexts. london, uk: routledge national policy on education (2008). section 7: special needs education. abuja, nigeria navas-bonilla,c.r,guerr-arango, j.a, oriedo-guado,d.a,murillo-noviega(2025). inclusive education through technology: a systematic review of types, tools and characteristics.frontiersin/org/journals/education/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025./527851/full. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383749724 johnson ugochukwu.. rethinking the imperative of teachers' competences in... 135 norwich, b. (2013). addressing tensions and dilemmas in inclusive education. international journal of inclusive education,17(5-6), 531-544.doi:10/1080/13603116.2013.802411. ofoegbu, j.u. (2017).hermeneutics of philosophy of education. owerri: peace publishers ofoegbu, j.u., anyanwu, k. (2016) africa and phobia of globalization: phenomenologicoanalytic solution in contemporary education. international journal of education and research vol.4, no.7 ofoegbu,j.o., nwebo, e.i., umeadi, k.c. (2022). phenomenology of inclusive education:its possibility in underdeveloped economy. oracle of wisdom journal of philosophy and public affairs.vol.6. no 2. a publication of the department of philosophy and religious studies.tansian university umunya anambra state. shmeleva, z. n., and litovchenko, v. i. (2022). the use of digital technologies in the inclusive education implementation at the university. college park, md: american institute of physics inc. silam, j. (2024). role of teacher professional development on the implementation of inclusive education practices in djibouti. american journal of education and practice. vol. 8. no. 4. stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.(2003). phenomenology. www.plato.standard.edu/entries/phenomenology/ united nations. (2006). convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. new york: united nations publications http://www.plato.standard.edu/entries/phenomenology/ aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr the socio-political implications of the igbos's indifferentism st th in the august 1 to 10 2024 end bad governance national protest: a counter protest, a political reaction or mistrust for national unity? barnabas ekiegini izegede university of delta, agbor barnabas.izegede@unidel.edu.ng abstract the extent to which ethnic nationalities are able to effectively manage the interplay of ethnic differences determines to what extent a multi-ethnic nation develops without crises. ethnicity in nigeria, is a product of inequality among the various ethnic groups orchestrated by a long period of colonialism; a period which witnessed the ascendancy of ethnic groups to the socio-political domination of other ethnic groups and a period when the ethnic groups were used as a pedestal for the distribution of socio-political goods, resulting in the inability of other ethnic groups to access these socio-political goods. this paper examines the socio-political implications of the igbos' indifferentism towards the august 1 -10 , 2024 in st th #end bad governance national protest nigeria. the igbos' lack of enthusiasm for the protest raises questions about their stance on national unity and governance. this study reveals that historical marginalization, perceived exclusion, and fear of political manipulation contribute to the igbos' indifferentism. the implications of this indifferentism include mistrust in national unity, regionalization of politics, weakened national cohesion, and further political marginalization. this research highlights the need for inclusive governance and addressing ethnic grievances to promote national unity and stability. keywords: igbos, indifferentism, national protest, bad governance, socio-political implications, national unity, nigeria. introduction since independence in 1960, nigeria has witnessed a period of unforeseen socio-political and economic instability as well as bloodshed. this is partly due to the pettybourgeois origins of nigerian nationalism and the politicization of ethnicity in the polity. like the national formations on the indian subcontinent, the political formation of nigeria came into being alongside several contextual socio-economic and political factors; the fear of domination, economic exploitation, social and sometimes religious discrimination (awoshakiu, t. 2002). these and others have not only set the tone for socio-economic and political underdevelopment, but have also set the various ethnic groups against each other. the recent national protest in nigeria has brought to the fore the complex dynamics of ethnic relations and national unity. the #end bad governance st thnational protest, scheduled for august 1 – 10 , 2024, aims to address the pervasive issues of corruption, mismanagement, and ineptitude plaguing nigeria. however, the igbos, a significant ethnic group in the country, have exhibited indifferentism towards the protest. this lack of enthusiasm is puzzling, given the protest's objectives align with igbos' long-standing grievances against the nigerian state. this article delves to unravel the socio-political implications of the igbos' indifferentism, exploring the historical, cultural, and political factors contributing to their stance. by examining the igbos' indifferentism, this research aims to provide insights into the 39 complexities of nigerian politics, the challenges of national unity, and the nuances of ethnic relations in the country. by examining the past, we can better understand the present and the implications for national unity. background historical experiences, including the biafran war and marginalization, have contributed to the igbos mistrust in national unity. their indifferentism may stem from a perceived lack of commitment to addressing their concerns, leading to skepticism about the protest's effectiveness. (a)the biafran war: a legacy of trauma the 1967-1970 biafran war left an indelible mark on the igbo people. the devastating conflict resulted in massive loss of millions of igbo lives, displacement, and economic devastation. the trauma of this period has been passed down through generations, shaping the igbos' perception of nigerian politics. the nigerian civil war – also commonly referred to as the biafran war – took place from 1967 to 1970 with estimates ranging from one million to six million people killed (oduah, 2017). the civil war is widely understood as a conflict between the secessionist state of biafra in the eastern region led by colonel ojukwu and yakubu gowon's nigerian federal government. the war was particularly poignant not solely because it attempted to break apart one of sub-saharan' africa's biggest nations, but also because of the global humanitarian response to the conflict and the dissemination of images of war and brutality around the globe. the nigerian tactic of isolating the seceding biafran state by taking its principal port town and sole access to the sea (port harcourt) in the military campaign of may 1968, perpetually land-locked the region. biafra quickly became impoverished and overpopulated, facing serious threats of starvation and famine. this manoeuvre by the federal government was a key factor in the eventual surrender of biafra on 15 january 1970 (heerten& dirk, 2014: 175-176). fifty-one years after the conflict, demands for the secession of south-eastern nigeria to create the independent and sovereign state of biafra have been reignited. in light of perceived ethnoreligious persecution targeting the igbo people of the east and south-east via socioeconomic deprivation and political marginalisation, as well as the perceived lack of justice for the survivors and victims of the nigerian government's starvation policy during the war, many igbos within nigeria and the diaspora have become very vocal about the need to carve out a separate igbo state and bring to fruition the goals of colonel ojukwu and his biafran forces during the civil war, leading to the creation of new pro-biafran political groups such as the movement for the actualisation of independent state of biafra (massob) in 1999 (orji, 2017), and the indigenous people of biafra (ipob). however, the general national aggression towards the agitations of these groups through the use of brute force against members and the dismissal of their concerns by branding them terrorist organisations (kazeem, 2017) points to a larger and more insidious issue being the collective historical amnesia of nigeria as a nation state and the underlying continuous process of national identity fragmentation. consequently, this thesis will address the question: what explains the continued fragmentation in nigeria's national identity today? it will argue that this fragmentation can be understood through the lens of trauma as a post-biafra legacy. the research will in turn explore trauma as an international and national discourse on the question of genocide in biafra, particularly focusing on the debates around semantics and the politics of labelling which that discourse produces. in addition, the research will address trauma as the intersection of a political and personal loss of a 40 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 biafran imagined community and how this relates to rampant ethno-religious violence in the country. it goes without saying that there is a wealth of academic knowledge on the processes of the nigeria-biafra war and the build up to the conflict, however there has not been nearly enough emphasis on what it produced as its legacy. an emphasis on 'legacy' is precisely the focus of this project, as it becomes an attempt to tie together previously established academic discourse about the conflict as a post-colonial phenomenon, whilst moving towards a conversation on the ramifications of such violence and what that means within the context of nation-building and national identity formation in nigeria today. the focus on trauma as legacy is of great value, in bridging the gap on historical discourse surrounding the war, but it brings the conflict back to a site of temporal relevance by suggesting that nigeria's current issues with national fragmentation are not mutually exclusive from the war, rather the conflict can be viewed as an emphatic manifestation and an exacerbation of national identity rupture. (b) marginalization and exclusion the igbos have historically been marginalized in nigerian politics, economy, and education, leading to feelings of exclusion and disenfranchisement. the igbo race continues to face enormous political and economic challenges since the instigated and imposed civil war. a plain glance at the economic and political development in nigeria may be considered normal in terms of where the igbo people stand politically, especially economically when compared to other ethnic nationalities. indeed a cursory look at the poverty level among the ethnic groups would make the igbo race appear exceptionally successful. the igbo people in reality experienced an overwhelming level of disadvantages based on public policies that seemed crafted to undermine their ability to maximize political and economic potentials. the restructuring of nigeria to create more states for the northern states to the detriment of the southern nigeria, especially, the southeast was not only an impediment politically; it impacts the economic potentials of the igbo people negatively. such policies as the failure to rehabilitate the biafra land after the war, the 20 pounds flat refund to any biafran who wished to convert the old currency, or deposits with banks prior to the war; the nigerian enterprises promotion decree of 1972, also known as indigenization decree, federal character principle, manipulated population census, creation of states and local government areas in favor of the northern nigeria, deliberate underuse of seaports within the igbo axis, lack of standard international airport, and other exploitative actions. these formed many overt and indirect actions to diminish the ability of the igbo people to compete on a level-playing ground with other major ethnic groups. unlike today where some political actors will dare the igbo people to vote against their aspirations, and perhaps, would still go ahead to win whether the igbo people voted for them or not. it was not like that during the fight for the country's independence from the british colonial masters, and neither was that way during the first republic. the eastern region used to play a very significant role politically in determining which parties collaborated to form a government. the national council of nigeria and cameroun, which later changed to national council of nigerian citizens (ncnc) under the leadership of dr nnamdi azikiwe partnered with the northern people's congress founded by tafawa balewa to form the government (university of central arkansas, 2019). tafawa balewa was appointed the prime minister and nnamdi azikiwe was made the head of state (university of central arkansas, 2019). economically, every region was autonomous, and developing at its pace's ability. the 41 barnabas ekiegini izegede he socio-political implications of the igbos's indifferentism ... information service (1956) reported that the eastern region's economy was heavily dependent on palm produce, through which palm kernels were exported to earn foreign exchange, as well as palm frond is used for roofing, and palm wine for drinking. the eastern region government promoted systematic agricultural economy, including farm settlements; cash crops such as rubber, cocoa, and palm grove scheme were established, creating an opportunity for people to earn a living through farming (ministry of commerce, 1966). the coal industry was thriving under nigeria railway corporation, and nigersteel's rolling mill which produces mild steel bars were among only a few such operations in west africa (information service, 1956). the ncnc led-government established a cement factory at nkalagu, the nigeria breweries set up a stout factory at aba, while in port harcourt, a tobacco and glass making plant was sited there. “oil mining in the region started by shell d'archy in 1937 did not yield commercial quantities until 1957. but by 1965, oil was a promising source of income” (van buer, 1968, 23). having appraised the background to the phenomenon that prompted this study, the researcher will look at some of the antecedents of the igbo people within the economic and political realm before 1967, and the prevailing condition in the present nigeria. it is the hope of the researcher that the outcome of this study will be beneficial to the scholars, policymakers, and nigerians, etc. as well as, add to the body of literature. indifferentism: a counter protest or political reaction? the igbos' indifferentism may be perceived as a counter protest, signaling their disengagement from national initiatives. alternatively, it could be a political reaction to the protest's perceived lack of inclusivity or addressing of igbo-specific grievances which include: a. lack of rehabilitation after the civil war general gowon promised to rehabilitate and reintegrate the defunct eastern region which its infrastructure was devastated during the civil war back to the country on equal footing, hence, the slogan: “no victor, no vanquished” (gowon, 2014). in that spirit of oneness, general gowon's military government decreed the policy of reconciliation, reconstruction, and rehabilitation (3rs) for the defeated eastern region (udeajah, 2017). the policies were merely cosmetic in since they were never actually carried out, while, such policy as the “abandoned property policy” was pursued vigorously (obi-ani, 2009). the consequence was not only economical, but a deliberate strategy designed to weaken the relationship between the igbo people, and other minority ethnic groups of the eastern region. b. twenty pounds flat fee refund several policies decreed into law became albatross of the igbo nation's progress. saro-wiwa (2012) wrote that even though the igbos were reintegrated into society, they continued to face economic discrimination. the £20 flat rate policy for any amount any biafran who wishes to exchange his old currency was a deliberate policy to keep them from recovering from the economic devastation. aduba (2017) argued in the will newspaper, that nigeria government deliberately imposed the £20 flat rate policy without any circumspection. c. indigenization decree the promulgation of the nigerian enterprises promotion decree of 1972, also known as indigenization decree, was not done with the accommodation of igbo interest. the government enacted the policy when the igbo people were at the weakest economic point just after they have emerged from the civil war (obi-ani, 2009). the implication was that the other ethnic groups 42 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 were able to participate in purchasing shares of those blue-chip companies that the nigeria government decided to appropriate. d. manipulated population census there were several instances of the nigeria census exercises found to be less than desirable. the need to maintain a very high population figure advantage by certain regions over the others was intense. that notwithstanding, even the demographers found the 1973 population census incredibly manipulated (metz, 1991). the census exercise confirmed that nigeria's population grew by 44 percent in 10 years, while, northern nigeria's population jumped to 64 percent compared to 53.7 percent in 1963 (metz, 1991). the bloated population advantage has consequences for the creation of states, local governments, and the sharing of accrued revenues at the center since, in practice, nigeria runs a unitary system as against the federal system on paper. e. federal character principle federal character principle is enshrined in the 1999 constitution, but its first introduction was the 1979 constitution. section 14 (3) and (4) of the 1999 constitution provide for the equitable distribution of positions in the military, paramilitary, police, all other security institutions, public service, parastatals, and publicly owned companies (constitution of the federal republic, 1999). the plain accommodation of the principle as it ought to be applied has not always worked according to the dictates of the constitution, primarily, when it comes to placing the igbo people in certain positions. the president buhari's administration has been the worst offender that he had been called out for his insensitivity to other ethnic groups when making appointments. according to senator abaribe, the incumbent nigeria's president, general buhari has willfully ensured that the southeast zone was not included in the national defence council and the national security council (busari, 2018). f. creation of states and local government areas the creation of states and local government areas were deliberately made to favor northern nigeria. the southeast zone is the only political zone among the six political zones that has only five states, while, the rest of the other zones have six states each (aribisala, 2015) [ . aribisa1a 18] concluded that this has consequently led to southeast being the only zone with the least amount of revenue allocation in the federation. former governor of anambra state, dr ezeife, and olu falae, the former secretary to the government of the federation argued that the creation of more states and local governments in favor of the northern states was an injustice against their zones, southeast and southwest, respectively (kalu, 2017; eya, 2017). both writers observed that the injustice argued by ezeife and falae is based on the lopsided size of revenue allocations from the federal government that goes to the northern states. olu falae pointed out that lagos state which is densely populated, used to have a uniform number of local governments (precisely 20 lgas) with kano state (eya, 2017). falae argues that while lagos has been made to retain the same number of local government areas, kano has grown to 77 lgas. the kano state in 1991 was divided into two states, with jigawaas the new state out of the old kano state (adisa, 2011). it is not only the lopsided revenue allocations being channeled to the northern region that is perceived as injustices, but the political inequities acutely manifest in addressing the national issues. take, for example, nwabufo (2019) who highlights that in “in 2015, the south-east had no representation in the leadership of all the arms of government. this was rationalized at the time with a bogus claim, 'the zone did not produce any ranking senator or member of the house of representatives on the platform of the apc” (para. 7). the interests of the southeast are never adequately protected because the states and lgas created by military fiat to the detriment of southeast hollows their ability to be effective. the enumerated consequences of 43 barnabas ekiegini izegede he socio-political implications of the igbos's indifferentism ... https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=94036 states and lgas creations were some of the reasons for the call to restructure nigeria. g. deliberate underuse of seaports there is a well-considered perception that the seaports within the igbo axis are deliberately underused when one considers the fact that port harcourt port was a bustling port prior to nigeria independence, up until nigeria biafra civil war to (information service, 1956). the port harcourt port was the second largest port in the country commissioned in 1913 as with lagos port (nimasa e-library, n.d). the calabar port was equally busy handling exports and imports. today, nigeria's lagos seaports are fully congested; lives of residents, business owners, and motorists are impacted negatively due to conditions at the ports. the pointer (2019) observed that “a recent report based on estimates by terminal operators has it that more than 2 million twenty tons equivalent units (teus) of laden containers are awaiting clearance at lagos seaports” (para. 1) . the lagos ports handle over 80 percent of the cargoes that enter the country (the pointer). in spite of these problems, the federal government had refused to dredge the river niger, improve the calabar and warri ports, etc., or make it friendly to use port harcourt to ease the economic waste arising from the concentration of activities in lagos ports. h. lack of international airport the igbo people are found in every nook and cranny of nigeria, and virtually, in all parts of the world. the igbo people are constantly on the move, both domestically and internationally. most of the times, they must travel to lagos or abuja, before they could connect any direct international flights. it was in 2013 that the president good luck administration completed the facilities at enugu airport, now akanu ibiam international airport, which enabled the first international flight led by prince arthur eze (edike, 2013). he said on arrival at enugu airport: “look at me, i flew from senegal to enugu for four hours non-stop. i don't need to go to lagos or abuja to catch direct flight again to europe or senegal. i can now go from my house to any place of choice” (edike, 2013). it is worth noting that the federal government has not invested in upgrading the facilities at enugu airport to international airport status. the runways are very bumpy without the approach lights; there are no water supplies, the cooling systems are not working, etc. (mikairu and agbo, 2019). the southeast governors have raised the alarm about the state of the airport, and why the contract that had been awarded for the airport by the present government has not reflected at the airport (mikairu and agbo, 2019). the federal government has recently announced that it will shut down the airport for security reasons (aliyu, 2019). the announcement was not well received by the people of southeast both on the chat rooms and mainstream media. the ohanaeze ndigbo asked the government not to embark on such action as the timing is not right, and it will impact negatively on the development of the igbo economy (olokor, 2019). mr chiedozie orizu, the spokesperson for ohanaze youth leader, arthur obiora, advised the federal government that such move will not augur well for the development of the igbo land (okeke, 2019). there had not been anything to show that the contract award for the enugu airport has reflected on it yet. i. other impediments other impediments are directed against the igbo people. some of the barriers are excessive police checkpoints directed against the igbo people and businesses, and customs personnel harassment of igbo people's business interests. the use of touts to harass and collect illegal levies from the igbo shops with the active support of some politicians in places such as lagos state. the igbo people suffer excessive extortion and harassment at the ubiquitous police checkpoints 44 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 both within their homeland and routes leading to the southeast. the harassment is more intense during the festive periods when the people of southeast visit their families (okolie, 2017). mr. peter obi, the former governor of anambra, state condemned the activities of the customs on the highway, particularly, on roads leading to igbo heartland, where he observed numerous customs checkpoints from ore to onitsha (olowookere, 2016). the extortion by the customs on containers that had been cleared at the ports on roads leading to the southeast calls to question the buhari's professed fight against corruption (nan, 2016). mistrust for national unity between 1960 and 2008 nigeria has been characterized by social inequities in the distribution of power and resources. these inequities, which are rooted in the foundation of the nigerian state led to a civil war in 1967 in which the igbo, one of the major ethnic groups sought to secede from nigeria. but the attempt was not successful. the war was followed by a number of systematic and calculated policies, which the victors used to keep the igbo people down and to hegemonise their grip of political domination of nigeria for a long time in both the nigerian military and civilian rules. the widened democratic space in 1999 gave rise to a renewed expression of resentment by igbo youths whose rejection of their post-war socio-political and economic repressions have sparked off the emergence of youth based movements. thus, nationalism resurgence is manifested in the renewed demand for biafra by these organizations. they elicited responses from the democratic government, which seemed to have relapsed to the old order of military style of violent repression of dissension that end up as counter productive. through the processing of primary data, this paper examines the reinvention of igbo nationalism in eastern nigeria. the paper looks at its linkage with the 1999 democratic transition in nigeria, the implications of this development and the management of the issue by the government. deep rooted ethnic grievances and rivalry among the major nigerian ethnic groups had accompanied the politics of decolonization, culminating in the first attempt at igbo ethnonationalism expressed in the declaration of the biafran republic in 1967. this attempt at secession was crushed by the nigerian state after a cruel three year war that resulted in the loss of over one million lives and displacement of many others in eastern nigeria. the end of the war was followed by deliberate social, political and economic policies aimed at reducing the capacity of the igbo people to challenge the state or the dominance of the victorious groups. these policies of marginalization were efficiently and effectively carried out through the autocratic military regimes that dominated nigerian politics for the greater proportion of its post-war history that spanned between 1970 till 1999. the transition into a democratic dispensation has coincided with the emergence of a post-war igbo generation who do not accept the professed marginalization of the igbos in nigeria. the manifestation is seen in the number of groups and movements that have emerged to demand for the resuscitation of the defunct biafran state as a panacea to the alienation of the igbos in the nigerian polity. this new igbo nationalism like any other nationalism is a politicized ethnicity, which often develops when an ethnic group manifests a political agenda (joireman, 2003). for hobsbawn (1990), nationalism comes before nation, in the sense that an ethnic group must be somehow politically mobilized before it becomes a nation. the political mobilization occurs in the form of some sort of recognized collective objectives as perceived by an ethnic group that feels marginalized in a heterogeneous society. joireman (2003) had argued that nationalism is intensified by the politics of exclusion. so any time a group of people in a multi-national polity feel particularly targeted for ill-treatment or oppression, there is the likelihood that their 45 barnabas ekiegini izegede he socio-political implications of the igbos's indifferentism ... identification will turn from ethnic to national identity as it becomes politicized. when a group in a society is marked out for unequal treatment, either economically or politically, then the boundaries of that group become clearly defined. the origin of igbo nationalism started with the quest for an independent biafran state which extends back to four decades ago. that quest can be aptly situated in the politics of decolonization in nigeria that saw to a gradual constitutional evolution by relatively orderly processes of conferences and negotiations, culminating in the independence of nigeria from british colonialism in 1960. the hiccups that were associated with these processes, gave rise to the structure of constitutional agreements that collapsed shortly after independence following a military coup in january 1966; the army was broken into regional groups after a counter coup in july of same year thus precipitating series of actions and events before the outbreak of the civil war. at this point citizens of the former eastern region origin had fled from the rest of the country during a series of massacre known as pogrom in nigeria that produced a migration of hundreds of thou-sands of persons as never witnessed in the country before. as nixon (1972) noted, the central government lost its effective authority over the eastern region and following a breakdown of the orderly process of negotiations, the eastern region sought its own security and survival by declaring its independence shortly after which the central government sought to re-establish its authority in the area by military action. the result was the bitter war that lasted for almost three years and with over a million casualties from military action, disease and starvation. the conflict was ended with the collapse of biafra in january 1970, as the immediate issues of the war were resolved in favor of nigeria under the federal military government that subsequently declared the war as no victor, no vanquished. the re-entry of the former biafrans, dominantly of the igbo ethnic group into the nigerian society was phenomenal in the annals of group integration. this was the situation, until the emergence of massob in 1999 re-opening the issue of biafra and working towards its actualization. for a better understanding of the genesis of igbo nationalism, it is imperative to highlight graphic details of the events that have led to the present situation under discussion. nixon (1972) had chronicled the distinctive circumstances that led to the first declaration of biafra in may 1967. according to him, the biafran claim to independence began in may 1966, following a series of attacks targeted against peoples of eastern region living in the north of nigeria. the attacks were followed by the coup of 29 july 1966, during which nigerian troops of northern origin systematically killed about 240 southern officers and men, of whom at least three quarters were easterners and leading to the emergence of lieutenant colonel yakubu gowon as the supreme commander to replace general aguiyi ironsi, an ethnic igbo affected by the mutiny. this action destroyed the nigerian army as an effective agent of nigerian unity as well as the unity of the command because lieutenant colonel odumegwu ojukwu, who was the military governor of the eastern region, did not recognize gowon as the rightful person to assume the position of supreme commander. the subsequent massacre of citizens of the eastern region in the north, starting again in september 1966 and the mass migration back to the east that ensued widened the rupture in national unity. it was at this point that issues such as problems of refugees, economic support of displaced persons and intensified fears of citizens of the eastern region for their personal safety combined to escalate the tension between the eastern region and central government. nixon (1972) remarks that none of the series of efforts to find a peaceful basis for renewed 46 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 cooperation between the eastern region and the center yielded fruit, but it was rather series of unilateral moves in areas of economic and political relations by both the east and the center that worsened the conflict until the eastern region trans-formed into biafran republic by proclaiming its independence on 30 may 1967. in a bid to stop this secessionist move, the central government opened a military action against the east on july 5, 1967. this action was prolonged till 15 january 1970 when the resistance by the biafran rebels caved in leading to victory for the unity of nigeria. the victory created the condition for the reabsorption of the citizens of the defunct biafra into the nigerian society as nigerians, rendering the quest for biafra completely a forgotten matter amidst for the time being. this re-entry came with assurances of the victorious federal side that the war ended in a no victor, no vanquished designation, but post-war events indicate that the former biafrans particularly the dominant igbo ethnic group were reabsorbed into nigeria as conquered people (amadiume, 2000). it was this scenario that created conditions for the cries of marginalization by the igbos, in their struggle for full insertion into the post-war nigerian society. onu (2003) notes that the resurgence of igbo nationalism which is spearheaded by massob, a youthful and radical organization of succeeding generations of igbo who fought the civil war, is a result of their frustration in the nigerian entity and perception that the existing political structure that seeming consign the igbos to a lower status than it deserves vis-à-vis other groups is illegitimate. several documented facts supports this view, no wonder the cries of marginalization have been loudest from them. ikpeze (2000) in an attempt to establish that the igbos in post-war nigeria were marginalized, articulated four clear dimensions this marginalization has manifested; economic strangulation, politico-bureaucratic emasculation, military neutralization and ostracism. some of the issues that readily come to mind include the 20 pounds ceiling placed on bank lodgments for every igbo after the war no matter how much such persons had in banks. this has been interpreted as a calculated policy to neutralize the savings and capacity of the igbos to rehabilitate and re-integrate into the nigerian economy (ikpeze, 2000; ojukwu, 2005). related to this is the sudden withdrawal of federal troops from the east, a ploy that was aimed at denying the igbo economy the stimulus for recovery as igbo people who could have been empowered as suppliers to the troops were denied the opportunity. also was the timing of the indigenization policy which came shortly after the war when the igbos were financially constrained to participate, thereby incapacitating the igbos economically. of note in postwar igbo marginalization was the deficient infrastructural development in their homeland resulting in the mass migration of the igbos to other areas of the country for economic survival. there were also cases of discrimination against the igbos in the location of industries and the attendant loss of benefits of linkages that come from such locations. also worthy of mention, is the deliberate neglect of ecological problems in the east, especially the problem of soil erosion that results in the loss of agricultural lands and settlements. the ecological devastation becomes obvious in relative terms when compared with the massive attention given to desertification in the north and beach erosion in the western parts of nigeria (ikpeze, 2000). apart from these policies that economically disempowered the igbos, other instruments were also used to effectively exclude them from economic and political power at the centre. such include the 'tokenist' appointments to strategically insignificant positions in administrations, marginal presence in the administration and headship of ministerial and extraministerial departments and parastatals. also worthy of note is the distortions of the federal structure to the disadvantage of the igbos, such that the zone has the least number of 47 barnabas ekiegini izegede he socio-political implications of the igbos's indifferentism ... states and local governments compared to the other major tribes, implying smaller resources and representation, because number of states and local government areas are the main basis for resource allocation and representation at the federal level. furthermore, the indifferent response of the federal authorities and even governments of other states to uphold the constitutionally inviolable natural residency and citizenship rights of original igbo owners as far as the issue of 'abandoned property' of the igbos who fled the pogrom and war is also mentioned. aware of the role nigerian military officers of igbo extraction played in the biafran armed forces, there was a policy to ensure under representation of the igbos in the military. re-absorption after the war was negligible, for the few that were reabsorbed, rate of upward mobility were very slow aimed at preventing the resurgence of the igbos militarily. related to this is the virtual exclusion of igbo land from highest sensitive military facilities of such important installation as mechanized division or armories. the predicament of post-war igbo in nigeria is a perception that is widely held by members of the ethnic group and its capacity to culminate into negative reactions may have been bottled up due to the hold on to power by the military. for close to thirty years after that war, the major pre-occupation of the igbos was how to be fully reintegrated into the nigerian society and possibly attain the pre-eminent position as a power bloc which the people had tried to construct prior to the war and thus end the cry of marginalization (igbokwe, 2005). however, all through this period, there were no recognizable groups that have agitated for the resuscitation of the biafran republic as it seemed a forgotten affair publicly. after the war till 1990s, the major public discourse centered on how the igbos, the major ethnic group in the biafran rebellion could be accepted back fully as participants in nigerian political process. but democratic transition in 1999 seems to have created the space for the renewed expression of igbo nationalism as it marked the beginning of emergence into the scene of organizations and movements calling for the resuscitation of the defunct biafran republic. generated from the above are some pertinent questions; why is there a renewed demand for biafra, thirty-years after a similar move was crushed? who are the people behind the organizations spearheading these agitations? how much do they know about the war that was fought in the past and what are the impacts of memories of the former war in this new demand? does this renewed agitation have solid social bases or is it a ploy by igbo elites to achieve a greater stake in nigerian politics? all these, form the major thrust of this paper in an attempt to create insights into political imbalances in nigeria that has remained a major crises of nigerian development since the 1960's. socio-political implications inequalities (socio-economic) among the various ethnic groups as orchestrated by a long period of colonial administration (1860-1960) have made nigeria a cynosure of ethnic conflicts. the central issue is that the social formation of nigeria which is basically ethnically heterogeneous and by implication a multi-cultural society may result in a high potentiality for lack of cordiality, mutual suspicion and fear and in addition a high tendency towards violent confrontation for various sociopolitical reasons. ethnic conflict has arisen out of this context of mutual fear and suspicion over distribution of socio-political and economic goods and lack of cordiality. thus, the inability of every ethnic group to access socio-political and economic goods continues to impact negatively on the force of national integration and cohesion. it is a product of the long history of unequal access to power, resources and opportunities among the different ethnic groups in the country. 48 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 thus, the demands of such a challenge are exacting. significantly, this context has led to open confrontation and conflict because the stressful condition of the body polity raised questions that challenge the very basis on which the political community – modern nigeria – is organized. this prompts the question, 'is ethnicity in nigeria an invention of the people or of colonialism?' what raises this question is the fact that the various ethnic groups that constitute the prenigeria state once co-existed socially and economically, hence the question of whether ethnicity is a social construct or a natural order? through the division of the country into six geo-political zones, all the major ethnic groups are now found within these zones along with the minority ethnic groups, as arowolo, d. (2011) has put it, the re-engineering of the country into six zones has made the minority groups in the country to cluster around the major ethnic groups, thus giving the country a tripartite ethnic structure. by implication, the mobilization for socio-political contest still revolved around the major ethnic groups. invariably, this has made it possible for the politics of exclusion to persist even to the detriment of the minorities, which has resulted in conflict over the demand for such rights as well as underdevelopment of the polity. the foundation for the politics of exclusion was laid by the construction of the nigerian political environment around the three major ethnic groups which saw this as an opportunity to exert their hegemonic power over the rest of the country. “fragment of a democracy: reflections on class and politics in nigeria” opines that the nigerian regional political elites within the frame work of regional politics see democracy as a mechanism through which political power can be gained or distributed together with economic power and the social status that follows. it could be reasoned that right from the beginning the minorities have always been sidelined within the polity. or better still the regional political leaders contributed to the ethnic conflict in the country through the consolidation of each ethnic group's main political parties which was equally evident in the second republic. thus, politics in nigeria before and after independence was used as an ethnic weapon to the detriment of the minorities in the country. it became a game between the majorities where the distributive resources were under their control with the minorities significantly excluded from the mainstream of governance. that is, they are given positions only to solicit for their political support and not as forces to be reckoned with in the political game. this situation provided leverage for ethnic identity as well as politics of exclusions to thrive. without mincing words this has been a challenge to the unity of nigeria or the survival of nigeria as a state; given the plurality of nigeria state. in the present political dispensation, efforts are being made by civil society to consolidate the hard won democracy through its various intervention activities on issues of human rights, electoral reforms, constitutional reform, gender equality, civic education, transparency and accountability. the efforts of civil society to promote good governance are likely to remain futile as long as the problems of unemployment, corruption, political apathy, and people oriented constitution and the like are not addressed. this is because civil society has put nigeria in a market place of idea and ideologies, the essence of which is to propel healthy competition towards national integration, growth and development. this has made civil society an indispensable tool in the consolidation of socio-political development due to the fact that citizens can actualize their goals through their operations in the state. conclusion ethnicity in nigeria, no doubt, has been a significant challenge to the socio-political development of the country; not because the phenomenon is in itself dangerous but that the tendency is for 49 barnabas ekiegini izegede he socio-political implications of the igbos's indifferentism ... political leaders to manipulate it. thus, the functionality of ethnicity can either be negative or positive. ethnicity can be problematic if not managed properly and at the same time, a highly rewarding phenomenon if well managed, which means that ethnicity will continue to remain a force to be reckoned with notwithstanding the strategic mechanisms adopted to diffuse its flame. the historical context of igbo indifferentism reveals a complex web of socio-political factors that contributed to their stance. the legacy of the biafran war, as well as marginalization, exclusion, ethnic tensions, and unaddressed grievances, have fostered a deep-seated mistrust of the nigerian state. the effects of military takeover, including human rights abuses, displacement, and economic hardship, have further entrenched this mistrust. the socio-political implications of igbo indifferentism for national unity are significant. their disconnection from national initiatives and lack of investment in nigerian politics undermine efforts towards a unified nation. to address this, it is essential to: i. acknowledge and address historical grievances ii. promote inclusive governance and representation iii. ensure human rights protection and accountability iv. foster ethnic harmony and dialogue v. encourage economic development and empowerment by taking these steps, nigeria can work towards rebuilding trust and promoting national unity. indeed, the igbos' indifferentism serves as a reminder of the need for a more inclusive and equitable society where all ethnic groups feel valued and represented. only then can nigeria hope to achieve true national unity and prosperity. references awoshakin, t. 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(2016) customs harassing igbo travellers—obi. business post. https://businesspost.ng/2016/12/21/customs-harassing-igbo-travellers-obi/ nan (2016) customs, police extorting us-south east traders. the punch newspapers. https://punchng.com/customs-police-extorting-us-south-east-traders/ joireman sf (2003). nationalism and political identity. london/new york: hobsbawm ej (1990). nations and nationalism since 1780, programmme, myth, reality. cambridge: cambridge university press. nixon cr (1972). “self-determination: the nigeria/biafra case”. in world politics, 24(4): 473-497. amadiume i, an-na'im a (2000). “introduction: facing truth, voicing justice” in i amadiume& a an-na'im (eds.) op. citawodiya m (2006). “the challenge of ethnic nationalism” in vanguard online 25 january (available at http://www.vanguardngr.com) onu g (2001). “ethnicity and conflict management: a case study of massob movement in nigeria”. unesco/ena africa at crossroads. complex political emergencies in the 21st century most-ethno net africa publication (available at http://www.ethnonetafrica.org/pubs/crossroadonu.htm.retrieved 17 march,2006). ikpeze n (2000). “post-biafran marginalization of the igbo in nigeria” in i. amadiume& a, anna'im (eds.) i amadiume& a an-na'im (eds.) politics of memory: truth, healing and social justice. london/new york: zed books. ojukwu cc (2005). “the politics of integration and marginalization in nationbuilding: the igbo question in nigerian politics”. unilag j. pol. 2(1): 130-153. igbokwe ic (2005). “marginalization: the highest stage of tribalism” in flos carmel magazine no.5 arowolo, d. (2011). fiscal federalism in nigeria: theory and dimensions. afro asiajournal of social sciences, 2(2.2) 1-21. 52 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://www.vanguardngr.com/2019/05/enugu-another-shame-of-nigerian-airport/ https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/fg-to-shut-enugu-airport-for-safety-reasons.html http://punchng.com/enugu-airport-ohanaeze-ndigbo-kicks-against-closure/ http://nigerianpilot.com/ohanaeze-ndigbo-outcry-closure-of-enugu-airport/ https://businesspost.ng/2016/12/21/customs-harassing-igbo-travellers-obi/ https://punchng.com/customs-police-extorting-us-south-east-traders/ aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr rethinking justice in environmental laws: a philosophical enquiry valentine ojiegbe department of philosophy and religion alex ekwueme university, ndufu alike ikwo. ogesystems2000@gmail.com. abstract this paper critically examines the conceptual underpinnings and practical applications of justice within contemporary environmental laws. despite significant strides in environmental legislation, persistent disparities and inequities challenge the efficacy of existing legal frameworks. through a comprehensive analysis ofliterature, this study identifies key shortcomings in current approaches to justice, including the neglect of marginalized communities, the prioritization of economic interests, and procedural barriers to participation. drawing upon theories of environmental justice and legal pluralism, it proposes a transformative framework centered on principles of distributive, procedural, and recognition justice. this framework seeks to address systemic injustices by promoting inclusivity, equity, and empowerment within environmental decision-making processes. by synthesizing insights from law, sociology, and environmental ethics, this paper offers a refinedunderstanding of justice in environmental contexts and provides practical recommendations for policymakers, legal practitioners, and scholars. ultimately, this research aims to catalyze dialogue and act towards a more just and sustainable environmental governance. keywords: justice, environmental laws, anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, intergenerational equity introduction the earth's ecosystem, the intricate web of life that sustains us all, is facing unprecedented rates of degradation. deforestation, pollution, and climate change are pushing these vital systems towards a tipping point, with far-reaching consequences for biodiversity, resource availability, and human well-being. in this context, the existing framework of environmental law appears increasingly unrealizable and inapplicable. justice is a fundamental principle underlying the development and implementation of laws and policies, including those related to the environment. in recent years, there has been increasing recognition of the need to ensure justice for all members of the environment, including humans and non-human entities. current legal approaches often prioritize economic development and pollution control over ecological restoration and the intrinsic value of nature. the dominant 'polluter pays principle' (ppp), while holding polluters accountable, focuses on remediation after the fact, neglecting the long-term ecological damage inflicted. furthermore, unequal enforcement weakens the effectiveness of environmental laws, disproportionately burdening marginalized communities with the consequences of environmental degradation. this critical juncture demands a paradigm shift in environmental justice. justice in this context extends beyond simply holding polluters responsible. it necessitates a holistic approach that prioritizes ecological restoration, ensures intergenerational equity, and recognizes the inherent value of ecosystems. this thesis delves into the limitations of current environmental law, explores alternative legal frameworks that promote ecological well-being, and proposes a path forward for achieving true environmental justice in the face of escalating ecosystem degradation. 125 environmental laws the environment encompasses everything that surrounds us, the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components that interact to sustain life on earth. this intricate web includes the atmosphere, water, land, plants, animals, and humans (miller, 2009). also, johnson et al. (1997) assert that the environment includes all living things in contact with one another as well as the climate, weather, and natural resources that have an impact on human survival and economic activity. however, human activity has significantly impacted this delicate balance, leading to the development of environmental law. environmental law is the collection of laws, regulations, agreements, and common law that govern how humans interact with their environment. this includes environmental regulations; laws governing management of natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries; and related topics such as environmental impact assessments. according to brumby, 2013 environmental law is a broad field of legal principles, regulations, and agreements that govern human interaction with the environment. it encompasses various aspects, including: · pollution control: regulating the release of harmful substances into air, water, and land. · natural resource management: managing forests, fisheries, and minerals to ensure sustainability. · biodiversity protection: safeguarding endangered species and their habitats. · waste management: promoting responsible handling and disposal of waste products. environmental laws are put in place to mitigate the threatening environmental problems that emanate from human activities in the quest for economic growth and development. the need for environmental control arises from the fact that it brings improved health and better living conditions (adelagan, 2004). these laws can be international treaties, national statutes, or local regulations. they establish standards for acceptable levels of pollution, prescribe practices for sustainable resource use, and mandate environmental impact assessments for certain projects. conceptualization of justice the concept of justice, a cornerstone of philosophy and legal systems, takes on a complex dimension when applied to the environment. environmental laws, while striving to protect ecosystems and regulate human impact, often fall short of achieving true environmental justice. the word justice is derived from the latin word “jus” meaning right or law. the merriamwebster dictionary defines justice as the maintenance or administration of what is just, especially by the impartial adjustment of conflicting claims or the assignment of merited rewards or punishments. it can also be seen as the quality of being just and fair. aristotle's concept of justice is grounded in his broader ethical framework, particularly in his work, nicomachean ethics. for aristotle, justice is not merely about obeying laws or distributing goods fairly; it is about cultivating virtuous habits and promoting human flourishing within a community. plato's concept of justice, as explored in his work, the republic, involves harmony and balance within the individual and the state. he believed that justice in the individual arises when each part of the soul performs its proper function, with reason ruling over the spirited and appetitive parts. in the state, justice is achieved when each class (rulers, warriors, and producers) performs its designated role, with rulers governing wisely for the benefit of the whole society. this creates a harmonious and balanced society where everyone contributes according to their abilities and receives what they deserve. for plato, justice is a moral concept rather than a legal one. 126 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 justice was defined and determined by the christian philosophers of the middle ages, saint augustine (354-430) and saint thomas aquinas (1225-1274), who drew upon their ethical framework of morals under god. according to saint augustine, every unjust law of man that conflicts with god's everlasting law ought to be disregarded since it is unjust. god's law is intrinsically just and lasts forever. justice is a reflection of upholding god's natural rules, according to saint thomas aquinas, who also focused on natural law, arguing that morality informs justice and that people are born with moral rights. in the contemporary age, justice essentially refers to the acceptance and application of legislatively enacted legislation. also, judicial organs play a major role in this function in the modern environment, unlike in ancient nations. justice, then, usually refers to the courts' acknowledgment, administration, and enforcement of the law. this is not the same as how justice was understood in ancient times when it was assigned a moralistic and religious connotation. under the influence of the contemporary philosopher, john rawls, the term "justice as fairness" has become generally accepted in practically all social science fields. it also provides an in-depth explanation of the meaning of justice. rawls presents two principles of justice in his writings. firstly, every individual has an equal right to the broadest possible overall system of equal basic rights that is compatible with a system of liberty that is comparable for everyone. secondly, according to the just savings concept, social and economic disparities should be managed so that they are: (i) tied to posts and offices that are accessible to everyone under fair equality of opportunity circumstances, and (ii) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, under the just savings concept (rawls, 1971). kant talked about how justice is like a contract, and this idea influenced rawls. rawls's idea of justice is not just about making sure people are okay, but also about making sure each person is treated fairly. he came up with the "veil of ignorance" idea to explain this. normally, our ideas about fairness are shaped by who we are, like our race, gender, and background. but if we imagine not knowing anything about ourselves, we would want a society that's fair for everyone. rawls thinks the most important rule is to make sure everyone has basic freedoms, like freedom of thought. he also thinks societies should make sure everyone has access to things like education and housing, which are positive rights. justice and the environment environmental justice is defined by the united states environmental protection agency (epa) as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, colour, national origin, or income, concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. according to wolch, et al (2014), environmental justice is seen as the equitable exposure to environmental good and harm. it calls for strict enforcement of principles and mandates the right to ethical, balanced, and responsible uses of land and renewable resources in the interest of a sustainable planet for humans and other living things. also, it requires that humans make personal and consumer choices to consume as little of mother earth's resources and to produce as little waste as possible; and make conscious decisions to reprioritize our lifestyles to ensure the health of the natural world for present and future generations. environmental justice focuses on the equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. this raises questions about who has rights within the environment: just humans, or all living things? what are those rights? do future generations have a right to a healthy planet? environmental law has traditionally been grounded in anthropocentrism, a view that places humanity at the center, valuing the environment primarily for its utility and benefit to humans. 127 valentine ojiegbe rethinking justice in environmental laws: ... this perspective informs regulations focused on sustainable resource management, pollution control, and economic valuations of ecosystem services (moore, 2015). while these regulations have played a crucial role in curbing environmental degradation, they fail to fully address the question of who has rights within the environment. gilfford who supports anthropocentrism believes that unlimited human progress is possible through the exploitation of nature's infinite resources. also, francis bacon posits that “we must torture the nature's secret from her, this view considers man separate and superior to nature,it considers nature as an inert machine, infinitely divisible and moved by external rather internal forces. we reduce things to mere nature, because nature is the name for what we have, to some extent, conquered (lewis 1953). within the anthropocentric framework, environmental laws are designed to protect human well-being, including health, safety, and economic prosperity, often at the expense of non-human species and ecosystems (gardiner, 2004). this utilitarian perspective justifies environmental policies based on cost-benefit analysis and trade-offs between human interests and ecological integrity (sagoff, 1988). however, ecocentrism challenges this anthropocentric view. ecocentrists argue that nature has intrinsic value, existing independently of its usefulness to humans (goodland, 1995). devall et al. (1985) assert that non-human nature has intrinsic value apart from its contribution to human development, and man is not separate or superior from nature but takes place in nature's system, therefore man's development should be sought only insofar as it does not infringe on the integrity of natural ecosystems. ecocentric theories, such as deep ecology and biocentrism, emphasize the interconnectedness and interdependence of all living beings and ecosystems, advocating for a holistic and inclusive approach to governance (naess, 1973). from an ecocentric perspective, environmental laws should prioritize the protection and preservation of biodiversity, ecological integrity, and the intrinsic value of nature, regardless of their instrumental value to man. also, this perspective suggests that environmental laws should not just protect human well-being, but also the inherent value of ecosystems themselves. the concept of "rights of nature," gaining traction in legal movements, proposes granting legal personhood or guardianship to ecosystems themselves, allowing them to be represented in court and protected from harmful activities (cornel law school, 2023). the concept of rights of nature raises intriguing questions about the specific rights the environment might possess. these rights could encompass the right to exist, thrive, and evolve naturally, free from human-caused degradation (bingham, 2014). granting such rights would necessitate establishing mechanisms for enforcing these rights, potentially through legal guardians or designated representatives. some scholars propose the establishment of rights such as the right to clean air, water, and food, which are essential for human well-being (bullard & johnson, 2000). additionally, the recognition of rights for non-human entities, such as the right to habitat preservation and freedom from exploitation, is gaining traction within environmental discourse (cafaro & primack, 2018). by recognizing the inherent rights of nature, ecocentrism offers a broader framework for environmental justice that includes the well-being of all living things, not just humans. dimensions to environmental justice i. distributive justice: focuses on the equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. it challenges the unequal distribution of environmental risks and harms, particularly in low-income and minority communities. this dimension raises questions about access to clean air, water, and land, as well as the fair distribution of environmental amenities like parks and green spaces. 128 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 ii. procedural justice: emphasizes the importance of meaningful public participation in environmental decision-making. this includes access to information, the right to be heard, and the ability to influence decisions that affect one's environment and well-being. it also entails transparency and accountability in environmental governance. iii. corrective justice: addresses the need to hold polluters accountable for environmental damage and to compensate victims for their losses. this dimension encompasses legal mechanisms such as liability for environmental harm, remediation efforts, and compensation for communities affected by pollution. iv. restorative justice: focuses on healing environmental harms and restoring damaged ecosystems. it emphasizes the importance of ecological restoration projects, as well as the role of indigenous knowledge and traditional ecological practices in environmental management. applicability and challenges in environmental laws the efficacy of environmental laws in delivering justice has been a subject of debate and scrutiny. as we confront pressing environmental challenges, it's imperative to reassess the applicability and effectiveness of these laws in achieving equitable outcomes. environmental laws are designed to regulate human activities that impact the environment, ranging from pollution control to natural resource management. however, their applicability can vary significantly across different regions and contexts due to several influencing factors: i. enforcement capacity: the ability of governments and regulatory bodies to enforce environmental laws is crucial for their applicability. in many developing countries, limited financial and human resources hinder effective enforcement. for instance, agencies may lack the personnel needed to monitor compliance or the technical expertise to assess environmental impacts accurately (gunningham & sinclair, 1999). this can lead to widespread non-compliance and environmental degradation, as seen in countries with rampant deforestation due to illegal logging (kaimowitz, 2003). ii. political will: political commitment to environmental protection varies widely and significantly influences the applicability of environmental laws. in some regions, political leaders prioritize economic growth and development over environmental conservation, weakening the implementation of environmental regulations. for example, despite robust environmental laws in brazil, political and economic pressures have often led to the relaxation of these laws to favour agricultural expansion and mining, exacerbating deforestation in the amazon (bratman, 2019). iii. socio-economic disparities: socio-economic disparities can affect how environmental laws are applied and perceived. in marginalized communities, the lack of access to legal resources and political representation can impede the enforcement of environmental laws, perpetuating environmental injustices. communities of color and low-income populations in the united states, for instance, often face higher exposure to environmental hazards due to the inequitable application of environmental regulations (bullard, 1993). iv. intersectionality with social justice concerns: the intersectionality of environmental issues with other social justice concerns, such as race, class, and gender, requires a more nuanced understanding of the applicability of environmental laws. environmental justice frameworks highlight how these intersecting issues influence the distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. for example, indigenous communities frequently face disproportionate environmental impacts from industrial activities due to historical 129 valentine ojiegbe rethinking justice in environmental laws: ... and ongoing injustices (whyte, 2018). v. gap between legal mandates and on-the-ground realities: one of the primary challenges is the gap between the legal mandates of environmental laws and the realities of their implementation. laws may be well-intentioned, but without adequate enforcement and compliance mechanisms, they often fail to produce the desired outcomes. this gap can result from insufficient funding for environmental agencies, lack of trained personnel, and political interference (bennear & coglianese, 2005). vi. inadequate enforcement mechanisms: enforcement mechanisms are often inadequate, leading to non-compliance and impunity among polluters. regulatory agencies may struggle to enforce laws effectively due to bureaucratic inefficiencies, corruption, and lack of transparency. for instance, in many countries, industrial facilities continue to violate pollution standards with little fear of repercussions due to weak regulatory oversight (dasgupta et al., 2001). vii. complex and transboundary nature of environmental problems: the complex and transboundary nature of many environmental problems necessitates a more holistic and collaborative approach to law enforcement and policy implementation. environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and water pollution often cross national borders, requiring coordinated international efforts. however, existing environmental laws are typically designed to address local or national issues, making it challenging to manage transboundary environmental impacts effectively (young, 2002). viii. public participation and transparency: enhancing public participation and transparency in environmental decision-making processes can improve the effectiveness of environmental laws. when communities are actively involved in shaping and monitoring environmental policies, there is a greater likelihood of achieving equitable and sustainable outcomes. the aarhus convention, which grants the public rights to access information, participate in decision-making, and seek justice in environmental matters, exemplifies how increased transparency and participation can strengthen environmental governance (stec & casey-lefkowitz, 2000). intergenerational equity: a moral obligation to the future expanding the circle of moral consideration in environmental justice necessitates extending our focus beyond the present generation. intergenerational equity emphasizes our moral obligation to ensure future generations inherit a healthy planet capable of sustaining life. this principle calls for environmental decision-making that prioritizes long-term ecological well-being over shortterm economic gains. consideration of intergenerational equity challenges the anthropocentric tendency to prioritize immediate economic benefits over the long-term health of the planet. discounting the needs of future generations leads to unsustainable practices like resource depletion and pollution n for short-term economic growth. intergenerational equity compels us to factor in the long-term consequences of our actions and adopt environmental practices that ensure a viable future for all generations to come. the dialogue surrounding environmental justice extends beyond competing theories of rights. ecological economics offers a valuable framework for integrating ecological values into economic decision-making. traditional economic models often fail to capture the full value of ecosystem services, leading to environmental degradation and resource depletion (costanza et al., 2012). ecological economics advocates for including the intrinsic value of nature in economic calculations, taking into account the long-term consequences of environmental decisions. by 130 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 internalizing the true costs of environmental degradation, ecological economics can incentivize sustainable practices and inform policy decisions that promote environmental justice for present and future generations. developing sustainable economic strategies that align with environmental protection can help balance economic growth with ecological preservation. this includes supporting green jobs and industries that do not harm vulnerable communities. to achieve this integration, policymakers must prioritize investments in renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and clean technologies. by transitioning towards a circular economy that minimizes waste and maximizes resource efficiency, we can reduce our ecological footprint while promoting economic prosperity. the way forward moving forward, it is imperative to adopt a multifaceted approach to rethinking justice within environmental laws. this approach should incorporate principles of distributive, procedural, and participatory justice to ensure that environmental regulations not only mitigate harm but also promote fairness and equity among all stakeholders. firstly, integrating distributive justice principles entails considering the equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across different communities, particularly those disproportionately affected by environmental degradation. this can be achieved through measures such as environmental impact assessments that assess the potential effects of proposed projects on vulnerable populations and ecosystems. secondly, procedural justice must be upheld by ensuring transparency, accountability, and inclusivity in the decision-making processes related to environmental policies and regulations. this involves providing meaningful opportunities for public participation, fostering dialogue between stakeholders, and incorporating diverse perspectives into policy development. lastly, promoting participatory justice necessitates empowering marginalized communities and indigenous groups to actively engage in environmental governance and decision-making processes. this requires recognizing and respecting their traditional knowledge, rights, and cultural practices, and fostering collaborative partnerships based on mutual respect and trust. furthermore, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration between legal scholars, environmental scientists, policymakers, and grassroots activists is essential for developing innovative solutions that address the complexities of environmental justice. by harnessing the collective expertise and insights of diverse stakeholders, we can advance a more holistic and inclusive approach to environmental law that prioritizes justice for both present and future generations. conclusion in conclusion, the pursuit of justice within environmental laws requires a fundamental reevaluation of existing frameworks to address the interconnected challenges of environmental degradation, social inequality, and systemic injustice. by integrating principles of distributive, procedural, and participatory justice into environmental governance, we can create a more equitable and sustainable future for all. however, achieving this vision will require concerted efforts from governments, civil society, and the private sector to overcome entrenched power dynamics, institutional barriers, and resistance to change. it will also necessitate a shift in mindset from viewing environmental justice as an optional addendum to recognizing it as a foundational principle that underpins the integrity and effectiveness of environmental laws. ultimately, rethinking justice in environmental laws is not only a legal imperative but also a moral 131 valentine ojiegbe rethinking justice in environmental laws: ... imperative that demands collective action and solidarity across borders, generations, and social identities. by centering justice in our approach to environmental governance, we can build a more resilient and inclusive society where the rights of all beings, human and non-human alike, are respected and protected. references adelegan, j. a. (2004). the history of environmental policy and pollution of water sources in nigeria (1960 – 2004): the way forward. department of civil engineering university of ibadan, ibadan, oyo state, nigeria. aristotle. (2007). nicomachean ethics. aristotle's collection 29. w.d. ross transl. kindle edition. boyd, j. (2017). environmental rights revolution: law of the ecosphereand the commons. routledge. bullard, r. d. (2000). dumping in dixie: race, class, and environmental justice. routledge. bullard, r. d. (1990). avoiding environmental racism: alternative approaches to planning and zoning. covelo, ca: island press cardinale, b. j., duffy, j. e., gonzalez, a., hooper, d. u., perroni, c., gamfeldt, m., ... & loreau, m. (2012). biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. nature, 486: 59-67. chess, c., & purcell, k. (1999). public participation and the environment: do we know what works? environmental science & technology, 33: 16. cornel law school. (2023). the center for environmental sustainability: rights of nature. https://classes.cornell.edu/browse/roster/fa23/class/law/4330 costanza, r., de groot, r., van der ploeg, s., et al. (2014). changes in the global value of ecosystem services. global environmental change, 26: 152-158. costanza, r., kubiszewski, i., martinez, n., mooney, h. a., norma, l., ricketts, t., tallis, h. (2012). global monetary values of ecosystem services such as pollination, soils, and water. ecological economics, 81: 149-157. devall, b., and sessions, g., (1985). deep ecology: living as if nature mattered, salt lake city: peregrine smith. 1996. “lewis mumford, the forgotten american environmentalist: an essay in rehabilitation”, in d. macauley (ed.), minding nature: the philosophers of ecology, new york: guilford press. earth law center. (2023). the community rights movement. https://www.earthlawcenter.org/ houghton, r. a. (2003). replacing forests with crops and grazing cattle as a source of atmospheric co2. ambio, 32(6), 398-400. lewis, d. k. (1989). “dispositional theories of value”, proceedings of the aristotelian society (supplementary volume), 63: 113–37. montgomery hitchcock, f. r. (1922). st. augustine's treatise on the city of god. organization for economic co-operation and development. (1972). guiding principles concerning international economic aspects of environmental policies. oecd. rawls, j. (1971). a theory of justice. the belknap press of harvard university press. sagoff, m. (1984). “animal liberation and environmental ethics: bad marriage, quick divorce.” osgoode hall law journal, 22: 297–307. world commission on environment and development. (1987). our common future. oxford university press united states environmental protection agency “environmental justice”. available at https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice (accessed 15 september 2020). 132 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://classes.cornell.edu/browse/roster/fa23/class/law/4330 https://www.earthlawcenter.org/ https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr morality and education: the precursor for social reconstruction justus isaac ph. d interim joint matriculation board unit university of jos plateau, nigeria justusisaac33@gmail.com abstract the focus of the work is to analyze the relationship between morality and education, and its implications for social reconstruction. in order to achieve this, qualitative research method was adopted which involves a philosophical analytic technique used to analyze the data collated through secondary sources. it was discovered that education enlightens one to distinguish the 'good' from the 'bad' clearly, for his/her benefit first, and then that of the society. thus, morality is embedded in education both in principle and practice. if society is to experience reconstruction, citizens should embrace cognitive restructuring, to expel all negative thinking patterns that frustrate individual and social development. key words: education, morality, society, reconstruction introduction every human society, no matter its historical circumstances of existence, has its own unique and peculiar ways of transferring morals, skills, knowledge, and values to its future generation. this does not in any way imply that, any educated person is a moral person. it simply means that morality can be acquired in the process education. however, education is not the ultimate source of morality. man is a moral creature, conscious of what is good and bad (daramola, 2015). education is not the same as morality. yet, education and morality are so related that one cannot be considered without the other. therefore, education in whatever fashion cannot be treated in the society without making reference to morality. education enlightens one to be in an advantageous position, to recognize and even distinguish 'good' from 'bad'. the core of education tends to build the personality of an individual, to make one good, useful and beneficial to him/herself first, then to the society. unfortunately, the link between morality and education is not very pronounced in our faulty educational system in nigeria. the study opines that our contemporary society needs reconstruction, and if nothing is done urgently, it may collapse beyond repair. nevertheless, social reconstruction remains a mirage if the mental structure of nigerians does not change. of course, the physical reconstruction of the society is the by-product of the constructed minds of the people in that particular society. it is on this background that prompted the study “education and morality: the precursor for social reconstruction”. re-constructionist views of society and education the re-constructionist views the future as part of the present, contending that if we speculate on what the future might be like and then take these future possibilities into account in planning the present, the future becomes a force and takes on genuine reality. this view holds that there are ends higher than and beyond the mere process of living in a given society at a given time. the premise on which the re-constructionist bases his assertions is that civilization now faces the possibility of self-destruction. education must therefore lead men to a profound change in their 62 minds so that the enormous technological power at our disposal may be used to create rather than destroy. hence, deducing from this view point, the curricular should contain only those areas of study that are capable of transforming the human mind so that he can transform his society. it is therefore, the human mind that the curriculum should be focused upon and in terms of value character or the conservation of age long heritages (ezewu et al., 1982). however, the re-constructionist maintains that our civilization has reached a point when we direct our technological advancement to self-annihilation. for thomas hobbes reconstruction is the state of perpetual war all against all. contrary to this point, john lock argues that the structure men found themselves is in a peaceful state, men decide to reconstruct it because it cannot meet all their needs. the result of this decision is the formation of an organized society under a civil government through a social construct (uduigwomen, 1995). man needs therefore a different or his mind should be reconstructed so that he can gainfully direct the technological advances. for this, the re-constructionists emphasized character building to be what should be pursued by our schools and vigorously too. no wonder john dewy says education is the reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience (uhie, 2015). we need to reconstruct our experiences as bases for re-organizing the society. if societies can stop destroying themselves, world peace could be attained and a kind of world democratic state could be expected (ezewu et al., 1982). traditional education is rooted in morality originally traditional education in nigeria is rooted in the moral principles that control the social order. the indigenous nigerian education is organized at the family level, the serious ties existing between the different family units renders the educational system a community affair. this is further strengthened by the fact that african education is rooted in the overall belief and traditions of the land. it is in this respect that the indigenous system of education in nigeria is training for participation throughout one's life in the community into which one is born. it is a training of allegiance, mutual interest and interdependence on one another, the content of which is the community's values, beliefs, traditions and the vocations that have been cherished and practiced over the years. the indigenous education in nigeria, like in other parts in africa, is to bring up children who should have respect for the ancestors, the elders of the community, appreciate and pursue societal values and keep strictly to the societal norms. to themselves, they should be people who can support themselves when they are of age and be able to show kindness and appreciation to their parents and the elders of the community for providing the education which equipped them to participate effectively as members of the community. consequently, indigenous education system in nigeria could be seen as a tribal conditioning, a pilgrimage in routine observation but stirs up the innermost feelings and loyalties of those submitted into it bringing individuals together through understanding and compassion (ezewu et al., 1982). western influence on education and morality african educational practices had for a long time been relegated to the background by the impact of colonialism. the consequences of which were that african ways of life and values were misinterpreted out of deliberate bias by westerners. it had been thought erroneously, even by some western educated nigerians that there was nothing like education before the coming of missionaries to nigeria, yet it is known that africans, nigerians not exempted transmitted their cultural heritage and sustained themselves from one generation to another before now. even now, african education is not dead. it goes side by side with western education (ezewu et al., 1982). 63 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 western education contributed immensely to the success of the christian enterprise and in some ways, to the practical execution of the colonial program. in pre-colonial africa, there were no schools in the sense of separate institutions set aside solely to undertake the education of young people (aguwa, 1987). the christian mission established primary and secondary schools. the missionaries at that time noticed and exploited this keen interest in education among the africa people. one of the early missionaries had said, “if we go from town to town talking about god we know from experience that much of our effort brings no result. but no one is opposed to a school”. shortly, the initiative rested with the natives. the missionary accounts have explained that, the impact of school on paganism cannot be overstated. the whole town became interested because it was their school built by their labour and engaged in training their children. the fathers never begged the people to take the school please, they just pointed out that it was a wonderful favour to have one and that if people wanted it, they would have to build and support it, and if they refused, they would be laughed at by other towns for their backwardness. despite the fact that africans responded positively and actively to school education, it was observed to be a common defect of the mission educational policy that it did not truly reflects the interest in education as such. the central motive for educating the native people was to prepare the much needed manpower. according to jordan (1948) that: the gradual opening up of the hinterland to the administration of law and the opportunity of commerce meant that a considerable amount of office work in government departments, and in the trading posts of commercial firms called for a large number of educated natives. the medical and the judicial as well as the army, police and prison departments needed africans with knowledge of english. at the initial stage many people were reluctant to send their children to the mission school for fear of their children opposing their traditional religion. at the same time some other people had no alternative because the changing environment demanded that to be at the right place in future one must directly or indirectly follow the white men and their activities (chibundu, 2007). the colonial lords were looked upon by the colonized african as the enemy, who gave inferior status to his person and his civilization, and distorted his true image and his personality in movies, literature, and television. colonial existence was consequently “untrue existence” (wright, 1993). relationship between education and morality from time memorial, there exist an intimate relationship between education and morality to the point that virtually all the definitions of education one can find moral aspects in each. however, the questions that arose when considering the issues of education are: is education good or bad for man? should the society expect good or bad from education? who is the teacher? what are the benefits of the skills and abilities acquired through education? these critical inquiries among other things, suggest that that the moral aspects of education are always questioned. when we conquer these questions, then personal and social reconstruction becomes a reality. peters r. s. (as quoted by ezewu, 1982) asserts that education as basically initiation; that is, initiation into the values of society and the young ones are from time to time initiated into these values. this implies that initiation is a continuous process from birth to death. it promotes the values and adjustability of people in the changing society. in addition, jeffrey m. v. (as quoted by ezewu, 1982) opines that education is the community's means of nurturing personal growth. in other words, education, according to this view is each community's method of preparing its members for the community life. education is the process by which an individual born into a human society, learns the way of life, which include knowledge, skills and values of the society, at 64 justus isaac. morality and education: the precursor for social ... home, community and schools, so that he can function effectively as a member of the given society. milton (as quoted by ezewu, 1982) said “i call, therefore, a complete and generous education that fits man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously…” that education should prepare the individual to perform justly and skillfully in the society. education trains people to be just and objective in their dealings with others, irrespective of their diverse religions, ethnic and regional affiliations. education produces sound character; by respecting father, mother, obedience and live an orderly life (ezewu et al., 1982). the fruits of education manifest first in the good and admirable character that individual's exhibit at home and secondly, in the society. to support this view, plato maintains that education is that training which is given by suitable to first instincts of virtue in children when pleasure and pain are rightly implanted in rational souls. he sees education purely as a means of character development (ezewu et al., 1982). this implies that the behaviour of people is an evidence of the degree of education they acquired. the degree of educational expositions and dispositions definitely affects their character, in the relationship with others and the society. true education is directed towards the formation of the human person in view of his final end and the good of the society to which he belongs and in the duties of which he will, as an adult, have a share (flannery, 2004). education prepares and equips people in achieving their dreams and aspirations in life. it enlightens people towards their human rights, and the need to vigorously express their distinctiveness and dignity ascribed to them by god. however, pius xi (1939) asserts that education should be suitable to the particular destiny of the individuals. that implies that, due education is crucial for human development, but the content should be prepared accordingly to suite the different careers people aspire to pursue respectively in the society. forces that ignite social reconstruction 1. discontent: discontent is a feeling of being unhappy and dissatisfied with the situation you are in. when people begin to be dissatisfied with their life style, social status, and economic condition. the discontent about a system of government has been known to produce individual and societal anomie. the individual experiencing anomie feels socially isolated and anxious. as such in a larger societal context, generally accepted beliefs and standards of conduct are weakened or disappear (new encyclopedia britannica, 1998). discontent is one of the major forces that ignite social reconstruction mentality. although, discontent usually manifest in diverse manners depending on the system of governance in a particular country. in the democratic system, citizens have the right to freedom of speech, through which they express their discontentment. on the other, military system of governance, citizens are usually dictated what they are expected to do or not to do. in this dispensation, discontent may be expressed through isolation, resistance and even through dispositions. 2. poverty and deprivation: it should not be necessary for one to have knowledge of statistics before one knows that many nigerians are living in poverty and deprivation. this is another factor that ignites social re-construction. when there are high rates of unemployment, underemployment, inflation and lopsided distribution of wealth poverty is inevitable. the advantage of one becomes the disadvantage of the other. then, some people would be deprived of the common wealth. deprivation leads to poverty. as such individuals suffering from the fracas of poverty may at a point react against the established order. kaunda (1974) therefore, maintains that, they have not will rise against the haves whether the haves like it or not (p. 20). hence, the immediate and pragmatic need for social reconstruction is to promote equal distribution of common wealth and opportunities for the underprivileged in the society. according to greinacher, (1973) the concern must be to assist the individual person less well off than his fellows, and under privileged group, and to eliminate altogether situations in which one 65 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 man can lord it over another. 3. psychological satisfaction: the satisfaction gained from participation in a group seems particularly important, especially for people who lack significant attachment in their daily lives. people are generally satisfied to belong to a group that shares a common outlook on society. the need to belong in such group to satisfy their taste for the sense of belonging. unfortunately the psychological satisfaction of people remains a mirage especially in our society that discriminates her citizens' base on social class, status, and social strata. against this background, a lot of people are psychologically dissatisfied and displaced. this mentality is not only destructive but also ignites the desire for social reconstruction. cognitive restructuring, social class and reconstruction the cognitive structure, thinking patterns or the mind sets of people is critical aspect as long as social reconstruction is concern. cognitive restructuring in this context means mental restructuring. it implies that at a point people may experience mental distortion due to complex social issues. the cost of living is very expensive, for a significant numbers of people are poor. nevertheless, the deprivations of welfare breeds depression, anxiety, and relationship problems (especially between the rich and the poor), which are conditions that expresses mental distortions. cognitive distortions are located in the individual experience or physical wellbeing of the mental ill person. people sometimes experience a cognitive distortion that is the thought pattern that creates a distorted view of reality. examples of cognitive distortions can include; black and white thinking, catastrophizing, overgeneralization, and personalization (stanborough, 2023). moreover, cognitive distortion is not distributed randomly across the social classes. according to roger gomme (1996) (as quoted by stanborough, 2023), for nearly every kind of mental illness, poorer people are afflicted more than richer people, more often, more seriously and for longer. coming from another angle, fryer (1995) (as quoted by stanborough, 2023) reviewed the evidence for the relationship between employment patterns and mental health and concluded that unemployment has a direct effect on the unemployed person's health, and also on that of their family. children's school performance deteriorates, for example, and they are more likely to exhibit mental health problems. people in low-paid and insecure employment similarly demonstrate high levels of mental illness. cognitive restructuring refers to the techniques that help people notice and change their negative thinking patterns. cognitive restructuring techniques deconstruct unhelpful thoughts and rebuild them in a more balanced and accurate way. most people experience negative thought patterns from time to time, but sometimes these patterns become so entrenched that they interfere with relationships, achievements, and even wellbeing. many mental health conditions are: depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, substance use disorders, personal disorders, relationship problems, and self-defeating behaviour (stanborough, 2023). cognitive restructuring offers an opportunity to notice these maladaptive thoughts as they occur. you can then practice reframing them in more accurate and helpful ways. the theory is that if you can change how you look at specific events or circumstances, you may be able to change the feelings you have and actions you take. the techniques are: self-monitoring, questioning your assumptions, gathering evidence, and performing a cost-benefit analysis. in self-monitoring techniques, to change an unproductive thought pattern, you have to be able to identify the error you are making. cognitive restructuring depends on your ability to notice the thoughts that spark negative feelings and states of mind. questioning your assumptions involves learning to question your thoughts and assumptions, especially those that seem to get in the way of living a productive life. in gathering evidence, you may decide to keep track of the events that trigger a 66 justus isaac. morality and education: the precursor for social ... response, including who you were with and what you were doing. cognitive distortions are biased and inaccurate, but they can also be deeply embedded. dislodging and replacing them requires evidence about how rational they are. the last technique is performing a cost-benefit analysis; this is the strategy of considering the advantages and disadvantages of maintaining a certain cognitive distortion (stanborough, 2023). however, cognitive restructuring is crucial for social reconstruction. for social reconstruction can only be implemented by human beings. these human beings must be mentally healthy, to execute the business of reconstruction and repositioning the society for the benefit of humanity. the social class of the people also matters in social reconstruction. if the society is made up of the poor and the ignorant, then social reconstruction may be a mirage. for the poor and ignorant are bankrupt of critical ideas and resources to rebuild the social fabric. the people in this class are shielded from the light that can help them distinguish the wrong from the good. as such education enlightens people and it is crucial to social reconstruction. the conditions of social reconstruction 1. hard work: everybody wants social reconstruction, especially considering our economic conditions of today, but not everybody understands and accepts the basic requirements for social reconstruction. nigeria, as a developing country, we need to put more hours in work. it is not normal for a young country to start with such a short working week. the normal thing is to begin with long working hours and decrease them as the country becomes more and more prosperous. one cannot estimate the amounts of energies of the millions of men in the villages and thousands of women in towns are at present wasted in gossips, dancing and drinking, are a great treasure which could contribute more towards the social reconstruction than anything we could get from rich nations. 2. intelligence: the second condition for social reconstruction is intelligence. unintelligent hard work would not bring the same good results as the two combined. knowing your time and season, knowing the steps to apply in any given situation, knowing the tool to use for efficient work output, all these things shows the use of knowledge and intelligence. and all of them combine with hard work to produce more and better results. intelligence is the by-product of knowledge, knowledge increases through education, and the kind of knowledge by which we conquer nature and use it to our own advantage. all societies have the ability to develop, but not all of them reach their fulfillment of an accomplished growth (nyerere, 1974). social implications of moral education the act of educating people to acquire moral virtue in order to build or rebuild their lives and the society at large is known as moral education. nevertheless, the experiences of life gave room to the misconception of the term 'moral education' to sexual relationship. it is an error to think that moral education is limited to the area of sexual relationship. morality is concerned with all relationship between people in the human society and it constitutes moral confusion of our times. moral education is a universal concept, even though the meaning and applications remains relative to each society. what is acceptable in some cultural settings are under questioning in other places. in examining morality the non-material aspect of culture need to be emphasized which is rooted in attitudinal values. it is universally accepted that negative attitudes, characters and behaviours are condemned in the homes, schools, religious houses and the society. values like honesty, loyalty, patriotism, faithfulness, obedience, respect, truthfulness, love, unity, cooperation, and so on need to be properly taught and stressed in the school and society. these are essential for personal and social development. in the contrary, pupils need to be taught to abstain 67 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 in totality from prostitution, raping, homosexual, lesbianism, smoking, terrorism, kidnapping and so forth. however, moral values have no relevance except in terms of real life. it is after all through actual conduct that moral character is developed. though laid down general principles of conduct can be applied deductively. it is only through experience of real and relevant situations that children can learn their application. the inductive process is a greater value, for it starts with experience and from analysis of specific moral actions builds up general principles. the sources of such moral situations are many and varied, ranging far beyond real life and actual experiences. folklores and legend, fable and proverb, parable and allegory, drama and role playing, all may be used as vehicles for moral learning. such experiences involve the shaping of attitudes and the development of moral skills. it is not the reason alone that motivates action but emotion and moral attitudes too (daramola, 2015). conclusion western education was not the original form of education in nigeria. the advent of western education was motivated either to advance foreign religion or colonial administrative structure within nigeria, contrary to the ideal of education which is to build and empower one first such that he/she can positively contribute to building social structures. however, the derogatory state of our contemporary society intrinsically calls for social reconstruction. moreover, for any society to experience reconstruction, her citizens need not to only pursue the 'good' enshrined in education but also to avail themselves towards cognitive restructuring both in principle and in practice. this will definitely lead to productivity and new discoveries virtually in all human endeavours references 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(1987). the anthropological challenges of christianity in the changing african culture: the nigeria case. rome: remo ambrosini. chibundu, e. g. (2007). religious change in birth, puberty & marriage rites in owerri, imo state. aba: assemblies of god press. daramola, c. o. edu 202 (2015): sociology of education. kaduna: national teachers' institute publishers. ezewu, e. e. et al (1982). sociological and philosophical foundations of education. ibadan: heinemann educational books (nig.) ltd. flannery, a. (2004). vatican council ii. costello publishing, st. pauls bandra, mumbai, p. 643. thgreinacher, n. (4 april 1973). the christian community and political commitment. concilium. st pius xi (31 december 1929). encyclical, divinillius magistri. aas (22:1939). thpius xi (24 december 1924). radio message jordan, j. p. (1948) bishop shanahan of southern nigeria. dublin: conmore & reynolds. th kaunda, k. d. (1974, 20 september). humanism in zambia and a guide to its implementation. part ii, state house lusaka. nyerere, j. k. (1974). ujamaa: essays on socialism. new york: oxford university press. th stanborough, r. j. (2023, 5 june). how to change negative thinking with cognitive restructuring. reviewed by nicole washington. retrieved from: www.healthline.com uduigwomen, a. (1995). political implications of john locke's notion of popular soveriegnty for military governments in nigeria. foot marks on african philosophy. lagos: obaroh & ogbinaka publishers ltd. uhie, h. c. (2015). philosophy of education. in national teachers' institute module. kaduna: national open university of nigeria, p. 88. wright, richard (1993). african philosophy and social reconstruction. in african social & political philosophy selected essays. nsukka: fulladu publishing company. 68 justus isaac. morality and education: the precursor for social ... 41 critical analysis of nonreciprocal frameworks in geopolitical shifts and the prospects of african exports: the case of the african growth and opportunity act (agoa) sampson edodi phd candidate, department of political science and international relations, university of abuja sedodi@yahoo.com, & musa ibori professor, department of political science and international relations, university of abuja abstract the african growth and opportunity act (agoa) has played a crucial role in enhancing market access for sub-saharan african (ssa) exports to the united states through a nonreciprocal trade framework. however, the shift toward a transactional trade model raises concerns about the future of african exports. this study examines the impact of agoa’s expiration on ssa economies, particularly the economic community of west african states (ecowas), using customs union theory and world-systems theory as analytical lenses. the research adopts an exploratory approach, analyzing trade data and policy trends to assess how reciprocal trade frameworks may shape export prospects. findings indicate that while agoa facilitated export diversification and job creation, its expiration exposes african economies to heightened competition, potential trade diversion, and structural vulnerabilities. the dominance of raw material exports over value-added goods remains a key challenge. furthermore, inadequate infrastructure and limited industrial capacity hinder the ability of ssa countries to compete in a reciprocal trade system. to mitigate these risks, the study recommends strengthening regional trade agreements such as the african continental free trade agreement (afcfta), enhancing value addition in exports, and negotiating favorable bilateral trade agreements. additionally, investments in infrastructure and industrial development are critical to ensuring sustainable export growth. in conclusion, while agoa’s expiration presents challenges, it also offers an opportunity for african nations to redefine their trade strategies. by fostering regional integration and economic diversification, ssa countries can enhance their resilience in the evolving global trade landscape. keywords: exports, import substitution, agoa, market access, african growth, ecowas introduction the global geopolitical landscape is undergoing significant transformation, with profound implications for international political economy, development studies, and international relations, particularly in sub-saharan africa. as economies grow and expand their influence, nations must develop their export sectors and pursue industrialization to enable businesses to compete globally and capitalize on emerging opportunities. however, this traditional approach is increasingly giving way to the strategic use of tariffs as a means to elevate national economies. while not a novel concept, this strategy has historically contributed to the prosperity of countries like the united mailto:sedodi@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 42 states. the contemporary shift, however, emphasizes reciprocity in cross-border trade. a notable example of this shift occurred under president donald trump, whose international trade policy has disrupted the status quo by introducing a transactional approach to trade. this shift redefined trade and international relations through a model in which reciprocity dictates economic engagements. while moseley (2018) argues that transactionalism is ineffective, toosi (2019) and gvosdev (2019) contend that it has evolved from mere rhetoric into a defining principle of contemporary global trade, which is now a reality. one key policy affected by these changes is the african growth and opportunity act (agoa), established in 2002 as a nonreciprocal program that grants duty-free access to u.s. markets for eligible exports from qualifying sub-saharan african (ssa) countries. since its inception in 2000, agoa has been central to u.s.-africa economic relations and remains a cornerstone of america’s commercial engagement with the region (lighthizer, 2020). for instance, in 2024, nigeria’s exports to the u.s. exceeded $5 billion, largely benefiting from tariff-free access under agoa. in contrast, nigeria’s imports from the u.s. amounted to over $4 billion, with tariffs ranging from 5% to 35%. recently, donald trump announced the introduction of a reciprocal trade system, which is expected to impact nigeria’s exports – as well as those of other eligible ssa countries – to the u.s. market due to newly imposed reciprocal tariffs. this policy shift signals the potential expiration of agoa and raises critical questions about the future of african exports under a reciprocal trade framework. this paper critically examines the implications of the transition from a nonreciprocal trade framework to a reciprocal one and explores its potential impact on african exports. specifically, it seeks to address the question: how will a reciprocal trade framework shape the prospects of african exports? to analyze this issue, the study adopts an exploratory approach, using the economic community of west african states (ecowas) as a case study applying custom union and the world-systems theory as its theoretical framework. given the rapidly evolving geopolitical landscape, this research aims to provide policy recommendations to help position the region advantageously within the emerging transactional model of international relations. theoretical framework this study is grounded in customs union theory and the world system theory. the customs union theory, developed by jacob viner (1950), examines the economic impact of trade agreements that eliminate internal tariffs among member states while maintaining a common external tariff against non-members. this framework helps analyze the implications of agoa's nonreciprocal nature and the potential shift toward a reciprocal trade arrangement. a central tenet of customs union theory is the distinction between trade creation and trade diversion. trade creation occurs when a trade agreement enables more efficient production within member states, leading to increased economic welfare. in contrast, trade diversion happens when preferential trade policies shift imports from a more efficient global producer to a less efficient member country due to tariff preferences. agoa, as a nonreciprocal trade preference program allowed african exporters to expand their access to the u.s. market without facing competitive pressures from american products entering their domestic markets tariff-free. as a result, agoa facilitated trade creation by enabling west african countries to export goods, particularly crude oil, apparel, and sampson edodi & musa ibori critical analysis of nonreciprocal framework in.. 43 agricultural products, at preferential rates. however, with the shift toward reciprocal trade frameworks, there is a potential risk of trade diversion. if agoa expires and a new system requires ssa countries to lower tariffs on u.s. goods in exchange for market access, african producers might struggle to compete with highly subsidized american products. this shift could reduce the competitive advantage enjoyed by african exporters under agoa, thereby affecting the prospects of african exports. furthermore, this study also draws on world-systems theory (wallerstein, 2011), which provides a broader geopolitical perspective on agoa’s implications. world-systems theory classifies the global economy into core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations, with core countries (such as the united states) dominating global trade and finance, while peripheral economies (including most of sub-saharan africa) supply raw materials and low-value goods. under agoa, african countries operated within a peripheral economic structure, primarily exporting raw materials and low-processed goods to the u.s. while relying on imports of higher-value manufactured goods. the expiration of agoa and the transition toward transactionalism in trade, where reciprocity dictates market access, raises concerns about whether ssa countries can negotiate favourable terms within a system historically dominated by core economies. hence, the potential for increased tariffs on african exports could exacerbate existing inequalities and limit ssa’s ability to move toward semi-periphery status, where industrialization and economic diversification could thrive. in integrating customs union theory and world-systems theory, this study provides a framework for understanding agoa’s role in shaping u.s.-africa trade relations and the potential consequences of its expiration on african exports. the shift toward reciprocity and transactionalism in trade presents both opportunities and challenges for west african economies, requiring strategic policy responses to ensure sustainable export growth and regional economic integration. in addition, customs union theory suggests that regional economic blocs like ecowas can serve as a buffer against trade dependency on external partners; this study argues that in strengthening intra-african trade through the african continental free trade agreement (afcfta), ecowas countries could reduce reliance on agoa-type arrangements and foster economic self-sufficiency. however, the transition to a reciprocal trade system poses a challenge, without agoa, ssa countries may need to negotiate bilateral trade agreements with the u.s., potentially weakening regional economic unity and undermining export potentials to the u.s. market. brief of west african import and exporting perspective west africa, an area in western africa, is renowned for its many cultures, rich history, and important contributions to african heritage. the region is characterized by a variety of landscapes, ranging from lush tropical rainforests to arid savannas (adegbeye et al 2024; bönnen et al 2021). throughout history, west africa has been home to several powerful and influential empires, such as the ghana empire, mali empire, and songhai empire. these empires were centres of trade, learning, and cultural exchange, leaving a lasting impact on the region's identity. the west african regional bloc, ecowas, has formulated trade policies aimed at enhancing exports to its member states and the global market. imports are viewed as complementary to the export strategy, with a aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 44 focus on enhancing local value and fuel exports from extractive industries dominate transactions constituting 75% of exports, primarily sourced from nigeria (73%) (ecotis, 2024). other significant export products include cocoa, precious stones, cotton, edible fruit, rubber, plastics, wood products, and fish, collectively forming the major share of ecowas exports. europe accounts for approximately 28% of ecowas exports, with the european union contributing 23%. the americas constitute 40%, with the free trade association of north america (nafta) making up 34%, including the us, canada, and mexico. the development of south-south trade has led to a notable increase in exports to asian countries and oceania, capturing 16%. nigeria and ivory coast dominate these exports, representing 87% of transactions, with nigeria contributing 77% and côte d’ivoire 10%. ghana and senegal follow, contributing 4% and 2%, respectively, while mali and five other countries each account for 1% of regional exports. over the years, china has become a prominent trade partner for many west african nations. the relationship often involves the export of raw materials, such as oil, minerals, and agricultural products, to meet china's growing industrial and consumer demands (shinn 2023; abegunrin & manyeruke 2020; hou, fu, & mohnen 2022). also, several west african countries maintain strong trade ties with european union (eu) nations. the eu is a major destination for west african exports, including agricultural products, minerals, and oil. individual countries within the eu, such as france, germany, and the netherlands, are significant trading partners (adam, et al. 2020; krapohl& van huut 2020). similarly, india has been a growing trade partner for west african nations. the relationship involves the export of various commodities, including oil, minerals, and agricultural products. india's increasing demand for raw materials contributes to the economic ties between the regions (okoro, ujunwa et al. 2020). however, the united states is also an important export partner for some west african countries. the ecowas and the united states have taken steps to develop trade relations frameworks. among the various frameworks, our case study in this paper is the agoa. agoa has facilitated trade between the us and eligible african countries, providing preferential access to the us market for certain goods. agoa, which encourages sub-saharan african eligible exports with tariff-free access to the us markets, has now expired. the eu has similar frameworks, and there are expectations that they continue to support trade between west africa and european countries. the expiration of agoa presents challenges for west african economies, highlighting the need for strategic policy responses to ensure sustainable export growth and economic development in the post-agoa era. agoa: us–ecowas trade relation agoa is a nonreciprocal preference programs that make available duty-free access to the us markets for eligible exports from qualifying ssa countries. since its inception in 2000, agoahas been at the core of us economic policy and commercial engagement with africa and it is considered the cornerstone of america’s economic engagement with sub-saharan africa over the decades (lighthizer 2020). to be eligible for agoa, countries must also be eligible for the generalized system of preferences (gsp). all ecowas member states are agoa-eligible countries except guinea, mali, and niger which lost their eligibility or are ineligible. the basic sampson edodi & musa ibori critical analysis of nonreciprocal framework in.. 45 eligibility criteria include (a) market-based economy where the country must have established or be making progress toward establishing a market-based economy; (b) rule of law where the country must have established or be making progress toward establishing the rule of law; (c) political pluralism where the countries must have established or are making progress toward establishing political pluralism. others include (d), a due process where the countries must have established or are making progress toward establishing the right to due process; (e) trade barriers where the countries must have eliminated trade barriers and economic policies that reduce poverty; (f) corruption where the countries must have systems to combat corruption; (g) human rights where the countries must not engage in gross violations of internationally recognized human rights or provide support for acts of international terrorism; and (h) cooperation where the countries must cooperate in international efforts to eliminate human rights violations and terrorist activities. according to the ecowas trade information system (ecotis) (2024), under agoa, ssa exports to the us comprise oil, apparel, and various other products. in 2022, the us witnessed a 3.3% decline in exports to ecowas, totalling $6.7 billion – reflecting a 20% decrease from 2012 and a drop from the figures recorded in 2021. equally, us imports from ecowas in 2022 amounted to $9.4 billion, marking a notable 38.8% increase from 2021 but a substantial 55% decrease from 2012. ecowas import-export data reveals key export products, including cocoa, cocoa food preparations, precious stones, cotton, edible fruit, rubber, plastics, wood and wood products, fish, and shellfish. notably, europe constitutes around 28% of ecowas exports, with the european union contributing 23%. with the expiration of agoa and new reciprocity in tariffs, the export dynamics to the us market might change drastically. asmah and taiwo (2016) argue that the primary drivers of export growth under agoa are predominantly centred on oil and gas, with minimal contribution from agricultural products. the influence of agoa on african agriculture is notably constrained, despite agriculture being the sector with the highest potential for poverty reduction and job creation in africa. one key factor of the constraints for ecowas member states is the subsidization of agriculture by the us government for its farmers, which has effectively nullified any competitive edge held by africa's agricultural sector within agoa (asmah & taiwo 2016). this subsidy system makes american agricultural exports more affordable than locally produced items in agoa beneficiary countries and undermines the potential growth of smallholder farming in west africa. charles, et al (2003), argued that agoa consistently fosters regional supply chains irrespective of pre-existing quota practices, particularly in products like textiles and apparel. pigman (2016) submitted that african exports under agoa have not reached their quota limits. the implication is that because agoa failed to eliminate pre-existing quotas as observed by asmah and taiwo (2016), it does not pose a significant challenge to west african exports. thus, there is room for eligible west african exporters to explore opportunities under the agreement. to qualify for agoa's textile and apparel benefits, beneficiary countries must establish a robust visa system to prevent unlawful transshipments and the use of counterfeit documents, coupled with effective enforcement and verification procedures. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 46 ecowas exports successes under agoa the agoa framework has catalyzed ecowas export services and diversification in different respects. these include contributing to increasing export diversity in west africa, enabling job creation and economic growth, and enhancing exponential market access for newcomers and existing exporters to the us market, among others. agoa increased export diversity in west africa: agoa has played a crucial role in diversifying west african exports. its impact on west african exports lies predominantly in its success in diversifying a historically commodity-dependent export landscape. from the customs union perspective, agoa’s preferential treatment has incentivized west african nations to diversify their export portfolios beyond traditional commodities which are subject to global price volatility. traditionally tied to the fortunes of oil and mineral exports, west african states found themselves susceptible to the volatilities of global commodity markets (jacob et al 2020; seyoum & abraham 2022; aslanidis et al 2020). agoa emerged as a transformative catalyst, steering these countries toward non-traditional sectors, thereby fostering a more resilient and diversified export portfolio. the reliance on the exportation of commodities, primarily oil and minerals posed significant challenges, as fluctuations in global commodity prices often translated to unpredictable economic outcomes for these nations. agoa, recognizing the need for economic resilience, strategically incentivized west african countries to explore and expand their export base beyond traditional commodities. one of the notable shifts facilitated by agoa is the substantial growth of non-traditional sectors, such as textiles, apparel, and agricultural products. from the world system theory perspective, the growth of sectors like textiles and apparel under agoa has enabled west african countries to move beyond the simple export of raw materials, fostering economic development and challenging traditional periphery roles. this shift contributes to a more balanced global economic system by enabling periphery nations to engage in more complex economic activities. furthermore, the diversification has not only mitigated the risks associated with overreliance on a few key exports but has also unleashed new economic opportunities. west african states, once constrained by the cyclical nature of commodity markets, have now successfully navigated towards industries with more stable demand patterns. the textile and apparel sector, in particular, has experienced significant expansion, driven by preferential trade terms and incentives under agoa. countries in the region have been able to capitalize on the access to the us market, fostering the growth of local industries and creating employment opportunities. additionally, the agricultural sector has witnessed increased attention. west african nations are leveraging agoa to enhance their export capacities in crops and processed agricultural goods. agoa's encouragement of diversification aligns with broader sustainable developmental goals, promoting sustainable economic growth and reducing vulnerability to external shocks (luke 2023). the legacy of agoa, therefore, extends beyond preferential trade agreements, contributing significantly to reshaping west africa's economic landscape. job creation and economic growth: agoa's impact on west african economies extends beyond trade preferences, as it stands as a catalyst for substantial job creation (tadesse, 2024; luke 2023). sampson edodi & musa ibori critical analysis of nonreciprocal framework in.. 47 one of the key mechanisms through which agoa has promoted job creation is by encouraging the establishment and growth of industries, with a notable focus on the garment and textile sectors (tadesse, 2024). from the perspective of customs union theory, agoa's preferential trade terms have effectively reduced trade barriers between the u.s. and eligible african countries, fostering trade creation. this environment has enabled west african nations to develop industries that are competitive in the u.s. market, thereby enhancing their job creation. however, the non-reciprocal nature of agoa means that while african countries benefit from reduced tariffs, they are not required to lower their tariffs for u.s. goods, distinguishing them from traditional customs unions. nevertheless, this expansion has translated into a surge in employment opportunities, from skilled labour in manufacturing facilities to ancillary roles in supply chains and distribution networks. the garment and textile sectors, in particular, have become vibrant hubs of economic activity, serving as significant contributors to job markets in west africa. the creation of employment opportunities in these industries not only addresses immediate economic needs but also contributes to skill development and capacity building, thereby fostering a more sustainable and diversified labour force (tadesse, 2024; luke 2023). furthermore, the sustainable economic development fostered by agoa-driven job creation goes beyond the immediate gains. the establishment of industries, coupled with the development of a skilled workforce, sets the stage for long-term economic growth and competitiveness (luke 2023). the infusion of vitality into these sectors not only aligns with the goals of poverty reduction but also positions west african states as dynamic players in the global economic arena. in essence, agoa's role in enhancing job creation and economic growth in west africa transcends simple trade concessions (tadesse, 2024). it serves as a transformative force, breathing life into industries, uplifting communities through employment opportunities, and laying the foundation for sustained economic prosperity. in other words, agoa's role in enhancing job creation and economic growth in west africa exemplifies the practical applications of customs union and world-systems theories. the act's preferential trade provisions have stimulated relevant industrial development and employment, contributing to the economic advancement within the global system. enhanced exponential market access for newcomers and existing exporters to the us market: agoa provides west african countries with preferential access to the us market andpromotes an environment conducive to trade and investmentleading to a rise in exports, creating mutually beneficial relationships between west african producers and american consumers (seyoum& abraham 2022; aslanidis et al 2020). at the heart of agoa's impact is the preferential access it affords ecowas members to the vast us consumer base. by reducing trade barriers and providing duty-free or reduced-tariff entry for eligible products, agoa has effectively lowered the cost of exporting goods from west africa to the united states. this preferential treatment has both made west african products more competitive and also acted as a powerful incentive for producers in the region to explore and exploit the opportunities presented by the us market. the consequence of the increased market access has been a tangible rise in exports from west africa to the united states (ecotis 2024). industries such as textiles, apparel, and agricultural aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 48 products have experienced an increase in demand, leading to a steady flow of west african goods entering the us market. kennedy, larres and rockwell (2023) argue that agoa's facilitation of increased market access has cultivated mutually beneficial relationships between west african producers and american consumers. producers in west africa gain access to a vast consumer base, providing them with a stable and lucrative market share for their goods. simultaneously, american consumers benefit from a diversified range of products, often showcasing the unique cultural and artisanal offerings from west africa. from a customs union perspective, agoa's preferential access can be likened to the benefits observed in regional trade agreements, where reduced tariffs among member countries promote trade creation. by lowering trade barriers, agoa has made west african products more competitive in the u.s. market, encouraging producers to explore and capitalize on these opportunities. applying world-systems theory, agoa can be seen as a mechanism that integrates peripheral economies, such as those in west africa, into the global trade system dominated by core countries like the united states. this integration facilitates the flow of goods from west africa to the u.s., potentially leading to economic growth and development in the exporting countries. however, it's essential to consider the dynamics of such relationships to ensure they promote equitable and sustainable development. therefore, agoa's preferential trade terms have expanded market access for west african exporters, leading to increased exports and strengthened economic ties with the united states. analyzing this through the lenses of customs union theory and world-systems theory provides a deeper understanding of the economic and systemic implications of such trade agreements. challenges faced by ecowas exports under agoa despite the positive strides made in export diversification facilitated by agoa, ecowas member-countries continually find themselves grappling with persistent challenges including the risk of dependency on a limited range of products and the challenge of infrastructure and capacity constraints. the challenge of dependency on a few products: agoa has reinforced existing dependencies on a narrow range of exports, perpetuating structural inequalities in the global economic system. its structure has maintained west african countries in a peripheral role, primarily supplying raw materials and low-value-added goods to core economies like the united states. this dynamic perpetuates a cycle where west african economies remain dependent on exporting a limited array of commodities, making them vulnerable to global market fluctuations and inhibiting sustainable development. while agoa has opened doors to new markets and industries, the lingering reliance on a handful of key exports remains a vulnerability that necessitates strategic interventions for sustainable economic growth (páez et al. 2010).the challenge arises from the historical economic structures of these nations, which were often built around the extraction and exportation of specific commodities, such as oil, minerals, or agricultural products. while agoa has successfully encouraged the exploration of non-traditional sectors, the allure of continued revenue streams from these established commodities poses a threat to the broader economic resilience of west african economies. the challenge of dependency on a few products is multifaceted. economic shocks, such as fluctuations in global commodity prices, can have a disproportionate impact on nations sampson edodi & musa ibori critical analysis of nonreciprocal framework in.. 49 reliant on specific exports (qian et al. 2023; gerval& hansen 2022). moreover, overreliance on a limited range of products can hinder the development of a more dynamic and robust economy, limiting the ability to adapt to changing market conditions and to capitalize on emerging opportunities. to address this challenge, concerted efforts are required to further broaden the export base of west african nations to new frontiers. this involves diversifying both the types of products exported through the agoa framework and also expanding into value-added processes within existing sectors. the challenge of infrastructure and capacity constraints: these are manifestations of the peripheral status of west african countries within the global economic system, where underdeveloped infrastructure perpetuates dependency and limits upward mobility. without such infrastructure, the potential benefits of trade agreements like agoa are substantially diminished. infrastructure and capacity limitations, including inadequate transportation networks and limited production capabilities, pose challenges to fully harnessing the benefits of agoa (simuziya 2023; alves& alden 2024). the challenge of infrastructure and capacity constraints emerges as a critical impediment to fully realizing the benefits of agoa, particularly in west africa. despite the preferential trade terms and market access opportunities, inadequate transportation networks and limited production capabilities present substantial hurdles that hinder the region's ability to harness the full potential of this transformative trade agreement. the insufficient state of transportation infrastructure stands out as a major bottleneck. inefficient and underdeveloped road, rail, and port systems impede the smooth flow of goods, resulting in delays, increased costs, and overall logistic challenges. this not only affects the competitiveness of west african exports but also diminishes the attractiveness of the region as a reliable trade partner. addressing these infrastructure gaps is imperative to facilitate the continuous movement of goods and enhance the efficiency of the agoa-enabled supply chain. prospects of ecowas exports without agoa with agoa set to expire, concerns arise regarding the future of ecowas exports. the termination of the nonreciprocal framework could lead to a decline in exports, particularly in sectors like apparel, agriculture, and automotive industries, thereby impacting employment and economic stability within these nations. this impending scenario necessitates strategic planning and the exploration of alternative trade agreements to sustain and enhance the export momentum of ecowas countries in a post-agoa landscape. however, it could further facilitate economic transformation based on the shift towards transactionalism. agoa, as a catalyst for economic transformation, has set the stage for a paradigm shift in the region's economic landscape. its expiration provides an enabling environment for the independence of ecowas exports to embrace transactionalism in international trade. the strength of the deal in this transaction is raw materials. according to the world system approach, this is both an advantage and a disadvantage. its advantage lies in the bargaining power it affords the peripheral countries, and its disadvantage is the lack of purchasing power bedevilling developing countries, which also weakens the bargaining power. however, the foundation laid by agoa is not merely confined to short-term gains; it serves as a cornerstone for sustained growth, increased competitiveness, and a aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 50 comprehensive overhaul of traditional economic structures (tadesse, 2024; luke 2023). the exit of agoa could steer the nations away from reliance on a narrow range of commodities by initiating a broader exploration of industries, including textiles, apparel, agricultural products and new markets. the prospect of this diversification mitigates future economic risks associated with the exit of the framework and paves the way for a more resilient and adaptive economic ecosystem. further, economic transformation is inseparable from human capital development. the analysis of agoa’s possible termination reveals that its impact extends to the workforce, emphasizing the importance of skilled labour and capacity building (luke 2023). by investing in education, training, and skills development, west african countries can create a workforce equipped to drive innovation, productivity, and sustained economic growth to further explore preferential market access with quality products with fewer rejections. the ultimate goal of economic transformation is to position west africa as a globally competitive player. trading under a transactional framework offers a unique opportunity for these nations to establish themselves in international markets. continued efforts to enhance competitiveness through quality standards, efficiency improvements, and adherence to sustainable practices contribute to a positive feedback loop, attracting more trade partners and solidifying west africa's standing in the global economy. however, there is a mixed prospect for deepening regional integration. the prospect of deepening regional integration within west africa emerges as a strategic avenue to amplify the urgency of deepening regional integration and support for the africa continental free trade agreement (afcfta) with the expiration of agoa which creates trade diversion. however, agoa would encourage a more collaborative environment that maximizes the benefits of this transformative approach to sustainable development. through concerted efforts and shared goals with agoa, ecowas could overcome challenges, pool resources, and create a more attractive investment landscape that propels the region towards sustained economic growth (washington, 2024). regional integration facilitates the smooth movement of goods, services, and capital across borders, contributing to enhanced market access. this is currently highly limited in the regions as goods move more freely to the us market under agoa than as they move from nigeria in west africa to uganda in east africa. nonetheless, through aligning trade policies and harmonizing regulations, ecowas can create a more efficient and integrated market and benefit maximally from intra-african trade and the permeation of new markets. this will benefit local businesses and make the region more appealing to other international investors looking for simplified and coherent trade environments. collaborative efforts in regional integration can prioritize the development of cross-border infrastructure (simuziya 2023; alves & alden 2024). shared investments in transportation networks, energy grids, and communication systems can significantly improve connectivity within the region. this, in turn, reduces the costs of doing business and enhances the overall competitiveness of ecowas on the global stage. regional integration allows west african countries to pool their resources and expertise for common economic goals to take advantage of the agoa’s preferential market access. whether it's investing in research and development, promoting innovation, or addressing shared challenges, collaborative efforts amplify the impact of individual initiatives. a united approach enhances the effectiveness of policies, making it easier to sampson edodi & musa ibori critical analysis of nonreciprocal framework in.. 51 implement reforms and navigate the complexities of global trade. west african nations can offer a unified market that attracts foreign direct investment to the region by aligning legal and institutional frameworks regarding ecowas vision 2050 with a strong competitive framework. thus, the expiration of the nonreciprocal framework encourages an environment conducive to entrepreneurship and innovation. in addition, regional integration creates the enabling environment for west african countries to collectively address challenges that transcend national borders. whether it's tackling infrastructure deficiencies, harmonizing customs procedures, or jointly promoting sustainable practices, collaborative efforts provide a platform for effective problem-solving. this united front enhances the region's resilience in the face of global economic fluctuations and challenges. the prospect of deepening regional integration among west african countries emerges as a strategic imperative to maximize the impact of agoa. conclusion the african growth opportunity act (agoa), as part of a broader us initiative, aimed to encourage sub-saharan african eligible exports with tariff-free access to the us markets. however, it is now expiring. the eu has similar frameworks. we hope they would not be gone likewise following the dramatic global geopolitical changes. this was a form of foreign assistance operated outside the traditional scope of, for example, the united states agency for international development (usaid), etc. and was not explicitly tied to donor-national interests, instead prioritizing the local development needs of recipient countries. agoa has facilitated trade between the us and eligible african countries, providing preferential access to the us market for certain goods. however, the expiration of the framework signals an era for innovation to compete effectively in the new transnationalism technique and explore new markets for export services of local production and resources. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 52 references abegunrin, o., &manyeruke, c. 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(2011). the modern world-system i: capitalist agriculture and the origins of the european world-economy in the sixteenth century (1st ed.). university of california press. washington (2024). risch, coons introduce legislation to renew trade partnership between u.s. and sub-saharan african countries. united states senate: foreign relations committee. world bank (2024). south asia development update: jobs for resilience. international bank for reconstruction and development. 75 deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african ecotheology and human wellbeing kenechi nnaemeka afunugo department of religion and human relations, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. nk.afunugo@unizik.edu.ng & chukwukamma, kingsley .e. ke.chukwukamma@unizik.edu.ng department of religion and human relations, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. abstract deforestation in awka metropolis, anambra state, nigeria, presents a critical challenge; undermining african eco-theology and human wellbeing. this study investigates the environmental and socio-spiritual consequences of forest depletion, addressing the gap in knowledge on its intersection with indigenous ecological ethics. using a qualitative methodology, data were gathered through personal communication and analysis of extant literature, including digital news sources. the research is anchored in the gaia theory in igbo perspective, which emphasizes communal harmony with nature. data were analyzed through phenomenological and hermeneutical approaches, revealing deforestation’s role in sickness, death, soil biodiversity loss, erosion, and aesthetic degradation. the findings highlight the urgent need for regulation implementation, reforestation programs, and public ecological awareness rooted in african eco-theology. the study concludes that preserving forests is essential for sustaining ecological balance, cultural heritage, and human well-being in awka metropolis. keywords: deforestation, awka metropolis, african eco-theology, human wellbeing. introduction deforestation in awka metropolis of anambra state, nigeria, can yield certain economic and developmental advantages, but its execution must be approached with deliberate ecological responsibility and adherence to environmental preservation standards. ogbodo et al (2023) and umeukeje et al (2024), elucidate that the unchecked clearing of forested areas in and around awka metropolis compromises critical biodiversity, disrupts local ecosystems, and accelerates land degradation. all these contribute to long-term environmental instability. therefore, any deforestation activity within this region should be guided by scientifically informed policies that prioritize ecological balance and sustainable land use. such an approach ensures that immediate human interests do not undermine the enduring health of the environment, reinforcing the imperative that deforestation, though occasionally justifiable, must never be conducted arbitrarily. sequel to the aforementioned articulations, dgb group (2021) accentuates that deforestation in nigeria represents a critical environmental crisis driven primarily by agricultural expansion, logging (both legal and illegal), and rapid urbanization, exacerbated by weak governance and mailto:nk.afunugo@unizik.edu.ng mailto:ke.chukwukamma@unizik.edu.ng kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 76 high population growth. the group stress that with an alarming annual forest loss rate of 3.7%, the highest globally according to the united nations, the consequences are severe, including biodiversity loss, climate alteration, soil erosion, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters. these environmental degradations also jeopardize local livelihoods through reduced access to clean water and arable land. dgb group advocate for large-scale, nature-based restoration projects to combat deforestation and restore ecological balance in nigerian communities. proshare (2022), alkassim (2024) and uwaegbulam (2025) enunciate that deforestation in nigeria is a growing concern. according to the united nations food and agricultural organization (cited by proshare), africa loses nearly four million hectares of forest annually, with nigeria experiencing significant deforestation. in 2010, nigeria's natural forests spanned 10.9 million hectares, covering 12% of its land area. however, by 2021, the country had lost 96.5 thousand hectares, contributing to 58.5 million tonnes of co2 emissions. notably, nigeria had the highest deforestation rate globally in 2005 at 3.5%, with more than 55.7% of its forests already depleted due to logging, subsistence farming, and fuel-wood collection. from 2000 to 2005, the country lost 81% of its old-growth forests, largely driven by the population's dependence on wood for heating and cooking. additionally, between 2002 and 2020, the akure-ofosu forest reserve saw a staggering 44% reduction in its primary trees, highlighting a critical environmental challenge that threatens food security. the documentations of proshare exposit that these losses are mainly attributed to poverty and unemployment, which drive people to the forests in search of shelter and livelihood opportunities. the consequences of this rapid deforestation include increased carbon emissions, leading to climate-induced crises such as droughts and irregular rainfall. while nigeria has initiated tree-planting projects through its sub-national governments, these efforts have not been widely successful. the loss of forest cover in nigeria is contributing to a rise in climate-related health issues, including respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, and heat stress, which are exacerbated by exposure to pollutants from deforestation and industrial emissions. proshare (2022) proclaims that nigeria has implemented several initiatives to reduce deforestation and its illegalities. the federal government, through the forest research institute of nigeria, has successfully reforested 6,191,363 hectares of land as part of the green bond project, while distributing 6,550,056 seedlings to various state governments and institutions. additionally, the nigerian erosion and watershed management project, funded by the world bank, have reclaimed 23,829 hectares of degraded land, benefiting 25,491 households. in the energy sector, nigeria's energy transition plan, announced in 2022, aims to reduce deforestation by promoting the use of cleaner cooking alternatives such as natural gas and green charcoal. this plan is designed to decrease co2 emissions and reduce reliance on wood for fuel. despite these efforts, nigeria still faces challenges in raising public awareness about the environmental and health impacts of deforestation, which remains a critical concern in addressing climate change. raji (2022) insists that the challenges facing policies against deforestation in nigeria stem largely from structural inefficiences, data inadequacies, and regulatory lapses. the federal ministry of environment (cited by raji) acknowledges that the nation's declining forest resources are aggravated by poor bureaucratic capacity to implement sustainable forest management policies. this is equally compounded by the widespread absence of comprehensive forest resource data across most states, which is an essential tool for constructing effective forest management plans. furthermore, the ministry highlights the government’s persistent struggle with weak enforcement mechanisms and the lack of aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 77 supportive policy infrastructure to address deforestation’s root causes. raji maintains that although nigeria’s engagement with the un-redd programme and its implementation of the community based redd+ (cbr+) initiative in cross river state mark notable efforts to reverse forest loss and promote community-led conservation, criticisms still abounds. amidst the prevailing ecological crisis in nigeria, particularly in awka metropolis of anambra state, this study interrogates the environmental and socio-spiritual ramifications of forest depletion, addressing a critical gap in discourse on its intersection with african eco-theology and human wellbeing. employing a qualitative methodology, data were sourced through indepth interviews and a rigorous analysis of extant literature, including digital reportage. the research is grounded in the gaia theory, approached from an igbo cosmological perspective, which emphasizes symbiotic coexistence between humanity and nature. analytical procedures drawn from phenomenological and hermeneutical paradigms reveal deforestation as a catalyst for illness, mortality, soil biodiversity loss, erosion, and the desecration of natural aesthetics. accordingly, this work reflects human well-being through the lens of man’s harmonious relationship with his environment, emphasizing that quality of life, peace, good health, inspiration, meaningful human relations, and aesthetic beauty are deeply ingrained in this balance. the study reveals that when man cares for the environment, respecting its order and preserving its integrity, the environment reciprocates by sustaining him with life-enhancing conditions. thus, well-being is portrayed not merely as a personal or social state but as a holistic outcome of mutual care between man and his environment. theoretical underpinning this study adopts the gaia theory from an igbo perspective to reinforce its arguments. the gaia theory, as articulated by boston (2008), posits that earth functions as a planet-scale, selfregulating super-organism composed of both its abiotic components and ecological systems. conceived by j. e. lovelock and further developed with l. margulis in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the theory suggests that biological and ecological processes actively regulate earth’s physical parameters, such as temperature and atmospheric composition, within ranges that sustain life. despite persistent controversy surrounding its perceived teleological implications and challenges regarding scientific testability, gaia theory has garnered recognition for offering a novel perspective on the dynamics of complex systems. efforts to address criticisms include the development of the daisyworld model, which demonstrates the plausibility of gaian regulation without invoking purposeful design. boston delineates that ongoing studies into biogeochemical cycles and systemic complexity may help determine the extent to which gaian principles manifest in earth’s natural systems. lovelock (2009) exposes that the gaia theory posits that the earth operates as a synergistic, self-regulating macro-system in which biotic and abiotic components intricately interact to sustain a dynamic equilibrium conducive to life. it asserts that the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are inextricably linked, forming an autonomous regulatory network that modulates critical planetary parameters, such as atmospheric composition, ocean salinity, and surface temperature, through cybernetic feedback mechanisms propelled by the metabolic activities of life forms, particularly microorganisms. lovelock enunciates that the theory emphasizes the emergent capacity of this planetary system, termed gaia, to perpetuate homeostasis by mitigating destabilizing perturbations and recalibrating environmental variables toward conditions favorable for contemporary biological viability. it also suggests that earth’s persistent thermodynamic disequilibrium, perpetuated by solar influx, undergirds its complex regulatory processes. lovelock accentuates that beyond scientific domains like kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 78 geophysiology and biogeochemistry, gaia’s conceptual architecture has incited philosophical and sociocultural interpretations regarding humanity’s entwinement with planetary stewardship and ecological ethics. nweke and nwoye (2016) argue that the igbo concept of nature, environment, and ala reflects a deep-seated understanding of the universe as a sacred and interconnected reality, where human beings, animals, plants, and inanimate elements form a harmonious whole. nature is not seen as separate or subordinate to humanity but as a living domain infused with spiritual significance, demanding respect, care, and preservation. the igbo worldview upholds a sacred ecology rooted in the philosophy of egbe bere ugo bere (live and let live), stipulating the need for balance, justice, and the dignity of all life forms. nweke and nwoye register that this orientation opposes exploitative tendencies and calls for a relational ethics that recognizes mother earth as both spiritual and communal, where the well-being of the environment is tied to the moral fabric of society. in the igbo cosmology, respect for ala is thus central to sustaining order, as any violation is seen not only as an ecological disruption but also as a moral and spiritual transgression that threatens the unity of the cosmos. ossai (2024) maintains that the igbo people possess a profound spiritual and cultural attachment to nature, viewing the environment not merely as a physical resource but as a sacred domain interconnected with human existence. the igbo cosmology is deeply rooted in the belief that natural elements such as forests, water bodies, animals, and trees harbor spiritual entities whose presence necessitates reverence and ritual. ossai insists that traditional ceremonies, taboos, and sacred sites have historically established a system of environmental ethics that promotes ecological balance and biodiversity conservation. he argues that these practices, embedded in everyday life, serve as mechanisms for environmental stewardship, regulating resource use and discouraging exploitation through fear of spiritual consequences. as indicated by ossai, the preservation of sacred groves, veneration of aquatic and terrestrial spirits, and integration of ecological awareness into rituals such as the new yam festival reflect the igbo people’s sustainable coexistence with their surroundings. this cultural orientation presents a worldview where environmental degradation is not only a physical loss but a spiritual disruption, sustaining a communal sense of accountability in protecting the natural world for future generations. the phenomenon of deforestation in awka metropolis raises serious concerns when examined through the lens of african eco-theology, particularly within the igbo worldview that venerates ala, the earth goddess. according to v. nwafor, e. onuike and k. nduka (personal communication, april 18, 2025), in igbo cosmology, ala is not only the physical land but also a spiritual entity that governs morality, fertility, and communal well-being. they aver that cutting down trees and degrading natural habitats without regard for sacred ecological balance constitutes a violation of this reverence. african eco-theology frames the environment as a divine gift entrusted to human beings for stewardship, not exploitation. the unchecked deforestation in awka represents a breach of this sacred trust, leading to disruptions not only in the ecosystem but also in the spiritual and moral fabric of society. the gaia theory, which conceptualizes the earth as a self-regulating, living organism, aligns seamlessly with igbo beliefs about the interconnectedness between humanity and ala. from an igbo perspective, the earth is not inert matter but a sentient and reactive presence. hence o. nwankwo, c. anunobi and n. eze (personal communication, april 18, 2025), assert that when humanity lives in harmony with the earth, ala ensures fertility, peace, and balance. when this harmony is broken, nature reacts through disease, climate irregularities, and social disharmony. gaia theory strengthens the igbo belief that environmental desecration does not merely result aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 79 in physical degradation but invites consequences that affect the entire human condition. thus, the theory lends scientific credibility to indigenous ecological wisdom, encouraging modern society to revisit and respect traditional environmental ethics. human well-being, in this context, is not an isolated or individualistic ideal but a collective and ecological state. in the igbo worldview, peace (udo), health (ahụ ike), beauty (ima mma), and kinship or meaningful relationships (ụmụnna or igwebuike) are all seen as fruits of a well-kept relationship with ala. the gaia theory supports this by showing that a balanced environment contributes to psychological stability, physical health, and even social cohesion. when forests are preserved and nature is allowed to flourish, the air is cleaner, temperatures are regulated, and biodiversity is maintained, all of which support a richer quality of life. therefore, deforestation is not just an environmental concern but a direct assault on the well-being of the people of awka. furthermore, traditional igbo practices such as sacred groves, taboos against cutting certain trees, and community festivals celebrating the earth demonstrate an implicit understanding of gaia-like principles. these practices were not arbitrary but rooted in a deep awareness of environmental reciprocity. as urbanization and modernization threaten these practices, the gaia theory offers a bridge between ancient wisdom and contemporary science, calling for a reintegration of these values into environmental policy and urban planning. reviving such practices can help reposition the people of awka to once again live in harmony with ala, thus restoring the mutual exchange of care between man and environment. addressing deforestation through the igbo perspective of ala and the gaia theory emphasizes that ecological integrity and human flourishing are inseparable. it challenges contemporary society to redefine development not as endless expansion and resource consumption but as respectful coexistence with nature. when man honors the land, the land sustains man. this reciprocal dynamic ensures that well-being is not superficial or temporary, but deep-rooted and enduring. therefore, eco-theology and gaia theory together serve as urgent calls to recognize the spiritual, moral, and physical consequences of environmental abuse, and to return to a worldview that sees the earth not as property, but as partner. deforestation and its implications stanley (2025) defines deforestation as the deliberate clearing of forested land. he exposits that it is historically triggered by the demand for agricultural expansion, animal grazing, and the procurement of wood for various human needs. this anthropogenic activity has drastically transformed global landscapes, reducing forest cover in regions such as western europe, north america, and china. stanley asserts that in contemporary times, deforestation is most prevalent in tropical rainforests, where infrastructural development and slash-and-burn agriculture exacerbate forest degradation. the principal dangers associated with deforestation, as outlined by stanley, include increased atmospheric carbon dioxide due to the release of sequestered carbon during tree burning, thereby intensifying global warming. moreover, deforestation precipitates a significant loss of biodiversity, particularly in tropical ecosystems that host vast arrays of flora and fauna, potentially contributing to an ongoing mass-extinction event. additionally, the removal of forest cover accelerates soil erosion and alters forest microclimates, heightening vulnerability to fire and ecological instability. stanley indicates that although some regions, notably in north america, have seen forest recovery through conservation efforts, the long-term environmental risks of deforestation remain profound and multifaceted. kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 80 pimm (2025) elucidates that deforestation refers to the large-scale removal of forests. he stresses that it carries profound environmental, ecological, and climatic consequences on both global and local scales. globally, forests play a crucial role in sequestering carbon dioxide, a key greenhouse gas, through the storage of biomass. their removal, according to pimm, not only halts this carbon absorption but also releases stored carbon back into the atmosphere, intensifying climate change. he stresses that ecologically, tropical forests, particularly those like the amazon, are biodiversity hotspots, home to an estimated two-thirds of earth's species, and their destruction contributes significantly to species extinction. pimm enunciates that on a local level, deforestation through selective logging and burning exacerbates forest flammability, promotes drought vulnerability, and increases the incidence of destructive wildfires, while also diminishing air quality, notably in regions like southeast asia. furthermore, deforestation on steep tropical hillsides can lead to catastrophic landslides due to the absence of root systems that stabilize soil. while abandoned lands sometimes experience forest re-growth, fragmentation often impedes ecological recovery, disrupts genetic continuity among species, and precludes the return of many native organisms, especially where monoculture plantations replace original ecosystems, undermining biodiversity and failing to restore ecological balance. bodo and gimah (2021) and anderson (2025) illuminate that deforestation has permanently transformed wooded regions worldwide. they argue that it is propelled primarily by human activities. among these, agricultural expansion, timber extraction, urban development, mineral exploitation, and socio-economic demands stand as the leading causes. tropical rainforests, especially the amazon, currently face the most acute levels of degradation, while historical patterns reveal extensive forest loss in regions like western europe and eastern north america, as noted by anderson. over two millennia, europe’s tree cover dwindled from 80% to 34%, and north america lost nearly half its forests before the twentieth century. bodo and gimah expound that in contemporary times, approximately 15 billion trees are felled annually, over 41 million each day, with around 10 million hectares of forest disappearing every year, an area equivalent to iceland’s landmass. anderson (2025) further accentuate that the ecological consequences of deforestation are profound: enunciating that deforestation undermines critical environmental functions, exacerbating climate disruption through increased carbon emissions and reduced sequestration. it disrupts hydrological cycles, degrades soil integrity, and fragments habitats, threatening biodiversity and endangering countless species. indigenous communities, whose cultures and livelihoods are inextricably linked to forest ecosystems, also face severe repercussions. human wellbeing (hwb) and its link to a healthy environment costanza and fisher et al. (2007) expand the understanding of human wellbeing (hwb) by integrating perspectives from psychology, medicine, sociology, economics, and environmental science. they argue that hwb is not solely determined by material wealth but also by the degree to which human needs are met through both internal capacities and external opportunities. their approach includes both objective elements, such as access to education and health services, and subjective dimensions, including emotional fulfillment and sense of purpose. costanza et al. (2007) also assert that a person's relationship with their environment, natural and built, is vital to hwb, as ecological health directly supports human health and productivity. the environment provides essential services such as clean air, water, and fertile land, which are foundational for sustaining life and promoting social stability. when these environmental systems are degraded, as in the case of large-scale deforestation, the negative impacts ripple across generations, affecting nutrition, public health, and economic viability. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 81 therefore, hwb cannot be achieved or maintained without a conscientious commitment to environmental conservation and intergenerational equity. human well-being (hwb), as described by mcgillivray and clarke (2008), defies precise definition due to its inherently subjective and multidimensional nature. they argue that although it can be described through various terms such as quality of life, welfare, living standards, utility, and happiness, hwb cannot be directly observed or independently measured. these diverse interpretations often overlap yet diverge in scope, reflecting the complexity of human experience. mcgillivray and clarke (2008) emphasize that hwb encompasses material needs, emotional and physical health, social relationships, and subjective life satisfaction. it is deeply tied to how people perceive their lives in the context of family, work, recreation, personal safety, and community. they also stress the significance of needs fulfillment and empowerment, which relate to an individual’s ability to make meaningful choices. importantly, the fulfillment of these needs must occur in a sustainable environment, as exploiting natural resources such as forests jeopardizes not only ecological balance but also the future realization of hwb. activities like deforestation, influenced by short-term material gain, disrupt ecosystems and diminish the long-term well-being of human populations by threatening biodiversity, water quality, and climate stability. stiglitz and sen et al. (2009) further critique the reduction of hwb to mere income or consumption levels. they argue that while income facilitates access to goods and services, it fails to capture the full picture of human flourishing. many determinants of hwb, such as emotional well-being, social connectedness, safety, and autonomy, are non-material and context-dependent. furthermore, income-based assessments often ignore how resources are distributed within societies, which can mask inequalities that significantly impact well-being. the authors highlight that individuals may derive different levels of satisfaction and health outcomes from the same level of income, depending on their values, needs, and environments. additionally, the prioritization of economic growth at the expense of environmental integrity is short-sighted, as it depletes natural resources essential to long-term hwb. sustainable wellbeing, therefore, demands that economic and social development be pursued in harmony with environmental stewardship. protecting forests and ecosystems not only preserves biodiversity but also safeguards the ecological services upon which human lives depend, making environmental responsibility an indispensable component of meaningful and enduring human well-being. data-driven investigations deforestation poses a critical environmental challenge in nigeria, with awka metropolis of anambra state exhibiting acute manifestations of this crisis. observable indices include widespread loss of forest cover, increased soil erosion, declining soil fertility, disruption of local climate patterns, and a surge in respiratory and waterborne illnesses linked to degraded ecosystems. the destruction of sacred groves and natural shrines also reflects a profound sociospiritual dislocation, signaling not only ecological imbalance but also a rupture in indigenous cosmological relationships between humans and nature. agada et al (2014) conducted a decade-long (2001–2010) analysis of land use in awka metropolis, revealing a significant inverse relationship between urban expansion and forest cover, as demonstrated by regression and correlation analyses. their findings show that rapid housing development has substantially contributed to the displacement of urban forests, with kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 82 satellite imagery confirming spatial disparities in tree distribution across the city. this trend of deforestation captures the environmental cost of unchecked urbanization. anambra state nigeria erosion and watershed management project (newmap) (2020) registers that the nigeria erosion and watershed management project (newmap), initiated by the federal government of nigeria and funded by the world bank, is addressing severe erosion problems in awka metropolis, particularly in areas such as the federal high court, umuzocha, and nodu in okpuno, all within awka south local government area of anambra state. newmap enlighten that these communities face increasing threats from storm-waterinduced gullies, which are directly linked to deforestation. the removal of vegetation in these areas has left the soil exposed and vulnerable, allowing storm-water to create and widen erosion gullies that damage infrastructure and endanger lives. newmap’s intervention aims to control these gullies and restore degraded land, thereby tackling a key consequence of deforestation in awka. owing to the high rate of deforestation in awka metropolis and other areas in anambra state, nature news (2022) reports that the anambra state government has heightened its stance against environmentally harmful practices such as indiscriminate tree felling without replanting, bush burning, and unregulated land use. through the commissioner for environment, mr. felix odimegwu (cited by nature news); the state reiterates that such actions are now classified as serious offences, necessitating collective civic responsibility to uphold environmental integrity. in alignment with governor charles soludo's vision of transforming anambra into a smart and sustainable state, the administration has launched comprehensive programmes, including tree-planting initiatives, public awareness campaigns, and inter-agency collaborations, to combat environmental degradation, as recorded by nature news. additionally, the state partners with agencies like newmap and nesrea to promote sustainable practices, enforce environmental regulations, and disseminate community-level manuals on erosion control and climate adaptation. irrespective of the preceding report on the efforts by the anambra state government, arbitrary deforestation, particularly in awka metropolis, is still ongoing with impunity and has not decreased. ogbodo et al (2023) assessed the impact of deforestation in anambra state, where awka metropolis is located, using open-source remote sensing data from the global forest watch (gfw) platform. analysis of tree cover change between 2000 and 2010 showed that 6.76 thousand hectares (kha) of trees were gained, representing 1.5% of the state’s total land area of 47.0 kha. during the same period, 1.52 kha of tree cover were lost due to deforestation. their study also quantified the associated carbon emissions, revealing that awka south local government area (lga) produced the highest emissions with 19,740 tons of co₂ equivalent (co₂eq), followed by nnewi south (13,400 tons), onitsha north (12,100 tons), nnewi north (6,440 tons), awka north (1,890 tons), and onitsha south (1,480 tons), which recorded the lowest emissions. these results showcase the usefulness of the gfw platform in monitoring deforestation and related emissions. onyeizugbe et al. (2023) critically examine the multifaceted issue of deforestation in anambra state, which has awka town as its capital, using the akpaka forest reserve as a case study to investigate its causes, consequences, and regulatory impacts. their study identifies fragile administration, corruption, ignorance, insecurity, population growth, urban expansion, and unsustainable consumption as the principal perpetrators of forest reserve loss. the environmental repercussions include erosion, flooding, altered microclimates, stream siltation, and biodiversity loss. their research also reveals that the 2006 forest policy act remains unimplemented at both the state and local levels, existing merely as a legislative artifact. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 83 onyeizugbe et al. affirm that reserve degradation is conceptualized in three analytical phases: input (anthropogenic drivers), throughput (deforestation process), and output (ecological impacts). this accentuates the urgent need for systemic intervention. anarah et al. (2024) study investigated deforestation in awka south and identified it as a significant environmental issue. data from 90 households revealed that 64.44% of respondents were female, with a mean age of 40.44 years. most respondents (82.22%) were farmers, and 36.67% had only primary education. they portray that the main causes of deforestation are wood cutting for cooking (80%), followed by urbanization (27%) and population increase (15%). reported effects included desertification (mean = 2.57), erosion (2.37), and rising surface temperatures (2.35). awareness was relatively high, with 68.88% recognizing desertification as a major threat. global forest watch anambra state, nigeria (2025) records that between 2001 and 2023; awka north experienced notable changes in its forest landscape. as of 2020, natural forests covered approximately 7.59 thousand hectares (kha), accounting for 20% of the region’s land area. however, in 2023 alone, the area lost 39 hectares (ha) of natural forest, corresponding to an estimated 33.9 kilotonnes of co₂ emissions. from 2001 to 2023, the region witnessed a cumulative loss of 95 ha of tree cover—a 2.9% decrease from the 2000 baseline—releasing 67.2 kilotonnes of co₂ equivalent. humid primary forest loss during the same period was minimal (<1 ha), representing only 0.48% of total tree cover loss and a 0.23% reduction in the area of humid primary forest. net change analyses from 2000 to 2020 indicate a loss of 718 ha and a gain of 434 ha in tree cover, resulting in a net decline of 285 ha. in 2000, tree cover with canopy density exceeding 30% was estimated at 3.31 kha (8.5% of land area), while natural forests predominated over non-natural tree cover. fire activity remained within normal historical ranges, with six high-confidence viirs alerts recorded between april 2024 and april 2025. notably, fire-induced tree cover loss totaled 2 ha from 2001 to 2023, with 2023 marking the highest annual loss from fire at 2 ha—7.1% of that year's total. consequently, 92.9% of the tree cover loss in 2023 (i.e., 36.2 ha out of 39 ha) was not caused by fire outbreak but rather by deforestation. despite fire disturbances, no deforestation alerts were recorded between april 8 and april 15, 2025, and the total number of fire alerts from april 2021 to april 2025 stood at 173. these afore-stated records indicate that deforestation is rife in awka metropolis, and it has adverse impacts on the area’s ecological stance alongside the holistic wellbeing of its population. this equally showcases the urgency of reforestation and the adoption of ecologically sound practices across the milieu. exploring african eco-theology african eco-theology is an evolving theological discourse that responds to environmental degradation by engaging african cultural, philosophical, and religious worldviews within christian theological reflections. emerging partly in reaction to lynn white jr.’s critique that christian theology has promoted ecological destruction as gottlieb (2004) explicates; african eco-theology seeks both to localize and contribute to global ecological conversations. while acknowledging the historical and ongoing impact of western industrialization on africa's ecological and economic landscapes, scholars like conradie (2010) argues that such developments have severely harmed the environment and deepened poverty in vulnerable communities. however, recognizing that africans have also become complicit in this crisis, african eco-theologians are shifting from blame-shifting to theologically investigating the kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 84 causes of and solutions to environmental degradation within african contexts as mukaria (2021) suggests. distinctively, african eco-theology integrates indigenous eco-religious values, rooted in the inseparability of spiritual and material realities, to promote creation care, environmental justice, and stewardship. blasu (2020) intimates that this culturally grounded approach reject purely technocratic solutions and instead explores the african primal worldview of interconnectedness, which emphasizes harmony between human and non-human creation. through incorporating such indigenous perspectives into christian theological discourse, african eco-theologians aim to cultivate a renewed, contextually relevant, and theologically sound human-earth relationship. kanu (2021) articulates that african eco-theology is a contextual theological response to the ecological crisis, rooted in the african cultural and religious worldview, and distinct from black theology which primarily addresses historical oppression in the american and south african contexts. apposite to kanu’s insights, african eco-theology emerges as a dimension of liberation theology that emphasizes social responsibility toward environmental preservation, recognizing the human person as created in the image of god and situated within a community of beings deserving of dignity and care. nwaigbo (cited by kanu) defines it as a reflective theology aimed at safeguarding the earth and universe from further degradation. unlike universal or technocratic approaches that may overlook cultural complexities, african ecotheology insists on locally grounded, culturally relevant solutions, as advocated by pope francis (cited by kanu), who underscores the inadequacy of uniform global interventions and calls for dynamic, participatory strategies that align with the symbols, customs, and spiritualities of specific peoples. in this light, african eco-theology engages the interconnectedness of african religion, culture, and nature, drawing from africa’s symbolic and spiritual heritage to confront environmental challenges with authenticity and depth. in line with the aforementioned articulations and in view of afunugo’s (2024) study, african eco-theology is a contextual theological enterprise that interrogates the interrelationship between african indigenous ecological consciousness and the sacred. it articulates a distinctive spiritual anthropology that perceives the environment not as an inert resource but as a living continuum of divine immanence. it transcends imported cosmological binaries by recovering the african cosmotheandric vision, where nature, humanity, and the divine are co-constitutive and dynamically intertwined. unlike conventional eco-theologies, which often derive from western philosophical dualisms, african eco-theology arises from ancestral epistemologies in which ecological preservation is sacralized through ritual, myth, and communal ethics. it resists exploitative modernity and theological abstractions by calling for praxis of ecological reparation rooted in the spiritual dignity of land and life. deforestation in awka metropolis as a violation of african eco-theology and human wellbeing deforestation in awka metropolis constitutes a significant violation of african eco-theology, which emphasizes the sacred relationship between humanity and nature, embedded in the belief that environmental stewardship is integral to human wellbeing. the reduction of trees, essential for producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide, has dire consequences on human health. a diminished presence of trees disrupts the natural exchange of gases, contributing to respiratory problems such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd), and other lung-related illnesses. the resultant lack of fresh air exacerbates the suffocating urban environment, where increased heat, often referred to as the urban heat island effect, intensifies the oppressive weather. e. okoye and c. ezeokeke (personal communication, april 18, 2025), this elevated temperature can lead to heat-related illnesses, including heat exhaustion and heat aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 85 stroke, which cause dehydration, fatigue, confusion, and in extreme cases, organ failure. the absence of trees not only deepens the environmental crisis but also directly compromises public health, particularly among vulnerable populations, making the effects of deforestation more than just an ecological concern, but a pressing human health issue. deforestation in awka metropolis has significantly disrupted the ecological balance, leading to a cascade of environmental disasters. the removal of vegetation, particularly trees, exacerbates soil erosion by reducing the natural barriers that prevent water runoff. this degradation of the land not only increases the frequency and intensity of erosion but also heightens the vulnerability of the region to flooding, as the soil's capacity to absorb water is diminished. this is witnessed at ifite awka and umuike areas amongst others. moreover, deforestation contributes to the loss of biodiversity, weakening the resilience of local ecosystems to climatic shifts. the resultant increase in temperature and altered rainfall patterns further compound the challenges, creating a feedback loop of escalating environmental crises. as such, the unchecked destruction of forests in awka triggers a chain reaction of ecological catastrophes, including the displacement of local species, deterioration of water quality, and the amplification of climate-related hazards such as droughts and landslides. in this regard, i. ibegbu and g. ikejiobi (personal communication, april 18, 2025), observe that water obtained from wells and boreholes within awka hub is mostly unfit for drinking. deforestation in awka metropolis not only depletes the natural landscape, undermining the aesthetic beauty that is vital for cultural and creative expression, but it also exacerbates the absence of designated spaces for relaxation and inspiration, such as natural parks and recreational areas. there is no single natural park or relative place within awka metropolis that offers a sanctuary for rejuvenation or a setting that activates the flow of ideas and talent. these spaces are crucial for both mental relaxation and the nurturing of creative potential, yet their lack stifles innovation and personal development. this environmental degradation constitutes a violation of african eco-theology, which emphasizes the intrinsic connection between humanity and the natural world, advocating for the stewardship of creation as essential to human flourishing. moreover, the absence of such spaces contributes to the erosion of human wellbeing, as access to nature is integral to holistic health, cognitive function, and the preservation of cultural practices that promote communal and individual growth. deforestation in awka metropolis represents a growing environmental crisis that conflicts with the principles of african eco-theology and human well-being. african eco-theology emphasizes the sacredness of the earth, viewing nature as a divine gift and an extension of the creator’s presence. in traditional igbo cosmology, which informs the theological outlook of many inhabitants of awka, forests are not merely physical spaces but spiritual entities. sacred groves, ancestral trees, and riverbanks serve as places of communion with the divine and the ancestors. therefore, the reckless clearing of forests for urban expansion and commercial activities is a direct affront to this theological worldview. it is a desecration of what is held as sacred and spiritually significant. this destruction also disrupts the interconnectedness between the land, the divine, and the people, reflecting a violation not just of sacred beliefs but of the holistic relationship that sustains both spiritual and physical well-being. in addition to theological concerns, deforestation severely undermines human well-being in awka. the cutting down of trees contributes to a rise in temperatures, increased soil erosion, and the loss of biodiversity. residents face health risks due to increased dust, poor air quality, and heat stress, especially during the dry season. in a city already grappling with infrastructural challenges, the absence of trees worsens living conditions and places strain on healthcare kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 86 systems. the ecological disruption also threatens the livelihood of local farmers who depend on a balanced climate and fertile soil. as these natural supports erode, food insecurity and poverty become more pronounced. thus, the ecological destruction directly impacts the physical and economic health of the population, demonstrating how the violation of ecotheological principles simultaneously harms human well-being. furthermore, african eco-theology promotes a harmonious relationship between humans and the environment, grounded in the ethics of community, reciprocity, and stewardship. in this theology, every human action upon the environment carries moral responsibility. deforestation in awka betrays this responsibility by prioritizing economic gain over communal welfare and ecological balance. it reflects a departure from traditional values where environmental degradation is considered an act of moral negligence. the absence of community consultation in most deforestation activities also highlights a disconnection from indigenous governance structures that once ensured sustainable land use. this disconnect not only violates ecotheological principles but also undermines the community's social cohesion, as the environment is integral to both communal identity and individual well-being. the destruction of trees in awka also disrupts cultural identity and social cohesion. in many parts of igboland, including awka, trees serve as cultural symbols, boundary markers, and meeting points. their removal erases historical memory and weakens the communal narratives tied to land and nature. moreover, the loss of green spaces affects mental health, especially among children and the elderly who rely on such environments for recreation and solace. human well-being, therefore, is not only affected in physical terms but also in psychological and cultural dimensions. the diminishing of these natural spaces directly contravenes the african eco-theological understanding of nature as a means of nurturing mental and spiritual health within the community. deforestation in awka metropolis violates both the tenets of african eco-theology and human well-being by desecrating sacred ecological spaces and undermining the spiritual principles of stewardship and reverence for nature. it also threatens human well-being by disrupting the ecological balance necessary for health, livelihood, and social harmony. addressing this crisis requires a return to indigenous ecological ethics and a commitment to sustainable urban planning that respects both theological values and the right to a healthy environment. the restoration of the land is therefore not only an environmental necessity but also a spiritual and human imperative. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 87 conclusion this research has illuminated the complex relationship between ecological degradation and spiritual dislocation within the context of african eco-theology. deforestation in awka metropolis represents more than an environmental crisis; it disrupts the sacred balance that sustains both nature and human life. african eco-theological perspectives regard the environment as a living entity with intrinsic spiritual value, and any harm to it directly undermines human well-being. the findings reflect the need for ethical ecological practices rooted in african spiritual traditions, which place environmental stewardship at the heart of community life. although existing literature on igbo ecological thought is abundant, the absence of updated environmental records and the reluctance of certain government agencies and community leaders to release relevant ecological data significantly affected the depth of analysis. these practical challenges limited the development of a more thorough and balanced correlation between eco-theological values and actual deforestation trends across various parts of the metropolis. future studies may consider more comprehensive regional comparisons across urban centers in nigeria and sub-saharan africa, examining how similar patterns of deforestation influence both ecological stability and theological worldviews. interdisciplinary collaboration among theology, environmental studies, and cultural anthropology could offer a richer platform for contextual solutions. engaging local communities, traditional leaders, and faith-based actors in future research may also yield practical pathways for integrating ecological restoration with cultural and spiritual renewal. recommendations in addressing the alarming rate of deforestation in awka metropolis, this paper makes the following recommendations: 1. a theological reorientation grounded in african eco-theology is exigent in forming the theological base of all religious institutions and individuals in awka metropolis and igbo communities at large. the local church and faith-based institutions should actively incorporate ecological consciousness into their liturgies, catechesis, and sermons, emphasizing the spiritual interconnectedness between humanity and nature as preserved in african traditional cosmologies. this theological shift should not only reaffirm the sacredness of the earth but also challenge exploitative practices that sever the symbiotic relationship between people and their environment. such spiritual engagement can create moral pressure on legislatures and community leaders to adopt ecologically sustainable approaches in urban planning. 2. additionally, government agencies and local authorities must prioritize the development and enforcement of environmental policies that align with both scientific and cultural imperatives. urban development projects should undergo rigorous environmental impact assessments that integrate igbo indigenous ecological knowledge as reflected in the gaia theory in igbo perspective. collaboration between environmental scientists, theologians, and community elders can yield context-specific strategies for afforestation and the preservation of biodiversity. kenechi & chukwukamma deforestation in awka metropolis: violating african.. 88 3. public awareness campaigns anchored in both civic education and religious teachings should be launched to sensitize awka residents on the long-term consequences of deforestation, including climate change, erosion, and public health crises. 4. furthermore, educational institutions in awka should embed environmental ethics and african eco-theological principles into their curricula across all levels. nurturing ecological literacy among the youth ensures the emergence of a new generation of environmentally responsible citizens. community-driven initiatives, such as urban green spaces, tree planting exercises, and sacred forest conservation, deserve support through grants and incentives. these grassroots actions can serve as practical expressions of theological convictions, thereby reinforcing the moral imperative to protect creation as an extension of safeguarding human wellbeing. 5. estate managers in awka metropolis should enforce policies that prohibit the indiscriminate felling of trees during the construction of corporate, public, and private buildings. this practice, successfully implemented in cities like london, vancouver, and singapore, ensures adequate fresh air circulation and enhances natural aesthetic appeal. integrating tree preservation into urban development plans will promote environmental health and align awka metropolis with global standards of sustainable real estate management. references afunugo, k.n. 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(2025, march 13). deforestation: fresh concerns overrapid loss of forests. the guardian.https://guradian.ng/news/deforestation.fresh-concerns-ove-rapid-loss-of-forests/. https://earth/org/challenes-facing-policies.against-deforestation-in-nigeria/ https://education.nationalgeographic.org/%20resource/defovestation/ https://journa,.unizi,edu.ng/ujaee/%20article/view/4012/3263 https://journa,.unizi,edu.ng/ujaee/%20article/view/4012/3263 https://guradian.ng/news/deforestation.fresh-concerns-ove-rapid-loss-of-forests/ 1 heidegger and the effects of western technology on african values modestus anyaegbu phd peter university, achina/onneh modesny@yahoo.com abstract our attempt in this paper is to explore the implications or effects of western technology on african values from the lenses of the german philosopher of the twentieth century, martin heidegger. drawing primarily from his seminal work the question concerning technology and other essays, it will be discovered that modern technology is a revealing in the sense of challenging that unlocks what is hidden in nature to transform, store and control it. this means that modern technology is using nature as a “reserve,” a “standing-reserve” ready at hand. its contact with african values has been devastating, exploitative, impositional and reductionist. given that african values are relational, communitarian, and spiritual in nature, heidegger calls for a return to the essence of ancient technology—the pious, respectful outlook that does not amount to imposition; a rediscovery of technē as poiēsis—a revealing that is unharmful to nature and a technology that preserves and respects the harmony of the fourfold (earth, sky, mortals, divinities). the method we employed here is hermeneutic, that is, an interpretation of the texts of heidegger. the challenge is to develop a technology of the future that preserves, respects, and cares for african values while revealing its potentials. keywords: heidegger, technology, being, enframing, standing-reserve, african values. introduction the 20th century can rightly be called the century of technology because of the exponential discoveries made with the help of technology in various fields of human endeavour. modern technology is altering and has in some cases, altered the way we live our lives and will soon begin to redefine what being human means. the availability of modern technology has increased the power of human beings to realise a vast array of hitherto unimaginable prodigies, at times just with the touch of a button or in some cases with a remote control. easy access to information, faster means of communication, comfortable lifestyles, enhanced human bodies and abilities, engineered health, the availability of weapons of mass destruction, are all revolutionizing the way we see our fellow human beings. these prodigies not only improve the quality of our lives, but they also bring us to the precipice of self-destruction. hence the questioning of technology became imperative for heidegger and for us, “because modern technology carried with it a novel way of ordering the world, which he saw as tainting man’s authentic and essential relation to being, thereby signifying a certain catastrophe imminent in european industrial modernity” (okoro, 2016, p. i). heidegger was actually propelled to write on technology because of his overwhelming concern that all over europe, the west and even africa, man remains imprisoned in technological modernity, “a condition wherein the more technology advances itself the more it “threatens to slip from human control” okoro, 2016, p. i). how can technology be employed most proficiently to meet human desires without enslaving man to itself? modestus anyaegbu heidegger and the effects of western technology.. 2 the question of being, modernity and technology it is well documented that heidegger’s vocation was to reawaken the question of being which traditional metaphysics led into oblivion or forgetfulness (seinsvergessenheit). this oblivion of being began in ancient greece when plato interpreted ‘being’ as ‘constant presence’ or ‘eidos,’ ‘the eternally unchanging form,’ and with that, inaugurated the era of western metaphysics. plato considered the eternal, non-empirical form to be the unchanging, permanently present foundation or basis of all things. he presupposed that for something “to be,” it must rest upon some “ultimate” foundation, leading western metaphysics into becoming a “foundationalist” metaphysics (zimmerman, 1990, p. xv). aristotle followed the footsteps of plato and interpreted ‘being’ as the ‘first cause and unmoved mover’. subsequently, medieval christianity and later thinkers reinforced this idea of ‘being’ as ‘permanent presence’ eventually identified as “creator god.” heidegger accused western metaphysics of being onto-theology. thus, instead of ‘being’ representing an “unfolding” of things around us in the manner of the ancient greek thinkers, it became something already revealed, an entity. in the technological age in particular, for something ‘to be’ means that it is a raw material for the self-enhancing technological system (zimmerman, 1990, p. xiv). with descartes and his inauguration of modernity, all that changed. modernity refers to a whole epoch in the history of the world; it is modern as opposed to the ancient, or the medieval periods. cartesian metaphysics is said to mark “the beginning” of modern technology (loscerbo, 1981, p. 63). the principle of “cogito, ergo sum” suddenly placed man at the centre of inquiry, with the emergence of consciousness and subjectivity, thereby setting the ‘being question’ aside. hence man became subject, “the self-conscious shaper and guarantor of all that comes to him from beyond himself” (heidegger, 1977, p. 147f). modern science arose because of the work of man as subject in the heideggerian sense. he arrests things, objectifies them, and represents them to himself in a particular way. descartes’ cogito, ergo sum turned the self into a thing and marks the era of “dominion of the subjective” (loscerbo, 1981, p. 63). man is able to become subject by the specific ability of his “thinking,” an ability which heidegger (1977) designates in his language as “vorstellen” – “a notion which is the precursor of “modern herstellen” and of technological “bestellen,” which expresses the dominant human activity in the context of the modern world (p. 66). as an alternative to ‘self’, heidegger places ‘dasein.’ made up of two german words—da and sein—meaning ‘there’ and ‘being’; that is, ‘being-there’. in its complete form, dasein expresses “being-there-in-the-world.” the nature of ‘dasein’ in its average everydayness, then, is to be in the world. being-in-the-world shows itself in average everydayness in the form of the ready-to-hand mode of being-in-the-world is understood using “equipment” in which ‘being’ presents itself in connection with function or use. this deteriorating historical and metaphysical understanding of being in the past epochs, prepared the advent of the modern, technological, nihilistic era. the effect of this technological era is seen in the way the european civilization has been altered and the way the rural and religious pedigree of the african culture/world is being altered into a mass metropolitan world based on science and technology. it was descartes’ turning of the human into a subject that is responsible for the reductionist mentality that we have of things in a technological society. the modern technologist is regularly expected and expects himself to be able to impose order on all data, to “process” every sort of entity, nonhuman and human alike, and to devise solutions for every kind of problem. he is forever getting things under control (heidegger, 1977, p. xxvii). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 3 what is technology and the essence of technology? there are two major works where heidegger developed his philosophy of technology—the question concerning technology and the turning. in the question concerning technology (die frage nach der technik), which officially inaugurates the later heidegger (1977), he conceives technology as “bestand”; that is, a revealing, a revelation or reality about the world. so, how is modern technology a form of revelation? what is the essence of technology? its mark is seen in the dominion of man as self-conscious, representing subject (p. xxxii). to understand the essence of technology, heidegger appeals to the power of technē in ancient greece. technē is a form of poiēsis, that is, a form of ‘bringing forth’ which “was manifest first of all in physis, that presencing wherein the bursting forth arose from within the thing itself” (heidegger, 1977, p. xxiv). in technē, the bursting forth lay not in the thing itself but in another. the greek in the face of the revealing of being in all that met him, tended to seek to master it. it is in this tendency to grasp and consider reality, to discover what might be permanent within it and to control it, for heidegger (1977), that lies the real origin of the modern technological age (p. xxv). temple okoro (2016) describes technology, from the heideggerian perspective, as “a way of bringing something out of concealment to unconcealment.” simply put, technology is a mode of revealing which brings something into presence (p. 4). this means that technology participates in truth—aletheia. heidegger considers truth as “a question of experiencing the being of things as they show themselves to us through our relatedness to them.” in modern technology, the revealing of which it is all about, does not unfold into a ‘bringing-forth’ in the sense of poiēsis, but rather a challenging (herausfordern), “which puts to nature the unreasonable demand that it supplies energy that can be extracted and stored as such” (heidegger, 1977, p. 14). the “challenging” is here meant in the sense of demanding a duel or inviting one to a duel, a combat where one intends to defeat or kill the other and despoil the other of his or her possessions. nature in a sense is challenged to give up of its treasure. in our case here, modern technology demands that nature surrender, “yield up its energies and resources so that they might be on call, readily available for human use” (rojcewicz, 2006, p. 71). the assumption is that the treasures found in nature are there to be exploited and transformed into whatever serves the need of man. hence modern technology becomes the “contemporary disclosure of all things as raw material to be used for expanding the scope of technological power for its own sake” (zimmerman, 1990, p. xiii). heidegger demonstrates this by observing that agriculture had become the mechanized food industry; air is extracted to yield nitrogen, the earth to yield ore, ore to yield uranium, all of which can be stored and used for other purposes; uranium is set upon to yield atomic energy, which can be released either for destruction as it happened in hiroshima and nagasaki, or for peaceful purpose as it is generating and supplying electricity in the western world (zimmerman, 1990, p. 15). modern technology is a revealing in the sense of challenging that unlocks what is hidden in nature, transforms what is unlocked, stores up what is transformed, distributes what is stored up, and what is distributed is switched about ever anew (zimmerman, 1990, p. 16). this means that modern technology is using nature as a “reserve,” a ‘standing-reserve’, ready at hand to be used. it is in this way that modern technology arrogates to itself the right of interpreting the world and making the world an instrumental resource for technological uses. thus, while nature for a scientist is “an object” to be studied and investigated with mathematical accuracy, a technologist considers nature as nothing but a huge source of energy to be extracted and exploited. we do not need to go far to understand what gave rise to a technological culture manifested in the massive industrialization of the modern era. modestus anyaegbu heidegger and the effects of western technology.. 4 heidegger (1977) recognises that there are two ways of defining technology: the instrumental and anthropological definitions of technology. an instrumental definition of technology sees technology as a means to an end, while the anthropological sees technology as a human activity; the two definitions get fused into one for the full understanding of the meaning of technology (pp. 4-5). when man manufactures equipment, tools, and machines, he has a purpose for them—that they may serve man’s needs and ends. this instrumental definition of technology is very correct even for modern technology which in its conception, is too a means to an end. because technology is conceived by man as an instrument, there is even a greater need to master it as there is an increasing possibility of technology threatening “to slip from human control” (p. 5). but this correct instrumental conception of technology does not tell or show us the essence of technology. the essence of modern technology lies in the ‘enframing’ which is “gestell” in deutsch. enframing is “the way in which the real reveals itself as standing-reserve” (heidegger, 1977, p. 23). heidegger argues that modern technology “enframes” the world, that is, it reduces everything—nature, people, culture—to mere resources or “standing-reserve” (bestand) to be ordered, exploited, extracted, optimized and controlled. though this threatens to obscure more authentic ways of being, the anthropological follows from the tradition of western metaphysics which regards “being” in terms of man and his doings (loscerbo, 1981, p. 141). african values and the dangers of modern technology africa is still a developing continent where poverty and backwardness abound. to help in alleviating these negative factors, technology must continue to be advanced; albeit with its concomitant effects on african traditional values and ways of life. the values are mostly relational, communal, and spiritual in their nature. the widely accepted concept like “ubuntu” (i am because we are), showcases the truest nature of african value of communion, togetherness and connectedness between human beings and nature. others like reverence for nature, respect for ancestors as the founders and upholders of family lineage, and oral transmission of native wisdom in the form of basic and cultural education of the african child, sharply contrast with the reductionist and “exploitative” ethos of modern technology. african values emphasize and uphold interdependence, harmony and a sacred view of human and natural existence. let us be more precise by looking at some of the effects on cherished african values. i. nature and the damaged relation with humans one of the most cherished african traditional values is nature which here encompasses land, air and water. traditional african cosmologies view nature as the abode of both spiritual and material forces all living together in relational harmony advantageous to both. in some african villages, the land is considered as the custodian of morality, an unseen but present enforcer of the rules and ethics of the land. evil people do not survive far too long with their evil in the land. one could invoke the potency of the land to protect the righteous or go against the unrighteous. however, with the advent of modern technology, and its rapacious effects on this most sacred of values, things have changed drastically. it is like nature has withdrawn its forces of good over man. modern technology has reduced this precious value to a mere ‘bestand’, a “standing-reserve” for its resources, severing its sacred effect and spiritual bonds with humans. heidegger describes one of the characterizations of modern technology as fördern—translated weakly as ‘expedite’ but strongly as ‘ravishment.’ it is in this strong sense that modern technology relates with this most sacred of african values. for heidegger (1977), this setting-upon that challenges forth the energies of nature is an expediting (fördern), and in two ways. it expedites in that it unlocks and exposes. yet that aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 5 expediting is always itself directed from the beginning toward furthering something else, i.e., toward driving on to the maximum yield at the minimum expense. the coal that had been hauled out in some mining district had not been supplied in order that it may simply be present somewhere or other. it is stockpiled; that is, it is on call, ready to deliver the sun’s warmth that is stored in it. the sun’s warmth is challenged forth for heat, which in turn is ordered to deliver steam whose pressure turns the wheels that keep a factory running (p. 15). to ‘unlock’ and ‘expose’ is to rape. in reality, it implies taking the other merely there for one’s own exploitation and satisfaction which are done by the extreme force of imposition without regard to the disposition of the other. that is why ‘fördern’ is translated as ‘to ravish’ in order to express the special violence that leaves the exploited in a state of waste (rojcewicz, 2006, p. 79). there is, according to rojcewicz, a double form of violence here: nature that is ravished for coal, and the coal that is ravished for its energy. nature—the earth and coal—has taken the worst part of the bargain because she is not benefitting but human beings are. these are some the industrial and extractive technologies that disrupt the sacred harmony existing between nature and human beings. they displace the spiritual significance of nature without communal consent and ritual for its economic reserves, its economic utility. this activity destroys the traditional reverence and spiritual significance of nature. worse still is the harmful effect of this ‘technology’ on the essence of man. heidegger (1977) captures it succinctly: the threat to man does not come in the first instance from the potentially lethal effects of the machines and devices of technology. the genuine threat has already affected human—in their essence (p. 29/28). technology enslaves man to itself by making him loose his freedom and the dignity of his human person. this enslavement is double fold—enslaved to modern technology as a willing partner in advancing the needs of man and enslaved to modern technology by the fact of being dominated by it. heidegger observes that “we ever remain slavishly chained to technology, whether we passionately affirm or deny it” (p. 7/4). ii. urbanization and the treatment of the environment as raw material african communities thrive on communitarian style of living anchored on ‘agrarian civilization’. this civilization that has survived for centuries is, according to pope paul vi (1971), gradually being weakened by technology-powered urbanization (no. 8). hitherto quiet and simple hinterlands are fast losing their innocence and serenity to the advancing hands of technology through urbanization. the program of invading natural farmlands and neighbourhoods and turning them into massive city outskirts destroys the ecosystem and introduces therein some imbalance. this is an enframing where nature is not revealed as something to dwell with, but as a standing-reserve for human use (heidegger, 1977). urbanization brings about a massive housing problem with attendant effects on families, individuals and the society. this creates a generation of newly poor struggling to survive without adequate housing over their heads. unemployment and underemployment are some of the effects as hitherto landowners and farmers become dispossessed of their landed properties and their major means of self-employment and self-empowerment. iii. ubuntu and individualism modestus anyaegbu heidegger and the effects of western technology.. 6 the african is naturally communitarian because he is family oriented. that explains the african philosophy of ubuntu: “i am because we are.” this is opposed to the cartesian /european emphasis on subjectivity and consciousness—cogito, ergo sum: i think therefore i am, which inherently encourages individualism and the accompanying selfishness. the rise of digital technologies has severed the african propensity towards community and enslaved the african to itself by the fact of being dominated by the technology that is meant to serve him. individuals are now isolated in ever growing virtual networks that lack authentic presence. heidegger’s notion of ‘being-with’ (mitsein) mirrors african communalism, which unfortunately is a victim of the imposition of technology. by introducing what heidegger calls ‘ontological shift,’ technology has reduced humans into “resources within a digital system” and no longer seen as “beings-in-relation.” man is no longer in relation with fellow man but in servitude to technology. the same impositional attitude of modern technology imposes itself upon man in the sense of making itself indispensable in the affairs of man to the extent that man becomes subservient to it. man finds himself a dominated species by modern technology. students in the schools can no longer do some simple mental additions without taking recourse to their calculators. drivers can no longer navigate the streets of a city by ordinary reading of maps without depending on the immaterial voice direction of a gps machine. man could be claiming to be ‘master of the earth’ and yet slave to it. this condition can be avoided only when man recognises that the way to freedom begins by seeing the correct things; the condition of one’s existence. the other is by man distancing himself from the impositional attitude of modern technology and adopting that attitude of poiēsis – a more authentic form of revealing. iv. african morality and technological enframing the african morality is inherently communal, relational, and duty based. it is not encoded in abstract principles or ideas but is manifest in daily practices, rituals, and relational obligations to the community, family, and ancestors. it anchored in values like respect, reciprocity, responsibility and social harmony. the biggest threat today to this close-knit and relational form of moral ethics is the modern technology in the particularities of the internet and the social media. heidegger uses the term ‘enframing’ to express the technological mindset or worldview which flattens everything including humans to ‘utility’ or ‘resources’ to be exploited and controlled and used. in social media spaces, the african morality is flattened, disregarded and subjected to technological convenience. the younger generation, by way of enframing, disconnect from rural elders and ancestral practices which serve no instrumental role. the sacred precincts of sexual ethics have been invaded and the cloud of ‘taboo’ which preserved the sacred boundaries of sexual activity, are thrown overboard. the reductionist mentality of modern technology has seen the procreative act flattened to a recreational activity leading to rise in transactional sex and the concomitant effects. man has once more become an object of domination by technology and is thus in chains. this “is a threat deriving from the essence of technology, from the theory of ourselves as unbridled imposers and of nature as there to be imposed on” (rojcewicz, 2006, p. 12). v. african thought process and data processing the african way of thinking and passing down knowledge is quite different from the european technology driven method. in africa, elders are seen as custodians of sacred, traditional wisdom and knowledge. these are passed down mainly orally and through folktales, proverbs, living encounters with the custodians and in some cases, through traditional rituals. all these african traditional epistemologies face the risk of disappearing under the influence of modern technology. heidegger aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 7 is worried that the concern of modern technologies with concealing rather than revealing the fullness of being or reality and other viable ways of being, will lead to the disappearance of african epistemologies which become concealed in technological discourses. modern technology prioritizes data processing, which is true to its essence as enframing, standingreserve to be exploited for its utility. knowledge forms that are contextual, symbolic, or orally transmitted are less preferred to the systems that make use of digitized, standardized and quantified data. (namhila & niskala, 2013). in cases where some valuable data for example, health, consumer, or environmental data are collected from africa by big european corporations, they suffer some form of “data colonialism” at the hands of these firms. these local data are appropriated and subjected to ‘digital enframing’ where their value depends on their utility and not their cultural or spiritual significance (couldry& mejias, 2019). hence, traditional custodians of knowledge-the elders and ancestors, become sidelined and concealed in data processing-base of modern technology. apps, platforms, and sensitive smart digital capturing systems reconfigure our lives and our most sensitive information into data and pass them over to capitalist enterprises that make profits out of them by selling them to us. have we not entered a new era of data-accumulation race where we have become victims of pervasive form of “datafication?” the possibility of reclaiming african values with technology heidegger’s critique of technology does not mean he rejected technology outrightly. what it does is to draw what okoro (2016) describes as two gloomy pictures of the technological age: first, technology destroys itself and perhaps mankind with it; second, an accidental opening to being is discovered (or revealed) and then taken (p. 397). by and large, we think that heidegger is calling for a more thoughtful relationship with technology. the solution is a return to ancient technology, or more precisely, to the essence of ancient technology; the pious, respectful outlook, the nonchauvinistic theory which is precisely the essence of ancient technology. in that theory, human freedom does not amount to imposition but to abetting nurturing actively playing the role of da-sein. ancient technology is the theory of abetting causality, and it is that theory, rather than the practice of handcraft, that heidegger sees as possessing saving power (rojcewicz, 2006, pp. 12-13). there are some methods proposed by heidegger which are considered valuable and friendlier to african way of relating to and being in the world. these include: i. rediscovery of technē as poiēsis heidegger emphasizes a return to and appreciation of the greek term technē, which refers to “artistic or craft-based creation.” this technē involves a gradual form of unconcealing or revealing that is unharmful to nature; it collaborates with nature to reveal what is hidden in its reserves. technē is totally opposed to what modern technology has become. ‘poiēsis’, as conceived by heidegger, refers to “a natural or artistic unfolding” which contrasts with “challenging-forth” (herausfordern)—the unreasonable demand on nature to supply energy that can be extracted and stored as such” (heidegger, 1977, p. 14). ii. gelassenheit (releasement or letting-be) of nature as it is what heidegger does in his use of particular words, is a “conceptual critique of the epistemological and ontological presuppositions underlying technology” (keiling, 2019, p 96). he borrowed this word from meister ekhart (moore 2016) who used it to describe “a disposition of renouncing one’s will in order to let happen what god decided.” the german word is from the verb “lassen” meaning “to let.” ‘gelassenheit’—meaning “releasement”—“defines a form of life marked by an intellectual modestus anyaegbu heidegger and the effects of western technology.. 8 independence from technology” (keiling, 2019, p. 96). heidegger’s adoption of this word is in the sense that man should take non-coercive stance that allows space for reality, for mystery and for otherness. it is an attitude that is against the impositional will of technology on the world. it is an approach that listens, that thinks meditatively rather than dominating. iii. respecting and preserving the natural harmony in the fourfold for africans, the symbiosis between the traditional values of land, air, water are such that they are considered sacred because they are thought to be the meeting spaces between the living and the spirits. these values are thus respected, reserved and somehow revered. heidegger shares this african cosmology and rejects the attitude which considers the natural elements and values for their utility and functionality. in his essay, bauenwohnen denken (building dwelling thinking), heidegger speaks of the fourfold (earth, sky, mortals, divinities), which by a primal oneness belong together in one (heidegger, 1971, p.149). the earth includes nature and the material; sky includes the cosmic order, weather, time; mortals are humans who actualize the capacity to live and to die; divinities represent the mysterious, the sacred. this fourfold exists in harmony. any technology that is authentic should strive to preserve and respect this harmony, not exploit it for profit. iv. dwelling the world with care in the same essay as above—bauen, wohnen, denken—heidegger also develops the concept of ‘dwelling’. the word bauen “means at the same time to cherish and protect, to preserve and care for, specifically to till the soil, to cultivate the vine” (heidegger, 1971, p. 147). it is a way of being in the world that is anchored in the care and preservation given to the world. dwelling is more than just living in a house. it is about inhabiting the world with respect and care. according to heidegger, “the fundamental character of dwelling is this sparing and preserving. it pervades dwelling in its whole range.” (heidegger, 1971, p, 149) heidegger tries providing alternative to the modern technology with its extractive, controlling and optimizing character. the alternative resonates with africa and her indigenous way of living in harmony with the land, the community and the ancestors. conclusion technology is good but when it is abused and left to abuse man and the natural order, it becomes an agent for the destruction of both man and nature. heidegger criticizes modern technology for its character of enframing, that is, its tendency to reduce all things-man and nature alike-to mere resources (standing-reserve). the effects of this modern technology are seen in the destruction of the cosmic balance between the african and her values—the spirituality, community and reverence for nature. heidegger thinks that technology can be made to be respectful, and protective of nature, rather than undermining it. the challenge is to develop technology that can serve the african in her sacred values, in respect of her mystery and in the care for her life. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 9 references couldry, n, & mejias, u. a. (2019). the costs of connection. how data is colonizing human life and appropriating if for capitalism. stanford, california: stanford university press. heidegger, m. (1971). poetry, language, thought. translations and introductions by albert hofstadter. new yor: harper colophon books. heidegger, m. (1977). the question concerning technology and other essays. translated and with an introduction by william lovitt. ne york & london: garland publishing inc. loscerbo, j. (1981). being and technology: a study in the philosophy of martin heidegger. hague: martinus nijhoff publishers. namhila, e. n. &niskala, r. (2013). libraries and oral history: preserving records of enduring value. library management, 34(6/7), 469-478. okoro, t. d. (2016). modernity and destining of technological being. beyond heidegger’s critique of technology to responsible and reflexive technology. peter lang edition. paul vi. (1971). apostolic letter octagesimaadveniens: a call to action. rojcewicz, r. (2006). the gods and technology: a reading of heidegger. albany: state university of new york. wendland, a. j et al. (eds). (2019). heidegger on technology. new york & london: routledge. zimmerman, m. e. (1990). heidegger’s confrontation with modernity, technology, politics and art. bloomington & indianapolis: indiana university press. 182 exploring belongingness as a common strand in afromodals jude i. onebunne, phd department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka juno,anyi@gmail, +2348112118464 orcid id: 0000-0002-89956097 abstract belongingness remains the african metaphysics of to be while afromodals are african ways of to be. afromodals are african modalities of being and belongingness. they are the african models for communalistic existence and a communitarian mode of being and belongingness. afromodals are the african metaphysicaal modalities of realities as well as the existential locus of interconnectedness of realities in the african worldview. being is always in one way or another. that is to say that being belongs. in african philosophy, especially in african metaphysics, there are different modalities of this associative nature of belonging, which is represented in the concept of afromodals. afromodal is an african way of appreciating the modality of to be. using the method of critical interpretation, the researcher finds out that belongingness is a common strand in the afromodals. keywords: belongingness, afromodal, being, strand. appreciation of afromodal onebunne (2025) is of the opinion that afromodal is an african concept that encapsulates all the attitudinal relationships of valued love and every form of responseability of the other. afromodal is a conceptual framework and a neologism which upholds the genesis of the core of african communal philosophies and critical modalities such as igwebuike, ubuntu, egbebereugobere, onyeaghananwanneya, birikambiri, kwetuism, njikoka, consciencism, ibuanyidanda andseveral others which share common philosophical threads and dealings within the african roots but increasingly and manifestly very inclusive of all traditions and languages. the afromodals are the above-named concepts. afromodal is phonetically panafrican—not overly language-specific, but influenced by indigenous tongues. it instills a sense of warmth, connection, community, life, peace, and solidarity (onebunne, 2025). continuing onebunne (2025) insists that afromodals reflect the african sense of having shared walks, solidarity, cooperation, interdependence and mutual responsibility. these ideas describe subtly distinct facets of a shared conviction that human life is fundamentally relational, not individual. afromodal, while not yet firmly established in scholarly literature, is a conceptual position or philosophical modality developed from african worldviews and epistemologies. it captures the interplay of african cultural principles, especially those that emphasize community, shared humanity and moral responsibility. thus, afromodal thought serves as a perspective through which the shared nature of human behaviour is analyzed and venerated, mirroring african ideals of unity, collaboration and accountability. afromodals, therefore, have foundational elemental pillars such as relationality, solidarity, mutuality, interdependence and harmony, et cetera (onebunne, 2025). jude i. onebunne exploring belongingness as a common strand.. 183 all in all, the afromodal is an african philosophical attitude towards life, of solidarity, deliberate cooperation and ethical responsibility. it embodies the african way of seeing human beings not as isolated units, but as axes in a network of moral, social and spiritual relations (onebunne, 2025). afromodal is all about the philosophy of african modality, that is, a philosophical modality that explores the various aspects of african values and beliefs, both in traditional and modern practice. therefore, afromodal is a form of connectedness. cambridge dictionary (n.d.) defines connectedness as the state of being connected and having a close relationship with other things or people. it is the state of being joined or linked. it is a feeling of belonging to or having affinity with a particular person or group. merriam-webster. (n.d.) defines being connected as an adjective to mean joined or linked together; having the parts or elements logically linked together, and having social, professional, or commercial relationships. as an adverb, it is connected, and as a noun, it is connectedness. harper collins maintains that in british english, connectedness is the state of being connected (harpercollins, 2019). the idea of connectedness leads to the view of the state of being connected. afromodal is a form of connectedness of african modalities of beings and models of existential interaction. afromodal is a form of modality. afromodals are the modalities of being or belonging in african-igbo ontology. onebunne (2025) maintains that afromdal is an existential modality that is humanocentric. beyond the idea of eurocentricism, afromodal is afrocentric as well as cosmocentric because the conceptual idea it projects is within the bounds and range of positive human relationships and interaction. afromodal is a human effort towards humanity’s unified common effort for survival and other existential operations as social human beings. this idea, therefore, makes afromodal a philosophical stance that confronts people’s worldview as well as their reality. more so, afromodal is an idea based on human endeavours to challenge man's inhumanity towards man through a collective familial communitarian common-front. hence, it faces all onslaughts of inhumanity by virtue of communal humanism. afromodal thus emerges as a philosophical and socio-ethical matrix based on african communal and or collective systems of epistemic thought, aimed at wrestling with the intractable fact of human sociality. onebunne (2025) maintains that an afromdal is an existential modality that is humanocentric. the tapestry of afromodal is premised on a common front held by people who share a similar worldview and cultural solidarity in opposition to structures of dehumanization and deafricanization. by this, afromodals are in tandem with all expressive manners of african spirit born during the colonial era and more in the midst of painful post-colonial manifestations as well as the contemporary post-coloniality. as an african modality, afromodals are not only reactive but constructive by validating the humanity of africans and liberating them as such. afromodals succinctly become pathways towards healing from historical trauma via the rehumanization of africans and their rehumanization. based on these facts, afromodal is also a modality of african humanism (onebunne, 2025). appreciation of belongingness etymologically, the word ‘belongingness’ is a compound word that can be broken down into constituents thus: be – (l) on (be on), be – (l) on going, be – long and belonging. it is equally an apprehension of belongingness as the african metaphysics of to be. however, each epoch of human history has had things to decry, and issues and problems have demanded urgent attention and remedy, just like our own present epoch. similarly, belongingness has been a fundamental aspect of african philosophical and communalist engagement. belongingness, we must note, has been a fundamental cultural trait within the exigencies of african philosophy. in the words of iroegbu (1994), “belongingness is an abstract term, an ontological one that specifies that a thing is, because it belongs”. put another way, belongingness is the african aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 184 metaphysics of to be. that is to say that being belongs and this belongingness is a fundamental condition for a thing to be considered a reality. to this end, being and belongingness are said to be ontological. reality, therefore, is better known and understood by the concept of belongingness. in other words, reality, or being, in its total manifestation, is a process involving belongingness. in this form of belongingness, reality is a given that needs continuous existential understanding and development. without belongingness, there would be no discussion on being or to be. whatever is part of reality belongs to something (onebunne, 2019a). to understand belongingness, it must be understood in its relation to others. belongingness, however, overshadows these existential facts of operations. this notion of belongingness is clearly reflected in john donne’s poem: “no man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main… any man’s death diminishes me, because i am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for thee”. belongingness is a fundamental quality in understanding every existential reality. it identifies realities such. however, being’s nature is in belonging. its role is in belonging. its mode and operations are in belonging. belongingness, as such, is the ontological value of being. iroegbu (1994) opines, solidarity of belongingness in being and solidarity of being in belongingness, in the manner in which we exist and relate in the reality of being and belongingness thus: belongingness holds that our existence as human beings, as well as our integral participation in the society in which we find ourselves, are to be defined by our being given the sense and substance of belonging. belongingness adequately describes the modality of any existing reality. iroegbu (2004) tries to maintain that belongingness specifies that a thing is because it belongs. belongingness can be conceived in various ways, either as participation or possession. in the hermeneutics of belongingness, the various contents or senses of the concept of belongingness are thus: be-on, be ongoing, be-long, be-longing, belong. these four analytic contents, according to iroegbu (1995), substantiate the various contents or senses of the concept of ‘belongingness’. iroegbu calls them the sub-themes of belongingness as:  be(l)-on (be on): this analytic theme would not be clearly understood if it is not explicated side by side with its contrary: “be off”. to be on is to escape not being off, or not to be off. this is because either one is on or one is off. to be is to be on. being-on is being. being is being-on. being-off is not to be, to cease to be, to cease to exist, to be nothing. as iroegbu (1995) stressed this issue “the belong” involved in belongingness is a turning-on of being as general and abstraction into being as concrete expressible entity.  be-(l) on-going: this is the second stage of the etymological understanding and hermeneutic appreciation of the word, belongingness. for iroegbu (1995), “…it is a form of ongoing and the ongoingness of being means that somebody who belongs today cannot, all things being equal, be regarded as not belonging tomorrow, unless at the price of annihilation.”be ongoing is an assertion as well as continuity—a kind of ongoingness. in the words of iroegbu (1995), ongoingness is an existential constituent of being-inbelongingness. the ontological consequence is that being is being in so far as it is ongoing.  be-long: this is the third content of belongingness. it expresses a form of relationship and or relational presence. in belongingness, a being is fulfilled since to belong means to keep on, settle, abide or live long in being. to belong is to prolong the belongingness of the being. through belonging, be-long or to belong relates reality to another. for iroegbu (1995), to belong means: to stay, abide or live long. long live belongingness. belongingness lives long. belongingness means that the subject of uwa stays long in being. here, time is brought in. being is expressed in time and space. to be is to be long: jude i. onebunne exploring belongingness as a common strand.. 185 long in existence, long in goodness, long in prosperity, long in communion with others, while on-going may be open-ended, being-long stretches it still further unto everlastingness.  be-longing: belongingness entails a decision to stay on concretely. it is a desire to remain and continue its concrete existence. it brings in and stresses the personal element: the longing for life, for being. for iroegbu (1995), “to belong is to be in the desire for life. it is the will to march along in life.” stressing further, he notes: the be-longingness, beingin-longing, or the longing for continued existence explains the natural inclination for selfpreservation in all creatures. in sum, belongingness is ‘the reality of whatever is in so far as it is, being a part of, therefore belonging to reality (uwa), (iroegbu, 1995). belongingness, however, is derived from the basic understanding of reality. it has a character of identification with and within a community. moreover, in such a societal disposition, belongingness finds a powerful basis and sustenance. all these are seen in the developmental structures of african communalism. as iroegbu reiterates, belongingness implies the basic commonness that makes a given african community as such. for iroegbu (1995), belongingness constitutes the most important mode in which being expresses itself. although he holds that “belongingness” is an abstract term, an ontological one that specifies that a thing is, because it belongs, he articulates the idea of belongingness within the context of the theory of communalism. hence, the specific articulation and understanding of belongingness embodies various definitions and meanings: conceptual, psychological, existential and physiological. moreover, what should be noted here is that communalism makes belongingness an indispensable conceptual starting point. belongingness, according to iroegbu (1995), therefore, is the synthesis of realities seen in the statement that to be is to belong. to belong is to be.moreover, the principle of autonomy, which is often referred to as ebub, that is, an afromodal: egbebereugobere, shows the communitarian aspect of the individual in the african community he or she belongs to. however, okere (1983) sees ebub as an african concept of justice and peace. to each one his due.live and let live.be and let be. according to okere (1983) maintains that “…the rhetorical balance in these expressions, with their frequent nods to alliteration and repetition reflects the will to use balance, equity and fair measure to gauge and order human relations, to have them reconciled, balanced and fair, to base them on justice”, (p.86). for him, this aphorism, egbe bere, ugo bere. nke si ibe ya ebela, nku kwaa ya, (let the kite perch, let the eagle perch, whichever would not let the other perch should have his wings broken), espouses a philosophy of total fairness and champions igbo ethics. okere appreciates this aphorism more from a moral interest, as it controls social peace and harmony. however, he must be aware that concepts like justice and peace are communitybound, that is, they are realizable in a community life and setting. it is, therefore, within the context of human interaction and relation as well as being-with-others that one can speak of and demand justice, peace and fair play. in a rigorous sense, as human beings belong, so they relate; hence, belongingness allows the need for harmony and respect. in the same view above, okere submits thus: to talk of society is, of course, to talk of a plurality of persons, of groups, of interests, political, religious and economic interests. these interests are often misaligned and at cross purposes and need to be reconciled and harmonized. okere further reiterates: “men relate to each other singly or in groups, and justice, egbe bere ugo bere, governs this relationship if each gives to the other his due. this is a normal and proper way people live together by letting each other be who they are and have what they have, not crossing boundaries, not stepping on toes; letting things be in their due and proper place, arranged, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 186 aligned, beautiful. when this is the case, there is peace, udo, ndokwa, everything in its place, in order”. iroegbu nevertheless went beyond understanding the referred aphorism, egbe bere ugo bere, only as an african concept of justice and peace, to seeing it as an ontological principle. according to him, “egbe bere, ugo bere as an ontological principle re-enacts the hermeneutic contents and existential significance of belongingness. it expresses the essence or kpim of reality, what a being is, is its activity of perching. to perch is to be…”the egbe and ugo are only in potency until they perch. perching is a part of belonging. belonging is seen in the act of perching. moreover, as for iroegbu (1995), the act of perching is the process of acquiring being. to perch, therefore, is to belong; perching is belonging. to fully perch is to fully be. belongingness, for iroegbu then becomes an “arrangement of the fundamental structure of society (laws, duties, privileges, positions, jobs, offices, advantages and incumbents of the community), such that it incarnates and manifests the commonness of origin, of history and general destiny of all the members of the community, (iroegbu, 1995). the concept of contact is a backdrop for a person’s realization of his belonging as a being immersed in his community. this is summarized in the saying; i am because we are. this is a communitarian view. belongingness is, therefore, a fundamental quality in understanding whatever is. a relation defines everything; that is, a thing or being is in relation to something, or with an attribute of engaging in something. the concept of strand a strand is a single thin length of material that can be on its own or combined with other strands to form more complex structures. the notion is not limited to any single domain: in biology, dna is a double helix of two complementary strands carrying genetic information. similar strand-based structures can be seen with hair, strands of muscle fibres, and strands of connective tissues that provide tensile strength based on their arrangement. they twist strands of cotton, wool or synthetic fibres into thread or yarn, which is then woven into fabric. how these strands are arranged gives the material its properties. strands manifest as wires in electric systems in physics and engineering, conducting current or data. therefore, rope is a strand of strands twisted together and is stronger than any element alone. strands, conceptually, also stand for related things in narratives or argumentsa plot thread that runs through a book or film, for instance, is known as a narrative strand. ridges can correspond to singular paths or chains of causation within complex systems. strand holds a profound critical dualityboth one and many, both singular and a feature of greater wholes. this paradox reflects deep philosophical tensions between individuality and collectivity, autonomy and interdependence. strand itself is a dependent origination, manifesting itself through strand-based structures— nothing exists in and of itself, all phenomena arise from a relationship to each other. the strength of a rope comes not from its strands but rather from their interweaving arrangement. moreover, most powerfully of all, strands manifest the philosophical tenet that inextricable systems emerge from simple pieces in relationship, suggesting that connection itself might be the central creative principle of the universe. thus, heraclitus could find an expression of the logos in strands, that is, the physical embodiment of logos, the order connecting discrete elements. strands are made visible by their haptic connection, suggesting that separateness is what we are stripped down to, but often proves illusory. in the same way, from an existentialist standpoint, strands represent our radical isolation and yet unavoidable interdependence. like sartre’s idea of being condemned to freedom, each filament coexists intact while being affected by and affecting all others. strands also shed light on epistemological questions about jude i. onebunne exploring belongingness as a common strand.. 187 relationships between parts and wholes. strand has the same conceptual meaning as stream. stream according to merriam-webster. (n.d.) is a ray of light, a prevailing attitude or group and a dominant influence or line of development beyond other lexical meanings, a stream is a focused sequence of learning in a curriculum that meets the interests of the student, whether it be career goals or academic goals. it provides opportunities for specialization by combining subjects together into pathways, such as science, arts, or commerce. streams allow for an education more carefully tailored to learners’ strengths and aspirations, developing depth of knowledge and skill in specific areas. this method improves feasibility, engagement, and readiness for postsecondary education or employment. the stream system accommodates individualized learning in a meaningful and unified context while upholding a commitment to a shared body of general knowledge and learning across the disciplines. the essential concept of stream is a curated sequence of learning, arranged in a way that best serves students based on their interests, academic pursuits, or career aspirations, all of which align within the same curriculum. it enables students to pursue a more streamlined curriculum, allowing them to take subjects in streams with specific subjects grouped together; for instance, science, arts, or commerce. streams can help structure education around learners’ strengths and interests, allowing for depth of knowledge and skills to be developed in targeted areas. such an approach strengthens relevance, motivation, and readiness for post-secondary education or the world of work. the stream system organizes learning into coherent tracks, supporting personalized and purposeful education, all while ensuring a broad base of general knowledge in all disciplines. streams and strands, therefore, are used in the above contexts to show the modal relationship of belongingness in afromodals. the strand of belongingness in afromodals the afromodals are: igwebuike, ubuntu, egbebereugobere, onyeaghananwanneya, birikambiri, kwetuism and ibuanyidanda et cetera. strand, as in stream, connotes a single thin idea running through a conglomerate of related ideas. it denotes a commonness of uniquely related views. furthermore, in our context, belongingness is a labyrinth running through and across all the afromodals depicting interconnected concepts that are of african models and origin. this view is afrocentric. belongingness as a strand runs through the afromodals as it is located within the operations of the afromodals. consequently, belongingness is expressed more within the context of basic community living and communal interaction. belongingness, as a strand in afromodals, emphasizes communal interconnectedness and identity within african philosophical thought systems. it reflects the relational ontology prevalent in african cultures, where the individual exists through and with others (mbiti, 1969). afromodals highlight the modalities of being rooted in collective existence, reinforcing that personhood is achieved through social harmony and mutual recognition (ikuenobe, 2006). belongingness, therefore, embodies the lived experiences of inclusion, mutual care, and cultural embeddedness that shape educational and social practices. it offers an epistemic lens through which african identity is not only affirmed but dynamically cultivated within community contexts (gyekye, 1997). belongingness is the human demand to be an accepted member of a group. it illuminates how interconnectedness fundamentally shapes african thoughts and worldview. belongingness, therefore, is an afrocentric model of approach to communal interaction and existence. from an african perspective, the philosophical traditions articulated in european binders’ stress communal identity and social harmony over the emphasis of individualism found in western aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 188 philosophy. this is perfectly captured within mbiti’s famous dictum, i am because we are, and since we are, therefore i am (mbiti, 1969). this ontological principle situates the self as fundamentally relational. this view is further developed by ifeanyi menkiti (1984), who notes that "it is the community which defines the person as person, not some isolated static quality of rationality, will, or memory" (p. 172). for menkiti, one becomes a whole person only through integration in the community. in traditional african societies, the sociological structure strengthens feelings of belongingness with the extended family, age-grades and communal rites of passage ceremonies. meyer fortes notes that the irreducible component of social life in varied african societies is constituted by kinship bonds (fortes, 1969). more recent studies validate these trends. oppong’s (2006) multi-country study of social support networks in subsaharan africa found that “extended kinship networks continue to serve as the primary social safety net and source of identity even amid rapid urbanization” (p. 89). belongingness, as a thread in afromodals, invokes the connectedness of belonging to one another through identity-related concepts in african philosophy. it embodies the relational ontology characteristic of african cultures in which an individual is through and with others (mbiti, 1969). afromodals emphasize the modalities of being grounded in collective existence, reiterating that personhood is realized within social harmony and mutual acknowledgment (onebunne, 2025; ikuenobe, 2006). belongingness, then, reflects the lived experiences of the inclusion, mutual care and cultural embeddedness that influence educational and social practices. it provides an epistemic perspective in which african identity is both confirmed and actively developed in the context of community (gyekye, 1997). belongingness is, therefore, stranded or streamed in all the afromodals like igwebuike, ubuntu, egbebereugobere, onyeaghananwanneya, birikambiri, kwetuism, negritude, ibuanyidanda, consciencism or nkrumahism and njikoka, et cetera. belongingness in igwebuike belongingness as a strand in igwebuike, an igbo-african philosophical framework meaning "there is strength in unity", captures the essence of our being together as an identity. it confirms that the individual is not an isolated being adventuring as a solitary stranger into a strange world of objects. however, it is instead embedded in a network of relationships, in which personhood is actualized through interconnected participation (kanu, 2015). igwebuike argues that belonging is being in solidarity, it is providing and drawing strength from the group. this interconnectedness nurtures a moral responsibility to others and thus enhances peace, interdependence, and shared responsibility (kanu, 2016). at the bottom line, belongingness is ontological and epistemological. it organizes how knowledge is both acquired and lived in the space of acquaintance. it goes beyond physical space, reaching into cultural and spiritual dimensions as well, situating identity within the values and experiences that bind a group together (edeh, 1985). igwebuike thus renders belongingness not only a social construct, but a foundational axiom of african metaphysics. belongingness in ubuntu belongingness in ubuntu (a southern african philosophy meaning “i am because we are”) is foundational to understanding personhood and community. it argues that human identity is not formed in isolation, but emerges in the context of relationships and shared humanity (mbiti, 1969; tutu, 1999). in ubuntu, belongingness means being embedded in a web of mutual respect, empathy and care. it challenges the neoliberal perspective that the well-being of each individual is independent of others, which is a view that reinforces individualism and exclusivity (ramose, 2002). within this framework, belongingness constitutes a right and a jude i. onebunne exploring belongingness as a common strand.. 189 responsibility: one belongs when one enhances the community through community and through affirming others’ dignity. the essence of ubuntu is in this ethics of care and interdependence, which embodies a holistic worldview, whereby belongingness is manifested as an experience of unity, trust and shared purpose, which is central to social cohesion, education and governance in african societies (letseka, 2012). belongingness in egbebereugobere egbebereugobere, an igbo philosophical dictum that translates to “live and let live captures the disposition of coexistence, goodwill and mutual respect. within this framework, belongingness symbolizes a communal ethic and paradigm of being where individuals are valued not in isolation but by virtue of their capacity to accommodate and support other members of the community (edeh, 1985). moreover, it generates inclusivity — the acceptance of different identities, opinions, and roles in a shared social arena. as articulated in egbebereugobere, belongingness is maintained through reciprocity or peaceful coexistence, which highlights that the community thrives when each individual makes way for others to thrive (nwala, 1985). it promotes social harmony and guarantees that no person is excluded or marginalized. thus, belongingness is not just passive presence but an active, moral commitment to one another’s well-being, equity, and upliftment, echoing with rich sound in african educational, political and cultural systems dominated by collective wellbeing (iroegbu, 1995). belongingness in onyeaghananwanneya moreover, onyeaghananwanneya, an igbo saying that means “let no one abandon their sibling,” reflects a deep ethic of solidarity and collective responsibility. belongingness in this philosophical vein stems from kinship, mutual care and a duty to pull others up as one gets ahead. this culture embodies an integrated cosmology in which no individual achievement is fulfilled outside the context of family wellness (iroegbu, 1995). as edeh (1985) opined, in onyeaghananwanneya, belongingness means that you are not allowed to abandon others or marginalize them in your community life; hence, it functions as a duty and empathy within communal life (cf sorrell, 2020). this principle fosters social justice through the mutual sharing of resources, opportunities, and emotional support, a concept that underpins the sense of community and is a trait vital in african communities. it is understood here that biological ties do not matter, that anyone could be part of the community; thus, togetherness and communalism become moral obligations in public and private life (nwala, 1985). it is a philosophy that is lived, and it has profoundly influenced african education, governance, and cultural identity. belongingness in birikambiri birikambiri, an igbo saying that means let us remain or even more: live and let me live, emphasizes the importance of co-survival and interdependence. this aspect of belongingness speaks more to maintaining and preserving relationships, and staying together as one, particularly during tough times. it emphasizes that members of the community have a responsibility toward each other, hence none should be lost or left behind in the community (iroegbu, 1995). in birikambiri, belongingness means intentionally showing up for others and affirming their humanity and their worth as people. this creates and influences resilience and togetherness, which claims that the strength of the people lies in enduring bonds and collective responsibility (nwala, 1985). it repels isolation and propels a model of coexistence in which individuals are morally bound to make sure each other thrives and survives. a strand of african aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 190 communalism, birikambiri frames belongingness as a social condition but also as an ethical act that is fundamental to african education, leadership and cultural identity (edeh, 1985). belongingness in kwetuism kwetuism, as a word from kwetu, is derived from the local swahili dialect and means “our home”. kwetuism is a philosophical concept built around rootedness, a sense of communal identity, and the importance of place in african thought. community is kwetuism; a profound spiritual attachment to land, ancestors, and fellow members, where ontological identity finds its place in a collective cultural and historical space (nyerere, 1968). it expresses the idea that one’s identity is incomplete without acknowledgment of one’s roots and engagement in communal life. in this paradigm, belongingness comes with responsibility, reciprocity and intergenerational continuity—everyone has a role that they play in the preservation of the communal balance and evolution (mbiti, 1969). kwetuism rejects alienation and insists that genuine belongingness happens in the sharing of the values, memories and dreams of one’s people. it, therefore, influences african education, ethics and governance by rooting human dignity in communal rootedness and solidarity (ramose, 2002). belongingness in ibuanyidanda ibuanyidanda is an igbo-african philosophical framework of purpose, meaning given by innocent asouzu, which states “no load is insurmountable for collective effort.” ibuanyidanda creates a sense of belongingness through complementary relationships and communal synergy by accepting each singularity as an essential component of the whole (asouzu, 2004). it tells us that human beings realize our wholeness not alone but in interdependence with one another. by this perspective, belongingness is thus a functional and ethical requisite—everyone belongs as a meaningful participant in common enterprises, transcending limits in and through cooperation (asouzu, 2007). it encourages diverse thought for a better community. ibuanyidanda, as belongingness, has ontological implications as it is an ontological reflection of the dynamic oneness of being in its communal nature as africans live their reality. it promotes african education, leadership, and development through holistic engagement, equality, and the reinforcement of those mutually esteemed among them. belongingness as a strand in ujamaa belongingness is central to ujamaa, julius nyerere’s african socialism, which reimagined nationhood through kinship-based communalism. rooted in the swahili term for "familyhood," ujamaa emphasized that individuals exist as part of an interdependent whole (nyerere, 1968). belongingness manifests in the shared labour systems, collective ownership of land, and village-based life that reinforces mutual responsibility. nyerere argued that african society must “recognize the inherent dignity and equality of all” within a communal ethic (nyerere, 1968). this strand affirms identity through active participation in the community, where each person's worth is derived from their contribution to collective wellbeing (shivji, 2009). thus, ujamaa’s belongingness is not merely social inclusion, but ontological, anchoring it in relational solidarity. belongingness as a strand in negritude in negritude (championing the fact that black matters), belongingness is articulated through a reclamation of black identity and a collective african consciousness. founded by poets and intellectuals like aimé césaire and léopold sédar senghor, negritude emphasized solidarity among peoples of african descent, resisting colonial alienation by affirming shared cultural, historical, and emotional ties (césaire, 2000). senghor described negritude as “the sum total jude i. onebunne exploring belongingness as a common strand.. 191 of the values of the civilization of the african world” (senghor, 1965), where belongingness is not geographical but spiritual and cultural. this strand fosters a sense of homecoming for diasporic africans through language, rhythm and ancestral memory, positioning blackness as a unifying ontology (wilder, 2005). belongingness in negritude thus transcends borders, nurturing identity through poetic resistance and cultural affirmation. belongingness as a strand in consciencism or nkrumahism in consciencism, belongingness is conceptualized as the ethical and ideological unity necessary for post-colonial african identity and development. kwame nkrumah proposed that africa’s liberation requires a synthesis of traditional african values, islamic heritage, and western influence into a cohesive philosophical framework (nkrumah, 1964). belongingness emerges through this ideological integration, ensuring individuals see themselves as part of a historical continuum and collective destiny. nkrumah emphasized that a “philosophical conscience” is essential for forging national solidarity and resisting neocolonial fragmentation (nkrumah, 1964). by rooting identity in communal consciousness rather than imposed divisions, consciencism affirms belongingness as both a political and metaphysical stance, where being is validated through commitment to collective emancipation and socio-economic justice (wiredu, 1998). thus, belongingness in consciencism is transformative: it binds personal identity to africa’s holistic liberation. belongingness as a strand in njikoka belongingness is an important strand in njikoka, the igbo-african idea of complementarity initiated by innocent asouzu. njikoka, or "unity-in-diversity" or "integration," posits that all beings are interdependent and find meaning only through their relations with others (asouzu, 2004). within this theoretical framework, belongingness is not just social inclusion, it is an ontological imperative, where everything that exists makes up a complementary web where nothing is sufficient unto itself. the essence of asouzu's claim that "to be is to be in mutual complementary relationship" (asouzu, 2007) is that what it means to be human comes forth from this interdependence. in njikoka, however, belongingness is also an ethical commitment to recognize and affirm others as necessary parts of one’s flourishing. it helps us reject the exclusivity and binary of worldviews and cultivates a way of being that moves through principles of harmony and relationality in thought and action. the ibuanyidanda maxim: “no task is insurmountable when the relevant missing links are harmoniously integrated” (asouzu, 2007) captures this principle. and so, njikoka re-configures belongingness as both an existential condition and a moral imperative, necessary for authentic human cohabitation. belongingness as being-with in the afromodals belongingness is in line with the concept of being-with, which centers on relational existence as the foundation of personhood. drawing from both african communal ontology and heideggerian existentialism, being-with (mitsein) emphasizes that human beings are always already in relation with others (heidegger, 1962). in african philosophy, this is echoed in the idea that “a person is a person through other persons” (mbiti, 1969). belongingness, therefore, is not a secondary condition but the ontological ground of existence. it manifests in mutual recognition, co-presence, and interdependence within the community. the african mode of being-with reflects the african-modals-lived ethics where identity is co-constituted through shared humanity. thus, belongingness is the essential mode of being, where the self is incomplete without the other, and existence is a web of co-belonging that affirms dignity, responsibility, and social harmony. equally, in maurice merleau-ponty’s phenomenology, belongingness is embedded in the embodied, intersubjective nature of being-with. he argues that human existence is fundamentally relational, grounded in the body’s openness to others aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 192 and the world (merleau-ponty, 1962). belongingness arises through inter-corporeality, the mutual, bodily recognition that we exist with and through others. this relationality is not abstract but lived, as our perceptions, gestures, and expressions are shaped by and directed toward others (merleau-ponty, 1968). belonging, then, is not a fixed identity but a dynamic process of co-existence, where self and other intertwine in a shared lifeworld. it implies a prereflective communion with others, making sociality a condition of being. as diprose (2002) notes, for merleau-ponty, subjectivity is always already given with others, making belongingness an ontological structure of human existence. in sum, belongingness remains the sole strand that runs through the afromdals: igwebuike, ubuntu, egbebereugobere, onyeaghananwanneya, birikambiri, kwetuism, ibuanyidanda, ujamaa, negritude, consciencism, et cetera. belongingness as a strand is the lcm in all the conceptual understanding of the afromodals as modalities in african existentialism. belongingness, which, similar to indigenist sentiments, emphasizes the wholeness of the african existentials. it is a relational ontology a way of being that is dependent on the other relational ontologies within the african context, the individual exists through and with others. afromodals emphasize modalities of rootedness in collective existence, reaffirming that personhood is relationally obtained through social harmony and mutual recognition. thus, belongingness is the lived practice of inclusion, inter-care and cultural embeddedness that coordinates education and sociology. it provides an epistemic angle through which african identity is not just recognized but actively constructed in communal contexts. afromodals are of african origin, specifying the continent's communal spirit of relationship confronting both internal and external challenges. conclusion afromodals are distinct modes within the existential paradigms of african philosophical and socio-political thought. while each emerged in different historical, cultural and intellectual contexts, they share a common thread: they offer african-centred responses to colonialism, western modernity, eurocentric models and the quest for african identity, dignity and communal well-being. afromodals share communal values and reject western individualism, emphasize african ontologies, epistemologies, and moral systems as well, and serve as frameworks for african self-understanding and reconstruction. afromodal philosophy is a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes the active choices that individuals make when grappling with existential realities, especially from an african perspective. this is a philosophical stance that encourages us to grapple with the problems that life throws at us with action, and that action can be individual or social. afromodality investigates the greatness and grandeur of human endeavour in the struggle against death and dying, which strengthens the african experience. rather than focusing on pure theorizing alone, this philosophy places individual human effort at the core of overcoming mortal challenges. afromodal philosophy, afromodalism, afromodality, is a unique approach that places human action at the heart of the matrices of power, creativity, and accomplishment in confronting quotidian realities of existence. this philosophical tradition of afromodality teaches us how humans can engage with what we face through practical wisdom, communal solidarity, and contextually appropriate solutions: hard-learned sources of insight. with afromodalistic thought as the foundation, contemporary african philosophers still uphold and serve the tradition into which they were born, as they seek to liberate the everyday and the social from the grasp of negativity. afromodality explores the tapestry and grandness of human attempts to confront the existential challenges that define the african experience. jude i. onebunne exploring belongingness as a common strand.. 193 references asouzu, i. i. 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(1985). igbo philosophy. literamed publications. nyerere, j. (1968). ujamaa: essays on socialism. oxford university press. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 194 merriam-webster. (n.d.). “stream”. in merriam-webster.com dictionary. retrieved april 11, 2025, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/streaman unbroken flow (as of gas or particles of matter) merleau-ponty, m. (1962). phenomenology of perception. routledge. merleau-ponty, m. (1968). the visible and the invisible. northwestern university press. mbiti, j. s. (1969). african religions and philosophy. heinemann. mudimbe, v. y. (1988). the invention of africa: gnosis, philosophy, and the order of knowledge. indiana university press. nyerere, j. (1968). ujamaa: essays on socialism. oxford university press. onebunne, j. i. (2019a). being as belongingness: expanding the hermeneutics of african metaphysics of to be. awka: fab anieh nig ltd. onebunne, j. i. (2025). “an exposition of afromodal: exploring a new framework of connectedness”. in nnadiebube journal of philosophy, vol. 8, no.3,2025. https://www.acjol.org/index.php/njp/article/view/6818/6605 wilder, g. (2005). the french imperial nation-state. university of chicago press. ramose, m. b. (1999). african philosophy through ubuntu. mond books. ramose, m. b. (2002). african philosophy through ubuntu. mond book. shivji, i. g. (2009). where is uhuru? reflections on the struggle for democracy in africa. fahamu books. senghor, l. s. (1965). negritude and african socialism. présence africaine. tutu, d. (1999). no future without forgiveness. random house. wiredu, k. (1998). “toward decolonizing african philosophy and religion”. in african studies quarterly, 1(4). aquinno volume 4 issue 3 december 2024.cdr critical appreciation of african philosophy of religion and african literature jude i. onebunne department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka ji.onebunne@unizik.edu.ng orcid id: 0000-0002-89956097 & sylvia chinazom ezeaka department of modern european languages nnamdi azikiwe university, awka cs.ezeaka@unizik.edu.ng abstract african philosophy remains a discipline in its own right sharing in the tradition of world philosophical heritage. hence, it is adorned with beauty exhuming from the nature of african differential lifestyles, properly expressed in many of her indigenous religions and autochthonous cultures craftily recited in oratures and recorded as literatures. however, african religion and literature, two of the oldest human practises, dating back to the chequered history of africa as the cradle and mother of ancient civilization, need a philosophy, an african philosophy as such. the unique african heritages, appreciated in religion and literature, have given room to many african legacies through proper appreciation of her traditional worship of a divine being and literary works or genre. nevertheless, the exploration that lead to the consumptive partitioning of africa nations in berlin in 1884 and later turned into exploitation of continental africa left her deeply wounded as she lost her indigenous languages and literary genre to the colonial masters as well as her traditional religion to the white-man's supremacy and imperialism, all in the name of colonization which was nonetheless renewed in all forms of neocolonialism and debt strategies. using the method of critical analysis the researchers find out that even though african literatures and religions were so much demonized yet some of those african literatures as well as african religious artefacts not only dot european history but adorn european literary world and museums in their profound sacrality and awe. however, an attempt at critical look at african philosophy of religion and literature will definitely help in this needed understanding and appreciation. keywords: african philosophy, african literature, african religion. introduction philosophy, etymologically from the greek lexicon is philos (love) and sophia (wisdom) transliterated love of wisdom. to this point, philosophy remains a human science that seeks wisdom and a personal enterprise with an unaided reason. it is a human enterprise. maritain (2005) maintains that philosophy is the highest of the human sciences, that is, of the sciences which know things by the natural light of reason. philosophy, therefore, is cognitio rerum per altissimas causas, solar rationis (science that studies all things in their ultimate and universal principle). it is scientia rerum per ultima causas (knowledge of things through their ultimate causes). aristotle, however, sees philosophy as regina scientia (queen of sciences). and william anton amo, a ghanaian contemporary philosopher defined it as habitus intellectu, the habit of the intellect. philosophy, nonetheless, questions every reality in a bid to appreciate them. questioning in this context makes and identifies one as a philosopher. this in line with godalex ezeani's definition 176 of philosophy as inquism, that is, intelligent questioning. however, the actual meaning of philosophy for him is intelligent questioning plus critical analysis, that is, in a simple formula, ezeani (2015) maintains that philosophy is primarily an inquiry. therefore, it will always question your intentions and actions. it is the habit of the intellect and the will according to william anton amo. it is the habit of philosophy to examine your day to day activities and involvements. it is equally the habit of the will to carry on daily activities and involvements. and this again makes philosophers, to be mindful of the dictum of socrates (the first philosopher of western philosophical tradition) as scripted on the doorpost of the delphic oracle, thus: man know thyself as well as being conscious of the aristotelian dictum thus: unexamined life is not worth living. maritain (2005) strongly was of the opinion that traditionally philosophy is divided into three principal sections: logic, speculative philosophy (when its knowledge based alone) or practical philosophy (when it is for the general good of man). african philosophy (coming from african philosophical tradition) which has assumed the status of a discipline and a movement is hereby understood more as a disciplinary movement. as a discipline, it is a course in its own right and as a movement its to be as a reaction to the western interference in african education, in the midst of long years of relegating africans to the corridors of ignorance and ill-fated knowledge. african philosophy, notwithstanding, is divided into main and minor branches while we acknowledge that it has come to stay like other counter parts within the philosophical tradition. geographically, african continent is blessed with landmass. naturally, africa is endowed beautifully with resources. human resources seem to be the greatest endowment of continental africa. the beauty of africa, embellished more with natural and human resources has attracted the white-man's expedition of africa and has continued to pull them over even till today to the extent that many have settled in africa and refused to leave even when they were asked by the recent papal order to hands-off africa. if africa is not gratifyingly rewarding why the rush in coming to africa and the continual presence of the white people in africa. continental africa, often referred by explorers as dark continent is made up of 54 countries with more than 75 languages amidst many cultures and ethnic traditions, (wikipedia, n.d.). history, especially biblical history, attests to africa's role in the salvation history as jacobs and his sons were in egypt for centuries till the exodus, (cf. genex.). jesus christ's refuge in egypt with his parents during the massacre of herod was very significant, (cf. mtt.2:13ff). the christianization of african began in these biblical episodes culminating at the calvary encounter with simon of cyrene (cf. lk.23:26ff). the rich tapestry of african philosophy of religion and literature finds harmony within african culture and society through the oral traditions and storytelling. equally, african philosophy of religion and literature explore the power of language and narrative in their profound insights into the interconnectedness of humanity and the diversity of their elements of beliefs. unfortunately the interference in the name of exploration of africa that turned into exploitation deprived african of her human and natural resources as well as other socio-political development. the african union commission (2023) reiterates that the oau, now au, was the manifestation of the pan-african vision for an africa that was united, free and in control of its own destiny in response to the aspirations of africans for brother-hood and solidarity. the guiding philosophy was that of pan-africanism which centred on african socialism meant to look into africa with her enduring aesthetics in literature and religion as this paper champions in the theme critical appreciation of african philosophy of religion and african literature. a candid review of some scholarly works on african plights will help in this paper. 177 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 review of mama africa's edges of predicament onebunne (2023) reiterates that “the edges of african predicaments are the boundaries of african difficulties created by nature and by the intruders into her continental bliss. the edges of african predicaments, therefore, are those problematiques which africa has suffered as a continent as a result of her natural resources than natural impediments as well as human resources than her human incapacitation”. some of the authorships and scholarships to be reviewed are within the boundaries of conceptual issues and contemporary blocs (debt colonialism, strategy, capital flight, digital divide, global divide) are often regarded as the edges or referred to as boundaries within african predicaments, (onebunne, 2023). most of their books contain and dwell on concepts that are related to and can be re-interpreted in a large sense to mean being in african studies and appreciation of many authorship-scholarships like placid tempels' bantu philosophy, innocent onyenwueyi's african origin of greek philosophy; edward wilmort blyden's african philosophy in the 19th century, william edward and b. dubois' the souls of the black folk, george g. m. james' stolen legacy, osuagwu i.maduakolam's african historical reconstruction, early medieval history of african philosophy and a contemporary history of african philosophy, marcus garvey's garveyism: back to africa, barry chevannes' rastafari: root and ideology, james p. allen's genesis in egypt, james henry breasted's egyptian civilization and claude summer's ethiopian philosophy, to mention but a few. more so, mama africa's predicament, therefore, will be understood more with the review of some of these scholarly texts thus: how europe underdeveloped africa is a 1972 book written by walter rodney that describes how africa was deliberately exploited and underdeveloped by european colonial regimes. in this classic book, rodney makes the unflinching case that african mal-development is not a natural feature of geography, but a direct product of imperial extraction from the continent, a practice that continues up into the present. pedagogy of the oppressed is a book by brazilian educator paulo freire, written in portuguese in 1967–68, but published first in english, in a translation by myra bergman ramos, in 1970. later that year a spanish translation was published. pedagogy of the oppressed is freire's attempt to help the oppressed fight back to regain their lost humanity and achieve full humanization. freire outlines steps with which the oppressed can regain their humanity, starting with acquiring knowledge about the concept of humanization itself. the partition of africa in berlin, in 1884, was one of the most spectacular episodes in modern history. for europeans, africa was still an unknown continent in 1880. thirty years later almost all of it were under european control. this race for colonies went hand in hand with a host of thrilling exploits and dramatic conflicts, of which stanley's exploration of the congo and gordon's death in khartoum were just two examples. stolen legacy: the egyptian origins of western philosophy by george granville monah james (november 9, 1893 – june 30, 1956) was a guyanese-american historian and author, known for his 1954 book stolen legacy, featuring a new introduction challenging the notion that civilization started in greece. destruction of black civilization: great issues of a race from 4500 b.c. to 2000 a.d. by chancellor williams and the african origin of civilization: by cheikh anta diop are very definitive with regard to matters of africa and her contributions to civilization. african philosophy: the pharaonic period, 2780-330bc, by theophile obenga in1990 was a landmark work on the authentic existence of african philosophical tradition centuries before western philosophical tradition. the text was a work against the conspiracy of the western philosophers trying to demean and deny african philosophy of its primacy and of authentic origin. onebunne (2023) maintains that the primacy of african civilizations is seen in the fact that it precedes european civilization and later european colonization. civilizations, therefore, are through african civilization. in the chequered history of humanity, the dawn of human civilization can be 178 jude i. onebunne & sylvia chinazom ezeaka critical appreciation of african philosophy ... traced back to the immense and divers continent of africa. africa, a blessed land very abundant with a thriving and wealthy history of civilizations predated the arrival of imperial masters as european colonizers through their exploration that turned into exploitation, (wikipedia, n.d.). appreciation of african philosophy philosophy as part of world philosophical heritage has been divided into philosophical traditions: western philosophical tradition (wpt), eastern/oriental philosophical tradition (eopt), abrahamic (judeo-islamic) philosophical tradition (abpt) and african philosophical tradition (apt), (onebunne, 2023). there is african philosophical tradition which has given room to african philosophical enterprise. african philosophy through many debates, after barrages of doubts of its possibility, has finally shares in the world philosophical heritage as a subject area of its own. kanu (2015), however, is of the opinion that “african philosophy is one of the resilient and fastest growing areas of human inquiry”. a functional african philosophy is appreciatively defined as a discipline and a movement. african philosophy has come to stay and kanu (2015) reiterates on such an idea thus, “the question of whether there is an african philosophy or not has been overtaken, captured and conquered by african philosophers”. to question the existence of african philosophy now or doubt its scholarly authorship is a show of blameable ignorance and sheer lack of scholarly investigative nerve. etymological, traditional and scholarly, african philosophy is a discipline that is traditionally based on the knowledge of african realities and african realisms in their englobing universal principles. pantaleon iroegbu was among the very firsts in giving a concise definition. in this definition, one can read a kind of defence as regards african philosophy. this is why for iroegbu (1994) african philosophy is a philo-sophia, a quest for african wisdom. moreover, as a discipline, african philosophy is the love of african wisdom, that is, philosophia africana. however, socrates in epitomizing the idea of philosophy as pursuing of wisdom defines philosophy as the pursuit of wisdom. one, therefore, define african philosophy as the pursuit of african wisdom. african philosophy, therefore, is scientia rerum per ultima causas within african realities. it is the search for the unaided authentic human knowledge that is philosophical and african. echoing w. anton amo, it is the habit of every wiseman and the will of every reasonable african man. as a movement, african philosophy connotes a kind of reaction and denotes a strong activity towards. consequently, african philosophy as a movement is a clarion invitation by bob marley's redemptive insinuation to “emancipate yourselves from mental slavery…none but ourselves can free our mind”. his redemption song demands a total breakaway from the stereotype innuendoes that philosophy is the prerogative of the west, therefore, questioning directly our human nature as homo sapiens and homo cogitans as well as animal rationalis. as a movement, african philosophy, rooted in and springing from african philosophical tradition, is a cursory look into the problematiques and prospects of africa as part of the world philosophical heritage. as a movement, african philosophy is an effort at recovering all lost status as result of the stolen legacies with regard to philosophy and its origin. as a movement, african philosophy searches for the authentic knowledge that is philosophical and african within and or outside the african cultural world-view. therefore, a definitive-thoughtful interpretation and critical analysis of the symbols of african cultures would be african philosophy qua tale. more so, a reflection with profound application of criticality, analyticity and originality on african thoughts and cultures will give credence to philosophy and rightly put, african philosophy. 179 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 african philosophy is, therefore, a disciplinary movement that started as a reaction to the years of hidden facts about the existence of african philosophy as such.this reaction simply became a movement in reclaiming what was actually taken away from us in a way of intellectual dishonesty of the african exploiters and explorers as well as partitioner who forgot that one day, in the great speech of martin luther king (jnr) i have a dream, that the son's of the slave a masters and the sons of the slaves will dine on one table. therefore, as a movement, african philosophy picked up again after years of forgotten identity and appreciable recognition as such out of frustration (onuma). after many lies against africans literary disposition and inability to think hence no history as championed by hegel there came african philosophy. african philosophy is a disciplinary movement that branched into speculative and practical depending, not on the specific character of the various philosophic sciences or disciplines, but on the end which they pursue, (maritain, 1985). appreciation of literature our appreciation of literature has to begin with an appreciation of the lexical rudiments in the apprehension of literature with words like literacy, handwriting and its likes. literacy is basically the ability to read and write. in lato sensu, literacy is the ability to read, write, speak and listen in a way that lets one communicate effectively and make sense of the word and world. wikipedia (n.d.) defines literacy as a continuum of learning and proficiency in reading, writing and using numbers throughout life and is part of a larger set of skills, which include digital skills, media literacy, education for sustainable development and global citizenship as well as job-specific skills. , (2023) suggests that there are pillars cambridge advanced learner's dictionary & thesaurus of literacy as: phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. literacy skills include listening, speaking, reading and writing. they also include such things as awareness of the sounds of language, awareness of print and the relationship between letters and sounds. other literacy skills include vocabulary, spelling, and comprehension. wikipedia (n.d.) equally shows that literacy skills can be divided into three main areas: information literacy, digital literacy and media literacy. literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. literacy generally refers to reading and writing effectively in a variety of contexts. in the 21st century, the definition of literacy has increasingly reflected the ability to use technology for gathering and communicating information accommodating in a very special sense the revolution of ai (artificial intelligence) in today's world. etymologically, the term literature is derived from latin literatura/litteratura meaning learning a writing, grammar; originally writing formed with letters, from litera/littera, letter. the term has been applied to spoken or sung texts. literature is often referred to synecdochically as writing, especially creative writing, and poetically as the craft of writing (or simply the craft). syd field described his discipline, screen-writing, as "a craft that occasionally rises to the level of art." these definitions of literature have varied over time. in western europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. literature can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions, so that cultural studies, for instance to include, in addition, canonical works, popular and minority genres. the word is also used in reference to non-written works: to oral literature and the literature of preliterate culture. a valued judgement definition of literature considers it as consisting solely of high quality writing that forms part of the belles-lettres (fine writing) tradition. an example of this is in the 1910-1911 encyclopaedia britannica, which classified literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing". the word 180 jude i. onebunne & sylvia chinazom ezeaka critical appreciation of african philosophy ... https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ literature is primarily written works, especially those considered of superior with lasting artistic merit. it has to with books and writings published on a particular subject. it is any thing scribed or written down. it has to do leaflets and other printed matter used to advertise products or give advice. wikipedia (n.d.) defines literature as a body of written works. the name has traditionally been applied to those imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic excellence of their execution. literature is a term used to describe written works and sometimes spoken material. derived from the latin word, literature meaning writing formed with letters. literature most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction and in some instances, journalism, and song. cambridge advanced learner's dictionary & thesaurus, (2023) asserts that, literature is a body of work that transmits culture. much of literature is written, but some are also visual (such as plays) and oral (such as folk-tales). collins, u.k forsyth. & , m. (2014) reiterates on the major forms of literature as non-fiction prose, fiction prose, poetry, drama and folk-tales. the body of written works of a language, period or culture. as well, it is an imaginative or creative writing, especially of recognized artistic value. according to rebecca west, literature must be an analysis of experience and a synthesis of the findings into a unity. literature in its elemental structure (plot, conflict, character, setting, point of view, and theme) maintains the art or occupation of a literary writer. hence, there are two types or categories of literature as: written (form of literature that is written down and published, novels and poetry are some examples of written literature) and oral literature-orature (stories that are told orally; vocally articulated and can be chanted, spoken, or sung). a good literary work within the bounds of literature is good lettering properly referred to as good handwriting. good handwriting, proper lettering, elementary literacy, ability to read (pronounce words) and elementary numeracy are human skills. hence, one talks about the orality african literature and literarity of african literature (onebunne & obasi, 2018). to be literate borders on the ability to write and read: literacy and numeracy included. it has to with proper formation of the words of the alphabets (capital and small letters) and recognizing them as in digraphs and trigraphs, etc. illegible handwriting is a great lack in the training and formation of young minds today. legible and beautiful writing makes a lot of sense. rev. fr. augustine okekoma (in his preface to the fundamentals of handwriting book: an exercise in good handwriting skill by rev. fr. jude onebunne) clearly explains that some of such students do not write, they scrawl, gripping the pen more like the hilt of a sword and producing not really a text but rather squiggles that will take no less than the concentration and lenses of an ancient babylonian scribe to make sense of, if ever at all. this is a good description of a bad handwriting within the boundaries of poor literacy, unreadable handwriting. unreadable handwriting is the first sign that announces general academic weakness. such lack of basic literacy attracts disfavour. a beautiful lettering pleases and inspires. samuel johnson, 18th century man of letters once commented that whatever is written without effort is read without pleasure (johnson, n.d.). and much is revealed in psychology with the way one writes. the art, skill or manner of handwriting is called penmanship. moreover, handwriting in which successive letters are joined is called cursive script. handwriting in which the letters are separated (as block letters) is called manuscript style or printing. handwriting examination is a method used by criminal investigators to gather evidence and link a suspect to a crime through the handwriting found at the crime scene. there are many things to handwriting. carlson (2014) draws our attention to handwriting analysis that combines the knowledge of forensic science, graphology and psychology. forensic graphology is the study of handwriting especially the ones that are found in ransom notes, poison pen letters 181 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=utf8&field-author=collins+uk&text=collins+uk&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=utf8&field-author=collins+uk&text=collins+uk&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_2?ie=utf8&field-author=mark+forsyth&text=mark+forsyth&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books or blackmail demands. a forensic handwriting examination involves a side-by-side comparison of questioned and known writing samples for the purpose of determining whether the questioned writing was written by the writer of the known material, (wikipedia, n.d.). questioned writing is a body of handwriting for which the writer is unknown, (carlson, 2014). african literature african literature which is chiefly embedded in african orature remains a substantial work of its own, dating back to the era africa merited the title of cradle and mother of civilization. both ancient and modern civilizations owe a lot to africa. levy, stewart and kent (2023) made allusion to the fact that african literature is literature from africa, either oral (orature) or written in african and afro-asiatic languages together with works written by africans in european languages. the origins of african literature can be dated back to thousands of years unto ancient egypt through hieroglyphs or pictorial representations of words. over time, the use of hieroglyphs became widespread around egypt and became more developed. belcher (2023) points to the fact that ancient africa had many indigenous scripts, including hieroglyphs and hieratic. hence, the origins of african literature can be dated back thousands of years to ancient egypt through hieroglyphs or pictorial representations of words. over time, the use of hieroglyphs became widespread around egypt and became more developed. this eventually led to the use of arabic poetry, which began to spread more rapidly after arabia conquered egypt in the seventh century c.e and throughout western africa in the ninth century c.e. these african and arabic cultures continued to blend with graeco–roman and other european culture and literature that resulted in its own unique literary form. it is only in the twentieth century that the roman alphabet came to be used widely in africa. by the late eighteenth century, africans also invented the secret ideographic writing system of nsibidi (belcher, 2023). scheub and gunner (2022) opined that african literature in versions of oral literature, precolonial african literature, colonial african literature, and post-colonial literature is sourced from all the nations of continental africa can be complicated for any attempt at its definition as each nation has its own unique history, culture, tribes, and traditions. these works can be either oral or written, some in african and afro-asiatic languages and others in the european languages that influenced them. african literature, therefore, has an inclusive awareness that emphasizes an artistic use of words as a way to teach important truths and remind their community of what their ancestors once went through. wikipedia (n.d.) tries to place african literature, properly as literary works of the african continent. african literature consists of a body of work in different languages and various genres, ranging from oral literature to literature written in colonial languages (french, portuguese, and english). oral literature, including stories, dramas, riddles, histories, myths, songs, proverbs, and other expressions, is frequently employed to educate and entertain children. oral histories, myths and proverbs additionally serve to remind whole communities of their ancestors' heroic deeds, their past and the precedents for their customs and traditions. essential to oral literature is a concern for presentation and oratory. folk-tale tellers use call-response techniques. orature is very unique in igbo world-view especially when expressed in a language that appeals to the people like the proverb or idioms. onebunne (2018) reiterated that “language is one of the most beautiful tool that man has. aesthetic values can be added to this language through stylistic devices…the most popular among these is proverbs…proverbs, they say, fits every situation, therefore, they are used contextually to fit particular situations”. continuing, onebunne maintains that proverbs clash regularly, which is all part of their charm. you use a proverb to make a point, to summarise something, to rationalise, to explain and to teach. they express general observations, experiences that gives us a chance to say 182 jude i. onebunne & sylvia chinazom ezeaka critical appreciation of african philosophy ... something in a colourful way and hit the proverbial nail on the head, (onebunne, 2018). belcher (2023) maintains that contrary to the general perception, the african literatures written before the twentieth century are substantial. whatever limits can be imagined (in terms of geography, genre, language, audience, era) these literatures exceed them. before the twentieth century, africans wrote not just in europe, but also on the african continent; they wrote not just in european languages, but in african languages; they wrote not just for european consumption, but for their own consumption; they wrote not just in northern africa, but in sub-saharan africa; they wrote not just orally, but textually; they wrote not just historical or religious texts, but poetry and epic and autobiography; and they wrote not just in the nineteenth century, but in the eighteenth century and long, long before. yet, the general public and even scholars of african literature are often unaware of these early literatures, mistakenly believing that african literature starts in the late 1950s as the result of colonization, instead of many centuries before it. however, belcher (2023) is of the opinion that african literature written over the last millennia remains largely invisible for several significant reasons. he observes that: one, many of the texts written more than two hundred years ago have not survived, particularly in sub-saharan africa. unfortunately colonialism and imperialism know the truth of their existence. scholars know they existed because travellers reported on them and extant texts make reference to now lost texts. two, many were never published as print books and of those few manuscripts that were, most were published in obscure places. three, very few of the texts written in an african language have been translated into any european language. scholars refers to alexandrian library that was burnt down by who and why? what of the oral tradition that incubated and housed most of the african sages and wisdom. as much africans become literate in their own languages, they often reacted against colonial repression in their writings. lagasse & goldman, eds. (2000), identified some africans as léopold who were active in the movement from the 1930s; senghor négritude nkrumah's consciencism, pan-africanism along with léon and aimé , french damas césaire speakers from french guiana and martinique. their poetry not only denounced colonialism, it proudly asserted the validity of the cultures that the colonials had tried to crush. african literature has issues of the orality of african literature, literality of african literature and the africanity of african literature which borders more on the language use that makes it african. this is why colonialism remains the sterling interference and greatest disservice to african development. this resulted in many africans writing african literature in european languages as their education system was equally europeanized. hence, the theme of many of their writings then were on slavery, colonialism, neocolonialism and post-colonialism, and often they shared the same themes: the clash between indigenous and colonial cultures, condemnation of european subjugation, pride in the african past, and hope for the continent's independent future. onebunne & obasi (2018), opined that african literature is a type of literature that has its root from africa and deals with african issues. it is a form of literature within the boundaries of the africanity of african literature and orality of african orature, that is peculiar to the africans because of the african varieties it possesses. oral literature is described as orature, traditional literature, folkloric literature or folklore. african philosophy of literature african philosophy of literature is the application of african critical and philosophical principles on any literary work. it is, therefore, an application of all forms of criticality on the literality of any piece of writing work. african philosophy makes use of literature in the sense that african philosophical ideas are often brought to the readers through literature. african philosophical discourse and literary discourse are closely connected. historically, conceptually critical 183 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/people/history/african/senghor-leopold-sedar https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/arts/world-lit/french-other/negritude https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/arts/world-lit/french-other-bios/damas-leon https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/arts/world-lit/french-other-bios/cesaire-aime discourse presupposes literary discourse. there is this differential relationship between african philosophy and african literature. basically, african philosophy is the study of knowledge while literature is the study of written work. the term literature is more often associated with fiction while philosophy is associated with theoretical or non-fictional, rightly put with realities. in wikipedia (n.d.) maintains that philosophy of literature addresses the most jonathan gilmore fundamental questions about the nature of literature as an art. continuing, he maintains that some of these questions address the metaphysics and ontology of literary works: what, if anything, essentially distinguishes literary works of art (such as epics, novels, drama, and poetry) from other kinds of writings, such as scientific reports, historical treatises, religious texts, guides, and manuals, which may happen to be written in a literary manner?, gilmore, j. queried. african philosophy of literature is not alone in pursuing these questions, for literary history, criticism, and other modes of scholarship address these concerns, as do readers when they reflect on their own and others' practices of attending to works of art. however, continuing reiterates that the gilmore philosophical approach to literature, while often productively drawing on the empirical study and first-order analysis of literary works, tends to adopt a more systematic, theoretical, ahistorical and foundational approach than commonly found in other fields. globally, philosophy in its different traditions remains the foundation for educational development and socio-political cum economic growth. african philosophy plays this critical role too within and for african heritages and in our concern, in the area of literature as philosophy of literature thereof. african philosophy of literature addresses the most fundamental questions about the nature of literature as it critically appreciates or applies critical principles on the acts of creative writings and reading. it is a critical study of literature (writing and reading). in african philosophy of literature there is a critical appreciation or application of philosophical principles on the acts of creativity and making as well as on the acts of writing and reading. it is a critical study of literature (writing and reading). within the global community, philosophy of literature encompasses human engagements as animal labourans and animal loquens. this is why 21st century remains a century of great possibilities and feasibilities and it is regarded as an age of great literary genre and literary presentations. through artificial intelligence, that is ai, humanity is becoming automated and so much dependent on machine than trusting on the capability and potentiality of our unaided human faculty of reasoning. literary works have gone far as photoeditor repackages reality into another reality. science and technology as well as hypertechnologies are bringing revolution il the areas of aesthetics, arts and humanities especially with regard to african philosophy of literature (philosophy of writing and reading). appreciation of religion religion is humans' respected interaction with the divine. it is a responsible expressive relationship with the non-human. it is a response-able approach to divinity. religion, therefore, is man's disposition and mental devotion towards a being who is looked unto as greater with a candid aura. merriam-webster (n.d.), noted etymologically that religion is from the middle english religioun; from anglo-french religium; latin religion-, religio supernatural constraint, sanction, religious practice, perhaps from religare to restrain tie back. britannica, t. editors of encyclopaedia (2023) maintain that religion, is “human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of special reverence. it is also commonly regarded as consisting of the way people deal with ultimate concerns about their lives and their fate after death”. religion, of course, is a personal set of attitudes, beliefs and practices. continuing, religion is at the service and worship of god or the supernatural as well as the 184 jude i. onebunne & sylvia chinazom ezeaka critical appreciation of african philosophy ... http://www.jonathangilmore.com/ http://www.jonathangilmore.com/ committal devotion to religious faith or observance, (merriam-webster, n.d.). in this sensible understanding, religion is properly appreciated and ought to be established on a sound theology. theology informs religion properly. in this strict sense, religion is at the operational and practical function of theology. theology, therefore, is at the service of religion as ancilla religio. theology etymologically theo and logos is science of god. according to aquinas it is a sacred doctrine and science of a revealed truth. it is a systematic study and scientific appreciation of god. theo and logos are all about the word of god. theology in this regard is the narrative of god's encounter with humanity and humanity's responses as a result of such encounters. however, as the highest human discipline, it is a human project on the divine. in this theological project, humanity seeks an understanding of divinity. iroegbu (1996), however, gave six nuances of the descriptions of theology as “god-talk; search for god through faith and reason, an enlightened reason, etc. through an enlightened faith, this god that has continued to manifest himself, is searched for and often with an encounter that will lead to all forms of religion and vagaries of worship. theology, therefore, is a consequence of religion. notwithstanding, without theology, religion or religious practises and innuendoes will be mere belief and shallow impressive practises. theology, however, ought to have many traditions as many cultures and people have their different experiences and different established expressions of relationships in their religions as well as religious professions and practices. thus, each theological tradition ought to give us a religion to be sustained by a theology. a proper appreciation of and a functional understanding of religion is a deep rooted opportunity for a divine reverential encounter. notwithstanding, theology remains a basic yardstick in the comprehensive understanding of religion within a people's weltanschauung, hence, an african theology. this is why the idea of religion as worship of divine is highly sustained with a sound african theology as a african science of god. this question of african theology has god made present in christ; son of god, as the the foundation properly established on african view and understanding. it is crystal clear that the historical genealogy of jesus christ as religious than political messiah (onebunne, 2019c) started with israel coming to dwell in egypt on the invitation of pharaoh joseph via slavery (cf. gen. 37:25-27) as a family that went back as a nation. those moments of sojourn chanced the possibility for an intermarriage between israelites and egyptians. this marriage nevertheless chanced a mixture of an african blood in the forefathers and in the genealogy of jesus christ. this was clearly played out in the holy family's (of joseph, mary and jesus) flight into egypt trying to escape the blood-splitting terror of king herod's anger for a new king (cf. mtt. 2:7ff) that was unleashed on the age-grades of christ known and referred today as massacre of the innocents (cf. mtt. 2:13ff). that flight was couched in one of the igbo's age long maxim and adage that oso chua nwata be nnaya ogbanaa ikwunneya. to this extent one can assert that african theology is deeply rooted in jesus christ and ought to be appreciated as such as african traditional religion. african traditional religion (atr) having prefixed african tradition on religion one may be tempted to define atr as the religion of traditional africans. that is, religion borne out of african traditions and cultures. it's a particularized religion within african cultural innuendoes expressing their ways of life. in this sense, atr is the people's religion that grew from their experiential realities. their theology will be within their experience in the worship or reverence of their god. african theology is african understanding of god. it is the science of god within the boundaries of african realities. such encounter is always within a definitive experience that leads to worship. before the exploration 185 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 and exploitation through colonialism, africans have had an experience of the divine with many forms of worship rooted in their exalted beliefs and belief systems. such has been their theology, an african theology of the object and subject of their worship. african theology, therefore, is an ongoing experience and sustained encounter with african god as their creator and all-in-all. african theology sustains the african knowledge of god and atr. african theology presupposes african theism. however, ikenga-metuh (1999) in line with this thought opined that “most african societies recognise fundamentally two different types of divinities: the supreme being and the subordinate deities”, (p.94). african traditional theology is a consequential result of african traditional religion (african religion) as the religion of the people anchored deeply on inculturation and anonymous form of christianity. ikenga-metuh (1999) summarily captioned the interference of the west on atr as recorded by the european explorers and missionaries thus “many of the authors of the observations did not stay long enough in africa to get acquainted with the people's beliefs and practices, nor in fact did they attempt a systematic study of african religion. however, these observations are significant in that they reveal the prejudices and biases of the people who wrote them and that of the european public”. a little patience with our forefathers would have revealed to the white-men (the missionaries and colonial masters) the religious and spirituality of the africans who were actually anonymous christians in all ramifications. african religion and the corresponding theology is not all about christ but ought to have christ at the centre of its history as the world keeps the record of bc (before christ) and ad (anno domino). these complimentary views ranking with the anonymous christianity of karl rahner is a kind of paradigm shift in the appreciation of humanity as one family within the godhead of god the father as the creator. the idea of anonymous christian shows the unique dynamism in nature amongst human beings, (encyclopaedia.com, 2019) . african philosophy of religion and literature: the defining relationship the length and breadth of african philosophy is within the bounds of critical appreciation of african realities as african wisdom properly expressed in african literature and literary works showcasing african beliefs. history has shown that african philosophy of religion and literature have enraptured scholars and intellectuals for years across generations, plunging them in a multifaceted complexity of ideas, beliefs and artistic expressions that intricately intertwined and weaving them into african cultural identity and heritage. investigating the interaction between these two domains of thought as well as the relationship between african philosophy of religion and african philosophy of literature unfolds as a subject of significant importance, unravelling the historical development and complex interconnectedness of profound spirituality, key concepts, historical underpinnings, exact storytelling, and philosophical perspectives in african contexts. this paper have explored the transformative potential of african literature and the profundity of african religion. the historical development of african philosophy of literature is a clear testimony to the rich socio-cultural heritage that informs the original african literary works. developing from a foundation intemperately influenced by oral traditions, orature and storytelling, african philosophy of literature consistently incorporates and integrates philosophical ideas and religious beliefs. literary works throw more light on the interconnectedness of religious and philosophical discourse, exploring themes of morality, ethics and the nature of existence. more so, african philosophy of literature has continued to be shaped by external influences. such influences ranges chiefly from european colonization. such interference through colonialism 186 jude i. onebunne & sylvia chinazom ezeaka critical appreciation of african philosophy ... as the imposition of western ideologies and western imperialism upon african societies and her own ideologies not only disrupted traditional modes of expression but also sparked a reevaluation and reinterpretation of african philosophy of literature. based on this there was an emergence on the part of african authors and intellectuals who sought out in reclaiming their cultural heritage while contributing to the proper development of african literature. however, the interaction between african philosophy of religion and literature is quite a fascinating area of study, as it highlights the intrinsic connection between these two disciplines. in order to fully grasp and appreciate the existing relationship between african philosophy of religion and literature, it is essentially important to compare contrastingly on their fundamental concepts and principles. concluding remarks on african philosophy of religion and african literature by the analytical appreciation of key conceptual principles within african philosophy of religion and literature, a deeper appreciable understanding of the inter-connectedness and deep mutual influence between these two disciplinary courses emerges while paving ways for further possible exploration into the significant influence of african philosophy of religion on african philosophy of literature, and vice versa. african philosophy of religion has continued to played an enduring and significant role in shaping african philosophy of literature, providing a fundamental condition for exploring spiritual and metaphysical themes in african literary works. this interaction between african philosophy of religion and literature has resulted in the emergence of specific and unique literary traditions that reflect and celebrate african cultural heritage. some african literary scholars argue along this line of thought that african literature is infused with the philosophical undertone of african religious innuendoes and belief systems, as seen in the constant exploration of the spiritual issues and supernatural elements. through an astute examination of the relationship between african philosophy of religion and literature, one gains a more comprehensive understanding of the african experience and its multifaceted nature. african philosophy of religion nevertheless has limited the scope of african philosophy of literature by confining it to religious innuendoes. the connection and interaction between african philosophy of literature and african philosophy of religion show the dynamism in these disciplines, as they influence and are influenced by each other. with a promotion of a more comprehensive discussion on african religious culture and traditions. african philosophy of religion informs african literary criticism, we can gain insight into the complex cultural and spiritual dimensions of african literature. a re-examination of the influence of african philosophy of literature on african philosophy of religion, vice-versa shows the intricacies in the connection between african religious beliefs and the prominent themes, motifs, and symbols in african literature. the profound relationship between african philosophy of religion and literature is seen more in the literary works serving as vehicles for conveying religious beliefs and practices in african societies. chinua achebe's novel is very unique in this aspects. things fall apart presents the clash between traditional african religion and the intrusion of christian missionaries, highlighting the complexity and diversity of religious experiences in african communities. again in chinua achebe's things fall apart, the igbo people's god-consciousness and belief in ancestral worship are intricately weaved. through the character of okonkwo, achebe explores the tensions between tradition and modernity, as well as the consequences of disregarding one's cultural heritage. additionally, african philosophy of literature helps deepen our understanding of god-experiences through its utilization of various literary techniques. african philosophy of literature, however, challenges mere interpretations of religious traditions and their belief 187 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 systems. equally, ngũgĩ wa thiong'o's play i will marry when i want remains a critical challenge for the oppressive nature of some traditional religious norms which it advocates. equally, the influence of african philosophy of religion is also seen in ngugi wa thiong'o's wizard of the crow. the practise of divination as well as the presence of supernatural forces helped to shape the characters' actions and decisions. by integrating these religious elements, african authors and her scholarships are able to explore existential questions and probe the complexities of human existence. generally, literature is shaped and reshaped by religious beliefs. more so, ngugi wa thiong'o's other novel petals of blood presents another example. this work showcased interplay between african religious beliefs and the struggle against neocolonialism. the characters in the novel were very apt to challenge the oppressive systems while inspiring readers to question the status quo and work towards societal change. more so chimamanda's half of the yellow sun is in this league. the integration of african philosophy of religion and literature simply allows for a proper appreciation of religious texts, such as the bible or the qur'an. other african scholars, such as kwame gyekye and wole soyinka, have focused their scholarly works on the interconnectedness between african philosophy of religion and literature. their research, writings, and theories have shed light on the relationship between these two disciplines, providing valuable insights and perspectives. gyekye's writings were on african traditional religions while soyinka's exploration was on yoruba's mythology in his literary works. they both have delved into the themes that are central to religion and literature making very significant contributions that enrich for the better understanding of both disciplines. the contributions of african scholars and philosophers have played a vital role in bridging the gap between african philosophy of religion and literature. however, the multifaceted nature african philosophy of religion and literature holds significant implications for african cultural identity and heritage. reference african union commission.2023. about the african union. https://au.int/en/overview#:~:text=the%20african. belcher, w. l. 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(n.d.). aesthetics. in merriam-webster.com dictionary. retrieved july 17, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics onebunne, j.i. (2017). fundamentals of handwriting: an exercise in good handwriting. agulu: thinkers publishers onebunne, j. i. (2018). “epistemological appreciation of ilu as the encrypted matrix of expression of wisdom in igbo worldview”, nnadiebube journal of philosophy, vol. 2, no.1., 2018, pp. https://journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/njp/article/download/330/277 onebunne, j.i. & obasi, p. (2018). “the africanity of african literature and orality of african orature in a world of change”. journal of african studies and sustainable development. vol.1, no.2. 2018. https://journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/jassd/article/view/587 onebunne, j. i. (2019c). quest for a political messiah: a biblical approach vis-a-vis nigeria political leadership. awka: fab anieh. onebunne, j. i. (2023). “african philosophy of arts and literature: a critical appreciation in a global community” in nnadiebube journal of languages and literatures, volume 1, number 1, september 2023. https://www.acjol.org/index.php/njll/article/view/3956/3875 onebunne, j.i. (2023). western philosophy through african philosophy within the edges of definitional particularity and contextual equipoise. unpublished lectures in pjp seminary okpuno, 2023. study.com (n.d.). early african civilization. https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/africasfirst-civilizations-egypt-kush-axum.html scheub, h. and gunner, e. a. w. (2022). african literature. encyclopedia britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/african-literature wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2022). john gilmore (writer). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/john_gilmore_(writer) wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2022). africa. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/africa. wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2022).history of africa. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/history_of_africa. 189 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 3, december 2024. issn: 2786-9792 23 metamodernism and the question of privacy and confidentiality in the digital age ovwata success onojieruo sovwataonojieruo@gmail.com; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6471-8615 department of philosophy, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. & idubamo daniel agbada iddagbada@gmail.com; https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2872-9682 department of philosophy, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. abstract in this paper, inquiry will be made into the extent to which individual freedom and social responsibility conflates or conflicts on issues surrounding privacy and confidentiality as well as the reflection of these issues on the constituent element of knowledge construction and social formation in what could be termed as the ‘new social’, that is, the digital. the integral framework of this research would take off from the meta-modern standpoint in determining the question of privacy and confidentiality, and fitting same as being a conflict between grounds of social-politico organisation of society and individual rights and liberties. similarly, the state’s duty to protect the social structure against the background of the burgeoning influence of big data companies, and the individual’s responsibility to protect the confidentiality of his ‘digital persona’ presents the reflex point which determines the intersection between the social, political and legal components of digital society. thus, this research would interrogate the discourses which surround the meta-modern perspective of social formation and knowledge construction, by presenting arguments for a more regulative but not restrictive digital sphere, as it relates to the protection and use of individual data. the research would fundamentally argue that there exists certain level of direct connections between the meta-modern construction of knowledge and social formation with the realistic approach to the question of privacy and confidentiality in the digital sphere, by engaging with the three basic themes of: the constituent element of meta-modernism, the debate surrounding privacy and confidentiality in both the old and new social, and the intersection between both themes. keywords: cyberethics, social epistemology, metamodernism, privacy, confidentiality, knowledge organisation system. introduction between the social and the new social (digital) is the historical-ideological template, which tends to determine and predetermine the trajectory of epistemic ideals in the construction of social relations as well as social structure. this historic-ideological template plays a fundamental role in determining individual freedom and the trajectory for which social identity and social responsibility either conflict or conflate. while social relations designate the broad spectrum of relationships entered into by individuals within the social sphere (mucha, 2006), social structure deals with the construction of social relations along organised lines (elder-vass, 2007); the lines of social determining constructs mailto:sovwataonojieruo@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6471-8615 mailto:iddagbada@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2872-9682 ovwata & idubamo metamodernism and the question of privacy and… 24 such as the moral, the legal, and the political. the interrelation of these constructs again predetermines what becomes socially acceptable, or what constitutes the acceptable norms of society. this explicit nature of such interrelation is built on the grounds that while the social sphere is the layer from whence the moral, the legal, and the political take its rootsthat is; the moral, legal, and political cannot, and do not exist in isolation outside the sphere of the social, yet these constituent elements become the regulatory scope from whence the activities of the social get determined along the lines of right and wrong, good or bad, just or unjust, lawful or unlawful. this infers that constructs such as those mentioned above, used in designating the actions of individual constituent elements of the social, are a product of the interrogation of social determining constructs – moral, legal, and political – with the reality of social life. the substance of this position is reflected in the discourse surrounding the state of nature, wherein it is evident that none of these constituent elements had a recognisable influence over the organisation of social life, until man decided to enter into the social contract and as such transitioninto civil society (klosko, 2011). this social contract has ensured that man shares some values with his fellows to ensure peaceful relations (agbada, 2024, p. 13).thus, civil society became the established social structure, along which lines the intricacies of social relations have continued to be evaluated. this research intends to evaluate these intricacies by examining how the construction of what can be termed ‘private’ as well as confidentiality are an integral element of the social sphere and how the epistemic ideals upon which society runs, tend to either determine or predetermine these changes. the research will look into what constitutes privacy and confidentiality and the extent to which it plays a role in the social, by evaluating the same against its reflection in the digital age and pinpointing how the elements of metamodernism interlace with, cum creates the pedestal within which the question of privacy and confidentiality is determined in the digital age. thus, the very integral question of what constitutes the nature of privacy and confidentiality becomes a crucial element for the first part of the interrogation in this research. the question of privacy and confidentiality nature of privacy the term privacy is sometimes an elusive concept, it could refer to solitude or physical isolation (tonick, 2011).d. s. warren and d. l. brandeis describe it as the right “to be let alone,” (1890). m.tonick further explains privacy as not “having information about oneself revealed to others” (2011, p. 1355). it can also be seen as the right to make decisions about one’s own life. every individual desires the ability to control what information goes out about him or her, a right to stay out of the bustle of communal life in peace and enjoy solitude. these inherent desires also draw up with them a hostility towards any who tends to intrude into what one may have termed a ‘private space.’ there exists even a wider margin and dichotomy between public life (for those engaged in some form of public affairs), and private activities. each of these individuals seeks to treat both ends of their lives as utterly opposite and would reject any form of scrutiny into what may be termed an intrusion into their personal lives. however, this need for privacy which mounts up in every human interaction, has faced even greater scrutiny within the context of the 21stcentury. with the rise of telecommunication, and other forms of media infrastructure, most especially the dominant popularity of social media, the ability of individuals to limit what form of information about them is let out, has gradually been eroded. with the presence of phishing sites, data mining agencies, several online tracking systems, spy networksand agencies, and even the now popular ats, used by hr in tracking aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 25 the past activities of job applicants, a most pertinent question thus arises as to where exactly the intersection between necessary public data and personal private information should be placed. on a more disturbing note are the activities of the government and its agencies, most especially as in the name of ensuring security, she extends the right to garner as much information on private citizens as possible. these and more, raise the question of whether or not an individual has a definite right to privacy. and how exactly are such rights either constructed or emplaced? most importantly, what structures or provisions are there to secure this most cherished right to privacy of each individual? the right to privacy c. w. plouffe notes that “the legal and political aspects of the scope of the right to privacy are still not settled.” (2011, p. 1357) this raises an important question as to what dimensions an individual struggle for a right to privacy could take. although f. olsen outlines that “privacy is considered basic to a free and open society, and crucial for individual development,” (1998, p. 6864).he further maintains that the concept of privacy as a legal right is of recent origin (1998, p. 6864). while the very idea of a right to privacy has never been alien to any existing democratic society, even in the era of early grecian philosophy as j. decew notes; “aristotle’s distinction between the public sphere of politics and political activity, the polis, and the private or domestic sphere of the family, the oikos, as two distinct spheres of life, is a classic reference to a private domain.” (2018). in more recent times this very right to privacy has been sealed internationally by the universal declaration of human rights. in article 12, it states: no one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home, or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. (kaci, 2015, p. 26) although this right has been enshrined by the united nations since 1948, it has slowly found its way into the constitutions of many nations, with several still holding back its full implementation for political reasons. yet the very fundamental nature of privacy as a human right shows practically in every form of human interaction. however, even in states wherein the right to privacy has been fully recognised, the government and its parastatals, continually make intrusions at several intervals, raising a most important question as to whether privacy as a right should be unlimitedly enjoyed by all individuals, or if it’s practical implementation should face certain limits? furthermore, with the reality of private data being available for public use, who bears the burden of the protection and preservation of these data? the privacy-confidentiality nexus while privacy as examined in the sections above, deals with the freedom from intrusion, confidentiality deals with the keeping and maintenance of private data from prying eyes (crotty &mostaghimi, 2014).it encapsulates an obligation on the part of the receiver of private information – transmitted as data, whether social or digital data – to prevent the disclosure of information designated as confidential by the giver of such data, to ensure that the individual retains control over his private information, as a means of satisfying the demands of the individual’s right to privacy (bos, 2020). this infers that confidentiality depicts a duty and an obligation on the part of the receiver of private data, within the ambits of policies mutually agreed upon by both parties. the form of agreement, its details as well and the accompanying challenges of preserving such data,differ ovwata & idubamo metamodernism and the question of privacy and… 26 in the realm of the social, and the ‘new social’ or the digital, as would be discussed later on in this paper. to this end, the central component of confidentiality is the ‘trust element’, which is defined by t. grandison and m. sloman as “the firm belief in the competence of an entity to act dependably, securely and reliably within a specified context” (2000). n. richards and w. hartzog argued that as an essential ingredient of digital life, trust encapsulates the foundational building block upon which information relationships between individuals, professionals, private institutions, and/or government are consolidated (2016), which becomes even more necessary as it relates to the generation and distribution of knowledge in the digital society (benito et al, 2006). in a more simplified form, privacy is seen as applying to persons, whereas confidentiality concerns data (university of kentucky. 2018), to what end, the individual’s information, made available to another entity, is conceived of as data’. this raises the crucial question of the point at which the individual data could lose its right of being held confidentially, which by extension juxtaposes the question as to the extent to which the notion of privacy can realistically be limited. the limits of privacy plouffe divides privacy into four basic aspects:“1) publication of private facts, such as personal sexual practices 2) placing a person in a false light by publishing information that would damage their reputation 3) invading a private space such as trespassing in a person’s house, and 4) appropriation of another person’s identity.” (2011, p. 1357). in several areas, there exists a drawn line between these presumed aspects of privacy, and their actual practice. for example, in cases of accused sexual assault perpetrators, the court sometimes warrants an inquiry into their past sexual conduct to draw out a pattern in handling the present accusation, the police would carry out such intense scrutiny and if it were already a popular story, the media would make a serious buzz about it too, to which we may certainly ask; do the performance of such aspect of privacy exclude those accused of such misconduct? what if in the end the individual is discharged and acquitted, how does such an individual cope with personal data like his sexual patterns already out in a public space? in the same vein, the scrutiny of public officers and celebrities draw a parallel with the second and third aspect of privacy as outlined above to which we may again query whether or not some particular sect of people could have their privacy taken away from them legally? viz; an accused person under investigation in the first case, and a public figure or celebrity in the second. etzioni argues that privacy as a legal right within the constitution is a recent creation that faces obvious limitations in the modern composition of societybecause, within a broader consideration, government measures such as security cameras in public spaces, emplacement of security measures or anti-crime measures at certain times could be worked over. “if these new measures are reasonable then no one’s rights have been violated in the legal sense.” (2005, p. 255). however, in even more practical instances privacy itself has been shown to have practical limits in instances such as; 1. cases of mass insecurity or criminal activities: etzioni notes that with “the changed historical conditions, what we currently face as threats to our security have increased, first from criminals and terrorists... there are more and more legal searches for which neither warrants nor even specific suspicion are required.” to which one may certainly ask, could there not exist a way wherein the government could still see to these security needs while protecting individual privacy? 2. at the intersection between individual right to personal liberty and shared or group challenges: in situations of mass group anxiety, such as public health challenge or a aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 27 pandemic as have been seen in the covid and post-covid era the individual right to privacy and most essentially personal liberty have certainly been curbed as a result of mass lockdowns, travel bans, forced-in restrictions (which could seem more like a house arrest), forced medical tests, as well as publication of health records of victims on the public spaceand other such measures which have been termed ‘reasonable,’ (2005, p. 255) and very necessary for the protection of public health. this again raises the question of whether or not respect for the private record of individuals can justifiably be eroded under the guise of an emergency. 3. instances of public fear and pandemonium: for example, after the september 11, 2001 attack on the united states, the us government seized on the public pandemonium and implemented what could have been termed high-handed monitoring practices, such as; monitoring of phone calls, making abrupt search on suspected individuals without a search warrant, monitoring emails via the use of certain keywords to fetch out terror messages, et al (carlisle, 2021). in the same vein, after the endsars protests that took place across nigeria, the federal government seized on the public disruptions and reported instances of pandemonium to shut down twitter, impose new social media regulatory practices, as well as acquire and even publish the financial records of accused sponsors of the endsars protests (elega, mohammed, & oloyede, 2023). while these measures could have been termed unconstitutional at ordinary times, they were excused as being very necessary for public security and safety (etzioni, 2005, pp. 255-256). furthermore, in more recent times, the nigerian government has mandated the compulsory linking of mobile sim cards to the national identity number (nin), placing as an excuse; the security conditions of the country, and the need to apprehend criminals in a faster and more precise manner (abubakar, 2011). these seeming mass surveillance, and mass forced data collection which under normal times ought to be classified as gross infractions of privacy, are very easily excused even by citizens themselves, as necessary for the security of everyone, thus enacting an obvious limit on privacy itself. 4. job demands and corporate society: with the prevailing necessity of fitting into corporate society, the line between privacy and meeting these job demands tends to present a drawn-out line. for example, public officers would have their every action scrutinised including even their emails and personal messages, by proponents of opposing views to pick up points that could either be damning or serve to further some nefarious aim of such opponent. an example could be found in the publication of private records of then candidate, and now president bola ahmed tinubu (iniobong, 2022), as well as releasing private phone conversations with journalist rufai oseni (my nigeria, 2023), amongst others, all during the period of nigeria’s 2023 elections. these obvious privacy breaches are left unconsidered, the moment presumed‘dirt’or wrongdoing is found, without recourse as to how it was found, and whether or not it involved a gross breach of the privacy right of the individual in question. thus, under such circumstances, the rights to privacy of these individuals faces considerable limit. in the same vein, private companies track down the activities of their employees, sometimes even their private activities to see if these constitute a threat to the growth of the company, most especially security or investigative firms (west, 2021). further, even in more moderate firms, the intrusion into privacy could come via multiple calls even at odd and non-work hours, from clients to which the individual is forced to attend for the sake of avoiding queries and retaining such jobs. thus, there exist little or no dichotomy, between what could constitute job requirements for persons, and their private life. ovwata & idubamo metamodernism and the question of privacy and… 28 5. social media: while these above infractions of privacy may be noted as being sometimes without, or with forced individual consent, social media present a more willing arrangement to give up certain levels of privacy to stay connected on such platforms, which etzioni notes; “our behaviour shows that there are numerous values that trump or take precedence over privacy.” (2005, p. 254). these behaviours which may be seen as a more voluntary limit to privacy constitute individuals giving off vital information about themselves to social media websites or apps to keep having access to such platforms. the usage of these data is with little control from the individual, even though there are existing privacy rights within the confines of such media companies, its obvious abuse, misuse, or forced use via governmental mandate creates a problem as to whether such publicly heralded privacy rights are not just done for the screens. these above obvious breaches of privacy for very excusable and even cogent reasons, raise a most fundamental question viz; “should individual privacy be left unmonitored for any reason whatsoever, or should the government or community hold some level of autonomy in restricting privacy at some point?”, more so, to what extent does the construction of knowledge about privacy fit into the entire discourse on privacy and confidentiality? the metamodern and the private modernism, postmodernism, metamodernism, and its ideological trajectory what constitutes the private, functions differently in each composition of social life. for example, the designation of what is private would differ in a democratic society from what is obtainable in a socialist or communist society.1 to this end, the notion of the private is sociopolitically specific, that is; it is subject to the prevalent socio-political makeup of a definite society. in the same vein, the reflection of how the approach to privacy is either sustained or strangulated can be examined within the lines of the epistemic tensions that exist between modern, postmodern, and metamodern societies. on a nominal scale, the ideas of modernism, postmodernism, and metamodernism have been argued to be both historical constructs as well as ideological positions (vermeulen & akker, 2010). this historical-ideological divide attempts to place the modern within a definite timeframe; the first argument; traces the modern to ‘the age of enlightenment’, while the second argument traces the modern to the twentieth-century linguistic turn in philosophy (ermarth, 1998). this argument for a historical placement of these ideas also attempts to historically situate the postmodern as beginning from the mid or late-20th century (ermarth, 1998),while placing the metamodern as beginning from the 21st century, as a result of the breaking down of the postmodern boundaries (vermeulen & akker, 2010).a. le cunff argues that on a historical scale, the modern, postmodern, and metamodern can be associated with significant elements in the rise of the media; on what note he categorises the modern as being associable with the rise of the radio, the postmodern with the television and the metamodern with the internet and digital means of communication (2021). the centerpiece of le cunff’s argument is hinged on the position that development in the agency of media communication has played a key role in shaping and determining the prevalent ideologies upon which the epistemic foundations of society have rested, which in a similar vein also largely shapes how society reacts to the 1 communism emphasises the benefits which is obtainable by society as a whole, whether or not such benefit trumps essential individual rights. thus, while democracy encourages individualism and by extension seeks to uphold the right to privacy, communism rejects the principles of individualism and instead argues for collective surveillance of its citizens. see https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2007-08/communismcomputing-china/privacy.html, for a brief article on the non-existence of a right to privacy in communist china. https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2007-08/communism-computing-china/privacy.html https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2007-08/communism-computing-china/privacy.html aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 29 designation of what is private or the responsibilities saddled on the individual in possession of a certain form of confidential information (le cunff, 2021). if we follow the analysis given by le cunff, the radio, and television belonged to the realm of ‘the social’, whereas the digital belongs to the realm of the ‘new social’. the predetermining elements of the society were the composition of society along visible lines and the difficulty it took to cross the lines of national boundaries. thus, what was social was limited to the immediateenvironment of the individual, and his ideologies were influenced by the prevalent notions and positions that reinforced such ideology. this placed the individual in a selfabsorbed state of knowing only that which was available and not that which was obtainable. thus, the individual decision-making credentials were furnished by the information gleaned from agencies such as the radio, magazines, journals, and television, hence in the social, man was limited to what the eyes could see, and decision-making was further limited to what was obtainable through the lenses of other fellows who also viewed the world from the perspective of their social boundaries. for instance, the domination of the radio in the early years of the 20th century as le cunff points out, aided in the consolidation of thinking along absolute lines, to the end that absolutism was more amenable to the modern era, as the views expressed in society were the age-long acceptable societal view carried within the lines of limited interactions amongst individuals. this inferred that since individuals were limited by their spatial boundaries, they were wont to interpret even the happenings in other societies from the lenses of their spatial boundaries, rather than the spatial boundaries of the society being interrogated, and such a view towards interpreting external societies owed to the existence of limited information about those societies, to what end it became much easier to interpret society in terms of an absolutist position, vis a vis; the standard for right or wrong, good or evil were seen as absolute standards and superimposed on other societies by an inquirer, whether or not the societal cultures differed. the postmodern under this position became triggered by the realisation of different social compositions and societal organisations as well as the existence of conflicting cultures which challenged the idea of a hegemonic absolute criterion for interpreting the way things are in the world. this realisation as le cunff points out had a lot to do with the rise and spread of new ideas, and advancement in media and telecommunications, which subsequently led to the putting to use of such understanding in transmitting life images, leading to the rise of the television (le cunff, 2021). the reality of the rise of the television as well as advancement in telecommunication and transportation tools led to the advancement of closer networking amongst people and the reality of existing closer ties which challenged the view of examining a different society from the lenses of one’s own biases but rather the reality of interpreting each society in its regards became an obvious necessity (le cunff, 2021). similarly, the metamodern as le cunff argues stems from the obvious reality of each individual being in charge of his own story, and views the world from the lenses of a subjectivist rather than an objectivist position. this position does not affirm the trajectory of modernism or postmodernism, neither does it reject it (le cunff, 2021).le cunff attempts to point out that the metamodern credentials are founded on the rise of the digital sphere, for which the reality of the internet and social media, now determines the substantiality of narratives being pushed out. to this end what is termed as the ‘new social’ becomes the underlying point of the metamodern, as social interactions are no longer limited to an individual spatial space, but rather transcend national boundaries, giving an individual the ability to shape his narrative and ovwata & idubamo metamodernism and the question of privacy and… 30 even become a part in the conversation on oneself, through the agency of the ‘digital persona’. this infers that on a metamodern scale, the individual has the capability of creating a distinct persona and existing as that persona whether or not the behavioural reflections of such persona differ from the individual’s subjective reality in the social. thus, the new social is a product of the digital and exists within the bounds of the digital sphere. there are problems with le cunff’s position, most especially if we balance it against ermarth’sargument on the historical-ideological flowchart of the modern and postmodern. although ermarth tends to agree that technological advancements were to some extent triggering fuel that aided the transition from the modern to the postmodern, she nevertheless refuses to stereotype such development as existing only within the media space, as le cunffdid. ermarth took a more holistic position by placing the interrogation about the modern and the postmodern within the realms of a history of ideas rather than a history of society. to this end, ermarth’s position was hinged on looking out for the timeline of the development of these ideas and the nitty-gritty of developments obtainable in such a timeline, rather than a connection between social influences and the development of these ideas. this paper takes a position geared at interrogating the ideas in themselves as epistemic constructs rather than historical-ideological constructs. its emphasis is rather on what constitutes the epistemic positions of each of these ideas most especially the idea of metamodernism, and how such epistemic construction shapes the understanding of the notion of privacy and confidentiality in the digital. it may not be far out of place to affirm either le cunff’shistory of society position by synchronizing the metamodern with the digital or take ermarth’s history of ideas position by interrogating the history of the idea of metamodernism, however, this paper rather asks a different question, viz; what is the underlying ideological position of metamodernism, and how is it relevant to the discourse on privacy? one of the foundational lines of distinction between the three epistemic positions outlined above is its approach to an objective or absolute reality. the modern consolidates its ground on absolutism the postmodern espouses relativism, but it becomes a lot more problematic as to what stand metamodernism espouses. metamodernism and the discourse on privacy vermeulen and akker (2010) affirm metamodernism as taking a ‘both neither’ dynamic. this infers that metamodernism oscillates between modern and postmodern ideologies, without being subjected by an affinity to any. modernism is built upon absolute grounds while postmodernism lays its argumentative paradigms on relativistic and pluralistic grounds (agbada &tomoloju, 2025, pp. 111-112). metamodernism rejects the absolutist grounds of modernist thought but does not necessarily accept the pluralist bent of modernist thought; rather, it attempts to deal with the subjective individual and his place in the world than the interrogation of an external objective or relative reality (abramson, 2015). to this end, le cunff affirms that metamodernism, while dealing with the digital, attempts to take a middle ground in its interrogation based on its exposure to divergent and sometimes contradictory forms of knowledge, for which it is the subjective individual who is saddled with the responsibility of choosing between what systems of knowledge to affiliate with. thus, this individual (subjective) basis of knowledge determination creates both contradictory and complementary systems based on the availability and reliability of information from whence such knowledge is gleaned. on such note, the present digital society is seen to be interlaced and plagued by the reality of a subjective construction of knowledge in the digital space, for aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 31 which both algorithms and trends have to a large extent become the determinant of what is known. this infers that the ‘digital persona’ constructs his knowledge from the digital sphere based on the available information gleaned via trending topics and algorithmic processes which tends to bring similar instances based on individual choice, allowing the digital persona to sometimes take positions on specific issuesthat are contrary to the facts of such issues.however, such decision-making would also have been based on the reality of available information gleaned from the digital sphere.hence, while the subjective individual is saddled with the enormous responsibility of constructing his knowledge in the digital sphere which as le cunff points out; exists within the ground of a metamodern outlook on knowledge construction (le cunff, 2021), the ‘digital persona’ is also subjected to the manipulative influences of misinformation and mal-information, which creates the reality of contradictory knowledge claims and positions, based on individual algorithimic selections.2 based on the above, the predominant view of privacy as evident in metamodern spaces, micro zooms privacy into the intersubjective relationship between the individual who possesses the obvious right to privacy and the vendor (seen to be any; company, organisation, and/or institution) who purchases access to such information based on ‘trust’ in keeping the acquired information confidential, as an exchange for the individual’s access to the services provided by the vendor. but this position is also interlaced by the necessity of a vendor, cooperating with the government and its agencies in exposing individuals who may prove a threat to open society. the basic question thus becomes the extent to which an individual vendor ought to keep from the public and government; information that is not only critical but also detrimental to the wellbeing of others in society. this raises the reality of the ethical dilemma involved in the question of privacy. the extent to which metamodernism captures this ethical dilemma rests on the reality that metamodern spaces steer clear of a definite holistic commitment to the divulging of personal information but agree on the fundamental necessity of protecting the privacy of its digital user on the one hand and the generality of all users on its space, as well as within society (pipere&martinsone, 2022).to this end, the vendor is charged with a dual responsibility of protecting individual privacy, and at the same time a corporate social responsibility of divulging incidents of threat to society emanating from its platform. on such note, selective censorship; described by kalinka as ‘personalization’ (kalinka, 2022), becomes a tool for the internal sanity of digital spaces, while cooperation with law enforcement agencies becomes a tool for the external sanity of social spaces (vis a vis; in a bid to protect such social spaces from threats emanating from the digital sphere). the reality of this ‘both neither’ dynamic for which metamodernism has been classified, is shown forth in several researches carried out concerning privacy. for example, while 40 percent of citizens in the united states believed that the government should take the leading role in battling cybercrime, 86 percent of american citizens affirmed the desire to decrease their digital footprint (dataprot, 2023), which raises the question as to how exactly can the government tackle cybercrimes if she cannot gain access to the digital footprints and/or 2algorithms in the digital sphere determine what forms of information an individual is presented, and what forms of results will come first in any search which he does. thus, if an individual has interacted for a long time with digital pages (whether on social media or internet searches), that have been purveyors of false information, he is most likely to be presented first with stories from such sources, whenever he logs on his social media feeds or perform a simple internet search. similarly, if there are no websites that have debunked some form of false information available in the digital space, a subjective individual is as likely to see it as true and base his claim on the sources from which he got such information. ovwata & idubamo metamodernism and the question of privacy and… 32 activities of her citizens. similarly, research by the pew research center found that while 70 percent of adults worry about the security of their private data and information shared with companies, 97 percent of the same set of adults affirmed being asked by companies to accept privacy terms before using the services offered, only 9 percent affirmed that they always read the privacy policies before accepting it,while 13 percent affirmed to do that often, 38 percent affirmed to doing it sometimes and 36 percent affirmed to never reading the privacy policies (pew research center, 2019). this again raises the question as to; on whom then should the blame for the seeming erosion of privacy be leveled; the individual who fails to study the privacy terms he/she assents to or the company who drafts such terms?d. d. sasu (2023) outlined that in nigeria, about 32 percent of internet users in 2022 declined website cookies, while 19 percent preferred to remain anonymous online, to maintain the security and nonavailability of their private information, which thus made it difficult to track and/or distinguish between scammers and normal individuals who are just concerned about their privacy, on the basis that the lack of access to the identity of the digital persona affects the capacity of appropriate agencies to act in cases of real threat that tends to transcend the digital into the social sphere, which thus raises the question as tohow government can act in protection of the citizenry against vices that emanates from the digital while being denied access to vital informationwhich could lead to tracking such vices? this reality points out the necessity of redefining the grounds and elements for privacy as it relates to the digital society. reimagining privacy and confidentiality in the digital age all through this section, it has been maintained that the outlook on privacy takes a different pattern when interrogated against the backdrop of metamodern societies, based on the lack of a firm ideological grip to define the metamodern position. this is further based on the fact that metamodernism as examined through this section takes a ‘both neither’ dynamic; that is a commitment to privacy and a desire for increased regulation to curb cyber ills which could either directly or indirectly limit privacy. thus, while affirming a stronger involvement of government in addressing the threats which most times transcend from the digital into the social, and while also understanding that the involvement of government can only be productive if there is sustained access of government to confidential information, metamodern societies, elect to keep theseinformation away from government, raising the problematic as to where exactly she falls. however, if interrogated from another perspective, metamodernism tends to take a position that rejects the presence of only two alternatives, viz; increased privacy and lesser activities of government or her agencies in curbing cyber challenges which could stem into the social, or more active involvement of government in solving these challenges at the expense of reduced privacy. metamodernism tends to affirm the possibility of having the cake and eating it too, that is; the reality of having an increased involvement of government in solving cybercrimes while also having a high level of individual privacy retained. this reality draws on the position that the discourse around privacy must be rechannelled to fit in these metamodern tensions, as well as the development of intentional strides aimed at combining these seeming opposites. the points outlined below are thus needful as a background ideological landscapefrom whence theadvancement of such interrogation commences; 1. the knowledge debate: the position of having to choose between an absolute right to privacy versus a relative right to privacy would require an ideological replacement within metamodern spaces, of which the digital world is its practical reflection. metamodernism takes away the absolute versus relative debate and replaces it with a aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 33 subjective individual determining his place in the world and at the same time seeking to protect that place from limitations to his free expression, as well as attacks by criminal syndicates. this idea of protecting the individual not only as a digital persona alone but also as a social entity with an actual life outside the digital sphere must be the foundational grounding for any interrogation of an approach to privacy. 2. socio-political organisation: the question revolving around privacy and confidentiality should of necessity be shifted away from the question of democratic practice into the question of democratic ideals. d. d. raphael (1990), outlined that democratic ideals are operational even in a non-democratic society, on that note, privacy must not be seen from the lens of being a democratic society prerogative, but an ideal whose fundamental reach and scope transcends even in a non-democratic society.this infers that, the democratic ideals of liberty and equality are to form the fundamental layer for enacting privacy policies (on the level of companies that handle individual data), protecting confidential information, and divulging information where necessary to governmental agencies. 3. reinforcement of the right to privacy: the integral element of ‘consent’ in the divulgement of private information must take precedence over the element of ‘necessity’ which is sometimes used to explain the erosion of individual right to privacy. on this note, private information which falls as confidential data when handled by an organisation, company, group, or government must only be released with the obtained consent of the individual holding such privacy right, or a duly obtained waiver, subject to specific usage and restricted from public access. this infers that even in critical conditions where a waiver of an individual right to privacy can be sought (for example in criminal trials or cases of severe emergencies), the usage of the obtained private data must be subjected to specific rules and restricted whatsoever from being made public knowledge. 4. confidentiality and the protection of data and databases: if databases are to be managed by private infrastructures or companies, such management must be with levels of due oversight, not of the data in itself, but of the process of harnessing, handling, and using the obtained data. this infers that government parastatals dedicated to the functionality of oversight duties must be limited only to interrogatingand investigating the pattern of confidentiality agreement existing between the giver and receiver of such data, the obligation of both parties, as well as the extent of fulfilmentof those obligations, without being privy to the minute intricacies of what constitutes the data being kept or preserved. ovwata & idubamo metamodernism and the question of privacy and… 34 conclusion throughout this paper, the idea of privacy and confidentiality has been interrogated within the bounds of its nature, limits, and ideological positions that place it as either an absolute fact or a relative one. the paper interrogated how the inherent debate around the fundamental ideological layers of modernism and postmodernism tend to create a ground for a redefinition of privacy along a metamodern perspective, by emphasising that the existence of debates around the functionality of privacy in the digital world falls directly under the province of metamodernism vis a vis; metamodern spaces.to what end,metamodernism as an epistemic position seeks to interrogate the component of knowledge construction in the digital, by dividing the construction of knowledge along analogue lines for which modernism and postmodernism both fit in, and the digital; which represent the metamodern idea. however, this paper has maintained that metamodernism tends to merge the modern and postmodern into one without taking an ideological commitment to any, from what lenses, metamodernism interrogates the question of privacy from the perspective of a ‘both neither’ dynamic, rejecting the limitations on privacy, while affirming the necessity of protecting the individual from the negativities of the cyberspace, an interrogation of which exists within definite tensions, which draws on the necessity for reimagining the ideological foundations for the discourse on privacy and confidentiality. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 35 references abramson, s. 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(2018). privacy and confidentiality; what is the difference? retrieved sep. 5, 2023, from: https://www.research.uky.edu/uploads/ori-d320000-privacy-vsconfidentiality-whats-difference-pdf. https://businessday.ng/news/article/why-i-am-exposing-tinubu-hundeyin/ https://nesslabs.com/metamodernism https://www.mynigeria.com/nigeriahomepage/newsarchive/reno-omokri-accuses-rufai-oseni-of-threatening-his-life-leaks-audio-recording-685316 https://www.mynigeria.com/nigeriahomepage/newsarchive/reno-omokri-accuses-rufai-oseni-of-threatening-his-life-leaks-audio-recording-685316 https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2019/11/15/americans-and-privacy-concerned-confused-and-feeling-lack-of-control-over-their-personal-information/ https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2019/11/15/americans-and-privacy-concerned-confused-and-feeling-lack-of-control-over-their-personal-information/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1324454/actions-taken-by-internet-users-in-nigeria-to-protect-their-digital-privacy/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1324454/actions-taken-by-internet-users-in-nigeria-to-protect-their-digital-privacy/ https://www.research.uky.edu/uploads/ori-d320000-privacy-vs-confidentiality-whats-difference-pdf https://www.research.uky.edu/uploads/ori-d320000-privacy-vs-confidentiality-whats-difference-pdf aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 37 vermeulen, t and akker, r. v. d. (2010). notes on metamodernism. journal of aesthetics & culture 2.1. https://doi.org/10.3402/jac.v2i0.5677. warren, d. s. and brandeis, d. l. (1890). the right to privacy. harvard law review 4.5. 195. west, d. m. (2021). how employers use technology to surveil employees. the brookings institution. retrieved sept. 23, 2023, from: https://www.brookings.edu/articles/howemployers-use-technology-to-surveil-employees/ https://doi.org/10.3402/jac.v2i0.5677 https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-employers-use-technology-to-surveil-employees/ https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-employers-use-technology-to-surveil-employees/ 94 engaging the idea of sustainable well-being through the idea of relational well-being lawrence ogbo ugwuanyi, ph.d. department of philosophy, university of abuja abstract the hypothesis that the work defends is that given the differences (biological, psychological, etc.) between individuals, the idea of well-being involves tensions and crisis among individuals on one hand, individuals and the social group, and between two social groups. the work then sets out to illustrate how this is the case and articulate how this problem can be resolved. it proposes the idea of relational wellbeing defined as the ability to initiate and sustain a valid relationship with others broadly conceived as a social group, other persons or institutions, etc, as a plausible option to add this problem. the method applied is textual review and intuitive deductions. keywords: sustainable well-being, relational well-being, personality theories, psychological traits, personal conflicts. introduction the purpose of this work is to locate tensions that the idea of well-being and which affects sustainable interactional engagement at personal and social levels and attempts to resolve them. by this is meant the tension between the personal well-being and social wellbeing. the work holds that given the differences (biological, psychological, etc) between individuals, the idea of well-being involves tensions and crisis among individuals on one hand and individuals and the social group on the other and that these notions of well-being has enormous force and potential to affect quality sustainable social advancement and development. for this reason, a scholarly effort is required to demonstrate this tension, resolve the conflict implicated and harmonise the idea of well-being. the work addresses the following question: how can the idea of well-being be advanced to resolve the tensions and problems that are implicated in the idea of individual well-being and social well-being? to do this, the work will take on the ideas of personal well-being and social well-being and discuss the goals of the idea and how the goals lead to some tensions, many of which make the idea of personal well-being challenging. thereafter, it will propose and apply the concept of relational well-being to resolve the tension identified and demonstrate how and why the idea of relational well-being should constitute a desirable discourse on the subject of well-being. by relational well-being, i mean the notion of well-being that looks at well-being in terms of its ability to maintain a desired emotional and physical equilibrium between the individual and the social group and provides the necessary virtues, values and habits that induce a quality of peace, understanding and harmony in the relationship between the individual and the social group as a basis for well-being. relational well-being implies that well-being as a principle must emphasise and incorporate the capability and ability of the individual to relate with others irrespective of the circumstances in which the individual operates or the variable through which the idea of subjective well-being could be established. such a relationship may include aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 95 tolerating and managing differences, minimising tensions in human relationships, cooperating with others, or communing with them as the situation demands. the argument that the work will propose and defend is that it is in being able to initiate and sustain a valid relationship with others broadly conceived as either a social group, other persons or institutions that well-being can be held to have served a worthy purpose for both the individual and for the group. for this reason, the idea of well-being must be anchored on the ability to sustain and maintain relationships. i will make use of textual analysis from philosophy, psychology and sociology to achieve the objective of the paper. i will apply critical methods of philosophical reasoning to explain the values and principles that the idea of well-being defends and the different demands of achieving well-being. i then apply theories of personality to explain the role of temperaments or attitudes in determining the terms of self-fulfilment and well-being. the effort to locate the theories of personality and the terms through which these personalities could achieve well-being would highlight the challenges of personal well-being. i then look at social wellbeing and by highlighting the notion of social wellbeing. i proceed to map out the challenges implied in the idea of social wellbeing. by looking at the two aspects of wellbeing i locate certain variables that are inherent in the idea of personal well-being that are capable of affecting social wellbeing negatively and vice versa. thereafter, i will defend the claim that a desirable notion of well-being must be able to serve the interest of both the individual and the social-group by formulating an idea of relational well-being that accommodates the two. articulating the idea of well-being in recent times, the subject of well-being has assumed an important place in scholarship. this attention is motivated by a number of reasons, one of which is the gradual shift from locating the development of a group from gross domestic product (gdp) to gross domestic happiness (gdh) and the location of happiness in terms of well-being. the gradual shift from measuring the wealth of nations in terms of gdp to measuring it in terms of happiness has been called gross domestic happiness (gdh), which invokes the concept of well-being because gdp has been discovered to function as a “myth” that does not tell us about the health of an economy, let alone its sustainability and overall impact on human welfare (fioramonti, 2018, p. 742). thus, emphasis was shifted to well-being as a more realistic measurable way of locating the quality growth of a people that translates into a worthier life. this movement could be glimpsed through a number of works, such as cummins (1997), veenhoven (1996), layard (2009) and krueger (2009), and is motivated by the desire to find a better form that the world development agenda should take in order to serve a worthier purpose for mankind. the claim here is that while there is the belief that growth in the volume of the economy and in the physical structures of the society could provide a measurement of the development of a people, it is the final human dividend of this—how this has translated to a better quality of life—that the idea of development should be held to serve its purpose. this is what the focus on well-being is all about. but the idea of well-being itself is an amorphous and wide concept. an ordinary engagement with the idea or what we may call surface thinking about the idea of well-being may abstract from the two concepts that form the words to say that well-being amounts to being well. but being well is a concept that is applied to human beings, whereas well-being is a wider concept lawrence ogbo engaging the idea of sustainable well-being through the idea… 96 that needs a broad interpretation and categorisation to explain it sufficiently. well-being connotes a variety of meanings, such as the objective well-being of a group, subjective wellbeing of an individual, and intersubjective well-being between the individual and the groupand may further be interpreted to imply mental and physical health, pleasure, engagement and meaning. it may also include those values that reflect the broad fundamental properties of the human entity—the physical, spiritual, social and personal demands of the human being. wellbeing embodies harbouring all these items to function well and being in a good or optimal state and in good health. white (2010, p. 159) supports this view with an elaboration that for some, well-being “is about personal success or happiness, but for others it goes much further, posing questions not only about what is good for individuals and communities, but also the nature of the “good society.” white goes further to suggest three categories of well-being: material well-being, social well-being and human and material well-being: material well-being includes wealth and income and the satisfaction that comes from these, social well-being includes relations such as social stability, and human well-being includes human capabilities. from white’s categorization, which is a considerably elaborate illustration of the notion of wellbeing, we can map out two broad dimensions of well-being, namely social well-being and personal well-being. social well-being demands social stability and the provision of those items that enhance the functioning of the society or environment in such a manner that it is preserved and allowed to promote social good. it demands the functioning of social organs or structures in such a manner that they can serve the interest of her members in favour of the future. social well-being involves and wellbeing of all aspects of life that connect man within a group and ensure that the social process is well and healthy. another dimension of well-being that can be abstracted from the table above is personal well-being-that is wellbeing as it involved human inner needs and capabilities and attitudes. personal well-being involves achieving the inner health of those qualities that make one an individual, and enabling the attainment of the bigger and deeper demands of the human entity, such as meaning in life, and happiness, spiritual stability and physical stability (interpreted to mean a certain balance in the spiritual and physical components of man), and the absence of lack, worry or disease, such as will make a human being have the quality of wellness. personal well-being has other peculiar dimensions emanating from the nature of the human person. for this reason, the need arises to make a distinction between two kinds of personal well-being: the individual and the subjective. subjective well-being serves the interest of the person as the subject of well-being. it is about the person as seen and known by the other. it is about the person as a certain subject that demands and deserves certain rights, privileges, respect, autonomy, etc. that can lead to meaningful life and happiness. individual well-being addresses the peculiar demands of an individual as a unique entity with some demands that may include (but not exclude the demands of subjective well-being). it is as a result of this that a certain tension arises from the idea of being a certain kind of person ( an individual with a certain uniqueness, temperament, dispositions and attitude that can affect the wellness of the person is realised). personal wellbeing is widely emphasised in the human and social sciences. four renown psychologists and experts on happiness—ed diener (1984, 2000), seligman (2002) and kahneman and krueger (2006)—emphasise “well-being” as an index of happiness. the wellbeing implicated in the works of these scholars is personal wellbeing. before them, aristotle, in his theory of happiness, had applied several concepts to designate happiness, namely virtue, prudence, wisdom and pleasure. for him, each of these concepts has something to do with the idea of happiness, which he captured in full in his theory of eudaimonia, which aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 97 can be interpreted to mean personal well-being (aristotle, 1966, 1098a2–19, 1099b25–28), …the best aspect of the soul […] when the soul is at its best” (1098a15–20). because values and virtues, such as happiness and meaning, are significant to the notion of well-being, the affective component of the human person becomes a decisive factor in personal well-being and the discourse on personal well-being leads to the discussion on psychological well-being. psychological wellbeing constitutes important aspects of personal wellbeing because it embodies human feelings, human emotions and all the inner factors and forces that foreground human thought and action. to highlight the relevance of psychological wellbeing, i shall next provide some views on psychological wellbeing in a separate section of the work. psychological well-being and its wider demands on personal wellbeing the emphasis on well-being in terms of personal well-being and the underlying emphasis on psychological well-being arises from the underlying psychological component of the human person. according to the apa guides (american psychological association, 2017), all individuals differ in patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving (hicks and mehta, 2018, p. 50) and this explains the unique demands of psychological wellbeing. a particular way of locating this is to locate the variations in the psychological make-up of human beings. to do this let me begin with the theory of temperaments. according to the theory of temperaments, there are four identifiable types of individuals: the choleric, the sanguine, the melancholic and the phlegmatic. these different temperaments affect psychological wellbeing in different ways. a closer study of the temperament theory of personalities shows that achieving individual well-being for the four personalities identified would depend on the extent to which temperamental traits are addressed. this is because well-being depends largely on inner well-being and how social and human variables fit into these personalities. to establish this claim, let us imagine a scenario where a sanguine personality (described above as highly talkative, enthusiastic, active, and social) functions among a social group that is repressive or among a religious community that is suppressive. chances are that the well-being of this individual will be affected tragically, and despite the availability of the social or economic variables that might lead to personal wellbeing, the option for the individual would be either to (i) engage the social group to ensure that it fits into the temperamental demands of the agent or (2) to change herself to fit into the needs of the social group. but either of these is a huge challenge because temperaments are hugely biological (hans eysenck (1916–1997) or at least have some connections with the neurotic make-up of the individual. thus, it makes sense to suggest that the individual has very strong psychological challenges with underlying biological traits that will affect the well-being of the personality involved. for another illustration, (2) let us examine the case of a person whose temperament is choleric. the choleric are usually held to be good leaders and to have personality traits that make for leadership. for this reason, the well-being of this individual will depend on the quality of leadership available in the society where the individual functions. thus, this poses a number of challenges, especially in a society with bad leadership or one where leadership is a major problem. the psychological well-being of this personality would depend on how much they lawrence ogbo engaging the idea of sustainable well-being through the idea… 98 show leadership or challenge bad leadership. if the individual is not recognised and allowed to exhibit this inner leadership trait, the individual would be forced to challenge bad leadership wherever they are and would end up much more as an activist or as a prisoner of conscience. thus, because of the temperament trait of the choleric, the individual would desire to reconfigure the personality to fit societal standards, that is, accommodate the society that produces the leadership (whether it is good or bad) or to adjust the meaning of leadership to a fresh standard that would accommodate the personality trait harboured. the challenge of wellbeing for a choleric may well be this: how do i live with leadership (good or bad) or compromise the visions and leadership traits that seek for expression in me? this prompting of the temperament would usually lead to a life of risks and which influences the notion of well-being. if this is the case, it may well mean that individual or personal well-being in relation to the choleric will depend on societies where the traits are valued and respected. another way to look at well-being in relation to personality traits is to (3) look at the challenges that could affect the quest for individual well-being by the melancholic individuals who tend to be analytical and detail-oriented. those who possess this personality trait would often function more in a society that respects scientific disposition to issues than one that arbitrarily assigns truth and meanings to issues without due consideration to the merits and demerits of this option. this kind of personality would function better in a society that respects people with great skills for organising facts than those that would not value such facts. the conflict that can arise from this scenario is such that a certain level of meaning and well-being would be truncated by the daily occurrence when such personalities function in a society that does not function for other personalities. these examples illustrate the challenges of personality traits in relation to psychological well-being especially how they affect the theory of temperaments. other theories have been advanced to explain the human personality. they include the theory of the big five and the two-type theory of personality. the ‘big five’ theory is based on mccrae and costa’s (2003) articulation of the five components of personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. this effort has been collaborated by john, o. p., & srivastava, s. (1999), who has suggested that the core set of dispositional traits within the big five are the most prominent aspects of personality. another theory is the two-type theory of personality. this theory suggests that human beings can be located in terms of disposition to “perfectionism, honesty, and sensation seeking” hicks and mehta (ibid) and type b personality who are “relaxed and easy going” (kazmi, amjad, & khan, 2008).all these differences in personalities have different consequences for psychological wellbeing. the claim being made here is that a deeper study of the different human personalities in relation to the notion of well-being would show that the realisation of well-being differs and that the well-being of individuals cannot be realised in the same degree but according to different variations in their personalities. considering the theories outlined and other theories that have emerged to explain the human personality, such as those of sigmund freud, alfred adler, etc., it can be held that human beings function with some personality traits, many of which are favoured or disfavoured by the environment, and the personalities and individual traits of others within the society and that these are influential to the outcome of personal well-being. to this effect, it becomes important to interrogate the notion of well-being that can accommodate this challenge through a constructive engagement with different notions of well-being. before i do that, i discuss the idea of social well-being. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 99 well-being as social well-being and the challenges implied by social well-being is implied the well-being of the individual as a member of the social group and the wellbeing of the social group as an entity. by this is meant well-being that is in a position to harmonise the society and lead to a certain level of what we may call corporative cohesion. this quality of well-being (i) makes the social group to function to the advantage of the members; (ii) enables the individuals to function for the benefit of the social group; and (iii) enables the social group to harmonise the demands of inter-subjective well-being. white (2010, p. 161) locates social well-being as an aspect of relational well-being and characterises it as “the social: social relations and access to public goods; and the human: capabilities, attitudes to life, and personal relationships.” but the characterisation of relational well-being as an aspect of social well-being is not appropriate because social well-being in my conception also presupposes the well-being of the group as a corporate entity; that is how the structures and organs of the group function to maintain a certain form of social stability that can be viewed outside the context of a relationship. my claim is that relational well-being is larger than social well-being. in another part of same work, white provides a more agreeable notion of social well-being with the view that: the social dimension of wellbeing comprises the classic “social capital” components of social networks, along with access to public goods—policing and the law, social and welfare services, the quality of the physical environment, and access to amenities. it also concerns social divisions and inequalities, and the forms of entitlement and domination codified in identities by class, caste, gender, religion, race, ethnicity, age, disability, or ritual responsibility. it considers whether people are subject to violence or other forms of social conflict and (in) security; and the political arena: the mechanisms and scope that people have for collective action on matters that concern them. white (2010, p. 163) indeed the author suggests that the social dimension of well-being may have subjective and objective dimensions, and this agrees substantially with the position of this work (as earlier stated)—that social well-being has both interpersonal and pan-objective dimensions encompassing both individual to individual and individual to the group. social well-being demands that the broader dimensions of social goods and services translate to private gains in terms of enabling an individual to realise the personality of the individual as a social being. we can further capture the concept of social well-being by looking at two theories that explain the social demands of human existence. the first is what we may call reverse life margin. the second is the capability approach to human development as articulated by the american philosopher marta nussbaum. the concept of reverse life margin is an abstraction from the concept of life margin—the view that there are variables that lead to or could lead to social exclusion. according to this view variables such as discrimination, marginalisation, and stigma in relation to social integration (benbow, forchuk, & ray, 2011, pp. 689–690) could lead to forms of social exclusion. these forms of social exclusion places “life on the margins.” as lötter (2008, pp. 11, 17) notes, it makes the victims to become marginalised, experience poor health, become vulnerable to preventable deaths, and have poor mental and physical growth. it also deprives them of opportunities for personal growth and development. reverse life margin then, is the view that a society should be inclusive enough to redress this problem. to achieve this state then social well-being is a desired principle and it amounts to a state that leads to a provision that leads to a reversal of the “societal process that … holds back certain groups … lawrence ogbo engaging the idea of sustainable well-being through the idea… 100 from meeting their full potential in society” (benbow, rudwick, forchuk, edward, 2014, p. 1048). it is a social process that can enable all to achieve the fullest of the human possibility by providing or promoting a condition that can promote or encourage any member to aspire to their fullest potential. the second way to locate the concept of social well-being is that which enables the central capabilities of the human person as a social being. these capabilities are what should bring out the best and most useful talent in the individual and enables affiliation to different groups that are relevant to the optimal function of the person as a social being. the social thinker and philosopher marta nussbaum outlines these affiliations as: affiliation (in the form of1) a. friendship … b. respect …; other species …; play …; control over one’s environment (in the form of) a. political … b. material …. (nussbaum, 2002, pp. 129–130) nussbaum’s view, which i believe could be applied to explain the idea of social well-being, is that a social and political process must aim at achieving central capabilities for its members as social citizens or as political members. thus, the promotion of values and items that can lead to the realisation of these is what is expected of a social process that promotes well-being. after a study of the idea of social well-being, it is important to emphasise that personal wellbeing must function alongside social well-being for the optimal realisation of the gains inherent in well-being. if personal well-being or what we might call the private aspects of well-being functions in conflict with the social or what we might call public aspects of well-being, there is bound to be a conflict. thus, the need arises to articulate the possible areas of conflict that can arise between personal well-being and social well-being. to achieve these objectives, i will locate certain variables that are inherent in the idea of personal well-being and are capable of affecting social well-being negatively. thereafter, i will locate the certain variables that are inherent in the idea of social well-being and affect the quality of individual well-being negatively. i will then propose the idea of relational well-being, defined as well-being that harmonises personal well-being and social wellbeing. tension between personal and social well-being and the idea of relational well-being in the earlier part of the work, i have outlined certain tensions that exist within the idea of personal well-being. i explained them in terms of a conflict between the subject and the individual, the tensions that arise within the individual and the conflict that arise when one person is interacting with another. in this part of the work, i discuss the tension that exists between personal well-being and social well-being and then proceed to map out a possible solution through the idea of relational well-being. personal well-being and social well-being could generate a number of tensions such that given the differences (biological, psychological, etc.) between individuals, the idea of well-being cannot be realised without understanding and addressing these tensions. for instance, the various talents, skills and capabilities human beings have amount to self-fulfilment relative to the individual to which they are ascribed, it follows that the desire for wellbeing and inner peace may be influenced by these. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 101 to explain the conflict inherent between personal well-being and social well-being, i invoke the notion of well-being implicated in the notion of development postulated by the indian economist armataya sen. sen articulates the idea of development as freedom characterised by a number of indices, such as the following: 1. the importance of real freedoms in the assessment of a person’s advantage; 2. individual differences in the ability to transform resources into valuable activities; 3. the multi-variety nature of activities giving rise to happiness; 4. a balance of materialistic and nonmaterialistic factors in evaluating human welfare; 5. concern for the distribution of opportunities within society. a close study of these measures that define development shows that they border on those values that enable a person to function without economic or social inhibitions while allowing the other person to function differently to realise the same: one that respects the uniqueness and differences in the capacity of individuals, respecting the principle of equity and ensuring that these differences are respected and valued in their positive forms and gains. they emphasise the different dimensions of needs and interests that need to be addressed differently—a holistic notion of the individual that does not emphasise one aspect of the person at the expense of the other—and the equitable distribution of opportunities and resources. the realisation of all these suggests various measures that can be conflictual between personal well-being and social wellbeing. it would mean that providing the variety of activities that can lead to happiness might mean that some social standards may be compromised to allow as many people as possible to experience happiness. but when standards are compromised and adjusted, there are reasons to expect that social values and the institutions that administer them would also suffer some loss in terms of quality and standard, which could affect their well-being. the conflict that can affect well-being can be seen through what may be called psycho-social conflict and psycho-rational conflict. psycho-social conflict can be conceived as conflict of the person with their social environments. it is also psycho-rational conflict given that reason is advanced and validated through a course of action, but such reason seems to be in conflict with the inner demands and qualities of the individual. psycho-social and psycho-rational conflicts between the personal well-being and social well-being can function through a false sense of the self—what is broadly characterised as schizophrenia, such as the instrumentalisation of society for individual ends through grafts, the looting of the state and prebendal politics. here, we witness a case of where well-being is desired through social unwellness or at an inverse proportion to the well-being of the society. if someone, for instance, were to opt to be a politician when in essence the desire is purely to amass wealth from the society or from those that power will be exercised upon, it is because wealth is seen to be desirable and power is seen as an avenue to this. but while wealth is desirable, the exercise of political power should not be seen as an avenue to generate wealth. so here, we see the instance of reason functioning rightly seeking wealth, and wrongly by exploiting the public to serve the psychology of the individual. a second way to explain the conflict that can arise between personal well-being and social well-being is through social egoism. here, the social process is a way to defend its status and standard imposed on another social process that presides over a different kind of individual and lawrence ogbo engaging the idea of sustainable well-being through the idea… 102 by doing this imposes values and ideals that are at conflict with the individual’s own ideals. here, a society expresses formal unwillingness to respect social and personal differences between itself and another society and the individuals within that society. thus, we witness oppression and suppression as a formal way of relating with the other. a good illustration of this was the colonial experience in africa. colonialism was out to recreate africa in the image and likeness of europe, and this was predicated on a wrong assumption of cultural superiority. this wrong assumption, which led to contempt for the african personality, can be illustrated by the french version of colonialism, which was anchored on the policy of assimilation. this policy, which meant the cultural absorption of africans living in french colonial territories, implied that africans of the francophone world should be transformed into french people. this phenomenon demonstrates that colonialism was an invasion of african humanity and the denial of the cultural heritage of african people and its displacement with wrong or faulty principles and policies. and these all go to demonstrate that this phenomenon is dangerous to the well-being of africans and the ruination of social wellbeing at its worst. the deficiency of this social and political process is aptly captured in the words of olusegun oladipo, who believes that: colonialism, by making africa an appendage in a world centred on europe, denies africans that autonomy which they required of making self-conscious choices in different areas of human life—economic, politics, religion, education and culture. also by causing africans to lose pride in themselves as worthy human beings inferior to none, colonialism obstructed the very confidence necessary for national restoration and development. (oladipo, 1998) this form of unhealthy relationship illustrates the crisis of wellbeing. it explains the multidimensional crisis that defines the quest for wellbeing, first within the person(s) involved in the quest for wellbeing, secondly between the persons involved in the quest for wellbeing, thirdly between the person and the social structure or process that provides wellbeing and fourthly between two social groups that interact when one social group seeks for the wellbeing of her members such as the instance of colonialism illustrated above. these make it urgent that a form of well-being should be invoked and developed to address this challenge. i call this relational well-being. i turn to the next part of the work to highlight this idea of well-being. the idea of relational wellbeing by relational well-being, i mean the notion of well-being that looks at well-being in terms of its ability to maintain a desired emotional and physical equilibrium between the individual and the social group and between one group and another and provides the necessary virtues, values and habits that induces a quality of peace, justice, understanding and harmony in the relationship between the individual and the social group as a basis for well-being. relational well-being holds that well-being as a principle must emphasise and incorporate the capability and ability of the individual to relate with others irrespective of the circumstances in which the individual operates or the variable through which the idea of subjective well-being is established. such relationship may include tolerating differences, managing differences, minimising tensions in human relationships, cooperating with others, or communing with them, etc., as the situation demands. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 103 the principle of relational well-being is the ability to initiate and sustain a valid relationship with others broadly conceived as either a social group, other persons or institutions, etc., that well-being can be held to have served a worthy purpose both for the individual and for the group. for this reason, the idea of well-being must be anchored on the ability to sustain and maintain relationships. this position holds that there is the need for personal well-being and social well-being to aspire to serve the interest of collective well-being with the understanding that collective well-being brings both personal and social well-being together by serving the interest of the moral, social and political institutions that maintain the group. collective wellbeing in this instance is one that will be capable of harmonising and maintaining the delicate but desirable balance between individual and the social group. given that there are various degrees to which different personalities can achieve self-fulfilment, assuming that opportunities and resources are evenly distributed, there is the inner challenge that confronts the effort to achieve well-being and how to manage such a challenge. these challenges include anger, threats, and personality clashes, such as when people work in an environment in which they find it difficult to accommodate the personality traits they carry. such oppressed personality needs to adjust to or confront the demand for well-being through the idea of relational well-being. relational well-being therefore further demands resolving the inner challenges that shape life, such as the challenge of choice and freedom and the challenge of locating the best terms in which the will and desire for well-being could be harmonised. for this reason, relational well-being invokes the need for what i call “an inner technical balance” in the notion of well-being. inner technical balance demands a determined interest and attention to four principles in the effort to realise well-being. these are the relationship between various organs of the society in addressing the desire for well-being; interest in the measure and worth of any approved items that are desired for well-being and weighing them according to their cogency and worth; proper attention to the question of difference among different persons, institutions and organs in the quest for well-being; negotiation of meaning and constructive engagement with the other in the desire for wellbeing. these items constitute the demands of inner technical balance. they demand that well-being should emphasise acquisition and application of five different kinds of intelligences: three which relates to harmonising social well-being, namely: (i) social intelligence, (ii) corporate intelligence and (iii) managerial intelligence and two which relates to harmonising personal wellbeing namely, (iv)interpersonal intelligence and (v) intrapersonal intelligence.. while social intelligence enables the individual to fit into the group, corporate intelligence enables the agent to function within a given institution and to apply an institution to change itself. finally, managerial intelligence enables the individual to coordinate others and the environment—however it is—to serve the interest of one’s well-being. it enables the use of two other forms of intelligence: interpersonal intelligence, which enables one to understand others and interact with them effectively, and intrapersonal intelligence, which illustrates one’s capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts and feelings. the claim of the work is that the application of these forms of intelligence can enable the inner technical balance that can promote relational well-being. lawrence ogbo engaging the idea of sustainable well-being through the idea… 104 conclusion this work has tried to locate tensions that the idea of well-being generates and has also attempted to resolve them. by this is meant the tension between the well-being of a group and the well-being of an individual. the hypothesis that the work defends is that given the differences (biological, psychological, etc.) between individuals, the idea of well-being involves tensions and crisis among individuals on one hand, individuals and the social group, and between two social groups. the work has tried to locate these challenges with the claim that they emanate majorly between the inner difference among human beings and the resultant effect on human institutions, which are themselves different. the work has proposed the idea of relational well-being, which it explains in terms of well-being that is in a position to harmonise the tensions that well-being generates. it is hoped that this effort could lead to a more critical look into the policies that promote well-being. every policy is built on some assumptions. however, when issues that relate to the desired outcome of the policy are explained in a wider domain, it becomes possible to experience a shift in policy direction. it is therefore hoped that efforts would be made to articulate not just policies that can lead to personal well-being and social well-being but those that will anticipate the challenges and conflicts that emanate from both. this would then lead to more emphasis on the idea of relational well-being. references american psychological association (2017), personality, retrieved from http://www.apa.org/topics/personality benbow, s., forchuk, c., ray s. 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(2010). analysing wellbeing: a framework for development practice development in practice, vol. 20, no. 2 (april 2010), pp. 158–172 aquinno volume 4 issue 2 june 2024.cdr an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria prof. elijah okon john & godwin adahada department of philosophy, university of uyo pmb 1017, uyo phone: 07032878732 email: elijahjohn@uniuyo.edu.ng abstract this paper examines levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria. it aims at offering an exposition of levinas' notion of responsibility with a view of juxtaposing it with the contemporary human situation as experienced in nigeria. it offers a justification of responsibility as hospitality or solidarity with the human other. the face of the other is a face in need and it is an irreplaceable duty of the subject to respond to the needs of the other. this manner of responsibility deconstructs the heideggerian notion of thrownness of man in the world. the paper is a concise introduction to levinas' philosophy and his ethics in particular. hence, it is relevant to those that are encountering him for the first time as well as a resource for levinasian research. the contents capture phenomenology, ethics, existentialism, politics and nigerian current affairs. these offer a wide range of knowledge to its readers. the paper employs analysis of notions and concepts as well as their interpretation. this paper adds to the existing studies on levinas as well as offers alternative to government duties in lieu of human welfare in nigeria. keywords: responsibility, emmanuel levinas, leadership, human nature, levinas' responsibility. introduction human life in a world is characterized for polarity of human situations or predicaments. though opposite or contradictory conditions seem to be banal natural, but they are further deepened by human-created situations. some existentialist philosophers tell us that man, a bundle of possibilities is a being-with; and the social sciences tell us that man is a social being. the two ideas imply social life in all its entailments. living in the society involves peoples of unequal capacities; economic, social, political etc. but they must coexist. their coexistence reveals the strength and weakness of each in coping with realities of life. obviously, all are not the same. whereas some are wealthy others are wretched. therefore, the wealthy must come to the assistance of the poor ones in their needs. the assistance in question is underscores levinas' notion of responsibility. in emmanuel levinas' notion of responsibility, the wealthy and powerful, arerefered to them as the “subject /i”; the poor and weak ones, are called the “other”. levinas' notion of responsibility does not bear out the ordinary meaning. thus, by responsibility, he means that everyone is made to serve the other and that one's life is meaningful in his service for the other. specifically, he advances “i speak of responsibility as the essential, primary and fundamental structure of subjectivity…i understand responsibility as responsibility for the other, thus as responsibility for what is not my deed”(levinas,ethics,95). on this levinas' thought, sean hand 102 mailto:elijahjohn@uniuyo.edu.ng comments: “his post rational ethics stands as the ultimate and exemplary challenge to the solitude of being, a rigorous testimony of one's infinite obligation to the other person” (v). hand eulogizes levinas' novelty in constructing heteronomous ethics of solidarity for the otherness. against the idea that one is alone, levinas demonstrates that we are for oneanother. we are all responsible for everyone every time, everywhere and in all things. levinas is assertive about this. responsibility is the emblem of his thought. being so passionatewith and being responsible for everyone, “we are all guilty of all and for all men before all, and i more than the others” (dostoyevsky, 264), becomes one of levinas' favorite quotes. this quote can be rerendered as 'we are all responsible for everyone, but i am more responsible than all others'. this quote already points to the trajectory of levinas' notion of responsibility. man is a responding being whose powers precedes and exceeds the egoistic tyranny of ontology. it is in this sense that levinas defines responding subject as always available and sufficient to answer to everyone and in everything, and responsibility as that which is natural to human being. levinas' notion of responsibility is an advocacy for better human situation. the human situation in nigeria could be described in the heideggerian “thrownness”. this explains that nigerians are seemingly left to fate because of the current realities. as levinas' notion of responsibility is a response to heideggerianthrownness, it its relevance to the nigerian situation bears out. there isa wide divide between the class of i/subject and other. everyonethat could be likened as the i/subject seems to be in his comfortable zone and minding less of what becomes of the other. this experience descends from the highest echelon of government to the lowest. institutions and government agencies are not left out. private individuals also seem to care less about the poor masses. a close investigation reveals the absence of responsibility as levinas espouses. this essay reveals and argues that levinas' notion of responsibility is a clarion call for hospitality and solidarity to the those in the “other” class by those in the “i/subject” class. to unpack this, this essay proceeds as follows: section 2 introduces emmanuel levinas; section 3 exposes levinas' notion of responsibility; section 4 investigates the human situation in nigeria; section 5 juxtaposes levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria; section 6 makes a case for levinas' notion of responsibility as an advocacy for better human situation in nigeria; section 7 evaluates levinas' notion of responsibility and section 8 concludes the contemporary nigeria needs levinas' notion of responsibility as a model for reorientation of thinking and acting to ensure better social, economic and political situation. introducing emmanuel levinas emmanuel levinas was born on 12th january 1906, in kaunas, lithuania. he did his secondary school studies in lithuania and russia (levinas, ethics, viii). in 1914, in the wake of the world war 1, levinas' family emigrated to karkhov, in the ukraine and returned two years after the war to lithuania in 1920. in 1923, levinas went to study in strasbourg in france. he studied philosophy along with maurice pradines, psychology with charles blondel and sociology with maurice halbwachs. however, he, met maurice blanchot and becomes a close friend. between 1928 and 1929 levinas studied with edmund husserl and was opportune to attend seminar of martin heidegger. at the completion of his studies levinas publishes his thesis la theorie de l'intuitiondans la phenomenology de husserl [the theory of intuition in husserl's phenomenology] (levinas, s.e.p. 2). levinas worked as a professor of philosophy, director of the oriental isrælite normal school and professor in the university of poitiers in 1964. in 1967, he worked as a professor in the university of paris-nanterre and in 1973, at the sorbonne university (levinas,ethics, viii). levinas continued with scholarly work on philosophy till about 1993. his 103 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 intellectual work aims at developing a first philosophy which for him is ethics. ordinarily, ethics is classified as moral philosophy. in his literature, levinas claims that his ethical construction is first philosophy because unlike the traditional first philosophy (metaphysics/ontology) that focuses on nature and things as they are, levinas prioritizes and emphasizes man. therefore, he claims that his ethics is first philosophy, for man doubles the subject and object of philosophical discourse. this claims also add to the novelty of his ethical reflections. for him, it is ethics, and this is his philosophical preoccupation. levinas has several publications including totaliteetinfini: essaisurl'exteriorite [totality and infinity: an essay on exteriority] in 1961 and autrementqu'etreou audela de l'essence [otherwise than being or beyond essence], his first and second great philosophical works, respectively. an exposition of levinas' notion of responsibility levinas' ethics suggests absolute, unlimited, unconditional and non-reciprocal responsibility for the other (levinastotality, 215; levinasotherwise 55; levinasethics 98). the other is the beneficiary of the hospitality and solidarity of the subject/i. in his literature, levinas uses capital 'o' in “other” to designate all “human other” and small 'o' “other” for nonhuman other. weapply the same in this piece. levinas describes the other always as weak, vulnerable, needing help, fragile, etc. one thinks that this assumption is to attract responsibility of the subject who he constructs as always strong and always abundant with all it takes to care for the other. the other enjoys the responsibility from the subject. he is any person who is not the subject. he is an absolute other that cannot be subsumed into the subject (levinas,totality, 39). the subject on the other hand, is the one that always responds, cares for and takes responsibility for the other. in this ethics, levinas constructs the other as a face and describes it as “nudity and poverty” (levinas,otherwise, 89), vulnerable and needing help and protection (levinas,totality, 275). one thinks that this description is an assumption used by levinas to bear out his ethics of responsibility because every other cannot always fit into his description. by the face, he means the total expression of the other, and by nudity, he means that the face of the other conceals nothing. therefore, by so doing, levinas draws the attention of all subjects to the fragility of the other as a reason to offer help and to avoid violence of which the height is murder. for this reason, levinas denounces and condemns murder and claims that the nakedness of the other's face resists murder, “murder already resists us in his face, in his face is the primordial expression, “you shall not commit murder”” (levinas,totality,199). the prohibition of murder is binding on all and on the flip side, he asserts responsibility. levinas declares: “the face orders and ordains me [for responsibility]” (levinas, ethics 97). responsibility is an opposed virtue to murder. elsewhere, levinas puts forward that the otherness of the other is the highest expression of the imperative “thou shalt not kill” (levinasotherwise109; levinasethics87). since the face of the other resists murder, murder, therefore, means assuming power on that which resists it (levinastotality 198). therefore, murder is antithetical and a contradiction to responsibility, and the zenith of irresponsibility. levinas' ethics is an attempt to investigate the conditions for ethical determination and to call to question man's inhumanity to the other. he calls this ethics, first philosophy because it prioritizes human life and wellbeing unlike ontology (levinastotality 46). his ethics reverses the primary focus of philosophy from ontology, metaphysics, or theology to humanity and so prioritizes the concrete man, the other. in his ethics of responsibility, levinas conceptualizes that every ethical relationship starts with a face-to-face encounter between the i and the other (levinas,totality, 203). in this relationship, he is circumspect of the absolute otherness of the other and defends it. the other is 104 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria absolute and so, she cannot be assimilated into the subject. the defense of the other and her priority occupies greater portion of levinas' ethical literature. evidently, levinas devotes the otherwise than being or beyond essence for this purpose. he argues that the subject should prioritize the other because relationship with the other is primordial and prior to the subject's relationship with himself, “the relationship with the non-ego, precedes any relationship of the ego with itself” (levinasotherwise 119). by this avowal, levinas calls to question all sorts of negligence, indifference and deafness to the welfare of the other. to this effect, he conceptualizes the responsibility for the other as absolute, unconditional and infinite, justifying in specificity that one should do the even what is challenging for the wellbeing of the other(levinas,otherwise, 55). responsibility for the other is so important to levinas that he holds the subject as being obsessed to the point of substituting himself for the other's very responsibility and becoming a hostage for him (levinas,ethics,100). levinas claims that the subject must respond to the other herself because he (the subject) is the only one available to assume the responsibility which is not transferable (levinas,ethics,100). the i must respond to the other by herself and should not be deterred by the challenges which may be encountered in the discharge of responsibility. he justifies it by stating that “the exposure to another is disinterestedness, proximity, obsession by the neighbor an obsession despite oneself, that is, a pain” (levinas,otherwise, 55). the foregone shows that levinas acknowledges the inconveniences of the hyperbolic conception of his ethics and on these difficulties lies the ethical imports of responsibility. levinas' ethics represents a novel and radical reversal of the preoccupation of western philosophy. its concern about nature is reversed to that of the concrete human being; where in an inassimilable relationship between the i and the other, care for the other comes first before that of the self. it is for this reason that some commentators have alleged that levinas' ethics could be read as a reaction to the totalizing nature of the western philosophical tradition. llewelyn points out that levinas' philosophy engages the philosophy of husserl and heidegger from a different perspective (llewelyn, 250). levinas himself could be understood as engaging in a deconstruction of heideggerian ontology that prioritized nature over human welfare (levinas, totality, 33). furthermore, levinas' ethics of responsibility unfolds an asymmetry between two disparate persons, the i and the other. the other approaches from the dimension of the height (levinas,totality, 34). the height designates the circumstantial/situational differences between the i and the other. it is this asymmetry that makes levinasian ethics non-reciprocal. for the other is incapable of any reciprocal gestures which the i should not expect. on this, levinas argues that the asymmetrical responsibility defines the subject other relationship “the intersubjective relation is non-asymmetrical relation. in this sense, i am responsible for the other without waiting for reciprocity” (levinas,ethics, 98). again, non-reciprocal relationship characterizes subjectivity which levinas extols as ethical. for him, the other is frail and needy and on our ability to respond to the others' need lies the ethical. elsewhere, levinas emphasizes responsibility as asymmetry: “my position as i consist in being able to respond to this essential destitution of the other” (levinas,totality,215). absolute and unconditional, infinite and asymmetrical responsibility for the other are essential ingredients of levinas' ethics. levinas avers that “since the other looks at me, i am responsible for him, without even having taken on responsibilities in his regards; his responsibility is incumbent on me…. i am responsible for his very responsibility” (levinas,ethics, 96). for the subject, this notion of responsibility entails selflessness as well as upholds human dignity and welfare, solidarity and friendship. levinas'vision of responsibility vouches for infinite response. he explicitly declares: “the more i answer, the more i am responsible; the more i approach the neighbor with which i am in charged the further away i am. this debt which increases is infinity as an infinition of the 105 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 infinite”, (levinas,otherwise, 93). this position captures the infinite responsibility that he espouses. it is an explicit duty of the subject to fulfil this prescription. i think that levinas purposely invests his ethical subject/i with some hyperbolic qualities that could be described as virility, abundance and availability to justify the responsibility he reposes on them. these features come to bear in the subject's relationship with the other. on the other hand, the other is vested with the opposite characteristics such as fragility, vulnerability, as a needy and destitute. despite being vulnerable, fragile and destitute, the other is an absolute and inassimilable. this means that even in his destitute and vulnerable condition, the i is unable to absorb the other into himself in the course of their relationshipalthough the i sees him, the other cannot be touched because he eludes the grasp of the i. asking how the other cannot be assimilated, levinas argues that the other and the i are asymmetrical. the 'height' is the designation of all possible and conceivable differences. this means that whereas the subject is at the service of the other, the other is not obligated to reciprocate. levinas' argument is that the only relationship that the i and the other have in common is that of responsibility towards the other. it is precisely this asymmetry that qualifies responsibility as ethical. one could wonder if such relationship is possible and how it originated. levinas claims that between the subject and the other, the other is prioritized to the self. he claims that the relationship with the other is primordial and comes before the relationship to the self: “the relationship with non-ego precedes any relationship of the ego with itself” (levinas,otherwise, 119). levinas makes frantic effort to defend this view by arguing that relating and caring for the other person precede self-love. his argument is a critique of all subjects as he accuses them of the banal attitude of inverting the attention and care that is the other's to themselves and manipulating resources that should first be at the services of the other. his reason for this criticism is that relationship even communication would not be possible with oneself without the epiphany of the other and therefore the other must likewise be prioritized to the self. he claims communication or any other act of relation with the other must be culminated in responsibility for the other, otherwise it remains incomplete (levinas,otherwise, 119). this position is a strong claim. levinas has forwarded reason in supports of it despite not being uncritical. the notion of responsibility forwarded by levinas assumes a pedestal in this essay to investigate the human situation in nigerian. human situation in nigeria a situation is a set of circumstances in which an individual/people find(s) himself/themselves. by human situation in nigeria, we mean the current political, economic, social, human state of affairs. the current situation is defined by much hardship and less wellbeing. the hardship permeates every aspect of human lives, affects interpersonal relationship and general wellbeing. this is an overview of the human situation in nigerian. rightly described, “the human condition is crammed with distinctions: between labor, work, and action; between power, violence, and strength, between the earth and the world; between property and wealth; and many more, often established through etymological explorations” (arendt, vii). the human condition doubles the title of arendt's work but also our preoccupation in this essay. the contents of the work offers a criticism of modern society as well as a kind of prolegomena to a more systematic work of political theory. arendt's separation of labor (manual works, mostly domestic and unskilled farm work) and work (works with tools as in factories) from action (political offices) underlie the entirety of human situation. she claims that these three activities are fundamental to human life and so are constitutive of the human condition. (arendt, ix). these three activities, i 106 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria think, are relevant in our context as the basis of the contemporary nigerian situation.before immersing into the contemporary situation of the nigerians, an outline of the provision of the constitution is insightful. the nigerian constitution vouches for the good of her citizens. it declares to be “in the public interest and for the purpose of promoting the security, welfare, and good governance and fostering the unity and progress of the people of nigeria…” (cfrn, c23-1), it further outlines specific fundamental objectives and direct principles of state policy in chapter 2, sections 1324 as follows: the fundamental obligations of the government, the government and the people, political objectives, economic objectives, social objectives, educational objectives, foreign policy objectives, environmental objectives, directives on nigerian cultures, obligation of the mass media, national ethics, and duties of the citizen (cfrn, c23-3). these provisions should offer enabling environment for human flourishing and serve as a pivot round which the human situation in nigeria should revolve. these should be an irreplaceable duty of government to achieve. furthermore, these objectives are complemented by the fundamental human rights of the citizens as enshrined in the national constitution: right to life; right to dignity of human person; right to personal liberty; right to fair hearing; right to private and family life; right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; right to freedom of expression and press, right to peaceful assembly and association; right to freedom of movement; right to freedom from discrimination; right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere in nigeria (cfrn, c233). although these rights are already enshrined in the united nations charter, its enshrinement in the national constitution should ensure better experience. if the government successfully accomplishes her duties, the right and wellbeing of the citizens would be defended. this is clearly stated as “the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of government” (cfrn, c23-22). with this declaration, i turn to the actual human situation in nigeria. the current hardship has in the first instance, impacted positively. majority of nigerians have learned to be creative, resilient and improvising. firstly, resilience describes the ability of some nigerians to make good out of the current woes. this means that some struggle to recover from the tough realities of the times through their personal efforts. resilience cannot be separated from the ability to “improvise”; therefore, improvisation is a direct expression of resilience. by this token, many have been able to create varieties of job opportunities for themselves and others. a case in point is one that struggles against the harsh economic realities to creates a more lucrative business than his normal work that is less lucrative. asked what inspired him, he avers: “you have to ask yourself; how do you avoid a situation where things collapse, or if things are collapsing around you, how do you try to insulate yourself from that” (lamble)? this reason expresses the current situation and points to creativity as a way out of the odds. it is this same creative power that sustains majority of the masses. the second aspect of the contemporary nigerian situation complacency. it explains an uncritical wellness and satisfaction about one's plight and situation. this is not so positive because in the midst of multiple challenges and crises many nigerians conduct themselves as if everything was going well. this attitude is observed in public and private instances; political, social, economic, even in security situation. frustrated at this null satisfaction, sagaycomplains: “we are far from being a caring society, and many of us prove to be moral cowards when confronted with truth and injustice, and self-indulgent to the point of complacency, when our personal interests are threatened; and this blinds us to the needs of others in society, and the consequences of our failure to act”. sometimes, the complacency can be very frustrating but a cursory reflection into it reveals that it serves as a “coping behavior” for some people because it is 107 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 difficult for persons or group of persons make themselves heard with the appropriate reaction from the government. these actors on the side of “coping behavior are the masses” because their voices cannot be heard. on the flip side are the political elites and the wealthy. taking a swipe on them, (sagay) forwards, “a lot of our societal problems would be non-existent, were we given more to contentment, instead of being hedonistically complacent. and those most guilty of this national malaise, are the so-called, self-anointed achievers in our society men such as these, who exercise influence without moral authority”. we infer two classes of complacent nigerians stand out: first, the poor and uninfluential masses; and second, the influential minority. whereas the masses concede to complacency out of frustration, the influential ones give into it for convenience and egoistic security. it is the former that this piece seeks to highlight. the complacency of the masses expresses helplessness. this is characteristic of some youth indicted for not being involved like in other democracies: “sadly, the contemporary nigerian youths are missing in many national debates and cannot stage interventions on the challenges that bedevil the country. this is a far cry from the critical role that the youths played in many socio-political issues that defined and shaped the history of the nigerian state. they have failed to challenge their leaders to do what is right in saving the soul of the dying nation” (sagay). this last point, namely, that nigeria is a democratic state begs for more clarification for, nigerian democracy parallels none in the committee of truly democratic states. whereas democratic governments pay attention and act promptly on the demands of the people, the case is different in nigeria but more of suffering. nigeria's democracy could best be described as neo colonization, whereas majority of her leaders are detectors. democratic approach seems to be completely silent whereas the privilege rulers are egoistic. this scenario recalls one of the popularmusic of the nigerian afro-beat musician, felakuti, suffering and smiling. in it felahighlights various conditions of “suffering and smiling” including assault on the road by security agents, poverty and lack of amenities in the homes, poor and crowdy means of transportation, poor work conditions but little remuneration etc. however, all these instances of suffering are followed with “smiling”. while those on the high places are enjoying, the masses are subjected to untold hardship. when felaaired this music, the situation was not degenerating as it currently is. could we understand his music as visionary? the “smiling”in the suffering situation is negative. whatfollows are other negative situations. anarchy may not sufficiently describe the current situation. there appears to be confusion everywhere. the political elites seem to be overwhelmed by confusion, whereas the citizenry feel betrayed by the leaders in government. there are litanies of unanswered questions amidst the political imbroglio, economic adversity and series of preventable tragedies. a seemingly synopsis is represented by the following nigeria is confronted by multiple security challenges, notably the resilient boko haram islamist insurgency in the northeast, long-running discontentment and militancy in the niger delta, increasing violence between herders and farming communities spreading from the central belt southward, and separatist biafra agitation in the igbo southeast. violence, particularly by the boko haram insurgency, has displaced more than two million people, created a massive humanitarian crisis, and prompted the rise of civilian vigilante self-defense groups that pose new policy dilemmas and possible security risks (international crisis group).this is the pathetic situation of contemporary nigeria society (at least for the last decade).the security challenges deal a multiplier effect on all 108 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria aspects of life of the nation including the death tolls. elsewhere, the human situation in nigeria receives a bleak assessment. a weakening economy, rising insecurity and violent conflicts threaten progress made in its democratic development. amid deepening distrust in government and institutions” (united states institute of peace).distrust in the government and her institutions is crucial to the situation as noted above. distrust arises from the perceived government inactions or incommensurate actions or reaction to obvious problems that could have been handled more proactively and effectively for the interest of the nation. the insecurity is a case in point and government's soft reaction and avoidance to name them as “terrorists” all those perpetrating in the odious act appears permissive to the actors and betraying to the nation. this scenario has aggravated and deepened the citizen's suspicion against her. furthermore, the spread of insecurity within the country is unlimited. a “bbc news” report notes that “nigeria is faced with an unprecedented wave of different but overlapping security crises from kidnapping to extremist insurgencies almost every corner of the country has been hit by violence and crime” (tanko). it becomes necessary at this juncture to itemize these evils that ranges from: boko haram insurgency, banditry, herders' clashes with farmers, wild wave of kidnapping, armed robbery. these evils have threatened not only the existence of nigeria as a nation but also the survival of nigerians. thus, it amounts to a failure in government's foremost responsibility to her citizens. this claim is further confirmed thus, “the scale of the insecurity threatens the very fabric of nigerian society: “with every attack, human lives are lost or permanently damaged and faith in democracy and the country is diminishing” (tanko). under this insecurity, several students from different school; both secondary and tertiary have been kidnapped, while some have been killed in the process, others have been freed with a ransom after abuses and others are still in captivity. travelers on the highways do not feel safe, churches and mosques have been attacked. what is more disturbing is consistent attack on security personnel and their formation of which the latest is the attack on the nigerian defense academy, kaduna and sokoto. this is most disturbing, shameful and suspicious in the sense that one could unmistakably assume that it points to a conspiracy among the security personnel/high profile politicians themselves considering the nature of this formation. the security challenges of the country are hydra-headed, and point out accusing fingers at the authorities. closely connected to insecurity situation are the twin ills: human right abuse, famine and inflation. abuses of human rights triggered on an emblematic protest, “end sars protest” which started on october 14, 2020. this protest as i think was a reaction not only to human right abuses by some of the security personnel but, indeed, to malgovernance the current situation. human right watch described the situation as “national protests calling on authorities to end police brutality and abolish an abusive police unit known as the special anti-robbery squad (sars)” (human right watch). but nigerians experience more serious abuses in other sectors and institutions. the end sars protest revealed massive corruption and insensitivity of some of the political leaders toward the masses at such a difficult time as hoarded covid-19 relieve materials were uncovered. akin to this revelation is the case that some of those that participated in the protest were arrested as well as those who protested the arrest of the protesters. on the other hand, food crisis is caused by 1) attack on the farmers and fear of attack by the terrorists and herdsmen, and 2) destruction of crop farms by the devilish herdsmen. these two factors hinder normal farm work. this is a colossal failure of government's foremost duty to her citizens. another troubling current human situation is the condition of workers. majority of nigerian workers' salaries are not paid promptly. this anomaly goes against the secular and 109 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 ecclesiastical laws, hence, defiles the fundamental human right of labor contract. ecclesiastically, pope leo xiii in his rerumnovarum deliberates on the ideal relationship of mutuality between labour and capital. he states: it is surely undeniable that, when a man engages in remunerative labor, the impelling reason and motive of his work is to obtain property, and thereafter to hold it as his very own. if one man hires out to another his strength or skill, he does so for the purpose of receiving in return what is necessary for the satisfaction of his needs…(rn § 5). the current workers situation is in opposition to the papal vision of work relationship. poor work condition, poor remuneration, lack of prompt payment of salaries and other entitlements characterize majority nigeria's employers and employees. the pope suggests “that some opportune remedy must be found quickly for the misery and the wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class” (rn § 3). rerumnovarum supports labor unionism [perhaps as a pressure group to advance her demands to the employer]. this is the heart of the catholic social teaching. complementary to it is the laboremexercens of pope john paul 11, which insists on just wages and enabling working conditions. government inability to live up to this expectation has resulted to series of strike actions by different labor bodies at different times. these two are but example of ecclesiastical magisterium concern for workers which seem to be directly addressed to the contemporary nigerian workers. the above insight of the human situation in nigeria offers us resources which levinas' notion of responsibility can be juxtaposed. levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria as a recap of levinas' notion of responsibility must be understood as a characteristic of an individual. he argues that responsibility is the essence of an individual. against the usual understanding of responsibility as that which one undertakes as outcomes of one's actions or that which concerns oneself, in levinas' notion, responsibility is for what does not concern oneself. it is selfless, exogenous, heteronomous and without a recourse to the self. on the contrary, relationship or responsibility in the contemporary nigerian situation is different. wethink that our experience of responsibility is greatly opposed to levinas' notion. for, it is seemingly mostly characterized by totalizing tendencies. thus, this totalization appears to be intentional by the subject/i, thereby assimilating the other. such subjects are totalizers and fit levinas' description the totalizers who are satisfied with themselves and with the systems they can organize around themselves as they already are. a very different answer is given by those who are satisfied, and who strived for what is other than themselves, the infinitizers, as we may call them. the former seeks for power and control; the latter for a higher quality of life. the former strive for order and system; the later for freedom and creative advance(levinas, totality, 17). the subjects are the totalizers and the others are the infinitizers. this explanation offers worldviews of the duo by stating their tendencies and attitude to life in their lived situations. one thing so certain is that they are opposed to each other as it is shown by their attitude to life. in the previous section (4),we highlighted two classes of complacent people: first, the masses that are not influential and second, the powerful, wealthy influential people. though the masses are complacent, their complacency is indifference in the sense that they believe they cannot provoke government's reaction in favor of their position. this may not be true, but this is exactly what they 110 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria believe and so, they withhold any positive actions toward this. they are at the mercies of the policy makers, they are the infinitizers. on the contrary, the second class are the few minorities but wealthy, powerful and influential. they control the policies and manipulate them to their favor. they are always comfortable and in their selfish comfort, they remain hedonistically complacent. this class are the totalizers. totalizers are bereft of the idea of the absolute otherness. they are erotic – all of their actions are engendered to self-return. this attitude parallels the behavior and practice of majority of contemporary nigerian politicians. political/ leadership ideally is for services on behalf of the people but really, the contemporary nigerian political realities almost contradicts this truism and proves otherwise it is for self-aggrandizement. this point is succinctly captured by falolawho described some political elites political ambitions: “it was no longer how a group of nationalists from different parts of the country would govern and bring progress, but how the representatives of the component units would share power and resources” (148). a cursory assessment of contemporary nigerian politicians will show that majority of them are bereft of the essence of levinas' notion of responsibility. we are certain that levinas will describe majority of the mas totalizers because they apparently recolonize their fellow citizens. what is more puzzling is that the notion of responsibility that levinas advances is addressed to ordinary people. ordinary in the sense that he was not addressing specifically public office holders or people on leadership position or people with mandate to serve others. no! levinas was constructing it as ordinary daily interpersonal relation of one and another – in search of the ethical way of life, responsibility. violation of responsibility by mandated leaders increases the gravity of its evil. the quest for control of political power by certain politicians is intriguing and complicated. for some it is a matter of compensation and strategy over what they could describe as past privation. mustafa cleverly justifies political power monopoly by northern politicians as a strategy and compensation over what he describes as deprivation of human capital which is a privilege abundant and prevalent in the south. he claims that the north decided to hold onto political capital because of their number. that is why the northern youth obviously make an option for politics and business over education (275). this offers plausible insight to the political climate of contemporary nigeria and rudiments for assessing and re-writing our political theory. suffice to mention that this view expresses hubris, misrepresentation, misunderstanding and the injustice prevalent among some fortunate nigerian political elites. the mainstream of this work and this section peruses the contemporary nigerian situation with the lens of levinas' notion of responsibility. the following appraisal offers the applicability of responsibility to the current realities in nigeria and creates a nexus for juxtaposition: when levinas' work is employed to identify and redress social, political, and economic injustices, when it is invoked as calling us for a new respect for alterity, difference, diversity, or simply “the other”, when it is cited as a way to rethink the ethical dimension of the relationship between teachers and student, care givers and patients, judges and defendants, when it is appealed to by a host of disciplines, from psychology and sociology to literary theory and communication studies as they make the “turn to ethics,” it is well-nigh impossible to read these invocations as having nothing to do with normative ethical concerns…it is this ethical stance that captured readers' attention (perpich,125). the above synopsis draws attention to the various aspects of the human situation of nigerians that levinas' notion of responsibility has relevance for. the question of injustice is the bane of 111 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 nigeria's problem; socially, politically, economically, in the labor market, in the various professions. injustice is banal. injustice in the health sector, in the academic, in the general political administration. in all these, the subject has remained insensitive to the plight of the other. the subject assumes the position of the complacent influential i and wallows in hedonistic and egoistic self-aggrandizement contrary to their mandate of service. political leadership is constituted for service. effective leadership must be reposed on requisite leadership prowess and human values. unfortunately, this seems to be lacking in our current dispensation which makes kirk-greene, et al suggest that the solution to nigeria's democratic problem is accountability. a government with sound administrative principles especially, accountability would unleash the dividends of democracy on the people. he however, noted that poor governance has caused lack of confidence of the people in the political process. similarly, nelson and quick note that decision making is vital to holistic prosperity and that dysfunctional legal systems that fails the right of individuals and groups is an open invitation to insecurity and anarchy. these two instances among others make sense of the current nigerian situation. furthermore, ejimabo rightly observes that one of the most controversial ills and protagonist of nigeria's tragic situation is: in nigeria, the decision-making process somehow is believed to belong only to a special interest group of people. the process of decision making is in the hands of powerful and influential leaders and politicians, who control and manipulate the justice system in the country to suit their special and individual interests (11). in levinas' register, ejimabo is referring to the totalizers. a catchy levinasian remarks on the current nigerian situation is lack of responsibility. levinas' notion of responsibility: an advocacy for better human situation levinas' notion of responsibility obviously advocates better human situation. this is evident in his controversial but compelling solicitation for responsibility that is expressed as sensitivity to the situation of the other, hospitality to, and solidarity with the other. the basis of this advocacy is implied in the definition of the i/subject as answering for everything and for everyone (levinas, otherwise, 114). levinas' style of answering is absolutely to avoid assimilation of the other by the i; infinitely, to ensure satisfaction of the other and unconditionally and asymmetrically to prioritize the other to the i. the priority of the other to the self obviously demonstrate his intention. this solicitation compellingly espouses better human situation for the other. it also endorses his claims that relationship with the other is prior to that of the self (levinas, otherwise, 119). the other is the mirror which the i sees himself. in the opening page of his opus magnum, levinas makes a skeptical and suspicious statement: “everyone will readily agree that it is of the highest importance to know whether we are not duped by morality” (levinas,totality,21). hubris incline some subject to be skeptical of morality or about who can be moral or why we should be moral at all. some think that morality is for the weak and the docile. moral skepticism adds to the ills of our time. these skeptical and suspicious tendencies are quite un-levinasian. responsibility in levinas gathers the force of moral conscience, that is why levinas appeals for it as a duty. as the subject, the benefactor is an 'other' to the beneficiary. there involves here the idea of substitution. the wealthy, the leaders must substitute themselves for the others. substitution essentially involves assuming the duty/situation of another. responsibility, 112 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria therefore, is essentially a substitution. a substitute answers for the other, to make better the poor condition of the other.“i am an 'other',” but this is not an alienation …. impassively undergoing the weight of the other,(levinas,otherwise,118).substitution aims at improving the other's situation through an assumed responsibility. the substitute is inspired by his moral intuition that moves him to hospitality and solidarity toward the other. in levinas, the movement of the subject toward the other is transcendence. this transcendence is substitution in as much as the subject sets out to accomplish some tasks to improve the situation of the other. the current nigerian situation begs for this sense of transcendence and substitution to better human situation. to respond to the other is our natural invocation in situations where the other is incapacitated and self-insufficient. to better his situation, the i, the irreplaceable must respond as his substitute(this must be understood within the context and bounds of levinas' registers). every act of substitution is sacrificial, and the sacrifice ends in solidarity. it is this sacrificial act that bears out the responsibility for the other. the wealthy nigerian must understand levinas' call for substitution as a call to better their human situation. the political leaders and all must understand responsibility as substitution. as noted, before if levinas so vouched for responsibility from ordinary members of the society, his expectation from constituted and mandated leaders is left to be imagined. solidarity with one another is a response to our natural call, levinas would claim. levinas will decline and object to the view that human nature is egoistic since he defends that relationship with the other is prior the relationship with the self. although a controversial position to hold to but this serves responsibility so far as to create a better human situation. levinas is an advocate of heteronomy because his responsibility construct assign a priority place for the other. he also defends that one defines oneself in the context of the other. since one defines and realizes oneself in heteronomy, one has a duty in strengthening its bond. this ethical invocation is a sine qua non to the contemporary nigeria if human situation must improve. doing this means to uphold the wellbeing of the other, the neighbor through solidarity and charity: “if i am alone with the other, i owe him everything… do i know if someone else has an understanding with him or his victim” (levinas, ethics, 90)?heteronomy calls for hospitality that extends to a greater number of people, yet responsibility remains irreplaceable. certain dynamics are in operation here; firstly, this underscores the heteronomous dimension of responsibility within the utilitarian perspective, namely, satisfying the greater number possible lies the value. second, that responsibility, substitution is not transferable since the “current” subject does not know any other available subject neither does he know if the other understand him. thirdly, extending good relations from one other to many others means justice and this relationship among people is the advocacy at issuethat which can ensure better human situation among all or at least among the greater majority of people. individuals as well as institutions must uphold this advocacy toward this relationship to ensure justice and consequently better human situation. a cry for justice is not faceless. as the face bears the total expression of the other, his looks is significant. (levinas,totality,215). the duty of subjects to heed to the invitation of the face and the voco of responsibility by the cry of the vulnerable ones is at issue. to hear the destitution of the other, to be gazed on by the other are hypothetical expression and a means to an end, namely solicitation of better human condition. this is the crux of levinas' notion of responsibility. this advocacy is most relevant to the current nigerian situation because hedonistic complacency among the comfortable class has increased insensitivity, lack of hospitality and solidarity toward the other who need help. the novelty of levinas' ethics in theorizing responsibility is particularly attractive to commentators. as previously noted, diane perpich made sense of levinas' ethics of responsibility as being relevant for resolving of multifaceted injustice such as is prevalent in the contemporary nigeria. 113 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 if levinas' notion of responsibility is applied and adhered to in the different sectors, it will lead to robert bernasconi's view, namely, reorientation of thinking and action and hence, a better experience of people-oriented relationship which inevitably inspire human values in our society (250). the most urgently needed values in the current situation are those presented by responsibility: hospitality and solidarity among others. as orientation and reorientation are necessary moments in the human existence and that of a nation, this responsibility is instrumental to it. thus, thinking would remain passively in the mind if its results were not concretized in actions. better human condition is achievable through the practical experience of levinas' responsibility. assessment of levinas' notion of responsibility levinas is neither very assertive nor vocal about his intentions of constructing or prescribing an ethical system. he did not even concede to doing ethics. all he said is that he was indulging in “first philosophy” – searching for the conditions or what it means to be ethical. one could quickly add that responsibility takes a front position in that preoccupation. in the just concluded section (6) robert bernasconi, an ardent editor and commentator on levinas' works avers that levinas aims at reorientation of human thinking for better experience of ethical life. diane perpich notes that “bernasconi's remarks suggest that if levinas' notion of responsibility has no practical impact, that is if it does not change the way we see ourselves or the situations we confront, then there is little point invoking his work as a fundamental investigation into something vaguely called “the ethical”” (125-6). both bernasconi and perpich are saying the same thing. basically, no one does the same thing and gets a different result at various times. like in every other system, rules, norms and practices, lifestyles must change if new outcomes are expected. this is the same expectation regarding responsibility. since reorientation is the goal of levinas' responsibility, ifthis carried out, then the result could bear out. levinas has advanced a compelling and robust but controversial and challenging notion. it is only expedient to appreciate it by means of evaluation. ethics traditionally understood in the history of philosophy is concerned with the deontological and consequentialist ethical theories. levinas notion of responsibility, most commentators, including robert bernasconi and jacque derrida classify as ethics. however, levinas himself calls it first philosophy. he claims to be searching for the possibility of what is ethical. ciaramelli noted that “levinas does not treat ethics as one branch of philosophy among others” (85). reckoned as ethics and being neither ontological nor consequential ethics, levinas accomplishes a novelty in philosophy by constructing a complement to the traditional ethical theories. the use of assumptions and images are tools at the disposal of theorists. levinas showcases this proficiency in his style of writing. the mainstream of his philosophy – the “i/subject” and the “other” are excellent and thoughtful formulations that bear out his thoughts. akin to assumptions are the images. for instance, levinas expresses and characterizes the other as the “poor”, the “orphan”, the “widow”, the “stranger” and the “destitute”. evidently, these appear to be the class of people that economically, socially, sometimes, physically fragile and thus, needing help. therefore, levinas' use of assumptions and images are expressive and excellent. assumptions and images are complemented by expressions. “absolute”, “unlimited”, “asymmetry”, “non-reciprocal” are common terms used in expressing and theorizing his notion of responsibility. each of these concepts is loaded with meaning which is unpacked as follows: “absolute” denotes that the other that is being helped 114 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria cannot be assimilated by the i, the helper because each of them is a radical other. “unlimited” denotes the infinity which the subject is obligated to help the other. “asymmetry” and “non – reciprocal” imply that they are different. asymmetry shows that the two are unequal in their respective circumstances. this “inequality” further entails non-reciprocity. in all, these concepts prioritize the other and solicit hospitality and solidarity to his favor. these concepts, ordinary as they appear, imply the ethical import of responsibility. responsibility notion has been judged by some of levinas' commentators as commanding normative force if it is not normative outrightly. for example, diane perpich notes “it is well-nigh impossible read these innovations as having nothing to do with normative ethical concern” (215). elsewhere, ciaramelli claims that levinas does not attempt to construct a normative moral philosophy rather that his work is a search for the significance of ethics and the ethical (85). but arguing for levinas work as ethics, some commentators declare “levinas' work cannot provide us with what we normally think of as an ethics, namely, a theory of justice or an account of general rules, principles and procedures that will allow us to assess the acceptability of specific maxims or judgements relating to social actions, civic duty or whatever” (critchley and bernasconi 27). what this mean is that levinas work has raised provocative and controversial questions in philosophy begging answers. on this lies the beauty and the importance of it as critical questions are more fundamental in philosophy than answers. levinas has ejected new life into philosophy. it is a sound and founded claim that levinas' notion of responsibility is humanism in disguise. from its inception, levinas argues that the concrete man rather than ontology should be the object of philosophy. with this objective, levinas set out to deconstruct idealism and ontology and shifted the focus and emphasis of philosophy on the concrete existing man. inspired by the terrible experience of the second world war when the members of his family were exterminated and he, taken to captivity, levinas devoted his thought and reflection on the wellbeing of alterity, for he and his fellow jews suffered privation. predicating his thoughts on his experience, he constructed practical philosophy and lays credence to concrete human situation. his is a philosophy predicated on lived situation. despite the plausible novelty occasioned by levinas' work, there are nevertheless some controversial positions that call for a re-think. firstly, plausible as the construction of the “i” and the “other” is, their characterization is really worrisome. granted that one can respond to the others' needs and one can also be in need, it is difficult to concede uncritically to the fact that the “i” and the “other” can always fit into these characterizations of infinite availability and answerability and infinite want. connected to this are the features of responsibility as “absolute”, “infinite”, “unconditional” and “non-reciprocal”. the absolute character of responsibility can be granted, for there are still some nice people. in what follows, infinite, unconditional and non-reciprocal responsibility cannot be accepted uncritically. firstly, it is unpractical for one to respond unlimitedly to another even though such a subject has all needed resources at his disposal. being disposed to answer to the other is a huge problem in the modern times. secondly, human relationship in the contemporary times is reciprocal. one cannot always be at the receiving end. this view questions the unconditionality of responsibility. furthermore, the other, the poor, the destitute, stranger, orphan may not always be disposed to receive and may notreally be destitute as some widows and orphans are really wealthy. however, even though they are abject, they may sometimes want to give even from their meagre resources. every philosophy and philosopher has background influences so is levinas. levinas' 115 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 religious background influences incline some parts of his work as theology. excessive use of biblical and religious images and concepts, though they bear out his thoughts, seemingly liken his work to religious treatise. for example, the use of the weak ones: widow, orphans, strangers, these are people that the torah protected from victimization. these images are found in the scripture (jeremiah, chapter 7) and so are grounded in scriptural wisdom and platonic thoughts. anckeart notes “by bringing particular concepts into universal ethical thought, levinas wants to reshape philosophical thinking with biblical wisdom” (97). furthermore, repeated use of some theological terms like transubstantiation and incarnation, etcare banal. the construction of the responsibility notion raises hope of welfare of the other by the infinite generosity of the subject. the infinity that levinas constantly and compelling solicits cast his notion of responsibility to the realm of utopia. specifically, “to give the other even the bread out of one's own mouth and the coat from one's own shoulders” (levinas,otherwise,55), sounds impossible. this impossibility implies utopia and a false hope of welfare. levinas himself remarked that extreme responsibility as substitution is utopian of which on could be scandalized (ethics, 100). what does he really mean? the “height” and “asymmetry” have strong affinity in protecting the other. levinas said that the subject cannot assimilate the other because the other comes from a dimension of the height. “height” is a condition of unknowability, untouchability and hence, unassimilability. levinas has not explained how the subject will know the other or the faculties that the subject would employ to respond to the other as they belong to asymmetrical world. the concept of the height end up hindering both the possibility of knowledge and responsibility rather than protecting him from the totalizing tendency of the subject. but if he maintains it, he is sure to be involved in self-contradiction. conclusion levinas' notion of responsibility is explained in his ethics. however, his ethics is not understood in the traditional sense of formulation of principles, theories and norms as in the deontology and consequentialism. levinas, rather constructs a novel complementary ethics in what he refers to as first philosophy. as first philosophy, his ethics is existential and practical and hence, focuses on the concrete human in his lived situation. as a reaction and a deconstruction of the heideggerian views of the thrownness of man, levinas formulated responsibility to reinstate man and assign him a place among other humans and to be cared for by them. the responsibility notion argues ferociously in favor of alterity and prioritizes him. thus, levinas is in search of what it means to be ethical and the conditions that uphold it. his philosophical construction is humanism in disguise. the originality of levinas' philosophy lies in theorizing man in lived condition, the phenomenological encounter and inversion of ontology to ethics. he shows that contrary to heideggerian claim that man is left to fate, that we are responsible for one another. we can say that this may be the reason he employs both philosophical and theological concepts and images to bear out his argument for the welfare of the other via responsibility. the notion of responsibility as observed is rich in its application. as noted by various commentators, whether his responsibility is viewed as provoking and adding normative force or soliciting reorientation of human behavior, the terminus adquem of it is to promotes human welfare and flourishing. the contemporary nigerian situation is in dire need of levinas' version of responsibility. though levinas does not particularly address the theme to political leaders, or leaders at all, but his notion of responsibility is a to nigeria's current scenario as it offers immense sine qua non rudiments leadership. all leaders at all levels of governance, in the various institutions, 116 okon & adahada an examination of levinas' notion of responsibility and human situation in nigeria parastatals, in the church, and in the family can benefit from responsibility ethics. change of attitude is prior to responding to the other, therefore, as bernasconi suggested, reorientation of thinking and behavior, is a prerequisite to experiencing priceless value of hospitality and solidarity offered by responsibility. references anckeart, luc. . leuven: peeters leuven, 2006.a critique of infinity: rowsenzweig and levinas arendt, hannah. , introduction by margaret the human condition, second edition canovan. chicago and london: university of chicago press, 1958. bernasconi, robert. ? in what is the question to which substitution is the answer the cambridge companion to levinas, simon critchley and robert bernasconi{ed}, pp. 234-251). cambridge: cambridge university press, 2002. burggraeve, r. “violence and the vulnerable face of the other: the vision of emmanuel journal of social philosophy levinas on moral evil and our responsibility”. , vol. 30 no. 1, spring 1999, 29-45. ciaramelli, fabio. . brussels: ousia, 1989”transcendence et ethique. esaisurlevinas critchley, simon and bernasconi, robert (eds). the cambridge companion to l e v i n a s . cambridge: cambridge university press, 2002. derrida, jacques. “violence and metaphysics” in , pp. 79-153, writing and difference translated by alan bass. chicago: university of chicago press 1980. dostoyevsky, fyodor. trans. constance garnett. new york: new the brothers karamazov. american library, 1954. ejimabo, nicodemus, “understanding the impact of leadership in nigeria: its reality, impacts and perspectives”. , vol. 3, no. 2. first published june 25, 2 0 1 3 , sage open 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editricevaticana, 1891. levinas, emmanuel. y. translated by. totality and infinity: an essay on exteriorit alphonsolingis, pittsburgh: duquesne press, 1969. 117 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 4 issue 2, june 2024. issn: 2786-9792 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f2158244013490704 https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-%09africa/nigeria https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_14091981_laborem-exercens.html https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_14091981_laborem-exercens.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y--5illjo78 _____ , trans. richard a. c o h e n , ethics and infinity: conversation with philippe nemo pittsburgh: duquesne university press, 1985. _____ translated by john macquarie and edward robbinson, oxford god, death and time, uk and cambridge usa: blackwell publishers, 1962. ___ , translated by, alphonso l i n g i s ) , otherwise than being or being beyond essence pittsburgh: duquesne university press 1981. ____ , edited by sean hand, united kingdom, basil blackwell, 1989.the levinas reader _____stanfordencyclopedia of philosophy. h t t p s : / / p l a t o . s t a n f o r d . e d u / e n t r i e s / l e v i n a s / #pagetopright2006 accessed 13th december 2019. llewelyh, j. (2005). levinas, derrida and others vis-à-vis: in emmanuel levinas, critical assessment of leading philosophers ed. claire elise katz with lara trout vol.11 levinas and the history of philosophy. london and new york: routledge taylor &francis group. mustapha, raufu. ethnicity and the politics of democratization in nigeria in in ethnicity and democracy in africa, edited by bruce bermen, dickson eyoh and will kymlicka.oxford: james currey and athens: ohio university press, 2004, pp. 257-275. nelson, d., quick, j. organizational behavior: foundation, realities, and challenges. mason, oh: thomson southwestern, 2003. nigeria. , constitution of the federal republic of nigeria (promulgation) act 1999 constitution of thefederal republic of nigeria.pdf. sagay, isaac.“nigeria: the evils of a complacent society” in vanguard, https://allafrica.com/stories/200305200254.html.accessed 2nd september 2021. t a n k o , a l i u . “ n i g e r i a ' s s e c u r i t y c r i s e s f i v e d i f f e r e n t 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page 123 page 124 page 125 page 126 124 the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel in the land of canaan: lesson for the nigeria nation ekenedilichukwu a. okolo, phd department of religion and human relations nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state ea.okolo@unizik.edu.ng & oziezi christian, phd department of religious and cultural studies university of port harcourt, port harcourt, rivers state christus4lord@yahoo.com abstract during the pre-colonial era, communalism was the functional system of government that was embraced, cherished and considered mostly to be the best system since it afforded man the opportunity to accommodate others. this situation created happiness, satisfaction and mutual co-existence among people between regional and ethnic lines, groups and cultures. people lived in harmony and in an atmosphere devoid of acrimony, bitterness, division and religious sentiment. in recent times, the system of government has undergone series of overhauling which eventually displaced the system of communalism, replacing it with capitalism as the functional and ideal system of government. capitalism therefore introduced the idea and concept of individualism where the perception and notion of collectivism changed from “we to i”, “all of us to all of me” and from the attainment of a general goal and purpose to the pursuit of a personal goal and sectional purpose. the aforementioned as an established fact has been a barrier and hindrance to the issue of resource control and restructuring of the nation. against this backdrop, it will be worthwhile to posit that the twelve tribes of israel were offspring of the same biological father with different mothers. despite their divergent interest, goals and biological makeup, they accommodated each other in the land of canaan. the bond of brotherhood and collegiality caused them to pursue a collective goal for the purpose of unification amidst personal interest. this study adopts the phenomenological method of research and will be framed with social constructivism theory. it therefore observes that there has been division and disunity, which is the rationale for the clamour for resource control and restructuring. secondly, it observes that there has been division along ethnic lines which has been persistent hence nullifying every avenue for peaceful co-existence. finally, the paper observes that if the lessons gained from the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel are adopted and applied, the clamour for resource control and restructuring will be settled. the study recommends that personal interest and ambition should be set aside for the collective interest of all which will further create an environment for peace, unity and progress thereby giving room for restructuring and resource control. keywords: settlement, twelve tribes, israel, land, canaan, lesson, nigeria, nation. mailto:ea.okolo@unizik.edu.ng mailto:christus4lord@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 125 introduction over the years, the nigeria nation has been grappling with series of societal challenges emanating from agitations and contentions over inequality and disparity of resources. these agitations and contentions are premised on the foundation of marginalization by the government as felt by some part of the country. it is imperative to mention that in the past, the system of government differ in practice and administrative structure. nigeria political landscape was based on communalism which was obviously considered to be the best system of government. communalism was a system of government that created the platform for the society and indeed for men to collectively see themselves as one single indivisible entity. resources were evenly shared and distributed without grudges and prejudice. across the entire geo-political zone in the country, the focus and interest of the government was for the satisfaction of her citizens. communalism paved way for unification of the country through harmonious and peaceful co-existence. the concept of individualism arising from ethnicity, religion and culture was latent. people lived in harmony, peace and unity. this produced an atmosphere devoid of acrimony, bitterness, division and religious sentiment. goals and objectives where pursued for the collective and general interest of the society without any thought of marginalization and subjugation. however, the regular shakeup in the political process of the country inadvertently changed and overturned the system of communalism, replacing it with the capitalist system of government. the emergence of capitalism in the nation’s political structure and system introduced the concept of individualism, which totally and completely changed the perception of men and of the general society. there was a paradigm shift from “we to i”, all of us to all of me. the concept of i, mine, myself and me was endemic. the society and indeed men deviated from the pursuit and attainment of a general goal and purpose to the attainment and pursuit of individualist and sectional goal. men were no longer concerned about the welfare of other. the interest and goal of government to satisfy man and the society became obsolete. government no longer cared about the welfare of the society. this was evident in the distribution of nation’s revenue and resources. the society began to perceive and conceive the notion of marginalization, subjugation and division. this development gave birth to the pockets of agitations, contentions and grievances. the cohesion that once existed was disrupted and acrimony, bitterness, division and religious sentiment ensued. this situation is the rationale behind the campaign and demand for resource control and restructuring that is ongoing in the nation’s political structure. it is in view of the above noted fact that the thrust of this work will be to examine and apply the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel in the land of canaan to the situation of the nigeria nation. theoretical framework this work adopts the theory of social constructivism. the theory as espoused by berger and luckman (1966) is a sociological theory of knowledge according to which human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others. social constructivism posits that people work together to construct artifacts. the theory focuses on an individual’s learning that takes place because of his or her interaction in a group. social constructionism holds that reality is constructed through the use of language in interaction with others and it is primarily influenced by history, society and culture. constructivist holds that reality is constructed more through one’s biological forces through developmental processes, cognitive structures, and the human mind. social constructivism combines both social constructionism and constructivism by placing the emphasis of reality construction on both societal and biological factors. there is a joint focus on reality construction being influenced ekenedilichukwu& oziezi the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel in.. 126 by both nature and nurture. social constructivist theories provide the foundation for understanding how realities and views of the world are individual-specific and created through a combination of interaction with society, the societal structures of history, culture, and norms and the meanings that individual attribute to such interactions. conceptual clarification it’s imperative to elucidate in proper terms the key words that constitute the topic of this work in order to fully comprehend the objective and aims of this paper. in line with the aforementioned, it is expedient to give a detailed analogy of the twelve tribes of israel. the historical establishment of the twelve tribes of israel historically, the identification of the twelve tribes of israel has no exact dating as to when they began to be known and addressed as the twelve tribes of israel. according to biblical narratives, the twelve tribes of israel were descended from the twelve sons of jacob, who came to be known by the name of israel. gill (2019) purports that the twelve tribes represent the traditional divisions of the jewish people in the biblical era. according to sawe (2017), joseph one of the descendants of jacob lived in egypt and worked in pharaoh's government as a governor over all egypt. joseph obtained favour from pharaoh due to his dedication, loyalty and commitment in service particularly for exceptional display of wisdom in preparing egypt ahead of the years of famine and scarcity. this efficient and effective leadership disposition earned joseph’s relatives a territory in the land of egypt where they settled. circumstantially, joseph’s relatives in search of food which is a basic and essential need were forced to travel to egypt which eventually led them to settle there. joseph’s relatives multiplied into a great nation in the land of egypt. in the process of time, a pharaoh who did not know joseph became nervous, unbearable and unaccommodating with the israelites. this pharaoh subjected the israelites into slavery as he feared they would overpower the egyptians because of their growth rate. during their slavery and captivity in egypt, god heard their cries and called moses to rescue the israelites from their plight and predicament. the escape and deliverance of the israelites from egypt was quite tasking. through god’s guidance and directive, the israelites crossed the red sea and proceeded into the wilderness where they wandered for forty years due to disobedience and unbelief. during these forty years, god still provided manna for them which rained from heaven. at the expiration of forty years, they were led into the promised land by joshua. the bible lists twelve sons of the patriarch israel who became sons of israel as reuben, simeon, judah, levi, issachar, zebulon, benjamin, dan, asher, naphtali, gad, and joseph. joseph's sons ephraim and manasseh would be given land constituting their own respective tribes, while the priestly tribe of levi would not have a de facto tribal area of their own. these twelve multiplied to form the israelite nation who has a religious and historical significance. the israelites are a unique people in that they have a heavenly selection of god’s people. religiously, the twelve tribes of israel were of the judeo-religious tradition. considerably, the religious persuasion of the twelve tribes of israel was judaism. during their escape from egypt and subsequent journey in the wilderness, they stopped at intervals and camped at various locations by god’s directive and instruction. at mount sinai, god gave them laws and regulations which is the torah, the ten commandments which affirm their covenant with god and is still observed by jews and christians today. okereafor in weneka (2005) purports that the old testament is the official canon of jews as inspired by yahweh. the twelve tribes of israel were guided by the authority of the torah and in their religious antecedents maintained some sacral space by the authorization of yahweh. according to jewish virtual library, shiloh aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 127 served as a sacred space for all the tribes, housing the ark of the covenant. the confederation of the twelve tribes was primarily religious, based upon belief in the one “god of israel” with whom the tribes had made a covenant and whom they worshipped at a common sacral center as the “people of the lord,”. the tent of meeting and the ark of the covenant were the most sacred objects of the tribal union and biblical tradition shows that many places served as religious centers in various periods. during the wanderings in the wilderness, “the mountain of god,” which is sinai or horeb, served as such a place, as did the great oasis at kadash-barnea where the tribes remained for some time and from where the tribes attempted a conquest of the land. many sites in canaan are mentioned as having sacral association or considered as centers of pilgrimage. some of these, such as penuel, where jacob received the name israel, another center is beth-el where the ark rested, and beer-sheba dates back to patriarchal times. jacob built a well at shechem and the tribes converge there “before the lord” and made a covenant with him in joshua’s time. specifically, shiloh enjoyed special importance as a central sacral site for the tribes. the assembled at shiloh under joshua to divide up the land by lot, and it was there that they placed the tent of meeting and the ark of the covenant. eli’s family, whose ancestral linage was traced to aaron, the high priest also served at shiloh and it was at shiloh that the israelites assembled for festivals and sacrifices. the twelve tribes have a religious and historical significance. based on biblical historical narratives, the twelve tribes of israel are a unique people in that they have a heavenly selection of god’s people arising from their relationship and covenant with god. the journey of the twelve tribes into the land of canaan according to biblical narrative, the journey of the israelites to the land of canaan was made in intervals taking a sequential order. at their deliverance from slavery and bondage, they departed from egypt heading towards the sea of reeds. after the miraculous crossing of the sea of reeds, they journey began unto mount sinai or mount horeb exactly fourteen months after they left egypt. the israel turned north along the western side of gulf of aqaba and traveled from mount sinai to the desert of paran. setting out from the dersert of paran, they moved on and arrived hazeroth. from hazeroth they journey to kadesh barnea where moses selected one man each from each of the tribes to go and explore the land of canaan, the process of land allotment and distribution the israelites entered the promised land and conquered the previous inhabitants of canaan. the land was allocated to the people according to their tribes. the land situated east of jordan, in gilead and bashan which was previously captured and seized from king sihon and king og was allocated to the tribes of reuben and gad and the half was allocated to the tribe of manasseh as agreed by moses, numbers 21:23-35, 32:1-19. the formula and sharing ratio for the remaining nine and half tribes was determined by casting of lots. joshua 14:2 & 18:1-10. the descendants of joseph were divided into two tribes and named after his eldest sons manasseh and ephraim. ephraim received the lightly wooded territory in the central hill country near shiloh which was later renamed the forest of ephraim while manasseh occupied the hilly land to the north in the area around mount gerizim, mount ebal and the vale of shechem, joshua 16:1-17. additionally, the town of timnath serah in the hill country of ephraim was assigned to joshua as personal reward. joshua 19:49-50.towards the northern part of canaan, the land situated around the vale of jezreel was allocated to the tribes of issachar, joshua 19:17-23, while the tribes of asher, zebulon and naphtali combined together were assigned the territory stretching from the costal foothills near tyre extending into theinland of basin occupied by lake ekenedilichukwu& oziezi the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel in.. 128 kinnereth which is the sea of galilee, joshua 19:10-16 & 24-39. the tribe of simeon were apportioned the semi-arid foothills of the negev desert between beersheba and barnea kadesh at the southern boundary of canaan, joshua 19:1-9. the hill country between beersheba, bethlehem and jerusalem were allocated to the tribe of judah, joshua 15:1-63. additionally, the city of hebron was allocated to caleb in recognition of his faithfulness to god and his disposition towards positivism and optimism after spying the land of canaan forty years (40) earlier, joshua 14:6-15. the most controversial allocation amongst the twelve tribes of israel was that of the tribes of benjamin and dan. the tribes of benjamin and dan where assigned the lands circumscribed on the south by the jebusite fortress of jebus (jerusalem) which remained a canaanite stronghold for four hundred years (400) until it was conquered by king david in 1004 bc, joshua 18:11-28 & 15:63. the land on the coastal plain of philistia was allocated to the tribe of dan; unfortunately they were unable to conquer the lowland territory which was occupied by the philistines. however, many years later, they conquered the land in the far north around the city of leshem (laish) which was renamed dan after it was captured, joshua 19:40-48 & judges 18:1-31. the tribe of levi who served the other tribes by their priestly functions was not assigned specific territory, instead they were allocated forty-eight cities and the surrounding grazing lands within the other tribal areas, joshua 14:3-4 & 21:1-45. evidently, casting of lot and ratio formula was the methodology used in the allocation of land amongst the twelve tribes of israel. the process was a directive from god through joshua. it is interesting to note that the process of land allotment was satisfactory to the tribes of israel. lessons for nigeria nation from their land allotment and settlement the challenges of restructuring and resource control in nigeria have continued to gather momentum in all sections of the country. there has been a constant clamour for disparity in the nations generated revenue. in order to the satisfy the desire and expectations of the general populace, the nigeria nation needs to examine and underscore the proceedings and process of land allotment of the twelve tribes of israel and the template they used. we shall examine the situation of the nigeria nation in the light of the twelve tribes of israel in the issues of restructuring and resource control. national unity the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel depicts a people with strong bonds of interconnection. the cohesion of the twelve tribes of israel was unparallel and distinctive, devoid of sentiments and bigotry. they coexisted peacefully without any form of rancor, bitterness, acrimony and division. each tribe was always willing to accommodate the other tribe irrespective of their locale and placement. as such, their unification expedited the conquering of the land of canaan. obviously, the twelve tribes of israel became terror to their surrounding neighbors. repeatedly, many prominent nigerians have publicly affirmed that the unity of nigeria as a nation is unnegotiable. other regions and ethnic groups have debunked this view and by positing differently. zamare and karofi (2015) are of the view that national unity includes national cohesion, national integration, nation building and social solidarity. however, pilkington (1956) observes that nigeria is confronted with the domestic problem of unification in order to weld together as a nation. the issue of disunity is one amongst other domestic realities arising from regional differences of ethnicity and religion. pilkington further stressed that the problem facing the unity of nigeria is heightened from three dimensions. he highlighted them to be personal issues between different peoples speaking many languages, aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 129 and by social and religious customs which are often boosted by prejudice and obstinacy. obinelo (2018) views national unity as the acceptance of other ethnic mechanisms of nigeria into the nationhood of nigeria. national unity emphasizes the oneness and acceptance of other parts of the country and other ethnic groups as part and parcel of the country. the attainment and realization of national unity is ingrained into the nigeria motto, this further illustrates the importance of unity in overall structure of the country. considerably, the perception and categorization of inferior and superior in the scheme of proceedings and in the nation’s structure and system arises from the functionality of disunity. this is evident within individuals on equal standing in respect to fundamental human rights. the agitation and contention for resource control and restructuring is premised on the foundations of disunity and divisional perception. borrowing a leaf from the twelve tribes of israel, the oneness and togetherness of the twelve tribes in their locale and settlement remains a template for nigeria as a nation. the twelve tribes of israel lived and worked together as one indivisible entity for the betterment of all. collective interest looking at the historical narratives of the twelve tribes of israel beginning from the existence down to their settlement in canaan, the concept of individualism did not dominate the people, rather communalism was very much evident among them. they adopted collectivism in their way of living and even in the larger society. the quest for personal aggrandizement and gratification is considerably obscure, unacceptable and is detrimental to national interest. personal and regional interest holds negative implication for national and collective interest. zamare and karofi (2015) forthrightly avert that regionalism and tribalism are ingredients of disunity. in line with the forgoing, sani (2008), established that the promotion of class interest, social justice, inequality among citizens, poverty, disease and backwardness are ingrained in the democratic practices and political landscape of nigeria. in retrospect, the process of land allotment among the twelve tribes of israel shows that despite the ratio formula and the casting of lot which determined the size and portion of allotment, the people were satisfied and happy without putting up unnecessary protest. the situation is not so in nigeria where the regions and geopolitical zones with the feeling of marginalization, subjugation and oppression agitate and protest for resource control and restructuring. onifade (2013) observed that “nigeria is a multicultural society, a conglomerate of nations with different people and cultures, a basket of different religions and worldviews and a country with diverse expectations of its citizens.” in view of the forgoing, it is worthwhile to underscore that as recipe for resource control and restructuring, no region, geopolitical zone, ethnic group or individuals’ whether big or small, noble or pauper is to be considered greater and more important that the others as encapsulated in the historical narratives of the twelve tribes of israel. nigeria as a nation shares a uniform dream and every region, geopolitical zone and ethnic group ought to sheave their personal interest for the purposes of achieving the collective and overall interest of the country. furthermore, the twelve tribes of israel screwed up the chances of nepotism, tribalism and individualist mindset among themselves. they had a collective interest despite their biological background, vocation and dispositions. without any grievances, they focused on the national and collective goal of occupying the land of canaan. nepotism, tribalism and individualist ideologies are unhealthy to national development and progress. in nigeria, these factors have increasingly and constantly occupied prime spots in the daily affairs of the nigeria society. these factors amongst others have been identified as the rationale for the clamour of restructuring and resource control in nigeria. ekenedilichukwu& oziezi the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel in.. 130 peaceful and harmonious co-existence aristotle in iheanacho (2015) describes man as a social being, existing in a web of relationships. this is in line with the assertion of samover and porter who discovered that human beings drew close to one another by their common nature but habits and customs keep them apart. the twelve tribes of israel enjoyed relative peace and harmonious co-existence among themselves irrespective of their family ties. this is untypical of most heterogenetic nations. in consonance with the forgoing, iheanacho (2015) purports that man must live together and interact with other people, outside of which life is solitary, nasty, and detesting. evidently, understanding, brotherliness, accommodation and patriotism are the hallmark for peaceful and harmonious coexistence among people from different ethnicity and tribe. this is consequent upon the fact that there is a degree of complexity in human nature. iheanacho (2015) is of the view that every human person manifests shortcomings and incapacitations. that is to say that no human person is all sufficient and without limitations and weakness. every human person suffers to an extent a measure of self-insufficiency and has flaws that create conflict resulting in societal disorder and breakdown. it is a known and established fact that there is a possibility of conflict ensuing between individuals and ethnic group with divergent interest, opinion and views due to misconceptions, misinformation and misunderstanding. this is typical of the human nature and no human person is exempted or immune to these tendencies. the twelve tribes of israel were children of the same father but different mother, yet the tendencies of polygamy and divisions did not surface nor determine their level of mutual interaction and peaceful coexistence. the pattern employed for land allotment did not affect their relationship, they live amicably amongst themselves. harmony, mutual understanding and peaceful coexistence remain key in the overall sustenance of nigeria as a nation. the process of restructuring and resource control is anchored on the wheels of peaceful, harmonious and mutually coexistence. nigerians must sheave their religious, ethnic and tribal differences. irrespective of the precarious situations all over the country, peace is needed to curb the further manifestations and occurrence of these societal issues which are drying up the fountain of peace. with the recent societal issues of killings, maiming, rape and massive destruction ongoing, peaceful coexistence, mutual understanding and harmonious interaction and relationship are inevitable. nigerians must strive to build legacies of peace, harmony and understanding. individuals across religious, ethnic and tribal lines must learn to accommodate the flaws and peculiarity of other ethnic groups. ethnic and religious tolerance the phenomenon of ethnicity and religious intolerance has been a contemporal issue and is gaining wider acceptance among various ethnic and religious groups throughout the country. prevailing circumstances of unsatisfactory and unfavorable situation in the political, social, economic, developmental structure have compelled some ethnic and religious groups to clamour for resource control and restructuring. pockets of agitations from ethnic groups like movement for the emancipation of the niger delta (mend) in the south, movement for the actualization of the sovereign state of biafra (massob) in the south east, oduduwa people’s congress (opc) in the west, boko haram in the north, bakkasi boys, fulani herdsmen and several other vigilante groups rising throughout the country, each group with a cogent reason for their protest. michael ezemonye (2011). for the twelve tribes of israel to settle and live peacefully among themselves, they tolerated one another. nigeria as at present is suffocating; the general populace including the federating ethnic nationalities can no longer bear the suffocating effects. the situation of the country has further denigrated due to the heightened rate of religious, regional and ethnic intolerance visible within nook and cranny of aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 131 the country. regional and ethnic tensions abound in almost all the regions and cutting across various ethnic group, the situation has been left to fester into uncontrollable spiral of violence. the twelve tribes of israel tolerated each other’s negligence’s and weakness. they gave room for readjustments in order to accommodate each other for mutual and peaceful co-existences. nigerians must consider each other’s peculiarity, by accommodating them and give them a sense of belonging. ali (2011) expressed that dialogue and tolerance must be encouraged by the various ties of government in order to achieve peaceful co-existence. conceptualizing this expression, dialogue and tolerance must be deployed in tacking the clamour for resource control. conclusion nigeria is a multicultural society with different ethnic and religious groups. each of these groups are clamouring for resource control and restructuring due to disparity of resources. it is important to mention that in achieving resource control and restructuring, the experience of the twelve tribes of israel remains a workable template and functional mechanism in achieving the goal of the nation with a justifiable and satisfactory end for the general populace. the paper therefore makes a concerted effort in unraveling the identity of the twelve tribes of israel, their culture, journey from the land of captivity and settlement in the land of canaan. it also examines the sharing of the land which was purely by casting of lot, of which was satisfactory to each of the tribes despite the allotment that was commeasurable with the size of each tribe. it is important to mention here that the paper noted four key factors which made it possible for the twelve tribes to live within the same locale without trouble and quarrel. these factors are unity among them which made them to live and behave as one. they had the spirit of collective interest which gave no room for the quest for agitation. they peacefully and harmoniously coexisted despite their different individual makeup which they never allowed to manifest in occasions of personal interest and goals. finally, there was tribal/ethnic tolerance that existed among them. in view of all these noted points, this paper makes a bold attempt to posit that these lessons are paramount and needed in the nigerian society without which the clamour for resource control and restructuring will still be witnessed. recommendations having carried out this research with available sources of information, the paper recommends that:  personal interest and ambition should be set aside for the collective interest of all which will further create an environment for peace, unity and progress thereby giving room for restructuring and resource control.  nigerian nation should borrow a leaf from the twelve tribes of israel who lived and worked together as one indivisible entity for the betterment of all. hence, oneness and togetherness of the twelve tribes in their locale and settlement remains a template for nigeria as a nation.  owing to the fact that nigeria as a nation shares a uniform dream, it therefore recommends that every region, geopolitical zone and ethnic group should sheave their personal interest for the purpose of achieving the collective and overall interest of the country.  the paper also recommends that in acknowledgement of nepotism, tribalism and individualist ideologies that are unhealthy to national development and progress. ekenedilichukwu& oziezi the settlement of the twelve tribes of israel in.. 132 nigeria society should set aside these ways of life in order to co-exist and move as one indivisible entity.  irrespective of the precarious situations all over the country of which peace is needed to curb the further manifestations and occurrence of these societal issues that are drying up the fountain of peace. therefore, it is recommended that nigerians should sheave their religious, ethnic and tribal differences.  the paper finally recommends that nigerians must consider each other’s peculiarity, by accommodating them and give them a sense of belonging. dialogue and tolerance must be encouraged by the various ties of government in order to achieve peaceful coexistence. references gill, n. s (2019). what are the twelve tribes of israel? are the legendary tribes of israel just that? www.thoughtco.com retrieved saturday 14th september, 2019. iheanacho n. n (2015), humanities and human relations: a religious and cultural approach, stepson publishing house, port harcourt. michael ezemonye (2011), movements for ethnic group actualization, national vanguard newspaper, friday 2nd december, 2011. mohammed s. a (2011). nirec has ensured peace building and mutual co-existence. in abdullahi yelwa (eds) kings and democracy. the nigeria traditional institution in the age of constitution. capital publisher, abuja nigeria. obinelo, m. (2018). what is national unity in the context of nigeria? www.quora.com retrieved 25th september, 2019. onifade c. a and imhonopi, d (2013). towards national integration. in nigeria jumping the hurdles. www.iiste.org. retrieved 15th september, 2015. pilkington, f. (1956). the problem of nigeria unity. oxford journals vol.55, issues 220, july 1956, pages 219-222. samovar l. and porter r. (2003). “understanding intercultural communication: an introduction and overview” in samovar l. and porter r. (eds’) intercultural communication: a reader. australia, canada: thomson wadsworth. sani a. g (2008). democracy for national development in nigeria. issues and challenges in the 21st century. in journal of art and social sciences, kontagora (jasskon) unique press lagos, nigeria. sawe, benjamin elisha. "what were the twelve tribes of israel?" worldatlas, apr. 25, 2017, worldatlas.com/articles/what-were-the-twelve-tribes-of-israel.html. wotogbo, w. w. o (2005). themes in comparative religion, stepson printing, port harcourt. zamare u. s and karofi s.a (2015). national unity: a catalyst for sustainable democracy in nigeria, journal of developing country studies. vol. 5. no. 8. wwsw.iiste.org http://www.thoughtco.com/ http://www.quora.com/ http://www.iiste.org/ http://www.iiste.org/ 172 intersection of african traditional religion and christianity: thoughts for the promotion of mutual relations ikechukwu anthony kanu, phd department of philosophy, veritas university abuja ikee-mario@yahoo.com abstract among some christian quarters, there is a strong belief that it is outrageous and even blasphemous to compare african traditional religion with christianity. this is based on the understanding that the comparison of christianity with african traditional religion can desecrate christianity. little wonder then, some christian scholars have described african traditional religion in derogatory terms: paganism, fetishism, heathenism, animism, polytheism, idolatry, etc., in juxtaposition to christianity. this notwithstanding, joseph raz has argued that value is the great uniter and the common bond of mankind. it is from this understanding that this paper emerges. it argues that african traditional religion and christianity have a good range of ethical and religious values in common, which reveals that christianity is not alien to africans. this is not in any way a denial of the obvious areas of divergence between the two religions. for this paper, the comparative method of analysis was employed by the author. the paper submits that such similarities are possible given that there was already the seed of christianity in african traditional values and religion, even before the arrival of missionaries to africa. keywords: values, african, traditional, christianity, religion, comparative analysis. introduction good data never goes out of style, and neither do they lose their freshness or excitement. in african traditional cultures, there are strong ethical religious values that are still vibrant and to speak of them as straw-men theories would be inconsistent with contemporary religious teachings that still hold strongly to us, as in christianity. the major aim of this paper is to sensitize our readers to the fact that african traditional religion and christianity are pregnant with rich ethical and social values that can be studied alongside each other. little wonder raz (2004) states that “values are universal” (p. 3). even though the african traditional culture has undergone so much deterioration following western influence, the researcher has gone back to the source of african ideals to see what the traditional african believes in; and this does not in any way claim any attempt to explore all the ethical and religious ideals that the african holds, however, it adopts a new method by making a comparative study of the value systems in african traditional thought and christianity. purpose of study the main purpose of this study on comparing african traditional religion with christianity is to help us gain a deeper understanding of both faiths, promote cross-cultural understanding, and celebrate the rich religious diversity of the african continent. other purposes include: mailto:ikee-mario@yahoo.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 173 1. african traditional religion is an integral part of african cultural identity, and comparing it with christianity helps us understand the similarities and differences between the two religions. 2. this study will encourage mutual understanding, respect, and tolerance between adherents of both faiths, fostering peaceful coexistence. 3. highlighting that both atr and christianity share common theological themes, such as belief in a supreme being, spirits, and the afterlife. 4. illuminating how african cultures have influenced christian practices and vice versa, demonstrating the dynamic nature of religious beliefs. 5. encouraging academic and theological research and enhancing our understanding of religious diversity, enriching academic disciplines like theology, anthropology, and sociology. 6. helping to develop africanized christian theologies, making christianity more relevant and meaningful in african contexts. methodology the methodology employed for the sake of this paper is the comparative approach. the comparative method is often applied when looking for patterns of similarities and differences, which explains continuity and change. while undertaking comparative research, most similar systems design is often used. it consists in comparing very similar cases that differ in the dependent variable, on the assumption that this will make it easier to find those independent variables which explain the presence/absence of the dependent variable. also used is the most different systems design, which compares very different cases, all of which have the same dependent variable in common, so that any other circumstance that is present in all the cases can be regarded as the independent variable. in the case of this study, it’s a comparative study of the christian religion and the african traditional religion. what will be used in this case is the most similar systems design, given that the emphasis of this study is the similarities. traditional african religion information on traditional african religion is at times difficult to access as no written records were made of it until the europeans came to the continent. religion was passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition. this means that there could have been some distortion in its documentation as this in many cases was eventually done from a non-african perspective, usually by missionaries (munemo, 1994). african tradition or culture has its authentic institutions and patterns of behaviour and values. it is a tradition or culture that values highly the ideals of honesty, hospitality, respect for elders, respect for the sacredness of life, communal life, liberty, social justice, and consciousness of the divine. the primary function of traditional african religion was that of fighting evil in society and making life more bearable. society used religion to address the problems of drought, famine and other disasters. wherever the african was so was his religion; he took it to the fields when he was working, and he went hunting with it in the forest. worship for the africans took place wherever and whenever they were in need, either asking for help from the gods, deities or living-dead or giving thanks to them for their help (mbiti, 1969). ikechukwu anthony intersection of african traditional religion and.. 174 traditional african society believed in the existence of gods which has led to insinuations that african traditional religion is pantheistic. in traditional african religion there exists a very strong belief in evil, which was thought to be inimical to life, strength, health, fertility and prosperity. africans saw evil as all that detracts from or destroys life, illness, infertility, pestilence, famine and sudden or inexplicable death (kiernan, 2001). many activities had a symbolic meaning to the africans: to the africans for instance, the playing of drums was a spiritual thing and doing so symbolised a unification of the player and his living dead. coupled with this was the dancing, which was also a symbol of being at one with one's living dead, and it was through his dancing that the living dead or deities took possession of that individual. africans believe working with the body in ritual releases spiritual forces which ensure natural and social harmony (gray, 1990). from african traditional religion to christianity the growth of christianity in africa has been very spectacular, africa is on record as the continent with the highest numerical christian growth rate in the world (barrett, 1982), and the bible has been identified as "a major contributor" to this phenomenal growth of christianity in africa (mbiti, 1986). the bible is certainly very much valued and used by african christians. also, it is important to note that africans were not embracing religion in a completely new way when they adopted the christian faith but rather something which fulfilled what they already knew (munemo, 1994). the main function of traditional religion had been to give protection to the people from evil as observed earlier. with the coming of christianity, the fight against the forces of evil involved the same approach, and thus to the africans the 'new' faith retained the functions of their traditional religion. the christian missionaries with their exorcisms, the use of holy water, the wearing of rosaries, and the use of emblems of maria to cast out evil were not new to africans; these things were replacements for their old charms, medicines and amulets; even though, the africans were being asked to embrace new forms of 'charms', the concept behind their use was the same, so the africans did not find it very difficult to change to this type of religious observance (munemo, 1994). christianity has a monotheistic conception of god; their god is an omniscient, omnipotent, super-sensible supreme being, whereas, for the africans, the gods' existence is both material and spiritual. his belief assures him that gods exist, and their affirmation and justification of their existence is the fulfilment of their contractual obligations but in the christian sense, god is accessible by reason and the human spirit (nze, 1981). also, the african, contrary to the christian manner, is in daily direct contact with his gods for the good of all. in christendom, religion is a personal thing for the salvation of the individual. in contrast, african traditional religion was usually a communal affair, practised not just for the spiritual and physical benefit of an individual or his immediate kin, but for the well-being of all within the purview of the celebrant. shrines of deities erected in compounds and in villages generally honoured these deities and invited them to protect and prosper all within the compound or village. for christianity, as for african culture, values were upheld in high esteem and no human action or behaviour good or bad, escapes the vigilant attention of both god and the earth god (chieka, 1998). values in african traditional religion with christian analogies in the religious sphere aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 175 in africa, there is a widespread belief in a supreme god, unique and transcendent. africans have a sense of the sacred and a sense of mystery; there is high reverence for sacred places, persons and objects; sacred times are celebrated. it is difficult to separate the life of the african from his inclination to the divine. it is in this regard that he does everything with the consciousness of god. mbiti (1969) puts this succinctly, wherever the african is, there is his religion. he carries it to the fields where he is sowing seeds or harvesting new crops, he takes it with him to a beer parlour or to attend a funeral ceremony; and if he is educated, he takes religion with him to the examination room at school or in the university; if he is a politician, he takes it to the house of parliament. (p. 2) in the contention of njoku (2004), this aspect of his daily life was such that, the african man had many taboos to observe, and many daily rituals to perform, either to appease the community or the divinities. if he was not an indirect or unconscious slave of the dominant conscious, he held perpetual allegiance to one divinity or another. if he was ‘free’ with men, he was not free with nature or his environment. suppose community and environment allow him to live his life with fewer burdens, he would still have to pay the debts owed by his past ancestors. (p. 57). the traditional religious practices of the africans are indeed anthropocentric in the sense that all their religious practices invariably point to one objective, namely, human life and its preservation. prayers and sacrifices offered to the gods and the ancestors all have one end in view, namely, the welfare of man (maquet, 1972). there is a harmonious interplay between the decalogue and the african moral code. given the first decalogue which makes us dutybound to god, african ethics similarly has an unreserved respect for the divine. his everyday life is pervaded by the thoughts of the sacred. the accordance of respect to our parents is the content of the fourth decalogue; the african culture goes many miles beyond the requirement. stealing and perjury are frowned upon in relation to the sixth, seventh and eighth commandments of the christian scripture respectively. these are strongly embedded in the values already upheld by the africans. in connection with the transvaluation of religious values, one must not forget the african's great value of ancestor worship. "everywhere the african is first defined by reference to his ancestor" (maquet, 1972). the ancestors, "living or dead" are the great intermediaries between the african great god (with different names in different african nations). on becoming a christian, the african easily sees christ, the only mediator between god and man, as "a protoancestor." this interpretation is advanced by african theologians in their effort to africanize the church or incarnate christianity in the local culture. also, since urbanization as a modern african value is inseparable from such other concomitant values as industrialization and christianity, the african's great love for large families, extended family-hood and community is practised on a much higher level in christianity, since the african christian sees the church as one large institution housing all members of the one family of god. all people become brothers under one god, as all strive for the same home and destiny, namely, heaven. consequently, the african christian sees not only the members of his natural ikechukwu anthony intersection of african traditional religion and.. 176 family but all human beings as brothers and sisters. in the same way, christianity professes the same common father and hence a common brotherhood for all people. in the social sphere the african sense of ‘hospitality’ is one of the values that are still quite alive. hospitality is a duty and is the most common value in african traditional religion. between kith and kin and people of the same clan, there is a very strong sense of sharing solidarity and belonging. efforts are made to secure and promote justice and peace within the community. the nuclear family and the extended family have been the pivots of the african social system. respect for authority, sanctioned by the ancestors, is strong and represents the common will. the poor and the sick are taken care of; widows and orphans are looked after. africans are generally known to be hospitable and accommodating. visitors are well received and treated, with the african conviction that visitors are bearers of blessing and as such whoever welcomes a visitor welcomes peace. everyone is a potential visitor because the host today may become the visitor to the hosted tomorrow, and the sharing of meals is not usually preceded by notification (ujah, 2007). about the ette people, their sense of hospitality is unique. some people are living here in ette who are not ‘sons of the soil’, but they are welcome on their arrival and even given land to farm or build on. any one of them who is married in ette and stays up to ten years is automatically called the ‘son of the soil’ (edoyi, 2009; kanu 2024). in a like manner, ireogbu views the african spirit of hospitality thus, no special rendezvous is required to join in a meal with another family one has just visited during a meal. on arrival, once there is food, the visitor is invited is invited to eat. he or she is treated kindly, just as one would like to be treated when visiting another home. sharing with a needy neighbour who comes for assistance is a value that is highly cherished in african culture (1994: 88). the christian scripture advises “let your foot be seldom in your neighbour’s house lest he become weary and hate you” (prov. 25:17). this passage of scripture encourages hospitality, however, it warns against those who take advantage of people’s hospitality. the adage “a single tree cannot make a forest” finds a potent expression in the communal character of african life. communal living which breeds solidarity makes the african realize his need in the community. mbiti (1969), a popular african philosopher expresses the african concept of community in these words, “i am because we are, and since we are, therefore i am”. according to joseph omoregbe (1994), because of the place community occupies in the life of an african said that “african makes no distinction between brother, half brother, nephew, cousin. whosoever has the fortune of being even a little better off than the other members of the extended family comes to the aid of others. the misfortune of one member of the extended family is shared by all, and the fortune of any member is shared by all.” the acts of apostles (4:32-5:1-17) praises the community life of the early christian community; they shared their possessions so that those who had nothing shared in the wealth of those who had enough. another virtue highly honoured by africans afterlife itself is ‘purity’. it encapsulates most importantly, chastity and marital fidelity. from this perspective, adultery, flirting or premarital sexual unions were serious crimes against the family and community at large. and if a man has sexual intercourse with a woman who he is not married, the rites of purification would have to aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 177 be performed. in the christian scripture, there are many calls to embrace the purity of life: “you shall be holy, for i the lord i am holy, and have separated you from the people that you should mine” (lev. 20:26), “you shall not commit adultery” (ex. 20:14). still, on the social sphere, olowo ojade (1990) pointed out that as regards ‘gratitude’, africans are charming. as such, many african proverbs abound in reference to gratitude, which every member of the society is called to imbibe. “when you are unwell, you promise a cow, but when you recover a chicken would do”. “friendship with a ferryman right from the dry season means that when the rain comes, you would be the first to cross”. the gratitude emphasized by the african culture is also parallel to the christian scripture’s insistence on gratitude: “it is a good thing to give thanks unto the lord” (ps. 136: 2), “give thanks unto the lord for he is good” (ps. 107:2). in the cultural sphere in the sphere of the cultural, man is located within his environment as the centre of reality and making him feel at home in it is of utmost importance. tradition is handed down through stories, poems, hymns, proverbs, riddles and art. the whole community is involved in the training of the young, and education itself has a necessary community and social aspect. the moral education of youth is taken seriously. everyone older than the other is respected by the younger in africa (addo, 2011). formal education, a result of colonialism, radicalized the traditional values of the africans and introduced some completely new ones. mazrui (1980) puts it thus, "the colonial impact, transformed the natural basis of stratification in africa." instead of status based on, say, age, there emerged status based on literacy. instead of classes emerging from the question, "who owns what?" class formation now responds to the question, "who knows what?” elders are seen as both spiritual and moral guides who are endowed with wisdom; that is why it is said that “what an elder sees when he is seated, a child cannot see even when he is standing”. this respect is not only restricted to the elders within one’s area but to all elders, wherever they are met. it is in this regard that nwako (2009) said that moral values are common to all africans and that respect is given to elders irrespective of social status or position. we give them their due respect because they are the custodians of traditional norms and customs. in the yoruba culture, prostration before an elder is a form of greeting, sometimes bowing and removal of caps are also signs of respect. and because of the place the african cultures give to elders, they must make time in the evenings to train the conscience of young men and women through proverbs, stories and folktales. through this practice, virtues are learnt by african children from their childhood. against the background of this great african value, a person is an individual to the extent that he is a member of a family, a clan or a community. another great value in traditional africa is respect for old people (senior citizens), particularly one's parents, grandparents and relatives. together with this value, one must also consider "ancestor worship" as an important related value in african culture. the basis for the honour and respect accorded to old people in the traditional african culture is their closeness to the ancestors, for in his ontological conceptual scheme the african places his old relatives closest to his ancestors or dead relatives in his great hierarchy of beings. the african teaching on respect for elders also has parallels in christianity: “my son, hear the instruction of your father, and forsake not the law of your mother” (prov. ikechukwu anthony intersection of african traditional religion and.. 178 1:8). “honour your father and your mother that your days may be long upon the land which your lord your god gives you” (ex. 2:12). africans conceive ‘humility’ as a wise policy which must be patronized at all times. it is therefore not surprising that many african proverbs and stories insist on humility. proverbs such as “bending down to a dwarf does not stop you from rising from your full height afterwards”; this proverb teaches that humility does not take away anything from anyone. “it is the water that doesn’t fill the pot that makes the most noise”, this proverb teaches that those who brag around are those who are empty or have nothing to offer. “the bird that imagines itself on the same level with the turkey would soon find itself on the grill”, this proverb teaches humility is a learning path. the same insistence on humility is also found in the bible which teaches that: “blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth” (matt. 5:5). “whoever shall exalt himself shall be abashed, and he that humbles himself shall be exalted” (matt. 23:12). in the moral sphere morality is another area where there is a considerable parallel between christianity and african culture. this is probably because morality flows naturally from the religious creed and that man, in both the african and the christian cultures, has a hereafter whose condition is determined by the quality of one's present life. according to african culture, to gain that hereafter as a place of comfort one must behave in ways consonant with the demands of the divinities and ancestors (amucheazi, 1980). amongst the africans, there is respect for life; children are treasured and abortion is an abomination. the sacredness of human life is guarded by taboos and rituals. there is respect for the dignity of man; each man has his inalienable chi (destiny). sin is perceived in both its personal and communal dimensions. moderation in the use of alcohol is inculcated: only adults may drink. drunkenness is shameful. indeed moderation is required in every aspect of human behaviour. for christianity, as for african culture, no human action or behaviour good or bad, escapes the vigilant attention of both god and the earth god, ala respectively: they reward or punish man according to his actions, good or bad. christianity and african culture diverge from each other only in their choice of the instrument for the execution of the reward or punishment (amucheazi, 1980; kanu 2023). africans believe that life comes from god, and as such has a transcendental dimension. the sacredness attached to life due to the designation of god as its source is evident in the names igbo people give to their children: chiwendu (god is the owner of life), chikerendu (god made life), and as such in igbo traditional society igbu ochu (murder) was the greatest abomination. to kill merited either capital punishment or total banishment from the community. to touch a person’s life, starkly put, to shed blood, especially innocent blood is the greatest evil on earth, against the earth and humanity. it is nso ala (taboo) that has the mightiest sanction in the world (ireogbu, 1994: 84). the african values the whole of creation as sacred. to him, nature is neither uncanny nor for subjugation and exploitation, but something sacred, participating in the essential sacred nature of god himself and all reality. open spaces, fields, forests, trees, oceans and lakes are sacred to him and consequently important as places reminiscent of the ashes of his fathers and the sanctuaries of his gods. the african traditional religious life has always considered all life to aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 179 be the sphere of the almighty, the powerful (the otumfoo), and the omnipotent (gye nyame). he is wise, and all seeing and all knowing. he is the great spider (ananse kokroko), and the ancient of days (odomankoma) (kanu 2020 & 2022). in the private and public life of the africans, religious rites, beliefs and rituals are considered an integral part of life. life then is never complete unless it is seen always in its entirety. religious beliefs are found in everyday life and no distinction is made between the sacred and the secular. the sacred and the secular are merged in the total person of the individual african. life is not compartmentalized. thus, there are no special times for worship, for every day and every hour is worship time. there are no creeds written down because, through the traditions of the elders, all creeds and functions are carried in the individual's heart. each individual by his very nature and lifestyle is a living creed from the time one rises until one retires at night. life is therefore considered sacred and held in high esteem. right from the womb, life is protected and the greatest joy of a family is the birth of a child. this is why africans do all that is in their power to save lives, and whatever harms life is their greatest enemy. issues like abortion and euthanasia are foreign to african vocabulary. in the christian decalogue, there is also the instruction: “thou shall not kill” (ex. 20:13). also fundamental to africans, is the value of ‘honesty’, a man’s word is held in bond, especially when it pertains to affirmation or negation or is evidence themselves. for the african, “judgment is based on confidence” (achebe, 1958: 151). and because of the place honesty occupies in african life, some elders have conferred titles based on their truthfulness and their ability to dispense justice without fear or favour, and any injustice or unfairness destroyed confidence. the ontological foundation on which the african love for truth rests is the belief that truth is life. it is therefore not surprising that right from childhood, children are taught the value of honesty in stories and proverbs. commenting on the values of honesty and sincerity in the african culture, ireogbu said, both were together the test of the inner and outer integrity. the igbo put this ontological principle in the maxim: eziokwu bu ndu (truth is life). in igbo ethical ontological praxis, not only in the moral sense is the utterance of truth a life affirmation. in the ontological order, the true is the living (1994: 27). conclusion a comparative study of the developments and basic teachings of christianity and african traditional religion reveals that there are several points of intersection between the two religions. this does not in any way mean that both religions are the same as there are several other points of divergences. however, the submission in this paper is that african traditional religion and christianity have ethical and religious values in common. this is probably due to the argument of some scholars that morality flows naturally from religious creed. and from this understanding, one can conclude that for the african, christianity is not something alien, but something which fulfilled what he already knew. there was already the seed of christianity in african traditional thought even before the arrival of missionaries to africa. ikechukwu anthony intersection of african traditional religion and.. 180 references achebe, c. (1958). things fall apart, london: heinemann. addo a. p. e. (2011). the loss of african traditional religion in contemporary africa. assessed on 24:08:11. http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?id=21342. amucheazi, e. c. (1980). readings in social sciences. enugu: snaap. barrett, d.b. (1982). world christian encyclopedia. nairobi: oxford university press. chieka, i. (1998). traditional humane living among the igbo: an historical perspective. enugu: fourth dimension. gray, r. (1990). black christians and white missionaries. assessed on 23:08:11. http://www.kahome.co.uk/ngonim.htm. ireogbu, p. (1994). ewiszdomization and african philosophy. owerri: international universities press. kanu, i. a. (2020). igwebuike theology of omenani and the missionary bifurcation of horizons. ogirisi: a new journal of african studies. 16 (1), 127-144. kanu, i. a. (2020). igwebuike theology of udi: god’s unchanging revelation and man’s changing culture. catholic voyage: african journal of consecrated life. 17(2), 12-24. kanu, i. a. (2020). igwebuike theology of ikwa ogwe and the inculturation of the gospel message. ogirisi: a journal of african studies. 16(1), 15-28. kanu, i. a. (2023). igwebuike as an indigenous ontological logic for synodality. jos studies, 30. 43-54. kanu, i. a. (2023). pope john paul ii’s legacy of decolonization: towards an igwebuike transformative pedagogy. pope john paul ii journal of philosophy. 2 (1), 68-95. kanu, i. a. (2020). igwebuike as the moving spirit of pope francis’ compassionate leadership. jos studies. 28. 13-26. kanu, i. a. (2024). the inculturation of consecrated life in africa: towards a logic for promoting indigenous gifts of fidelity. the catholic voyage: african journal of consecrated life. 21(1), 245-265. kanu, i. a. (2022). african eco-spirituality: an igwebuike indigenous response to modern ecological crisis. tolle lege: an augustinian journal of philosophy and theology. 4(1), 1-51. kanu, i. a. (2020). igwebuike as a conceptualization of the igbo-african worldview. catholic voyage: african journal of consecrated life. 17(2), 35-50. http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?id=21342 http://www.kahome.co.uk/ngonim.htm aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 181 kanu, i. a. (2023). igwebuike metaphysics: a complementary perspective. igwebuike: an african journal of arts and humanities. 9(2), 1-21. kiernan, j. (2001). african and christian: from opposition to mutual accommodation. in m. prozesky (ed.). christianity amidst apartheid. assessed on 18:08:11.http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/zinzindohoue.htm. maquet, j. (1972). africanity: the cultural unity of black africa. new york: oxford university press. mazrui, a. a, (1980). the african condition. london: heinemann. mbiti, j. s. (1986). bible and theology in african christianity. nairobi: oxford university press. mbiti, j.s. (1969). african religions and philosophy. london: heinemann. munemo, n. (1994). traditional religion and christianity in southern africa. assessed on 19: 07: 11http://www.kahome.co.uk/ngonim.htm. njoku, f.o.c. (2004). development and african philosophy: a theoretical reconstruction of african socio-political economy. new england: universe. nze, c. b. (1981). influences of african traditional religion on christian values. uche journal of philosophy, 5. 4. ojoade, o. (1990). paremiographical evidences of ethical education in traditional africa with christian and muslim analogies. (eds.) ikenga-metuh and olowo ojoade,. nigerian cultural heritage. jos: ehindero. omoregbe, j. (1990). knowing philosophy. lagos: joja education research. raz, j. (2004). value, respect and attachment. cambridge; cambridge university press. ujah, d. (2007). degradation of african traditional values and its impact on contemporary africans: the case study of ette, unpublished material. http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/zinzindohoue.htm http://www.kahome.co.uk/ngonim.htm 101 divine creation versus human innovation: christian perspectives on the development of artificial intelligence dr. christian maduabuchi umeanwe department of religion and human relations, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria. drchrismadu777@gmail.com cm.umeanwe@unizik.edu.ng abstract the rapid development of artificial intelligence raises fundamental questions about the nature of creation, and human identity. this study explores religious perspectives on artificial intelligence development, juxtaposing divine creation with human innovation. religious traditions view artificial intelligence through distinct lenses. christianity, for instance, views artificial intelligence as a reflection of human ingenuity, yet potentially challenging the uniqueness of human souls. there is also the tension between divine creation and human innovation. moreover, christian theology faces challenges in addressing artificial intelligence’s potential to mimic human intelligence, which blurs the lines between humans and machines; the possibility of simulating consciousness, which raises questions about soul and spirituality; and the problem of autonomous decision-making which challenges traditional notions of free will. this research examines historical christian responses to technological advancements, as well as contemporary christian engagements with artificial intelligence ethics. by exploring christian perspectives on artificial intelligence, this study aims to inform ethical artificial intelligence development with christian values, foster dialogue between christian and scientific communities, and also to help clarify the implications of artificial intelligence for christian theology and practice. this research seeks to illuminate the complex relationships between divine creation and human innovation in christian thought, shedding light on the spiritual and theological dimensions of artificial intelligence development. keywords: divine, creation, human, innovation, perspectives, artificial, intelligence, development. introduction since the 1960s, scholars in theology, philosophy, history, and the sciences have studied the relationship between science and religion. science and religion is a recognized field of study. the relationship between religion and science is the subject of continued debate in philosophy and theology. to what extent are religion and science compatible? are religious beliefs sometimes conducive to science, or do they inevitably pose obstacles to scientific inquiry? the interdisciplinary field of “science and religion”, also called “theology and science”, aims to answer these and other questions. it studies historical and contemporary interactions between these fields, and provides philosophical analyses of how they interrelate. according to stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (2002), the systematic study of science and religion started in the 1960s, with authors such as ian barbour (1966) and thomas f. torrance (1969) who challenged the prevailing view that science and religion were either at war or indifferent to mailto:drchrismadu777@gmail.com dr. christian divine creation versus human innovation: christian... 102 each other. barbour’s issues in science and religion (1966) set out several enduring themes of the field, including a comparison of methodology and theory in both fields. one of the most intriguing concerns of this study centers on the emerging field of artificial intelligence (ai). according to fakhar (2024, p. 1); concerns about ai and its impact on religion are diverse: some advocate a separation between ai and religion while others see ai as a transformative force capable of shaping religious beliefs. with 85% of the global population identifying as religious, there are diverse ethical and theological questions about ai’s impact on society and humanity. as highlighted by bostrom (2014), the rapid advancements and widespread adoption of ai and robotics have presented profound ethical and moral challenges. on his part, gustafson (2013) submitted that religious ethics offer a valuable framework for exploring moral considerations and ethical perspectives surrounding these technologies. tillich (1957) opined that religious traditions can provide guidance on how to navigate the complex ethical landscape of this new technological era by offering insights into questions of autonomy. according to turkle (2015), artificial intelligence (ai) and robotics have ushered in a new era of human autonomy, raising questions about the balance between human agency and technology's influence. therefore, it is crucial to consider the ethical implications of ai and robotics through the lens of religious ethics. from a christian perspective, the development of ai raises fundamental questions about the intersection of divine creation and human innovation. this discussion explores the theological implications of ai development, examining how christian religious perspectives inform our understanding of ai's potential, limitations, and ethical considerations. religious ethics: a valuable perspective concerns about ai and its impact on religion are diverse: some advocate a separation between ai and religion while others see ai as a transformative force capable of shaping religious beliefs. with 85% of the global population identifying as religious, there are diverse ethical and theological questions about ai’s impact on society and humanity. for instance, jewish ethical approaches to ai may draw inspiration from the golem narrative – a story about creating a humanoid being, often made from clay, brought to life through mystical means. this narrative symbolizes the desire to protect and preserve the jewish community while raising ethical concerns about crossing boundaries and playing god. it serves as a cautionary tale, emphasizing the ethical implications of human intervention in creation and the potential consequences of tampering with forces beyond human understanding. religious ethics offers a unique perspective on the challenges posed by ai and robotics, acknowledging their transformative power while recognizing their limits. religious traditions supply frameworks for ethical decision-making, balancing human agency with ai and robotics, ensuring ethical and responsible use of technology in decision-making, addressing issues of fairness, access, and discrimination, and defining accountability for actions and decisions. religious principles of justice, fairness, the common good, emphasizing equality, compassion, dignity, and holding individuals and organizations accountable, can ensure that society reaps the benefits of these transformative technologies. divine creation and human innovation: a theological exploration aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 103 the relationship between divine creation and human innovation has sparked intense debate, particularly in the context of artificial intelligence (ai) development. from a christian perspective, understanding this intersection is crucial for navigating the ethical and theological implications of emerging technologies. divine creation the christian doctrine of creation asserts that god brought the universe into being, imbuing humanity with dignity and purpose (genesis 1: 26-31). this biblical narrative underscores god's creative power and humanity's role as stewards of creation. barth (1958) emphasizes that creation is a "gracious act of god, highlighting the sovereign nature of divine creativity. human innovation human innovation, including ai development, reflects humanity's creative capacity as imagebearers of god (genesis 1: 26-27). the theologian, stanley grenz (2001), notes that human creativity is a "derived creativity, dependent on god's original creative act (p.156). mccarthy (2007) acknowledges the potential for human innovation to augment human capabilities. in christianity, god is regarded as the ultimate creator, bringing into existence the universe and humanity. human innovation, including ai development, is seen as a reflection of god's creative spirit. however, this raises questions about the extent to which human innovation can mirror divine creation. according to some christian scholars argue that ai development represents a form of "co-creation" with god, where humans exercise their creative potential to improve the world (grenz, 1998) while others caution that ai's potential for autonomy and self-improvement may lead to a "tower of babel" scenario, where human innovation oversteps divine boundaries (ellul, 1985).the relationship between divine creation and human innovation is complex and multifaceted. as ai continues to shape society, christians must engage the theological and ethical dimensions of this technology, ensuring that human innovation honors the divine creation and upholds human dignity. christian ethical approaches towards artificial intelligence the rapid development and integration of artificial intelligence (ai) in various aspects of life have raised significant ethical concerns. from a christian perspective, ai poses questions about human identity, agency, and morality. this essay explores christian ethical approaches towards ai, examining key principles and implications. stewardship and responsibility: christians are called to stewardship and responsibility over creation. ai development requires careful consideration of its potential impact on humanity and the environment. christian ethics emphasizes the importance of responsible innovation, acknowledging ai's potential to augment human capabilities grenz (2001, p. 157). human dignity and value: ai's potential to augment or replace human labor raises concerns about human dignity and value. many christian ethicists argue that ai must be designed to promote human flourishing, rather than diminishing human worth (gushee, 2017, p. 120). autonomy and free will: ai's capacity for self-learning and decision-making challenges traditional notions of human autonomy and free will. generally, theologians and moralists from the christian angle caution against ai's potential to undermine human agency (murphy, 2006, p. 150). dr. christian divine creation versus human innovation: christian... 104 justice and equity: ai's deployment must prioritize justice and equity, addressing biases and disparities. christian ethicist, ronald cole-turner, emphasizes the need for ai to promote social justice and human well-being (2018, p. 100). christian ethical approaches towards artificial intelligence emphasize responsible innovation, human dignity, autonomy, justice, and redemption. as artificial intelligence continues to shape society, christians must engage the ethical dimensions of this technology, ensuring that artificial intelligence development honors human values and promotes the common good. selected scientists’ views on ai and robotics in religion from a critical angle, kurzweil (2005), an ai pioneer, sees the potential for ai to enhance human spirituality and experience (p. 150). on his part, hawking (2010) cautioned that ai could surpass human intelligence, potentially threatening human existence. (p. 100). in addition, musk (2017), has expressed concerns about ai's potential risks, advocating for responsible ai development. (p. 20). bostrom (2014), director of the future of humanity institute, explores the ethical implications of ai and its potential impact—largely negative— on human existence (p. 123). on the brighter side, collins (2006), former director of the national institutes of health, lays emphasis on the intersection of faith and science, including ai's potential to improve human life, including the spiritual dimension (p. 150). these diverse perspectives highlight the need for interdisciplinary dialogue between scientists, philosophers, and religious scholars to address the complex implications of ai and robotics on human spirituality and existence. gaps and challenges in religious ethics and artificial intelligence the integration of artificial intelligence (ai) and religious ethics poses significant challenges. scholars identify gaps in current frameworks as follow: lack of clear guidelines: religious traditions often lack clear guidelines for ai development and deployment (bostrom, 2014, p. 123). ethical ambiguity: artificial intelligence (ai) raises ethical dilemmas, such as accountability and autonomy, which religious ethics struggles to address (tegmark, 2017, p.150). technological unfamiliarity: religious leaders often lack technical expertise, and as a result hindering informed decision-making (grenz, 2001, p.157). cultural and religious diversity: artificial intelligence (ai) development may not always accommodate diverse cultural and religious values (rao, 2018, p.123). challenges to human identity: artificial intelligence (ai) challenges traditional notions of human identity and dignity (murphy, 2006, p. 150). conclusion the intersection of divine creation and human innovation in ai development presents complex theological and ethical questions. christian religious perspectives offer valuable insights into ai's potential, limitations, and moral implications. by engaging these perspectives, we can foster responsible ai development, ensuring that human innovation serves the greater good and aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 105 honors the divine creation. without doubt, religious ethics plays a crucial role in navigating moral considerations and ethical perspectives surrounding ai and robotics. by integrating religious ethics, societies can uphold ethical considerations, justice, and accountability while harnessing the benefits of these technologies. christian perspectives emphasize human dignity, responsible technology use, human rights, and promoting the common good. these perspectives can help establish a more inclusive and robust ethical framework for addressing the societal impact of developing technologies. references barth, k. (1958). church dogmatics (trans. g. w. bromiley). t. & t. clark. berger, p. l. (1967). the sacred canopy: elements of a sociological theory of religion. doubleday. bostrom, n. (2014). superintelligence: paths, dangers, strategies. oxford university press. bowling, a. (2005). measuring health: a review of quality of life measurement scales. open university press. chambers, r. (1997). whose reality counts? putting the first last. intermediate technology publications. chomsky, n. (1957). syntactic structures. mouton. christensen, c. m. (1997). the innovator's dilemma: when new technologies cause great firms to fail. harvard business school press. cole-turner, r. (2018). the end of theological ethics: contemporary challenges and possibilities. westminster john knox press. collins, f. s. (2006). the language of god: a scientist presents evidence for belief. free press. drucker, p. f. (1985). innovation and entrepreneurship: practice and principles. harper & row. eliade, m. (1957). the sacred and the profane: the nature of religion. harcourt. ellul, j. (1985). the technological bluff. william b. eerdmans. gardner, h. (1983). frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. basic books. gergen, k. j. (1994). realities and relationships: soundings in social construction. harvard university press. goulet, d. (1971). the cruel choice: a new concept in the theory of development. atheneum. grenz, s. (2001). the social god and the relational self. westminster john knox press. grenz, s. j. (1998). theology for the community of god. william b. eerdmans. gushee, d. p. (2017). moral revolution: a christian worldview for human dignity and justice. intervarsity press. dr. christian divine creation versus human innovation: christian... 106 gustafson, j. m. (2013). ethics from a theological standpoint. university of chicago press. hamel, g. (2000). leading the revolution. harvard business school press. hawking, s. (2010). the grand design. bantam books. kurzweil, r. (2005). the singularity is near: when humans transcend biology. penguin. mcgrath, a. e. (2011). christian theology: an introduction. wiley-blackwell. middleton, r. (2014). a new heaven and a new earth: reclaiming biblical eschatology. baker academic. minsky, m. l. (2006). the emotion machine: commonsense thinking, artificial intelligence, and the future of human emotions. simon & schuster. murphy, n. (2006). bodies in the mind: bodies, minds, and persons in the christian tradition. cambridge university press. musk, e. (2017). the future of humanity. in j. brockman (ed.), life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence (pp. 20-25). penguin. russell, s. j., &norvig, p. (2010). artificial intelligence: a modern approach (3rd ed.). prentice hall. tegmark, m. (2017). life 3.0: being human in the age of artificial intelligence. allen lane. tillich, p. (1957). dynamics of faith. harper & row. tillich, p. (1959). theology of culture. oxford university press. turkle, s. (2015). reclaiming conversation: the power of talk in a digital age. penguin. von hippel, e. (2005). democratizing innovation. mit press. wright, n. t. (2009). simply christian: why christianity makes sense. harperone, new york. 133 school climate as correlates to teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state nigeria lilian ijeomaamaechi ph.d email: ijeakuibe2005@yahoo.co.uk department of educational management, lagos state university, ojo, lagos nigeria abstract this study examined the relationship between school climates as correlates to teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state. a hypothesis was (tested at 0.05 level of significance) and a research question was set to serve as guide for the study. with the study’s foundation anchored on systems theory. correlational and descriptive research designs were adopted. the study population comprised 322 principals, 644 vice-principals, 966 head of departments and 960 teachers in public senior secondary schools in lagos state. the sample sizes were 96 principals, 192 vice-principals, 288 head of departments and 960 teachers after stratifying the population into education districts and thereafter selecting through purposive and simple random sampling techniques. two instruments were used to collect data after ensuring their validity and establishing their reliability using cronbach alpha coefficient method. these included ‘school climate questionnaire (scq) (r=0.890) and teachers’ job performance questionnaire (tjpq) (r = 0.837) analysis of data was carried out using both descriptive and inferential statistics (pearson’s product-moment correlation). the findings was that a positive, negligible and non-significant relationship exists between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state (r = 0.008, ρ > 0.05) the study concluded that, the more conducive the school climate, the higher teachers job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state. the study therefore recommended that principals and school authority should make the school climate conducive for teachers to perform their duties well. keywords: school climate, teachers job performance, public senior secondary schools. introduction the school is a social organisation with a unique formation that influences behaviour of the human components. the human components in the school includes the students, teachers and administrators. peretomode, (2014) conceived the school as a social system involving two classes of phenomena that are independent and at the same interactive with the individual behaviour and the social behaviour in a social system. the social behaviour is the normative dimension that ensures that behaviour is geared towards achieving organizational (school) goals. the personal dimension or the idiographic dimension consists of three interrelated elements, individual, personality and need deposition. the school as a social system is therefore characterized by the existence of organisational goals and individual goals. the attempt to balance the organisation and individual goals results to the creation of school climate. conceptualized as multi-faceted concept, petrie (2014) defined school climate to include the unwritten personality and atmosphere of a school including its norms, values, and expectations. wang and degol (2015) also postulated that school climate includes academic, community, safety, and institutional environment dimensions that encompass just about every feature of the school environment that impacts cognitive, behavioral, and psychological development. there are other views about the meaning of school mailto:ijeakuibe2005@yahoo.co.uk lilian ijeoma school climate as correlates to teachers’… 134 climate. hoy and miskel as cited in peretomode (2014) opined that school climate is an end product of school group – students, teachers, administrators (the formal and informal organisation leadership and personality of participants) as they work to balance the organisation and the individual of a social system. the quality of a nation’s educational sector depends considerably on teachers as well as on the collective interactions of the internal and external forces that intervene in the fulfillment of the purpose for setting up schools. the effectiveness and stability of the schools are mostly based on their school climate and the performance of teachers (wentzel & watkins, in emu, 2018). teachers are the backbone of an education activity, the success and failure of education activities highly depends on their performance (muhammad, rahmat & malik, 2013). meanwhile, job performance is the duties carried out by teachers in the school which is aimed at achieving both education and school objectives, it is defined as putting knowledge and skills into practice so that work can be done effectively and efficiently. (griffing, 2012; adejumobi, 2018). muhammad (2013) also opined that teachers’ job performance is directly linked to process and product of education which is emphatic for the improvement of education. peretemode, in muhammad (2013), adds that job performance is determined by the worker’s level of participation in the day to day running of an organisation. teachers’ job performance can be defined as the skill, knowledge and competence with which a person executes the duties and responsibilities associated with job description. it is also fulfilling of an obligation, carrying out of one’s duties and accomplishing a specified job or duty. it therefore means the accomplishment of set goals and objectives. this involves the teacher’s role in the dissemination of knowledge and providing guidance and counseling service for both on and off school activities. thus, it is observed that teachers’ job performance is more than teaching in the class. it also comprises punctuality to class, finishing the scheme of work for each term, writing uptodate lesson plan and notes, satisfying the students through their teaching style and quality management of class discipline, students motivation and improvement of their achievement; assisting students to solve their academic and learning difficulties, interaction with students, interaction and relationship with other teachers and high officials, performance of other assignments by the principal and the department (muhammad, 2013). in the words of adejumobi and ojikutu (2013), teachers’ job performance is shown in terms of teachers’ lesson presentation which ranges from introduction of the lesson to teachers mastery of the subject, interaction with the students, evaluation, conclusion and students external examination. teachers’ performance can be determined or measured using several yardsticks such as their effectiveness in delivery of lessons, writing of lesson notes, selection and usage of instructional materials, completing number of periods per week and scheme of work, as well as involvement and commitment to other duties that will lead to the realization of school goals. the success or failure of any educational programme then depends on the performance of teachers. thus, stakeholders have continued to express interest in identifying the factors that enhance teachers’ appreciable performance in secondary schools in lagos state. statement of the problem teachers constitute human resource that makes school and educational objectives a reality. the failure or success of educational activities highly depends on teachers’ job performance. in spite of government and school management efforts to enhance effectiveness and efficiency among teachers in public senior secondary schools, however, there seems to be challenges such as overcrowded classrooms which may impinge upon the school with the ratio of 1:100 instead of expected ratio of 1:40 in some public senior secondary schools in lagos state nigeria aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 135 (frn2013), also as observed by ogundare (2018). the autocratic leadership style of some public-school principals, lack of collaboration and interpersonal relationship among teachers and colleagues, teachers and principals, teachers and students, teachers and parents are also characteristics of the school that present a climate that may hinder the adequate performance of teachers. purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship that exists between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria. specifically, this study was to examine the relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria research question q1. is there any relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria? research hypothesis ho1: there is no significant relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria. theoretical frame work the study anchored on systems theory. a system is comprised of a whole made up of interacting parts, and therefore, systems scientists in both the natural and social sciences study the interaction between parts to better understand the complexities of reality (lalande and baumeister, 2015) arnold and wade (2015), further define a systems as, “groups or combinations of interrelated, interdependent, or interacting elements forming collective entities”. a system therefore denotes a set of parts that are interrelated so as to function as a whole in order to achieve a common purpose. for example; school organisations with all their institutional components that make them function as a whole (bozkus, 2014). a system is a set interrelated parts working together as a whole to achieve a common goal. the system theory has been used to describe and explain the universality of bodies, it is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts, such that the interaction of any part or sub-system affects the whole structure (ndu & okeke, in rufai, 2018).this theory rests on the assumption that school is a system which comprises different parts that are inter-related (students, teachers, administrators etc.).what affects one part affects the other in the same system and environment. thus, systems theory is a transdiciplinary study of systems in general, with the goals of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of system in all fields of research (yahya, 2014).as a transdiciplinary and multi-perspectival domain, the systems theory brings together principles and concepts from other disciplines. system theory thus serves as a bridge interdisciplinary dialogue between autonomous areas of study as well as within the area of systems science itself. bertalanffy, (1968) is the proponent of the system theory. according to this theory, behaviour, relationships, emotions, effectiveness and efficiency, thoughts are influenced by personal characteristics and surrounding climate. human development occurs through the complex, reciprocal interaction that an individual has with others in the school and the surrounding. the environment is made lilian ijeoma school climate as correlates to teachers’… 136 of internal (teachers, students, administrators) and external (parents, community) that affect the system (jason 2020). meanwhile, the secondary education production function is a system of human resources, physical resources, methods, procedures and processes working together in a definite environment to deliver desirable outputs(mwangeka, 2020). systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of systems, which are cohesive groups of interrelated, interdependent components that can be natural or human made. every system has causal boundaries, is influenced by its context, defined by its structure, function and role, and expressed through its relations with other systems (wiki loves2022). research method in this study, descriptive survey and correlational research designs were considered suitable. the study population comprised all public senior secondary schools in lagos state in the six education districts. there are 322 senior secondary schools of lagos state. the sample and sampling techniques the sample of the study consisted of 96 schools that were selected from the population of 322 public senior secondary schools in lagos state.a multistage sampling technique was used to select schools from each education districts for this study. this enabled every public senior secondary school to have a chance of being selected in the existing six educational districts in lagos state. a disproportionate stratified sampling technique was used to select 16 public senior secondary schools randomly from each education district for the sample size making a total of 96 schools. lastly, a purposive or judgmental nonprobability sampling technique was used to select principal or principal cadre, two vice principals, three head of departments and ten teachers who have spent not less than five years in each sampled school making a total number of 96 principals, 192 vice principals, 288 head of departments and 960 teachers, making a total number of 1,536 as the study participants or respondents. research instruments the instrument used for this study is structured questionnaire constructed by the researcher. the structured questionnaire is made up of the following; school climate questionnaire (scq) and teachers job performance questionnaire (tjpq). the scq was divided into two parts, part a consists of items on personal data of respondents, part b consists of 5 structured items to get information on the school climate. the tjpq was divided into two parts. part a consists of items on personal data of respondents; part b consists of 5 structured items to obtain information on teachers’ job performance. the principals, vice principals and head of departments were the respondents to the questionnaire. the school climate and teachers job performance response options were strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d) and strongly disagree (sd). hypotheses testing the hypothesis for this study was tested using pearson’s product moment correlation (ppmc) decision rule the level of significance for the hypothesis in this study is 0.05. the null hypothesis assumed that there is no significant influence of the independent variable on the dependent variables. in aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 137 this study, if the spss output significant value of the tests exceeds the significant level (0.05), then the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected, but if the p-value is lesser than 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative is accepted. furthermore, the researcher employed the cohen (1988) table to interpret the correlation strength. the rules of thumb to interpret the strength of correlation (r) are 0.10-0.29 signifies weak correlation; 0.30-0.49 represents moderate correlation; 0.50-1.00 represents strong correlation (cohen, 1988). hypotheses h01: there is no significant relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state nigeria. in order to test the hypothesis, pearson’s product-moment correlation analysis was conducted between school climate and teachers’ job performance. the scores of responses on items of school climate were computed and used as a single variable to correlate the sum of scores on items of teachers’ job performance. the result is presented in table table 1: relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria school climate teachers job performance school climate pearson correlation 1 0.008 sig. (2-tailed) 0.862 n 933 467 teachers job performance pearson correlation 0.008 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.862 n 467 467 the result of the test performed indicates that there is a positive, and non-significant relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria (r = 0.862, ρ > 0.05). the implication of this is that there is no linear association between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools. this depicts the lack of association (r approximately = 0) between school climate and teachers’ job performance. hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between school climate and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria is hereby rejected. conclusions the conclusion can be drawn from this study that the more conducive the school climate, the more teachers perform their duties in public senior secondary schools in lagos state, nigeria.. meanwhile, the two variables are interrelated and interdependent, school climate relate to teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary in lagos state, nigeria. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are hereby made. 1. principals and school authority should make the school climate conducive for teachers to perform their duties well. lilian ijeoma school climate as correlates to teachers’… 138 2. government should continuously improve the school climate to provide conducive atmosphere for teachers to perform their duties 3. the government and school management staff should ensure regular training and re-training of teachers through in-service training, seminars, conferences and workshops towards enhancing school climate and job performance. 4. government should try as much as possible to provide public schools with adequate facilities to stimulate a climate that will enhance teacher job performance. 5. teachers should prepare adequately to improve in their job performance. references adejumobi, f.t. 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(2015). math achievement is important, but task values are critical, too: examining the intellectual and motivational factors leading to gender disparities in stem careers”. frontiers in psychology, 6:36. published online february 17, 2015. wikiloves (2022) systems theory (retrieved fromhttps://en. wikipedia.org/ wiki/ systems_ theory yahya. l. o. (2014). an input-output analysis of public university education in lagos state, nigeria.(unpublished ph.d. thesis) lagos state university, ojo. file:///c:/users/hp%20plc/downloads/applicationofsystemstheoryineducation.pdretrieved%20on%2016/8/22 file:///c:/users/hp%20plc/downloads/applicationofsystemstheoryineducation.pdretrieved%20on%2016/8/22 136 ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal. emmanuel adetokunbo ogundele department of philosophy and religious studies, augustine university, p.m.b. 1010, ilara-epe 106101, lagos state nigeria. emmanuel.ogundele@augustineuniversity.edu.ng abstract ethnic chauvinism remains one of the most significant challenges confronting nigeria's political system in the post-colonial era. the influence of ethnicity on nigeria's political landscape, economic progress, and overall development cannot be over-emphasized. a viable political system for nigeria must recognize and incorporate the essence of ethnic diversity and cultural differences. as a nation characterized by cultural heterogeneity, multi-ethnic groups, linguistic diversity, and religious plurality, nigeria faces the complexity of harmonizing these differences. each ethnic group operates with distinct ideologies that shape their perspectives on societal development. however, the structural development of nigeria is hindered by the persistence of ethnic chauvinism, which impedes equitable access to developmental opportunities. this paper, employing philosophical appraisal and critical argumentation, examines the implications of ethnic chauvinism and proposes strategies for fostering sustainable national development in nigeria. keywords: post-colonial period, ethnicity, development, culture, heterogeneity. introduction nigeria, often referred to as the "giant of africa," is home to an estimated population of above 235,208,544 individuals (worldometers, 2025). the history of nigeria’s development cannot be discussed without referencing the post-colonial period—a period characterized by political instability, military rule, and recurring themes of ethno-religious and ethno-regional patronage. nigeria, as a nation-state, is richly diverse, encompassing over 250 ethnic groups and more than 500 indigenous languages (oluwadele, adediran & olaogun, 2023, 62). however, this diversity has significantly influenced political, economic, and social decision-making, often hindering the country's progress. ethnic allegiances have coloured decision-making processes, obstructing the implementation of policies that prioritize collective national development which has not been a force for good. effective governance requires objectivity and inclusivity in political and administrative affairs, yet nigeria has continually struggled with poor governance, corruption, and ethnically motivated patronage. it is evident that “the nigerian state is a victim of high-level corruption causing the retardation of national development and a ceaseless cycle of crisis arising from peoples’ discontent against the government” (fagbadegbo, 2007, 32)—all major contributors to its underdevelopment. `nigeria's classification as a less-developed nation stems from its failure to meet the fundamental criteria of a developed country. these criteria include territorial integration, national security, protection of citizens' rights and freedoms, popular franchise, and the orderly transfer of political power. socio-political and economic stability is critical to achieving meaningful development, which, in turn, is essential for the growth and sustainability of any nation. every society operates with an ideology that serves as the foundation for its aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 137 development. to enhance meaningful progress, effective ideological strategies must be established and implemented. this paper examines the impact of ethnic chauvinism on nigeria’s political and economic systems, identifying it as a root cause of the nation’s underdevelopment. furthermore, it explores pathways for fostering development within a multi-ethnic nation like nigeria. the discussion begins by analyzing the conceptual meanings of key terms to lay a foundation for the discourse. ethnic group scholars have long attempted to define the concept of "ethnic", yet no universally accepted definition exists. various approaches to the term have been considered over time. broadly, an ethnic group is understood as a social organization bonded by shared interests, values, and beliefs. it refers to a group of individuals with common characteristics, such as religion, language, or culture, that create a sense of unity. specifically, culture—comprising shared values, beliefs, practices, norms, customs, traditions, rituals, and lifestyles—is central to the identity of an ethnic group, as it binds members together, often alongside a shared language. cohen (1974) defines an ethnic group as an informal interest group whose members distinguish themselves from others within a society by shared features such as kinship, religion, and linguistic ties. nnoli (1978) describes an ethnic group as a social formation defined by the communal nature of its boundaries, emphasizing language as a crucial variable in ethnic identity. according to nnoli, an ethnic group is characterized by members who identify with one another through shared ancestry, language, and culture, and who are similarly recognized by outsiders. this shared identity is further defined by the group’s ascription to a common bloodline or ancestry—whether real or imagined. regardless of a group’s numerical size or geographical scope, the unifying psychological awareness of a shared origin fosters solidarity and a sense of belonging among its members (cletus, 2012, 217). from these definitions, it can be argued that the core elements of ethnicity include shared language, geographical proximity, culture, religion, traditions, ancestry, and morality. these shared factors bind members of an ethnic group together and shape their identity. however, this strong internal cohesion often leads to a sense of exclusivity, where members regard others as outsiders. this perception can, in turn, foster discrimination and tension due to the distinct values and characteristics that unify the group. this has happened in nigeria and many other countries in africa. chauvinism chauvinism is generally defined as the strong and unreasonable belief that one’s own country or race or even sex is superior to all others. according to the cambridge dictionary, it refers to an extreme form of nationalism or prejudice, often characterized by an unyielding loyalty to one’s own group, whether based on nationality, ethnicity, or race. the longman dictionary describes it as an unreasoning belief in the superiority of one's race or country over others, while merriam-webster extends the definition to include undue partiality or attachment to one’s group or place. chauvinism, at its core, serves as an ego-enhancer—establishing other emmanuel adetokunbo.. ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 138 groups as "inferior" and thereby positioning one’s own group as "superior" by default (ramet, 1994, 122). chauvinism was the result of experiences that had severed the national consciousness from the national soil, alienating nationalism from the physical reality of the country and detaching pride and loyalty from tangible achievements represented in both the material and spiritual aspects of the nation. instead, chauvinism redirected this sense of identity toward an abstract notion of the "soul," a quality believed to be universally shared by all members of the same people through the mere accident of birth (arendt, 1945, 459). at its core, chauvinism functions as a psychological mechanism for inflating the ego—defining other groups as "inferior" and, in doing so, positioning one’s own group as "superior" by default. this constructed sense of superiority draws strength from the imagined uniqueness of the groups identity, further alienating it from the shared human experience. ethnic chauvinism specifically refers to this mindset within the context of ethnicity, where individuals prioritize the interests of their ethnic group above the well-being of others, often leading to division and conflict. such chauvinism tends to foster an exclusivist mentality that diminishes the value of other groups, creating barriers to national cohesion and progress. ethnic chauvinism is a product of an exaggerated or unreasonable belief in the supremacy of one’s own ethnic group, which manifests in the desire for national dominance. it often fosters exclusion, where ethnic identities are rigidly defined, and there is little tolerance for diversity within the nation. while patriotism in its purest form is meant to unify, the extreme version of patriotism can be twisted into chauvinism, as loyalty becomes an absolute, unquestioning force. this shift turns a positive sense of belonging into a harmful tool for exclusion. patriotism, on the other hand, is the love of one’s country, identification with it, and a special concern for its well-being and that of its people. unlike chauvinism, patriotism seeks to promote unity, fostering a shared sense of belonging that transcends ethnic, regional, or religious divides. however, patriotism exists on a spectrum, ranging from extreme to moderate forms. extreme patriotism, often associated with strong or robust patriotism, can mirror the excesses of chauvinism. it is characterized by an unconditional loyalty to one's country, summed up by the phrase, "my country, right or wrong." in this sense, extreme patriotism can lead to pure nationalisman unquestioning defense of one’s country, regardless of the ethical implications of its actions. igor primoratz argues that this form of patriotism, framed in terms of absolute loyalty, can be dangerously close to chauvinism, where national pride veils critical thought and reflection. in contrast, moderate patriotism is characterized by a more nuanced attachment to one's country. alasdair macintyre suggests that patriotism can be a moral force when it operates within constraints—both procedural and object-related—that ensure legitimacy and prevent harm. this more balanced form of patriotism recognizes the imperfections within one’s nation and supports its progress through constructive engagement and critical reflection. in the context of ethnic chauvinism, a healthy form of patriotism can be a powerful antidote. where ethnic chauvinism divides, patriotism can unite. a patriotic love to the nation that acknowledges and embraces its diverse ethnic and cultural groups fosters social cohesion and national identity, which is critical for development. unlike ethnic chauvinism, which prioritizes the interests of one group over others, patriotism for a unified nation emphasizes collective well-being and mutual respect across different groups. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 139 patriotism, when practiced in moderation, offers a vision of the nation where all citizens, regardless of their ethnic background, are valued equally. it encourages a sense of belonging that transcends ethnic boundaries, inviting individuals to identify with their country as a whole rather than through the narrow lens of ethnicity. in this sense, patriotism acts as a corrective force, counterbalancing the negative impact of ethnic chauvinism by emphasizing shared values, national progress, and the importance of inclusion in building a better future for all citizens. ethnic conflict conflict refers to a clash or disagreement, often violent, between two or more opposing groups or individuals. ethnic conflict arises when individuals or groups seek to defend their ethnic identity, often fueled by unwarranted bias and excessive devotion to one’s own group. such devotion becomes a potential source of inter-ethnic violence and strife. ethnic conflict can be defined as a struggle between two or more ethnic groups, often characterized by battles over subordination, rebellion, or hegemony (friday, 2014). while the root causes may be political, social, economic, or religious, participants typically fight to assert their ethnic group's position within society. the origins of ethnic conflict, whether internal (societal) or external (physical), can be traced to historical rivalries and structural inequalities (ray, 2012, 13). ethnic conflict may manifest in two primary forms: violent and non-violent. violent ethnic conflict involves actions fueled by ethnic hatred and animosity such as the case with the hutus and tutsis of rwanda. such conflicts are often driven by social and political inequalities and result in direct assaults. in these cases, individuals or groups take up arms to attack and kill members of opposing ethnic groups. violent ethnic conflicts are particularly destructive, leading to significant loss of life, injuries, and widespread devastation. their peril lies in their ability to inflict long-term harm on both human lives and societal structures. on the other hand, non-violent ethnic conflict is less destructive and focuses on achieving significant political or cultural objectives based on ethnicity. unlike violent conflict, nonviolent ethnic clashes do not involve direct physical attacks or weaponized aggression. these conflicts often stem from political rivalries, such as leaders vying for power based on ethnic affiliations. while such conflicts may escalate tensions, they generally result in fewer casualties and less infrastructural damage compared to violent ethnic conflicts. both forms of ethnic conflict, violent and non-violent, underscore the complex interplay of social, political, and cultural factors that drive group tensions. understanding these dynamics is essential for mitigating ethnic conflict and fostering peaceful coexistence among diverse communities development development refers to a comprehensive process aimed at improving the overall quality of life for individuals and communities. it goes beyond mere economic growth to include equitable access to essential services such as healthcare, education, housing, and other basic needs. true development is measured by its ability to reduce poverty, unemployment, and inequality while promoting social and economic advancement. emmanuel adetokunbo.. ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 140 it encompasses the reorganization and improvement of an entire societal and economic system. this process is multidimensional, affecting economic, political, social, cultural, and even religious aspects of life. it seeks to enhance the capacity of individuals and communities to utilize resources effectively, ensuring better living standards. additionally, development is a continuous effort to uplift the material, social, and psychological conditions of people, fostering progress and well-being for all members of society. alex gboyega (2023, 6-7) views development as an idea encompassing all efforts to improve human existence in every aspect. it implies enhancing the material well-being of all citizens, not just the wealthy and powerful, in a sustainable manner that ensures today’s consumption does not jeopardize future generations. furthermore, it seeks to reduce poverty and inequality, enhance physical security and livelihoods, and expand life opportunities. naomi (1995), on her part, believes that development is usually taken to involve not only economic growth, but also some notion of equitable distribution, provision of health care, education, housing and other essential services all with a view to improving the individual and collective quality of life. from the definitions above, it is evident that development encompasses the administrative, economic, social, and cultural activities of human life. it can be concluded that development occurs when these activities lead to the betterment of individuals and society, improving the conditions of human existence in all dimensions. influence of ethnic chauvinism in nigeria nigeria gained prominence in 1914 following the amalgamation of its three regions: the west, north, and east. the country is culturally heterogeneous, with approximately 250 ethnic groups, including nearly 200 in the middle belt alone. each ethnic group occupies a distinct territorial area considered its homeland. four ethnic groups—the hausa and fulani in the north, the igbo in the east, and the yoruba in the west—constitute nearly half of nigeria's total population. historically, these groups dominated the three regions of the federation of nigeria, with the majorities occupying central positions of political and economic power, while minorities were relegated to the peripheries. despite being endowed with vast human and material resources; nigeria’s development has been significantly hindered by ethnic divisions. these divisions have resulted in inequitable state policies, pervasive corruption, social decay, and widespread poverty. ethnic politics, in particular, has posed a major obstacle to nigeria's social, economic, and political progress. before independence, the quest for self-rule was overshadowed by the struggle for ethnic dominance (kalejaiye & alliyu, 2023). political parties during this period were often formed along ethnic lines, transitioning from cultural organizations into political entities. for instance, the northern people’s congress (npc), established in 1951, evolved from the cultural group jam’iyyarmutanenarewa and was dominated by the hausa/fulani under leaders such as sir ahmadu bello and sir abubakar tafawa balewa. similarly, the action group (ag), the political wing of the yoruba cultural organization egbe omo oduduwa, was formed in the same year under the leadership of obafemi awolowo. the national council of nigeria and the cameroons (ncnc), formed in 1944, was initially regarded as a national party but later became associated with the igbo-dominated eastern region under the leadership of nnamdi azikiwe. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 141 ethnic tensions have historically fueled major political crises in nigeria. the kano riots of 1953 and the census crisis of 1962/63 are notable examples. the kano riots were sparked by a motion for self-government, proposed by anthony enahoro of the action group, which sought independence from britain by 1956. northern members of parliament opposed the motion, viewing it as an attack on their unpreparedness for independence. this led to a series of riots when action group representatives visited kaduna in may 1953. similarly, the 1962/63 census crisis arose when the eastern and mid-western regions rejected the census results, claiming they were inflated and marred by irregularities. since independence, ethnic politics has exacerbated corruption and stifled national unity. ethnic loyalty often shields corrupt elites from accountability, as citizens hesitate to expose wrongdoing by members of their ethnic group. according to jacob (2012), "official corruption is at its peak due to ethnic politics and social conflicts," with ethnic affiliations frequently obstructing justice. this "ethno-corruption" undermines economic development, deters foreign investment, and perpetuates poverty, unemployment, and poor infrastructure. former president ibrahim babangida (2002) noted that social conflicts rooted in ethnic and religious divisions pose significant threats to security, investments, and overall economic confidence. ethnic chauvinism has further eroded trust among nigeria’s diverse groups, fostering division and weakening the spirit of nationalism. as umezinwa (2012) argued in his paper ethnicity and nigeria’s underdevelopment, ethnic rivalry has hindered the emergence of competent, selfless leaders capable of advancing national development. elections are often decided based on candidates’ ethnic affiliations rather than merit, resulting in a political system dominated by individuals who prioritize ethnic interests over national progress. this ethnically charged environment has led to favoritism in public service, particularly in regions like the north, where ethnic bias influences hiring practices and resource allocation. for instance, in some cases, individuals who do not speak the hausa language face discrimination in public offices. such practices perpetuate inequality and reinforce the divisions that hinder nigeria’s development. for nigeria to achieve meaningful progress, it must prioritize unity, foster trust among its diverse ethnic groups, and cultivate a national identity that transcends ethnic allegiances. only then can the nation overcome the challenges posed by ethnic chauvinism and unlock its full developmental potential. recommendations 1. for political, economic, and social development to thrive, certain prerequisites must be met. these include territorial integration, national security, the protection of citizens’ rights and freedoms, popular franchise, and the ability of citizens to elect leaders through free and fair elections. furthermore, the orderly transfer of power is essential, as is appointing individuals to government positions based on merit rather than cultural or ethnic affiliations. merit-based appointments eliminate bias and enhance efficiency in governance. 2. in nigeria, the absence of territorial integration and national security hampers development. citizens are the nation’s greatest asset, and their well-being is the foundation for progress. corruption remains one of the primary obstacles to nigeria’s development, permeating every aspect of the state. to curb corruption, nigeria must enforce strict measures to make theft impossible and ensure that prosecutions are swift and certain. the judiciary must embrace a 21st-century approach to justice, particularly emmanuel adetokunbo.. ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 142 in cases threatening national security. a developed nation must prioritize advancements in its political, economic, and social systems. 3. nigeria operates a presidential system of government within a federal framework, where power is decentralized among federal, state, and local tiers of government. however, a reevaluation of these systems is necessary for meaningful development. the multi-party system currently in place is plagued by a lack of ideology, with parties often prioritizing the interests of the elite rather than the general populace. adopting a two-party system, where parties are built on clear ideologies and principles, could enhance political development. additionally, rotating political power among ethnic groups at the federal level could foster unity and healthy competition, ensuring all groups have a sense of belonging. this approach could reduce political crises and promote national cohesion. 4. key principles such as the rule of law, separation of powers, and checks and balances must be upheld in nigeria's governance framework. the rule of law emphasizes the supremacy of the law over all individuals, ensuring equality and the protection of individual rights. separation of powers divides responsibilities among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, preventing the abuse of power. checks and balances further ensure accountability and fair play, preventing any arm of government from overstepping its boundaries. 5. a national conference could play a pivotal role in addressing nigeria’s challenges. for example, the 2014 national conference brought representatives from various regions to discuss pressing national issues and propose solutions. such platforms foster unity and coordination among members of the federation. additionally, reducing the salaries and allowances of public officeholders could redirect funds toward national development. free and fair elections, devoid of vote-buying and malpractice, are essential for fostering trust in the democratic process. 6. economic development in nigeria requires adopting a clear ideology, such as a mixed economy. this system combines elements of capitalism and socialism, allowing private individuals and the state to share responsibility for production, distribution, and exchange. capitalism fosters rapid development by encouraging innovation and private enterprise, while socialism ensures equitable wealth distribution. this dual approach could address nigeria's economic challenges and drive sustainable growth. conclusion this paper has analyzed the challenges to nigeria's development, emphasizing the role of ethnicity in shaping the political system. the prioritization of ethnic interests over national interests has hindered progress. to achieve meaningful development, nigeria must embrace unity in diversity, accountability, and transparency. leaders must be visionary, selfless, patriotic, and free of ethnic bias. proper education and a commitment to national unity should be the government’s focus. while it must be admitted that these shortcomings will not be easy to overcome, there is the urgent need to make serious efforts to start addressing them now if our potentials are to be realized. addressing these challenges is essential for fostering a more developed and harmonious nigeria. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 143 references adeniji, a. s., & ofiwe m. e. (2015). the impact of ethnicity on nigeria’s political development: an assessment, 1999-2011. journal of applied science vol 2 issue 12 paper 6, 7199. alexander, m. (1993). geographic perspectives on ethnic conflict. a conference report, us. arendt, h. (1945). imperialism, nationalism, chauvinism. the review of politics 7(4), 441463. benyin, a. a., & ugochukwu d. a. (2015). development and its challenges in nigeria: a theoretical discourse. mediterranean journal of social sciences vol 6 no 6 s2, 275-281. cletus, u. (2012). ethnicity and nigeria's underdevelopment . ogirisi: a new journal of african studies vol 9, 215-229. fagbadebo, o. (2007). corruption, governance and political instability in nigeria. african journal of political science and international relations vol. 1, 28-37. friday, n. n. (2014). ethnic politics in africa: the nigerian example. 5th european conference on african studies african dynamics in a multipolar world centro de estudos internacionais do instituto universitário de lisboa (iscte-iul), pp.1501-1513. gboyega, a. (2003). democracy and development: the imperative of local government. ibadan: an inaugural lecture, university of ibadan. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/chauvinism. (2024, december 12). retrieved jan accessed 12, 2020 https://www.foresightfordevelopment.org/featured/ethnicity-tribalism. (n.d.). retrieved jan accessed 27, 2020 josué antonio nescolarde-selva, josé-luis usó-doménech, & hugh gash. (2017). what are ideological systems? systems, 5(1), 21, 1-17. kalejaiye, p. o., & alliyu n. (2013). ethnic politics and social conflicts: factors in nigeria’s.the journal of international social research volume: 6 issue: 27, pp.251262. macintyre, a. (1984). the claims of after virtue. analyse & kritik 6 (1), 3-7. naomi, o. (1995). towards an integrated view of human rights. hunger teach net, 6(3). nathanson, s. (1993). patriotism, morality, and peace. maryland: rowman & littlefield publishers. nnoli, o. (1978). ethnic politics in nigeria. enugu: fourth dimension publishing co. ltd. olav, s. (1970). an introduction to the politics,economy and social setting of modern nigeria. uppsala: söderström&finn. oluwadele, l. b., adediran, a., & olaogun, s. m. (2023). ethnic and cultural diversity in nigeria: a panacea for national development or decapitation? integrity journal of arts and humanities volume 4(4), 62-70. oyejide, f. o. (2016). ethnicity as a tool for nation-building in nigeria.journal of basic and applied research 19(3), pp.175-193. emmanuel adetokunbo.. ethnic chauvinism and development in nigeria: an appraisal… 144 primoratz, i. (2009). patriotism and the value of citizenship. acta analytica 24 (1), 63-67. ramet, s. p. (1994). social currents in eastern europe: the sources and consequences of the great transformation. durham, n. c.: duke university press. ray, i. j. (2012). a historical survey of ethnic conflict in nigeria. asian social science vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 13-29. sardo, m. (2017). the anatomy of patriotism. anthropological notebooks 23 (1), pp43-55. tolu, l., & abe, o. (2011). national development in nigeria: issues, challenges and prospects ( review). journal of public administration and policy research vol. 3(9), pp. 237-241. uwaifo, s. o. (2016). ethnicity and development of political parties in nigeria. journal of poverty, investment and development vol.28 , pp.1-9. worldometers. (2025, january 8). retrieved from https://www.worldometers.info/worldpopulation/nigeria-population/ 172 the nexus of philosophy and national development: implications for nigeria’s democratic experience victor ogheneochuko jeko., ph.d department of philosophy, faculty of arts, university of benin, benin city, edo state, nigeria email: victor.jeko@uniben.edu abstract nigeria is bedevilled by the problem of ineffective leadership and this has resulted in political irresponsibility, looting of national treasury, godfatherism, tribal sentiment, terror and terrorism, bribery and corruption, elitist regime, social vices and other kleptocratic practices. philosophy plays a critical role in galvanizing any country’s quest for national development. philosophy serves as a catalyst to national development. philosophy has moral implications for advancing any country’s quest for national development. philosophy as an academic discipline is critical and it has a broader spectrum in addressing the socio-political, educational and economic challenges of a country. national development reflects aims at human improvement. this paper adopts the analytical framework and the hermeneutical methodology in discussing the nexus of philosophy and national development; and its implications for nigeria. national development is fundamental in measuring the indices of good governance in a country. findings, however, show that philosophy is instrumental and it serves as a vital force in ensuring national development and an ideological direction for a country. nigerian political leadership must be backed by the instrumentality of philosophic contemplation. this paper concludes that philosophy and national development are necessary ingredients for human improvement. this paper recommends that nigeria should holistically address its national development strategy to pave the way for human capital development. nigeria as a country should ensure effective national security policy that could galvanize national development. nigerian political leadership should ensure even distribution of natural and human resources in order to guarantee equality of opportunity of nigerians. keywords: national development, development, nigeria, philosophy, society introduction nigeria is constrained by lack of effective political leadership and environmental sustainability. nigeria’s inability for ensuring the philosophy of national development is actually due to political irresponsibility, bribery and corruption, social, educational, economic and political insecurity. nigeria as a country amazes the world by some kleptocratic practices such as electoral fraud, looting of the national treasury, godfatherism, monetized politics, tribal sentiment, islamic fundamentalism, and loss of cultural values and heritage. however, philosophy plays a critical role in galvanizing any country’s quest for national development. national development reflects on the overall improvement of human beings in all spheres of life. this paper adopts the analytical framework and the hermeneutical methodology in discussing the interface between philosophy and national development. national development is fundamental in measuring the indices of good governance and leadership structure. this paper, however, argues that philosophy is instrumental and it serves as a vital force in ensuring mailto:victor.jeko@uniben.edu victor ogheneochuko . the nexus of philosophy and national development:… 173 social change and it serves as an ideological direction for countries of the world. nigerian political leadership requires the instrumentality and the power of philosophic wisdom in piloting the affairs of the nigerian nation. this paper is divided into five sections. section one is the introduction. section two focuses on the conceptual clarification of philosophy. section three is anchored on the conceptual clarification of national development. section four reflects on the nexus between philosophy, national development and their implications for nigeria. section five focuses on the conclusion and recommendations. conceptual clarification philosophy every country needs a philosophy for the sake of an ideological direction. philosophy serves as an instrument in piloting the affairs of the state. a deconstructive approach to philosophy showcases that it is both theoretical and practical. jeremy wisnewski (2007, 92-93), argues that philosophy has a practicality function. nigeria’s political scene and development vis-à-vis leadership structure is bedeviled by lack of philosophic wisdom. this is caused by political irresponsibility, bribery and corruption, social vices and other corrupt practices. philosophy plays a critical role in ensuring the sustainable development of a country. philosophy and national development are interrelated because they both centre around human betterment. philosophy is a catalyst for national development. according to nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 350), philosophy serves as a catalyst to national development. accordingly, paulinus ejeh (2021, 197), argues that philosophy enables the human person to change some fundamental beliefs as well as articulate a new direction towards enhancing the quality of human condition. philosophy has moral implications for advancing any country’s quest for national development. for nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 350), philosophy provides a moral lens for national development. philosophy has a definitional difficulty because there is no universally acceptable definition of philosophy. philosophy is derived from two greek words, “philo” and “sophia”. philo means love while sophia means wisdom. etymologically speaking, when put together, it means “the love of wisdom”. for bonachristus umeogu (2012, 10), wisdom, in this context, is the active use of intelligence, not something passive. generally speaking, philosophy is analytical, rational, logical, systematic and abstract in nature. for innocent asouzu (2004, 7), philosophy is the act of critical self-awareness concerning the nature of reality in its most authentic and real constitution and in consideration of the ambivalent character of all human existential situations. however, philosophy is defined in the context of being the mother of all disciplines. according to godfrey ozumba (1996, 1), philosophy by its very nature and scope is a very great discipline. it is an all-embracing, all encompassing, and all comprehensive discipline. being the very root of all human knowledge, we never can conceive any area of knowledge whether in the sciences, arts, social sciences etc that did not remotely or even at close quarters draw its inspiration from philosophy. for william lawhead (2002, xxii), a number of strange ideas about philosophy float around our culture. many people think of philosophy as an optional enterprise—just a detached, erudite hobby for the intellectually elite or the so-called disabled. bertrand russell (1998, 90) in consonance with william lawhead (2002), argues that the study of philosophy is not a waste of time; philosophy like other studies aims at knowledge. according to bertrand russell (1998, 91), the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 174 through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason. based on this theoretical subscription, bertrand russell (1998, 93), further heightened his theoretical position by asserting that philosophic contemplation consists man’s freedom and his liberation from the thralldom of narrow hopes and fears. for izu onyeocha (2020, 1), philosophy is not a luxury, indeed it becomes a necessity just as soon as people are able and willing to think freely about their beliefs. accordingly, celestine mbaegbu (2009, 2) argues that wonder is at the base of all philosophy or philosophies. thus, the first step in the philosophical activity is this wonder that accompanies man’s experiential contact with himself or the world around him. this wonder gives rise to some fundamental questions, and this is the second step. the third step is taken when man begins to reflect on those fundamental questions, in search of answers. philosophy has four major branches such as metaphysics, logic, axiology and epistemology. for a systematic analysis, vivid elucidation and expositional simplicity, it is germane to explain these various branches of philosophy. for instance, metaphysics is derived from two greek words, “meta”and “physika”. “meta” means the beyond while “physika” means the physical. metaphysics is the ultimate search for the fundamental truth or reality of things such as the existence of god, soul, freedom and free will, angels and mind. metaphysics gives meaning to reality. according to pantaleon iroegbu (1995, 24), metaphysics gives the deepest meaning to all reality. it is thus an indispensable aspect of the human enterprise. it sets out to provide a fundamentally needed rational and existential explanation of reality as it affects us especially in its totality and ultimacy. on one hand, logic means the science of reasoning. it deals with the accurate way of reasoning. logic reflects on the inductive and deductive way of reasoning. inductive reasoning is the way of reasoning from the particular to the general while deductive reasoning deals with the way of reasoning from the general to the particular. logic also revolves around symbolic reasoning. accordingly, maduabuchi dukor (2008, 1) argues that logic is an instrument or organ for appraising the correctness of reasoning. the principles of logic or the notions relevant to it are called philosophical logic. the instrument for appraising the validity of reasoning is called formal logic. for maduabuchi dukor (2008, 2), logic studies meaning in general. it studies words like ‘all’, ‘and’, etc as well as sentences. it is the study of language in general and how it corresponds to the world of facts and ideas. on the other hand, axiology is another branch of philosophy that revolves around ethics and aesthetics. ethics is the study that deals with the rightness and wrongness of human behavior while aesthetics is the philosophy of arts or beauty. ethics deals with the motive of human goodness. for pantaleon iroegbu (2005, 22), the motif in ethics is goodness. the good is symbolized as well as expressed in words and actions. the philosophy of the works of art is surrounded by aesthetic appreciation and judgment. however, epistemology is another branch of philosophy that deals with the science of knowledge acquisition. epistemology is derived from two greek words, “episteme” and “logos”. “episteme” means knowledge while “logos” means science. etymologically speaking, when put together, it means the study or science of knowledge. based on this theoretical subscription on the epistemological stance of philosophy, ben eboh (1995, 2) asserts that epistemology is that branch of philosophy that examines the validity or truth of human knowledge. nevertheless, apart from the four major branches of philosophy, philosophy as a discipline touches on other fields of studies such as history, mathematics, astronomy, classics, management studies, economics, biology, science, law, sociology, sports, literature, education, psychology, political science, anthropology, ethnology, religion, language and communication studies. worthy of note is that the interrelationship between philosophy and other fields of victor ogheneochuko . the nexus of philosophy and national development:… 175 studies is what we may refer to as the second order discipline. for maduabuchi dukor (2004, vii), philosophy as a second order discipline, illuminates the concepts of law and justice as well as other substantive subjects. philosophy as a discipline has a broader spectrum in terms of its rational and ultimate search for reality such as god, man and nature. philosophy is broader in scope than just the ultimate search for truth concerning god, man and nature. accordingly, paulinus ejeh (2021, 186) argues that philosophy is a search, a continuous search for meaning, for intelligibility and for answers. national development development, just like philosophy has a definitional difficulty. scholars are quick to define development from the viewpoint of economic growth but it goes beyond the premise of economic transformation. development is one of the crucial elements of democratic sustainability of every country. according to paulinus ejeh(2021, 183), development is very essential and highly necessary to growth and sustenance of any country. for godwin okaneme (2016, 31), development is all about human activity which comes out when the resources of the state are judiciously used for infrastructural and human development. according to andrew efemini (2010, 59-60), development is inextricably linked with human rights. the notion of politics in the state revolves around the need for the promotion of fundamental human rights through the possibility of development strategy. for andrew efemini (2010, 60-61), development cannot strive in an atmosphere of rancor and ethnic sentiments. for anikpe mbah (2016, 21), the term development could be used interchangeably with evolution depending on the contexts in which it is being used, either positively or negatively to refer to situations, trends, or issues. it is clear that development and improvement are synonymous. however, development revolves around the improvement of human welfare, needs and aspirations. nnedum tony and ezeokana jude (2009, 214), argued that development stands for improvement in the provision of good roads and transport system, electric power supply, healthy housing, portable water supply, food security, qualitative/functional education, good health care delivery, impartial justice system, industrialization, environmental sustainability, and general reduction of poverty. anikpe mbah (2016, 21-22) argues that development in a wider context that deals with socioeconomic and political life of society; it connotes the fulfillment, realization or actualization of goals and objectives, hopes and aspirations of that society; and human development is about giving people more freedom, rights and opportunities to live lives they value. according to paulinus ejeh(2021, 190), development equally implies improvement in the material wellbeing of all citizens in society. development demands that poverty and inequality to access the good things of life be removed or drastically reduced. development in all its ramifications revolves around human development. development is deeply rooted in human-centeredness or the people. for pantaleon iroegbu (1994, 83) development is described as humanocentricism. in this vision of the world (weltanschauung), even the gods are at the service of the human person. in other words, development is people oriented. accordingly, anikpe mbah (2016, 22) asserts that the human development approach focuses on improving the lives people lead rather than assuming that economic growth will lead, automatically to greater opportunities for all. development represents the increase in the economic growth and the per capita income of a people. for anikpe mbah (2016, 22-23), income growth is an important means to development, rather than an end in itself. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 176 philosophy and development: the nexus philosophy is aimed at solving practical problems. for gillian howie (2009, 16), this increasing tendency to define practical problems in such an instrumental way is what habermas would describe as “technocratic consciousness”. however, philosophy is deeply rooted in cognitive reflection. accordingly, gillian howie (2009, 17) argues that without such political autonomy, as isaiah berlin and bertrand russell warned, cognitive reflection is assimilated into political function. as jeremy wisnewski (2007) and gillian howie (2009) rightly observed, philosophy does not only have a “practicality function” but “a political function”. philosophy has an apriori commitment to the distinction between transcendental and empirical subjectivity. according to andrea kenkmann (2009, 2) philosophy does not exist in a vacuum, but is embedded in society, it always has political and ethical implications, implications for the future of our society as a whole. philosophy provides us with the tools of critical thinking. a tool that in our consumer society is not only vital to avoid total brainwash and uncritical acceptance of the status quo, but also to create and sustain meaningful communities that shape our future. for andrea kenkmann (2009, 2), philosophy is described as a holistic activity that allows us not only to understand ourselves better but that also informs our relations with the world around us. philosophy has creative and transformative power. teaching philosophy thus cannot be separated from ethics and politics; it reveals how and where we stand. philosophy is embedded in praxis. for finn thorbjorn hansen(2009, 208), philosophical praxis helps human beings to deal with their spiritual and selftransformative moments. philosophy is all about human betterment and the comprehensive conception of the good life. accordingly, iain mackenzie (2009, 3), argues that philosophy is alive and grappling with new ways of thinking about classical problems with a range of newly identified problems and with innovative theoretical paradigm as well. for maduabuchi dukor (2009, xii), philosophy criticizes the mode and the terrain of thought of a people; it is a conscious exercise, reflection, revisionism, and selfcriticism resulting in the laws of thought: the laws of identity, excluded middle and contradiction. according to ike odimegwu (2008, 25), philosophy in itself is important and desirable; it approaches the realm of the fundamental. for ike odimegwu (2008, 28) philosophy is: traditionally defined from the etymological perspective as “the love of wisdom” derived from the greek word “philosophia”, said to have been invented by pythagoras, the term philosophy does not obtain much clarity from its etymological definition. wisdom, or rather its meaning, has been evolving as the philosophy it defines, collecting and dropping shades of signification in the process. the greek word ‘sophia’ had a much wider range of application than the modern english word wisdom. furthermore, ike odimegwu (2008, 35), however, argues that philosophy is rather a ‘philia’ an appreciation, a yearning for, characterized by freedom, dialogue, fluidity, encounter, presence, uniqueness, of company, and continuous freshness of being, and relations. philosophy is deeply rooted in argumentation or critical thinking. accordingly, nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 345-346), argues that philosophy is enmeshed in the web of arguments and counter-arguments, with one system appearing to oppose, refute and annihilate the other. for ike odimegwu (2008, 41-42), philosophy is an activity, a process of critical thought which can only continue in being by being selfcritical. this activity is an instrument whose range of application is not easily delineable. ike odimegwu (2008, 43) further heightened his theoretical position by arguing that philosophy denotes the many largely unconscious intellectual assumptions and habits by which humans live in their different times and climes, their fundamental beliefs and convictions concerning the nature of reality, of human personhood and of society which gives meaning and victor ogheneochuko . the nexus of philosophy and national development:… 177 impetus to thought and action. philosophy attempts to address the justification of human beliefs. based on this theoretical subscription, ike odimegwu (2008, 38) further argues that human beings live by beliefs or system of belief. for godwin okaneme (2016, 28), the question what is philosophy has been a recurring one among most of the philosophical epochs. the question itself makes the subject matter of philosophy more challenging, interesting as well as illuminating. however, in my considered and settled opinion, philosophy is the critical reflection about all aspects of reality. it is in the light of the aforehighlighted, then, that we understand the link between philosophy and development. philosophy from antiquity has championed the cause of human development. based on this this theoretical subscription, anikpe mbah (2016, 24) further heightened his theoretical position by arguing that philosophy considers critical thinking very vital to the development of the cognitive aspect of man. however, man looks forward towards the moral, political, psychological, cognitive, cultural, educational, scientific, technological, historical and linguistic development of his being. according to philip isanbor and anthony bature (2018, 64), the quest for development, more ultimately for the realization of integral human development is the presupposition for the acceptance of change and it takes great trust of moral evaluation to monitor the wave of any possible change. philosophy becomes instrumental in addressing socio-political, educational and economic challenges of any country. accordingly, anikpe mbah (2016, 25), further argues that philosophy delves into the study of the social and political nature of man and his relationship with others. in recognition of the dynamism of humanity and for an organized and stable society, philosophy, in its prescriptive nature, multiplies political options for feasible and reliable governance. in other words, philosophy, governance and development are concepts that are inextricably linked. for godwin okaneme (2016, 31-32), development over the years has become a very crucial factor in international politics and diplomacy as well as in the social sciences and philosophy as well. governance, on the other hand, is also a human activity whose overall aim is to administer men in states from a humane and humanistic disposition. development presupposes the fact that man’s daily activities on earth, he brings his intellectual endowment to bear towards making the world better and friendlier place to live in. development and good governance are interwoven concepts. according to godwin okaneme (2016, 31), philosophy ensures intellectual development of a people while freeing such people from intellectual prejudices and outright ignorance; and governance especially good governance ensures that the rights of citizens are protected and not trampled upon or truncated. accordingly, godwin okaneme (2016, 31-32) further heightened his theoretical position by arguing that development itself is also a human activity that ensures that nations are not stagnated but make steady and verifiable progress in all facets of human endeavours. for nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 345), development means translating from potentiality to actuality, manifesting and bringing out from hiddenness to perceptibility. izu onyeocha (2020, 2) in agreement with nnaemedo bartholomew (2023), argues that development can mean at least three things, 1) a process by which an inner principle that is at first hidden comes to light; 2) it may be a slow, step by step transformation; 3) it may be a transformation that is guided in a definite direction; 4) it can be a transformation that leads from the unformed and less determined to the formed and fully determined. development in nigeria is bedeviled by kleptocratic practices or ill-gotten wealth. based on this theoretical subscription, nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 349), however, argues that unfinished or poorly constructed roads, poor health and educational facilities, and half-baked graduates are all indices of unnecessary outgrowth in our national development. godwin okaneme (2016, 34) aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 178 in agreement with nnaemedo bartholomew (2023) further argues that one of the major challenges of nigerian political leadership is the inability of many nigerian politicians to differentiate between politics as service and politics as the shortest avenue and route to amassing cheap and ill-gotten wealth in the country. development is all about human progress. for chuka enuka (2006, 76), development is seen as that which involves the progress of a people in the society. unfortunately, the socio-political and economic progress of the nigerian people has been truncated by the evils of godfatherism, eliocentric politics, looting of national treasury, political irresponsibility, terror and terrorism or islamic fundamentalism (religious bigotry), lack of electoral reforms, election rigging, electoral fraud, ethnic sentiment, farmersherdsmen clashes, inter/intra tribal conflicts, political thuggery, political assassination and other kleptocratic practices or social crises. worthy of note is that nigeria’s quest for national development has always been threatened by poor democratic governance, political irresponsibility, lack of democratic accountability, corruption and other kleptocractic practices. philosophy is critical in the national development programmes of any country. according to nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 345), one of the issues in philosophy is its relevance to national development. nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 348) further heightened his theoretical position by asserting that every sphere of national development has a specific philosophy behind it. national development is an integral aspect or component of any country and it revolves around every segment of society. accordingly, paulinus ejeh (2021, 192), argues that national development is described as the overall development or a collective socio-economic, political as well as religious advancement of a country. national development is holistic in nature and revolves around the cultural, social, political, economic, scientific, technological, and educational development of every society. national development reflects on humanistic concerns and the holistic principle of ensuring the welfare, improvement and the betterment of all individuals in society. however, national development is feasible and indispensable in a society if it is being driven by effective and visionary leadership. unfortunately, responsible governance is lacking in some countries of the world most especially in some african countries. in other words, good democratic governance remains an indispensable ingredient for national development. moreover, national development cannot and will not strive in a country that is characterized by kleptocratic practices such as looting of the national treasury, electoral fraud, election rigging, godfatherism, eliocentric politics, tribal sentiments, farmers-herdsmen clashes, lack of due process, weak institutions of government, poor legal framework and lack of environmental sustainability and other social vices such as religious bigotry, terror and terrorism, internet fraud, inter/intra tribal conflicts and armed robbery. national development envisages the total, holistic and the comprehensive conception of the good life. nonetheless, national development, just like philosophy is concerned with the comprehensive conception of the good life. national development in any country is guaranteed by good ethical considerations and democratic principles. however, politics is a public process that is aimed at enhancing a country’s national development. for alan thomas (2006, 279), politics is a cognitive matter. the comprehensive conception of the good life as a matter of cognition reflects on human betterment and the idea of the common good. for iain mackenzie (2009, 5), politics is best thought of as the pursuit of the common good. good political setting gives room for national development programmes in a country. the basic structure of society solely depends on the moral restraints of political leaders and the ruled. national development is indispensable for guaranteeing the common good of all and the indispensability of national development is made possible through what alan thomas (2006, 283) calls the fair value of victor ogheneochuko . the nexus of philosophy and national development:… 179 political liberty, fair equality of opportunity and the maximum criterion of distributive equality which emerged as implicit in our initial assumptions and are brought out by conducting a reflective enquiry into our initial assumptions. national development is judged by the millennium development goals (mdgs). based on this theoretical subscription, wangari maathai (2009, 239) asserts that the mdgs offer a useful heuristic device not only as a tool to analyze development in general, but as measures against which the commitment of leaders in both the rich industrialized countries and the developing world to progress in human welfare and sustainable development can and should be judged. evaluating the concepts of philosophy and national development: implications for nigeria every national development programme must have a solid moral footing. philosophy is deeper and wider in scope as an academic discipline. it has a broad range in its attempt to addressing the socio-political, educational, cultural, psychological, scientific, technological and economic challenges of human societies in a changing world. philosophy and national development are inextricably linked and they both aimed at the overall improvement of human societies. based on this theoretical subscription, nnaemedo bartholomew (2023, 348) argues that philosophy links national development to other substructures as it constitutes their base. development in nigeria is in a sorry state. for paulinus ejeh (2021, 180-181), philosophy could play a critical role in redirecting the affairs of the country. nigerian leaders require philosophic wisdom in piloting the affairs of nigeria. philosophy and national development have critical importance in directing the socio-political, educational and economic challenges of nigeria. unfortunately, the socio-political and economic development of nigeria is in a pitiable condition. for paulinus ejeh (2021, 183), national development can only be possible when the leadership of the country is driven or piloted by leadership imbued with philosophic wisdom. sadly, on the scale of the world standard indices, african nations, particularly nigeria is on the baseline or bottom line in development, politically, socio-economically, educationally, and technologically. poverty, unemployment, hunger, starvation, crime, violence, and terrorism now ravage the nation instead of meaningful and sustainable national development. nigeria as a country is bedeviled by infrastructural deficits, lawlessness, social disorderliness, godfatherism, elite politics, bribery and corruption, poor economic policies, lack of people-oriented programmes, weak institutions of government, religious bigotry, terror and terrorism, islamic fundamentalism, poor road network, lack of due process, poor educational system, political irresponsibility, poor democratic governance, political assassination, lack of electoral reforms, election rigging, electoral fraud, farmers-herdsmen clashes, inter/intra tribal conflicts, moral, educational, social, economic and political insecurity. accordingly, gbari sylvester and anselm odo (2021, 202) argued that political insecurity has resulted in violent and desperate politickings among political parties, electoral fraud, election rigging, thuggery, and money politics. electoral fraud poses a major challenge to democracy in nigeria and by implication, a threat to the security of the nation. accordingly, gbari sylvester and anselm odo (2021, 203) argued that ethnoreligious crisis has led to christian and muslims and inter-tribal conflicts. according to emmanuel ebo (2009, 557), conflicts have always been associated with man, since the emergence of human society. emmanuel ebo (2009, 559) argues that nigeria’s democracy has been over buffeted by conflicts of various magnitudes. emmanuel ebo (2009, 568) however, asserts that nigerian representatives must address the issues that may lead to crisis of poverty, political inequality of the regions, infrastructural facilities etc to ensure an equitable distribution of same. there is no gain saying that the nigerian democracy is bedeviled by conflicts and crisis of various imports. for gbari sylvester and anselm odo (2021, 203), intra aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 180 tribal conflicts have been estimated that this alone has wasted over 10, 000 lives since 1999. every little event triggers off suspicion, hatred and killing between the muslims and christians in the northern part of the country and among the various ethnic nationalities. according to the national bureau of statistics cited by gbari sylvester and anselm odo(2021, 203-204), there are about 35 million unemployed youths in the country who are forced to resort to anything that can serve as a means of livelihood. unfortunately, the middle belt region of nigeria has faced prolonged violent clashes between the predominantly christian farmers and the mostly muslims cattle herders. however, apart from political insecurity and ethno-religious crises, nigeria is also bedeviled by serious economic insecurity. accordingly, gbari sylvester and anselm odo(2021, 204) further assert that economic insecurity has resulted to the resource control, hunger, shortage of food, land degradation, destruction of livestocks, fishes and marine life. all these socio-political and economic challenges serve as major hindrances to nigeria’s quest for national development. worthy of note is that nigeria’s quest for national development is also bedeviled by lack of environmental sustainability. furthermore, environmental degradation has ravaged nigeria’s quest for economic sustainability. development in nigeria is nothing to write good report of. based on this theoretical subscription, paulinus ejeh (2021, 180), argues that the pride of any government has been and will continue to be the attainment of higher level of development such that its citizens would derive natural attachment to leadership and governance. for godwin okaneme (2018, 4-5), leadership and governance require political will. nigerian political leadership lacks the political will; the goodwill that will turn around the fortunes of the generality of all in nigerian society. for innocent asouzu (2003, 159), only the man of goodwill can submit himself to a higher form of legitimization. accordingly, innocent asouzu (2003, 163) argues that it is as men of goodwill that we can be truly human and compassionate. based on this asouzuian tradition, nigerian political leaders ought to be humane and compassionate in their attempt to control the state of affairs of the country. unfortunately, nigerian political leaders are corrupt, dictatorial, heartless, inhumane and they are deeply rooted in various forms of kleptocratic practices. in addition, corruption is antithetical to nigeria’s quest for national development. it is against humanity and the collective interests of a people. corruption is counter-productive and antihuman and it has served as cog in the wheel of nigeria’s developmental progress. for n.m eribo and m.a izibili (2010, 29), corruption reigns supreme in elitist regimes as the allocation of state’s resources are for the benefit of the mighty that is the ruling class at the expense of the ruled. according to subrata murkherjee and sushila ramaswamy (2011, 144), corruption means the subordination of public values to the private sphere. corruption is when the public sphere was used to furthering private aims and interests. for chris okoli (2010, 59), nigeria’s embrace and romance with corruption amazed the world. as paulinus ejeh(2021, 181) rightly observed, nigeria and other less developed countries of the world have continuously wallowed in the swampy and muddy waters of urban overpopulation, rural stagnation, acute unemployment and growing manmade inequalities. for paulinus ejeh (2021, 197), thus, a dose of philosophy is not only necessary but expedient to enable nigerian leaders to appreciate our political heritage. national development has been stagnated by ineffective leadership in nigeria. on the other hand, godwin okaneme (2018, 4) in his theoretical analysis argues that nigeria has been the way it is developmentally speaking, mainly due to poor and ineffective leadership. leadership responsibility is a very onerous or arduous task that requires selflessness, humility, intelligence, moral probity, managerial competence, listening skill, and enthusiasm. nigerian political leadership is characterized by an inordinate ambition. national development requires good governance and effective leadership structure. accordingly, jack victor ogheneochuko . the nexus of philosophy and national development:… 181 aigbidion and idjakpo (2010, 6), argued that the problem of governance in nigeria is traceable to inordinate ambition and unwillingness of political leaders to make necessary sacrifices for the unity of the country; crass ignorant and inexperienced leadership, corruption and greed, and inability to learn from history and turn a new leaf are some of the ills of the african elites and these are responsible for our inability to govern ourselves and by spearheading the need for national development in nigeria. the philosophy of national development cannot be feasible in a country or a continent whereby some african leaders are embarrassing the african continent. for denis venter (2004, 229), as africa is entering the new millennium, there is a profound sense of hope being frustrated, of stereotypes being reaffirmed, once again of some african countries like nigeria whereby some persons are embarrassing the continent. democracy in africa is primarily focused on political reform. african leaders fear such a situation due to the evils of corruption and inordinate ambition. accordingly, denis venter (2004, 229-230), argues that: the emphasis on ‘governance’ is designed to address the corrupt, capricious and arbitrary practices, which seem to afflict africa’s politicians and bureaucrats. efforts to create an economically enabling environment and build administrative and other capacities will be wasted if the political context is not favourable; ultimately, better governance requires political renewal and a concerted attack on corruption. this can be done by strengthening the transparency and accountability of representative bodies (inter alia, by free elections in a multiparty system), by encouraging public debate, by nurturing press freedom and civil society organizations, and by maintaining the rule of law and an independent judiciary. conclusion and recommendations so far, this paper has examined the interface between philosophy, national development and their implications for nigeria. however, national development has always been threatened by poor democratic governance, political irresponsibility, lack of democratic accountability, environmental sustainability, and corruption. national development is an integral aspect of any country. national development is holistic in nature and revolves around the cultural, social, political, economic, scientific, technological, and educational development of a people. national development reflects on humanistic concerns and the holistic principle of ensuring human improvement. this paper, then, recommends that: 1. nigeria should holistically address its national development strategy to pave the way for the overall human capital development of all. 2. nigerian political leadership should be devoid of corruption. 3. nigeria as a country should ensure effective national security policy that could galvanize the need for national development. 4. nigerian political leadership should ensure even distribution of natural and human resources in order to guarantee equality of opportunity of all. 5. nigeria should create the atmosphere for an economically enabling environment through the instrumentality of national philosophy. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 1, april 2025. issn: 2786-9792 182 references asouzu, i. 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(2007). wittgenstein and ethical enquiry: a defense of ethics as clarification. continuum international publishing group. 55 nigerian survival in the emerging ‘sapa’ culture and administration: the marxian interrogation philip osarobu isanbor department of philosophy, seminary of all saints, ekpoma, nigeria. email: philip.isanbor@uniben.edu & paul olorunsola folorunso department of philosophy, ekiti state university, ado ekiti, nigeria. email: folorunsopaul30@gmail.com abstract the “sapa” is a socio-economic syndrome of living and existing (situations occasioned by a very high cost of living and the sustainability of institutional corruptions and mismanagement of public funds and resources) that has becoming a culture of survival, as a symptom of nigeria’s unequal economic structure, which strongly emerged during buhari’s presidential administration and been sustained by tinubu’s presidential administration. such culture of survival in the midst of wants highlights the need for policies that reduce wealth gaps and improve opportunities for young people. viewing “sapa” through a marxist lens reveals the urgency for economic reform to address the challenges facing nigeria’s youth. “sapa” is more than just slang; it reflects real economic hardships experienced by nigerian youth due to high unemployment, inflation and limited social support. existing research on poverty and inequality in nigeria tends to focus on statistics and policy impacts, but it rarely considers the cultural expressions and language that capture the emotional and social dimensions of these economic struggles. employing analytic, dialectic and hermeneutics methods of analysis, the conclude by providing a new perspective by examining "sapa" as a cultural indicator of class based frustration and discontent, increasing the understanding of poverty's impact on nigerian youth, and thenm suggesting the imports of proper management of capitalistic consciousness in government and governance for the improvement of masses’ welfares and development. keywords: class struggle, capitalism, development, economic inequality, marxism, sapa. introduction in a quest to attain and sustain great economic height and stability, man has employed several strategies and approaches. philosophers have given their views on equality, economic stability and political facts (isanbor & izibili, 2024; isanbor & ukagba, 2024a). karl marx is one philosopher who worked on checkmating the economic and political statues of the state. judging from the works of other philosophers; john locke, thomas hobbes and jean jacque rousseau who in the social contract theories explained human’s nature in reference or in relations to his or her political will and power, and in industrial relations, his or her negotiating power in trading his or her labour power and values in the means of production (isanbor, 2023). for some thinkers, the state of nature was and still brutish, selfish and greedy, and like the owners of the means of production who maximize production profits to the detriment of the welfare of the worker. as such, the oppressed masses and workers do whatever they have to just to survive and to get what they have as in ethical hedonism. mailto:philip.isanbor@uniben.edu mailto:folorunsopaul30@gmail.com philip & paul nigerian survival in the emerging ‘sapa’ culture and.. 56 sapa is a term coined and commonly used by nigerians to mean chronic hunger which is as a result of economic hardship and poverty. this kind of hunger entails lack of the basic needs of life as a result of the economic state of the country (isanbor & izibili, 2024; isanbor & ukagba, 2024a). as a culture, it is a group of signs or symptoms whose appearance together usually indicates a particular social disorder along the courses of living a pattern or series of events, observed qualities etc. characteristic of a particular problem or condition (isanbor & ojebun, 2022; ihensekhein & isanbor, 2023; isanbor & ukagba, 2024b). sapa can now be seen as a sign of the effect of the social class struggle in the country which have led to poverty and economic hardship to those who happen to be in the lower class. the paper is hinged on analyzing marx’s theories on class struggle and inequality, the socioeconomic problems and their effects on the youths and the country at large, including the danger which capitalism as an economic system has posed the nation, on the effects of sapa culture as an tinubu’s administrative enigma. though not conclusive, this work will with the theory of karl marx attempts an overview of the present economic situation of the country; poverty and chronic hunger being its effects on the citizens. marxist theories on class struggles, exploitation and economic inequality marxism is a socio-economic theory developed by karl marx (1818-1883). he is the german economist and political philosopher. with his works and public advocacies, he stated that the struggle between different social classes is the main influence of political and social change, and that communism will eventually replace capitalism (isanbor, 2023; 2024a). karl marx in the first chapter of his work, ‘the communist manifesto’ gives a grim picture of human history as a continuous struggle between the haves and the have-note, the exploiters and the exploited (lawhead, 2015). in the modern era and if brought to the present state of nigeria, it is between two classes; the bourgeoisie who are the capitalists, owners of production industries as well as the middle class citizens who benefit from the present economic system of the country (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). while the second half of the society is made up of the proletariat who owning no property must survive by selling their labor as commodity to the elite class so as to survive. with the concern marx had for the children, women and men of the working class of his time who in his work, ‘capital’ he took time to explain how the suffer and fight daily to survive, one would wonder what he would say about the present economic state of nigeria where the working class do all in their power; working day and night from place to place and are still denied their pay for the job done (isanbor, 2023; 2024a). the striving of some members of the society always conflicts with that of others. this striving has been experienced through times and geographical locations and the nature of this conflict differ with the various situations, modes of life of the classes into which the society is divided (lawhead, 2015). since the great french revolution through the modern age, the victory of the bourgeoisies has shown itself very obviously to be the main cause of certain trouble in the economic system of the state. karl marx also in his communist manifesto explains that among all the classes that confront the bourgeoisies, only the proletariat is really a revolutionary (isanbor, 2023; 2024a). others are conservative as they only fight to hold the existence of their own means of production or industry as the case may be (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). these middle class only act as revolutionary only to protect their future interest and not the imminent interest of all. there therefore fight so as not to fall to the level of the proletariat. marx explained how every class struggle is a political struggle and the position of each separate class (lenin, 1930). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 57 in an attempt to define class difference in the society, lenin held that the most distinguishing factor is their relationship to the means of production (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). he refutes the idea of some bourgeois sociologists who hold that the difference between these classes is that the capitalist class (the bourgeoisies) receives profit from the means of production while the workers (the proletariat) work to receive their wage (isanbor, 2023; 2024a). a capitalist is not who he is because he receives profit but because he owns a means of production and the wage worker also is not such just because he works to receive a wage but because he is denied the means of production and has to work for a capitalist (lenin, 1930). the mode of distributing the social incomes and the size of share depends on the relationship with the means of production and this as lenin noted, is in most cases is formalized by the law (isanbor, 2023). the relation of the means of production defines the place of a class in a historically determined system of social production and its role in the social organization of labor. the class struggle becomes very evident as the exploiters oppress the exploited while the exploited work hard to get rid of exploitation and the exploiters (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). this struggle is at first not seen by the inattentive eyes but with time especially in times of revolutions and counter-revolutions, it becomes obvious and affects both the political, economic and ideological life of the society as it begins to acquire the characters of an armed struggle. these exploiters see the act of exploitation as necessary to increase their wealth and to maintain their social standard (zotov, 1985: 115). some have agreed that the class struggle have done well in the society. for instance, that if not for this struggle, there cannot be transition from the old socio-economic system to the new. another point is that, though this struggle have claimed lives and led to damaged properties, it has affected the exploiters more than the exploited (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). this view, marx and engels have totally rejected stating that the inhabitation of the factors of class struggle have greatly motivated the development of antagonistic societies (isanbor: 2023; 2024a). as also stated in the marxist-leninist theory of society, capitalism cannot just collapse automatically but will lead to a fight between the rising members of the working class and the business owners. here the workers will be fighting to go back to the primitive age the ‘golden age’ where there was no private ownership of properties while the capitalists will fight to defend and protect their owned properties (zotov, 1985). this statement towards the fight from the marxist-leninist party is soon to be the case of the country nigeria as the number of the proletariat has now risen to a great number that so many can no longer feed themselves and their families, while a very few members are getting richer by day, acquiring properties worldwide. marxist analyses of socio-economic problems in developing nations marx believed that western society had developed through four main epochs: primitive communism, ancient society, feudal society, and capitalist societies. primitive communism is represented by the societies of pre-history and provides the only example of a classless society (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). from then on, all societies became divided into two major classes: masters and slaves in ancient society, otherwise known as slave society, lords and serfs in feudal society and capitalists and wage laborers in capitalist society (zotov, 1985: 119). marx's theory of work and his attitude toward capitalism led him to his theory of human self-alienation. marx believed that workers became alienated from themselves because of the three exploitative features of capitalism. first, since work can be a form of self creativity, it should be enjoyable, marx reasoned (isanbor & izibili, 2024; isanbor & ukagba, 2024a). yet, philip & paul nigerian survival in the emerging ‘sapa’ culture and.. 58 because the capitalists squeeze every possible cent of profit from the workers, they make the conditions of work intolerable (zotov 1985: 119). consequently, instead of enjoying work or the act of self-creation, the members of the proletariat grow to hate the very process by which they could refine their own natures. in all, marx believed that capitalists must exploit the workers to produce a profit. the capitalists force the workers to sell the product of their labour and then use that product against the workers to exploit them further (isanbor & ojebun, 2022; ihensekhein & isanbor 2023; isanbor & ukagba, 2024b). this, marx claimed, forces the workers to regard their own product, something that is actually part of them, as alien and even harmful to them; thus, it becomes another form of self-alienation (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). marx must have seen the present situation of nigeria to have postulated this theory as it gives the exact fate of the nigerian economy. alienation reaches its height in capitalist society, where labor is dominated by the requirements of capital, the most important of which is the demand for profit. these requirements determine levels of employment and wages, the nature and quantity of goods produced, and their method of manufacture. capitalism condemns to beggary and hardship millions of needy peasants and urban poor, many thousands of lumbering proletariats who always suffer more than the proletariat (konstantinov, bogomolov & gav, 1982). workers see themselves as prisoners of market forces over which they have no control. they are subject to the impersonal mechanisms of the law of supply and demand. they are at the mercy of the periodic rise and fall that distinguish capitalist economies (mutuila, 2013). the workers, therefore, lose control over the objects they produce and become alienated from their product and the act of production. their work becomes a means to an end, a means of obtaining money to buy the goods and services necessary for their existence. the socio-economic conditions of youth in nigeria the socio-economic and political environment in nigeria poses a great challenge to the youths. economic and social statistics present a thought provoking picture that leaves much to be desired. almost half a century after flag independence, the economy continues to be dominated by the primary sectors such as agriculture, oil and minerals. this is partly because the country has not been able to create an environment for high value added economic activities (isanbor, 2016; 2017, isanbor & egbonu, 2024; isanbor & edema, 2022). there is low domestic capital formation and declining direct foreign investment, with the exemption of the oil and gas sectors, until recently very heavy indebtedness, high unemployment and the informality of the economy where the majority of its people live in great poverty (derrida, 1994: 75). nigeria performs very poorly in terms of global economic competitiveness. the country lacks basic social and physical infrastructure. as a result, most people on the country have no access to basic services such as potable water, electricity, good sanitation, roads and healthcare. all of this is coupled with a high illiteracy rate, especially among women. the lack of access to basic medical care occurs against a backdrop of ravaging diseases; a situation which has become exacerbated with the advent of the hiv/aids epidemic. the consequences of not fully developing and harnessing youth’s potential could be dire, including significant economic losses, armed conflict, and political and social upheaval and instability as demonstrated recently by the arab spring. youths are more likely to become frustrated because of legitimate grievances, including a lack of employment opportunities, low educational attainment, little participation in decision making and low social mobility (derrida, 1994). in this context, greedy and opportunistic politicians could even exploit these grievances by involving these frustrated youths in violent overthrows of legitimate governments creating massive instabilities that could limit the economic growth of africa’s countries, especially aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 59 nigeria (isanbor, 2016; 2017, isanbor & egbonu, 2024; isanbor & edema, 2022). specifically these challenges are discussed below: unemployment and underemployment: a large number of youths are unemployed worldwide. the economic growth rate has not been sufficient to create enough employment opportunities to absorb the increasing labor force of about 500,000 annually. only about 25% of youths are absorbed, leaving 75% to bear the burden of unemployment. furthermore, some of those absorbed in the labor market have jobs that do not match their qualifications and personal development goals as highly evident in nigeria (mutuila, 2013). this new level of unemployment that is more like a well-calculated deregulation of a new market today deserves another name for it has lead to what the in french is called the “new poverty” which is in this work termed “sapa” health related problems: currently, due to increasing effects of poverty and very lack of the provision of health care facilities, the masses, especially the children and youths, have been very susceptible to various types of diseases (mutuila, 2013). young people ages 15-24 have the highest infection rates from hiv/aids and other sexually transmitted diseases. the youths face a myriad of health related problems, including widespread malaria, malnutrition, unsafe abortions, hiv/aids and sexually transmitted infections (stis), drug and substance abuse as well as poor access to health services. increasing school and college drop-out rates: in the developing world, nearly one-third of youths are illiterate. many youths drop out of school and college due to the high cost of education and increase in overall poverty levels, poor returns on investment in education and lack of a re-admission policy for teenage mothers, among other reasons (mutuila, 2013). these reasons for the increased school drop-outs are bordered on the increased rate of the low income earnings by the parents and guardians. these were sustained by the emerging sapa culture. crime and deviant behavior: evidence suggests that youths with few economic prospects and limited political voice are more inclined to be radical, fundamentalist, revolutionary, or to abuse drugs or commit suicide (mutuila, 2013). due to idleness, especially after formal education, the youths become restless and try anything. some end up in crime or with deviant behaviors; prostitution, fraud, kidnapping, ritual killings. owing to their vulnerability also, the youths are exposed to sexual abuse, child labor and other forms of economic exploitation under the guise of employment and support. there is currently little protection from the authorities. limited participation and lack of opportunities: about 17 million women ages 15-19 give birth every year and have more children than women who start childbearing later. the risk of birth complications is 25 times higher for girls under age 15 and two times higher for those between ages 15-19. despite their numerical superiority, youths are the least represented in political and economic spheres due to societal attitudes, socio-cultural and economic barriers, and lack of proper organization. not even sport facilities are made available for youths to send their time productively and finding their talent. the youths cannot exploit career, business and education opportunities available because they lack access to ict, due to unavailability especially in rural areas, and high costs (odeh & okechukwu, 2014). they then make use of their technological knowledge to defraud and steal from people “yahoo! yahoo!” and they do this using for their justification the unemployment in the country. this extends to the point that they now use fetish means such as going to witch doctors to perform sacrifices for their fraudulent activity, joining different cultic groups and even engaging in ritual killing just for the progress of their cyber crime. philip & paul nigerian survival in the emerging ‘sapa’ culture and.. 60 limited social security: many youths, especially those in the urban areas, do not have access to decent housing in environments that favor healthy living. many of these homeless people are not given the privilege to participate in the democratic life of the state (derrida, 1994). among these factors that increase the economic hardship in nigeria also includes personal greed of the political leaders as seen in; the excessive number of advisers and senior advisers, unscrupulous salaries and allowances paid to them, numerous official vehicles and foreign trips, introduction of security votes for governors, undisclosed extra budgetary expenditure and high payment for all those around them (ihensekhein & isanbor, 2023; isanbor & onwudinjo, 2024). these expenses have a great deed of effect on the citizens and the civil servants as most times before the payment of salaries get to the, the allocated money for that would have been exhausted by those on the top thereby leading to the civil servants not being paid for various month as though they work for nothing in nigeria. they are denied their just wage thereby falling into hunger and suffering. capitalism: economic inequality and sustaining the “sapa” culture in nigeria capitalism which is an economic system in which the means of production, exchange and distribution of goods and services are in the hands of private persons, providing or borrowing the necessary capital and taking profits after all the costs of the production have been met (dibie, 1999: 26). hence, the elements of the capitalist system are the profit motive, wage labor, economic competition and private property which marx takes to mean the means of production; small or large, owned by these capitalists (isanbor & igboin, 2022; isanbor, 2024b). the goal of these capitalists is to sell their produced commodity so as to get money to produce more to make more profit, then reinvest and keep accumulating wealth by exploiting wage labors. the lower the laborer is paid, the more profit the capitalist makes (dibie, 1999: 27). this hunger for more by the capitalists does not only bring conflict between them and their works but also an unhealthy competition with fellow capitalists which at the end will fall back to the workers who will be extorted so as to make more profit (lawhead, 2015: 415). hence, the fact that nigeria as a country also practices or employs this system on its own leads to the retention of this sapa as the bourgeoisie who control production and availability of these goods and services which are essential for human’s daily life may begin to hoard them thereby making the people suffer lack (mutuila, 2013). other times also, due to their quest for so much profit, they may fix prices that will be too much for the common person to afford and following the economic state of the present nigeria, people now spend more than they earn. this implies, in the affirmative, the values of the common saying among common nigerians that, “the rich keep getting richer while the poor keep getting poorer” (isanbor, 2023; isanbor & idemudia, 2024). this saying is now very obvious as the rich and the elite in the society are still able to build expensive houses and live lavishly while the poor are finding it more difficult to fend for themselves and their families. the bourgeoisies continue to compromise their employees by reducing or delaying their payments of salaries and by denying the masses of what they are entitled to. from analysis, we will understand that karl marx must have seen himself as a prophet since almost all he said of the economic system “capitalism” which nigeria practices are obviously surfacing. the reality of abject poverty which as currently nicknamed as ‘sapa’ has become the fate of the common nigeria. in the name of governance, the rich as the politicians are doing as much as exploiting the poor to increase their wealth (isanbor, 2023; isanbor & idemudia, 2024). this also extends to the country’s political system where the electoral commission who should be the accountable to the people is now compromised; these bourgeoisies use their money to make their way to victory in their political carrier then when they get there they loot aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 61 as much as they can, to replace their campaign expenses and to make profits. they are the capitalist because when they embezzle public finds they invest them in production processes for profit thereby placing those whose money has been embezzled to be the workers. the youths suffer this since they are the labor force and are employed to work instead of being given the opportunity to be productive. many global problems have a particularly strong impact on youths. in some cases, such as the spread of diseases or frustration due to political disenfranchisement, these problems have farreaching consequences (isanbor & igboin, 2022; isanbor, 2024b). focusing on youths will substantially boost efforts by nigeria and other nations to; stop the spread of, and heal the suffering, caused by diseases, create a stable global economic system that equitably benefits people in all nations, both poor and rich, promote political stability based on participation and human rights, limit the number of economic and war related refugees and internally displaced people, stem the tide of fundamentalism, terrorism, and hatred, moderate population growth, promote equal rights for all. marxism holds that the capitalist system inherently exploits the working class, creating a perpetual struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. sapa culture as a syndrome, rooted in systemic poverty and economic inequality, can be interpreted through this lens of marxian conception of alienation, and resulting to the less self-worth of the nigerian youth in their pursuit of greener pastures in the foreign countries where they are largely unwelcomed. in nigeria, the vast wealth generated from natural resources like oil is concentrated in the hands of political and economic elite, while the majority of the population remains impoverished (isanbor & igboin, 2022; isanbor, 2024b). the youth, often unemployed or underemployed, experience sapa as a manifestation of this exploitation. the disparity between the ruling class and the proletariat in nigeria aligns with marxist notions of economic exploitation. the failure of wealth redistribution policies, coupled with systemic corruption, reflects the dominance of bourgeois elite controlling the means of production and resources. marx’s concept of alienation describes the estrangement of workers from the products of their labor, their own humanity, and society under capitalism. in nigeria, alienation is evident in the disconnection between the youth’s educational qualifications and the economic opportunities available. sapa syndrome represents the reflections of the alienation of many nigerian youths, as the promise of upward mobility through education is undermined by systemic unemployment and underemployment. the nigerian economy’s overreliance on oil and the neglect of other productive sectors, such as agriculture and manufacturing, exacerbate this alienation. the youth, unable to engage in meaningful labor, remain trapped in cycles of poverty, mirroring the alienation as marx described (isanbor, 2023). hence, marx’s historical materialism emphasizes the role of economic structures in shaping societal development. nigeria’s post-colonial economic trajectory, characterized by dependency on foreign capital and neoliberal policies, has perpetuated underdevelopment (isanbor, 2023; isanbor & idemudia, 2024). the emerging and sustaining sapa culture as a syndrome is a direct outcome of these structural imbalances, where the majority lacks access to resources and opportunities. marxism provides a framework for understanding how nigeria’s integration into the global capitalist system has entrenched economic dependency, leading to chronic financial instability for the masses. while marxism emphasizes class struggle, it may oversimplify the complexities of nigeria’s socioeconomic landscape, especially in the effectual presence of economic scarcity and high cost of living, as occasioned by the corruption and mismanagement of public funds and philip & paul nigerian survival in the emerging ‘sapa’ culture and.. 62 resources by the elites in powers (isanbor, 2023; isanbor & idemudia, 2024). the nigerian reality is shaped not only by class but also by ethnicity, religion, and regionalism. these factors often intersect with economic inequality, complicating the narrative of a binary struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat. marxism’s focus on class does not adequately account for the ways in which ethnic and religious divisions are manipulated by elites to maintain power, diverting attention from economic exploitation (isanbor & igboin, 2022; isanbor, 2024b). we can infer so strongly that marxism as a socio-economic theory of development primarily addresses formal labour markets and industrial production, especially as these factors of development dependence on national interests, but a significant portion of nigeria’s economy operates in the informal sector of the economy and other models of socialization. the informal economy, characterized by small scale trading, artisanal work, and subsistence farming, sustains millions but often lacks stability or legal protections. sapa culture is exacerbated by the precarious nature of informal work, which marxism does not fully address. the theory’s industrial focus makes it less applicable to economies like nigeria’s, where informal labor dominates. marxism was developed in the context of industrializing europe and does not provide clear solutions for post-colonial nations grappling with the dual legacies of colonialism and global capitalism. in nigeria, sapa culture is tied to structural adjustment programmes (saps), debt dependency, and global trade imbalances issues that require nuanced solutions beyond marxist prescriptions of proletarian revolution or state control of resources. marxism’s prescriptions may be too idealistic or impractical in addressing the entrenched corruption and weak institutions of post-colonial states like nigeria (isanbor, 2023; isanbor & idemudia, 2024). hence, marxism often downplays the role of culture in shaping economic behavior. in nigeria, societal expectations, such as the financial obligations of extended families, amplify the effects of sapa syndrome. these cultural factors, which influence spending habits and financial stability, are not adequately addressed within a marxist ideology. capitalism for concentrate wealth and power in the hands of a few but does not adequately account for the role of political corruption and institutional weakness, which are endemic in nigeria.sapa syndrome is exacerbated by systemic corruption, where state resources meant for development are siphoned off by corrupt elite. for example, nigeria’s oil wealth, which could be redistributed to alleviate poverty, is frequently embezzled by government officials. the absence of robust regulatory frameworks and enforcement mechanisms enables exploitation and inequality to persist unchecked. this institutional decay is a legacy of colonialism, compounded by the elite’s deliberate undermining of governance structures (isanbor, 2023; isanbor & idemudia, 2024). marxism’s focus on economic systems does not sufficiently address how corruption and weak institutions amplify economic inequality and perpetuate poverty. it offers no clear roadmap for rebuilding governance in nations like nigeria where institutional collapse has intensified socio-economic instability. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 63 conclusion the application of marxism to the sapa culture in nigeria provides a view for understanding the systemic economic inequalities and chronic financial instability faced by many citizens, particularly the youth. marxism shows the exploitative dynamics of capitalism, the alienation of labor, and the concentration of wealth in the hands of privileged elite, all of which are evident in nigeria’s socio-economic structure. through this perspective, sapa syndrome or culture will become a constant reality in the minds of suffering nigerian youths if the nigerian political and socio-economic situations remain the same. it can be viewed as a direct consequence of the country’s integration into a global capitalist system and its internal failure to equitably distribute resources to affect positively the lives of nigerians, and which the current nigerian governments have not to be judged or ready to change. philip & paul nigerian survival in the emerging ‘sapa’ culture and.. 64 references armstrong, e. 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(1985). the marxist-leninist theory of society. translated by progress publishers.moscow: progress publishers. https://doi.acjol.org/10.71016/tp/cvccbq76 10 metamodernism through the lenses of epistemology ovwata success onojieruo department of philosophy, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria sovwataonojieruo@gmail.com abstract this paper interrogates the idea of metamodernism against the background of a claim for the demise of postmodernism, evaluating the extent to which postmodernist perspectives cause an implosion for its ideology, while at the same time setting the background for an elaboration of the metamodernist schema. in placing modernism, postmodernism and metamodernism on a holistic ideological scale, the paper argues for a re-conception of these terms on an ideological as opposed to a historical notation, which aids the perception of all three conceptions as being historically overlapping and existing in the same era. thus metamodernism is treated as an offshoot of a postmodernist adoption of modernism. furthermore, the arguments developed attempt to synergize both postmodern and metamodern ideological schemas as fundamentally grounded in an approach which sees philosophical engagements as being an integral aspect of the human culture; while at the same time pushing for a redefinition of knowledge within the subset of a virtual environment (virtual epistemology). keywords: modernism, postmodernism, post-postmodernism, metamodernism, virtual epistemology. introduction the nature and manner of epistemic concerns are such that while the question of truth, belief and justification remain its fundamental layer for analysis, the construction of knowledge consistently evolves by refining itself into areas and limits that seem even less plausible, challenging the very conditions against which theories and presuppositions on truth and justification can be laid. one such area is the redefinition of social knowledge within the circles of what has now been termed as ‘the modernisms’; modernism, postmodernism and metamodernism. this paper intends to focus on the metamodern by examining the idea of metamodernism through an interrogation of the stylistic distinctions between the modern, postmodern and metamodern, treating them as ideological systems rather than historical periods. the paper focuses on the ideology of postmodernism in its first section, interrogating how the postmodernist idea implodes based on the objectivist relativist argument upon which a large chunk of its ideological energy has been spent. in the second section, the paper interrogates the idea of metamodernism as a post postmodernist concept, rather than a historical period, from what lenses the last two sections treat metamodernism in its own right, through a presentation of its epistemic tensions and an exposition of virtual epistemology as the central point of focus for a metamodern epistemology. as this paper argues, metamodernism creates its scheme of operations, wherein in cyberculture; it collapses the analogue model of modernism, and the digital model of postmodernism, into a virtual model. in knowledge construction; it combines modern objectivism with postmodern relativism and pluralism, seeing both as relevant narratives and ideological systems without committing or expressing fidelity to any. similarly, in the social sphere; metamodernism basks mailto:sovwataonojieruo@gmail.com aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 11 in what vermeulen and akker (2010) have conceptualized as a both-neither dynamic, which embraces stark opposites and basks in the euphoria of rejection and acceptance, hostility and consolidation, etcetera. the endpoint of its interrogation is on the lack of any definite end point, its continuous flow of epistemic interrogations, its recreation of the social into the ‘new social’ vis-à-vis; the virtual, and its ability to grapple with conflicting ideologies in a much different way from postmodernism. thus, the first point of interrogation for this paper is the idea of postmodernism, and the underlying grounds for a declaration of its demise, in the face of metamodern ideological flourish. the demise of post-modernism whether or not postmodernism had real boundaries would remain a basic ‘problematic’, but its very intrinsic nature of being a confluence of so many alternatives cum alternate realities, factored-in ideologies, and divergent methodologies may not be unrelated to the nitty-gritty of practical chaos. an obvious juxtaposition remains its ironical non-exaltation of the human agency, and its ability to navigate a conceptualization even of a post-human world from the lenses of anti-humanism (see braidotti, 2013). rorty argued that a charge of relativism –a charge to which postmodernism has had its fair share of such categorization– gains traction against the background existence of objectivity. this draws the permutation that eliminating objective standards would engender the disappearance of any charge to relativism (misak, 2011). this in a way, may be styled as a fundamental aspect of lyotard’s conception of postmodernism as being against grand narratives, to which “we can resort neither to the dialectic of spirit nor even to the emancipation of humanity as a validation for postmodern scientific discourse, but… the little narrative [petit recit] remains the quintessential form of imaginative invention” (lyotard, 1979, p. 60). but, to what extent can such a conception be said to exist within the subset of a world which grapples after the objective? in all sectors of the mind processes, something tangible seems an obvious reality, and reality itself becomes something tangible. on reasonable ground, one might call g. e. moore's truisms an assertion of this reality. for example; in his conception, certain aspects of the human entity and experiences were true as they were, undeniable in the very word of it, for which any attempt at a definition could lead to a naturalistic fallacy (moore, 1903). moore argued that certain basic elements were undeniably objective in nature, “for example that he has body, (meaning that a material body exists at least), that he lives on the surface of the earth (meaning that the earth exists), that he was born a certain number of years ago (meaning that time exists and is real), that the earth itself existed for several years before he was born, and so on” (omoregbe, 1991, p. 112). moore’s simple style of making these common-sensical arguments though seen in some quarters as naïve, yet paved the way for a clear realization that philosophy could and should appeal to common sense. this meant that philosophy had to deal with the world as it were, rather than appeal to some abstract and metaphysical phenomenon which had no bearing on human reality. although his argument was pushed against the extreme metaphysical presuppositions of the british idealists (datta, 1961) the basic juxtaposition of his truisms draws on the very nature of reality, wherein certain commonsensical ideas could serve as an obvious refutation to other forms of extremities existing within the human thought process. however, russell's perspective of shedding doubts even on reality within the subset of his logical atomistic position, most especially embedded in his notion of viewing reality as a product of logical fiction, wherein he argues that “in all cases where you seem to have a continuous entity persisting through changes, what you have to do is to ask yourself what makes you consider the successive appearances as belonging to one thing. when you have found out what makes you take the view that they belong to the same ovwata success metamodernism through the lenses.. 12 thing, you will then see that that which has made you say so, is all that is certainly there in the way of unity.” (russell, 1918, p. 115) this unity as he argues can be more categorized as being logical fictions ; “those things which are supposed to be part of the ultimate constituents of the world, but not to be the kind of thing that is ever empirically given.” (russell, 1918, p. 113, see also p. 115). still, russell’s obvious downplay of his position serves to presume it is a product of some far-pushed metaphysical presuppositions. while on the one hand, moore’s position affirms reality to which russell’s idea of logical fiction serves to tune down the strength of commonsensical arguments, a basic line of synergy between both juxtapositions draws on the methodology (in accepting the existence of something objective; commonsensical for moore, and fictional for russell) which could be of an advantage in accurately capturing reality, than the obvious inconsistencies within the later-postmodernist narrative wherein all attempts at comprehending reality becomes factored into the dynamic of ‘relative realities’. this poses a basic question as to how exactly the benchmark for truth could be measured if every permutation about reality is factored in as being true. to some extent, rorty’s epistemological behaviourism can be seen as playing a vital role in providing some clarifying arguments. rorty argued that knowledge could be conceived as being a product of social agreements; thus the essence of epistemological behaviourism serves to look at the construction of knowledge from the perspective of what society lets us say rather than what there is, as he opines; “explaining rationality and epistemic authority by reference to what society lets us say, rather than the latter by the former, is the essence of what i shall call ‘epistemological behaviorism’" (rorty, 1979, p. 174). while an obvious reality of rorty’s position is its obvious reality; that is, rorty’s assertion served to describe what plays out in the real world, thus bringing to bear a wholesome explanation for the differences in understanding divergent perspectives on reality and conceptions on the nature of things. rorty’s position of social construction for knowledge does not negate the existence of certain aspects within even differing constructions, which overlap each other. this becomes the fulcrum of arguments on the very existence of concepts in philosophy, culture and religion, which can be deemed to transcend cultural boundaries, vis-avis; concepts seen as universal in nature (fayemi, 2010; see also wiredu, 1996) on what grounds it becomes quite difficult to fault the epistemic idea of universally existing concepts, or even the kantian notion of categorical imperative (although this is not always the case), yet the existence of certain universal truisms (if we may borrow moore’s terminology); such as similarity in the biological constructions of all humanity, the ability of each human entity to rationalize and come to reasonable conclusions on issues or situations et al, tends to portend the reality of a common universal concept of ‘humanity’ shared by all. on this premise, we may bluntly say to a denier of objectivity; that at least something which is non-relative is brazenly known. however, if we balance this above assertion with donald davidson's conceptual scheme, we may rather see conceptual relativity as existing on some levels of societal linings than on all levels. this infers that while conceptual schemes "are ways of organizing experience… systems of categories that give form to the data of sensation… points of view from which individuals, cultures, or periods survey the passing scene” (davidson, 1973, p. 5), conceptual relativity should instead be viewed, not from the concept of reality as being relative to each conceptual scheme, but the ‘conception of such reality’ as being relative to each conceptual scheme. this follows dworkin's (1986) argument that while concept would refer to the most general or abstract propositions people could agree about a particular phenomenon, the conceptions of that concept would deal with the competing positions on what the concept is. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 13 in this regard "the contrast between concept and conception here is a contrast (of) levels of abstraction” (dworkin, 1986, p. 71). thus, the very idea of certain elements of society which are cross-cultural, subject to the particularistic structure of the human mind, evident in almost every individualistic cultural presumption, and can more categorically be described as crossconceptual schemes, rather enunciates the reality that an obvious push towards extreme relativism, emplaced, and heralded (if one may be permitted to speak of this conceptualization as though in the past tense) what may be presumed as the demise of postmodernism. for instance, a peek into the psychological elements of the human person, as well as the sociological subset of societal underpinning portends similarity even in ‘wonderings’ over the categorization of what could be termed ‘the necessity of a divine entity.’ campbell (1949/2004) draws quite an intriguing argument on the similarities amongst several existing myths and mythological personages, the cross-cultural narration on their quest, struggles, achievements, and the boons they bestow on humanity. in the same vein carlyle's argument in his lectures "on heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history," (carlyle, 1841/2013) further perfects the conceptualization of what has been deemed or conceived as 'heroic points,' which amplifies the very notion of existing cross-cultural wonders or schemes, cross-cultural fears, crosscultural realities; to which each culture attempts to capture. this again brings to being the essence of russell’s ‘logical atomism’. russell's position can serve as a perfect outline for the kind of argument we intend to build; which is such that sees the existence of the objective, as being captured by different cultures in divergent ways, but whose very substance remains the same. hence we may more properly relate it to the medieval era substance/accident discourse, where substances serve for ‘that which exist;’ a point to which russell attempted to outline within the notion of ‘particulars’ as being a replacement for medieval ‘substance’; even though there are clear differences between both conceptions (russell, 1918, p.32). thus culture, language, religion, and every other lining of the human social sphere aim to capture or draw towards capturing such objectivity. an attempt at which may result in either comprehending only an aspect of such reality or miscomprehending such aspect; from whence the contextual objective scheme could be drawn. this further amplifies russell’s argument on the existence of two propositions as being correspondent to a fact; one which is true, and another which is false. however, our central argument remains that the categorization of postmodernism on the baseline of a ‘rejection of objectivity,’ rather than its interrogation sets the obvious mark for an ideological suicide. this further draws on the permutation that the postmodern walls collapse against itself; thus it implodes, and not just explodes; and the subject of such implosion remains an obvious attempt at trying to emplace what we may term ‘universal holistic relativism,’ even on iota’s of human culture which had more properly been seen as ‘universal’ in its lining. although the postmodernist assault on an approach to reality as being dependent on a singularized methodology remains vital for interrogating and pulling down what may be categorized as unwanted objective structures, or unnecessary popular absolutist schemes such as the universal absolutism and methodology, fast flowing within the ambits of human society in the guise of professionalism and scientism. on this note, an obvious remedy to the quagmire of postmodernism ought to be hinged on the interrogation of objective aspects of human society, and the bringing to the forefront the relative; where ‘the relative’ becomes a new name for differing viewpoints needing further interrogation and amplification. thus it neither emplaces objectivity nor pushes relativism, but factors both into ‘being,’ and brings to bear the agency of the human in passing a verdict. this ovwata success metamodernism through the lenses.. 14 in essence tends towards a line of thought that we may more properly classify as the ‘metamodern.’ metamodernism as a post-postmodernist concept while the very idea of metamodernism takes its roots in culture theory, as well as draws on what seem to be noticeable trends in the arts and architecture, entertainment, and cyber-culture, its basic underlining permutation is hinged on the notion that the world has moved on from a postmodernist perspective, and currently trends a part which does not fit into the box of postmodernist discourses and as such requires a new conception, that of metamodernism. this conception whose most recent usage became popularized by timotheus vermeulen and robin van den akker, in their 2010 paper ‘notes on metamodernism’, attempts to herald a victorious course for the successful naming of an era whose patterns and mannerisms had remained hitherto unnamed, or whose naming had only resulted in several forms of declined popular usage; from alan kirby’s conception of the era as digimodernism (see kirby, 2009), or pseudo modernism, to robert samuel’s automodernism (see samuels, 2009), to post-postmodernism, the very idea has being that; the world has outlived the postmodernist boundaries and as such deserves to move on. but isn't this very acclaimed desire a product of that which the postmodernist ideology attempted to grapple with? that is; the very idea of modernity depicts “a cultural epoch and ‘episteme’ founded in a humanistic belief that the world is one. this belief, codified in centuries of realist art, representational politics and empirical science, is tantamount to the assertion that a common denominator can be found for all systems of belief and value: that the world is a unified field, explicable by a single explanatory system” (ermarth, 1998, p.6742), of which such explanatory system gave rise to universal conceptions of reality an opening for which science filled and upon which scientism had its rooting. however, can such a desire for objectivity be said to have been abandoned in the acclaimed postmodernist era? the basic problem with nomenclatural denotations has remained its ability to conceptualize or attempt to conceptualize the ‘should-be’ rather than the ‘is.’ this argument is hinged on the permutation that without adequately conceptualizing the ‘is’, scholarship seems more eagerly desirous of announcing an end of the ‘is’ and a beginning of the ‘should-be’, much in the same way rorty attempted to presume an end of philosophy as practised (see rorty, 1979), but what followed was not an end of philosophy in itself but rather an attempt to create such end by pointing out inconsistencies and hoping such inconsistencies could bring to bear such ‘end.’ hence in a much similar vein, it can be argued that lyotards ‘the postmodern condition,’ which although seen as the heralding point of postmodernism, was in itself prescriptive rather than being realistically descriptive. however making an argument for the non-existence of a postmodern culture may seem too difficult to elucidate, but in adopting a seemingly simple approach to such reality, one may ask its defendant to point out a single realistic artefact of the postmodern relic, and all that may be seen could be some good books, numerous scholastic articles, and if the pointer attempts to drive home his point with a more convincing form of practicality, he may illustrate that by pointing to some movies, or music, or artworks, or architectural masterpieces, etcetera, but in the real world, what changed or has changed or is in the process of changing? this may bring to bear an obvious similarity with rorty’s pathos. where in his conceptualization; intellectuals cannot live without pathos. theists find pathos in the distance between the human and the divine. realists find it in the abyss separating human thought and language from reality as it is in itself. pragmatists find it in the gap between contemporary humanity and a utopian human future. in which the very aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 15 idea of responsibility to anything except our fellow humans has become unintelligible, resulting in the first truly humanistic culture. if you do not like the term "pathos" the word "romance" would do well. or one might use thomas nagel's term "the ambition of transcendence." the important point is that both sides of contemporary philosophy are trying to gratify one of the urges previously satisfied by religion. (rorty, 2002, p.31) it can be inferred that in attempting to keep itself relevant to the discursive field, we may more properly replace contemporary philosophy for social critics. hence the basic question remains, was there ever a postmodern world or a postmodern idea? this is hinged on a permutation that certain writers have attempted to chronologize both the previous and present centuries by alluding to some form of constructive flow of society from one epoch – say modernism – to another; postmodernism, and then to an emerging new order, which is that of the metamodern, thus creating an actual historical connotation rather than an ideological sequence. my argument is hinged on the notion that; no historic categorizations of these periods can be made, as they weren't in any way actual historical epochs but just presumed ideological shifts. to which a counter-question could follow; how then do we categorize what is now being known as the age of enlightenment? our best reply would be; just as a nomenclatural denotation of a presumed age, even though it were real. this is to say nomenclatural denotations of what may seem actual categories do not in themselves quantify those categories, but serve only to designate them. however, our argument on postmodernism attempts to designate it as an idea, rather than a real period of human history, ; that the postmodern debate could be best seen as an ideological concoction rather than a historical designation as the acclaimed ‘age of enlightenment’ may denote. on this premise, postmodernism thus becomes an approach to evaluating the conversations of mankind, a style or perspective of viewing human culture, rather than an actual system of existing culture. this means that neither the culture, its structures nor its physically existing constituent parts ever changed, but the perception towards, as well as approach to it, slightly or hugely became in some way altered. in this way, one can more properly understand the reality of ‘overlapping,’ as being overlapping not of times, but of ideas. this infers that neither the time nor prevalent systems or conditions of those times change in some ways, but the existing ideas about them could be deemed to have done so. thus we may more properly create designations for each of these ideas, and fit them as entirely prevalent ideas dominant in this age of present-day humanity. hence modernism becomes an approach to reality based on the prevalence and belief in existing ‘objectivities,’ ‘universally comprehendible realities,’ and the prevalence of what lyotard called ‘grand narratives’ (lyotard, 1979). on the other hand, postmodernism would more properly be seen as a reaction to the modernist ideology, which is based on the rejection of objective schemes, and a constellation and acceptance of even seemingly conflicting ideas, and worldviews. this does not necessarily transcend into relativism, as has been the most popular assault against the postmodernist position. preaching tolerance of viewpoints doesn’t necessarily transcend into acceptance of such viewpoints. thus while affirming that there isn’t a definite objective schema against which activities could be judged, postmodernism –as argued within some circles– does not affirm that every activity is a right one, but rather; every activity should most importantly be considered against the background of its own merits. this further infers that the existence of different methods of judging or coming to terms with reality does not mean that a method may not be superior to another, but rather that all methods should be treated as being valuable against the standards of its own defined boundaries and methodological paradigms. in a similar vein le cunff (2021) has associated modernism with ovwata success metamodernism through the lenses.. 16 the age of the radio, postmodernism with the age of the television, and metamodernism with the age of the internet, which although may not be necessarily true, is not entirely false. this may be seen in terms of how these different viewpoints and ideologies arose, and how they influenced or were influenced by the prevalent technologies of their time, but to define such phenomenon in terms of its existing technologies alone may portend a notion of stiffening up the holistic nature of a wide-ranging ideology for a categorical explanation of its appearance, thus becoming another form of a categorical mistake. linguistically, vermeulen and akker’s conceptualization of metamodernism hinged on two basic levels; the ontological and epistemological. while in its most basic explication, they conceived of metamodernism as a form of “oscillation between a typically modern commitment and a markedly postmodern detachment,” (vermeulen & akker, 2010, p.2) the usage of the word ‘meta’ in their juxtaposition attempts to affix within; similar linguistic conceptions such as ‘with’ ‘between’ and ‘beyond’, however the situational lining of the concept places it ontologically 'between', epistemologically 'with' and historically 'beyond' postmodernism (vermeulen & akker, 2010). here, our concern with a presumed historical placement again comes to bear; this as premised above is hinged on the notion that the placement of metamodernism as historically beyond postmodernism overlooks the permutation that its very conceptualization preceded a popularization of the postmodern dictum. as baciu, bocos, and baciu-urzica (2015) opines; while the term "postmodernism" first entered the philosophical lexicon in 1979, with the publication of "the postmodern condition" by jeanfrançois lyotard, metamodernism was introduced in 1975 by zavarzadeh who considered it as an emergence from the aesthetics field. this brings to bear the complexity of situating metamodernism within a historical rather than an ideological bracket. our argument for a conception of metamodernism as being a form of post post-modernism should not be seen as a subscription to the syntactically correct but semantically questionable phrase “post-postmodernism,” but rather as a designation which attempts to fit in metamodernism as an ideological concept spiralling from a discontent with the postmodernist worldview. thus the entirety of our argument is an emphasis on these concepts as being prescriptively descriptive rather than a historically descriptive juxtaposition of the human condition. however, the baseline conception of metamodernism remains as a reaction to postmodernism. while baciu, bocos, and baciu-urzica, see metamodernism as a trend “which attempts to unify, to harmonize and to settle the conflict between modern and postmodern by supporting the involvement in seeking solutions to problems and the desirable positioning towards existing theories, not only combating or questioning them” (2015, p. 35), vermeulen and akker’s definition has remained a pretty fundamental one to any discourse on this subject. in their coinage; ontologically metamodernism oscillates between the modern and the postmodern. it oscillates between modern enthusiasm and postmodern irony, between hope and melancholy, between naı¨vete´ and knowingness, empathy and apathy, unity and plurality, totality and fragmentation, purity and ambiguity. indeed, by oscillating to and fro or back and forth, the metamodern negotiates between the modern and the postmodern. (2010, p.6) this presumed midway position is seen in the light of being a form of “pendulum swinging between 2, 3, 5, 10, innumerable poles. each time the metamodern enthusiasm swings toward fanaticism, gravity pulls it back toward irony; the moment its irony sways toward apathy, gravity pulls it back toward enthusiasm” (vermeulen & akker, 2010, p.6). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 17 on the other hand, epistemologically, metamodernism holds an "as if" position, that is; a view of reality that it never expects to come to terms with, but keeps revelling in its everlasting chase. it is like the sisyphean task of continuously pushing a boulder which would come rushing back to the ground the moment one gets to the top; only that in this position there is no top, neither is there any goal but an "as if" presupposition. here the individual acts as if there were a goal, lives as if there were some reality, becomes as if there were a becoming, acts moral as if there were morality, believes as if there were some truth, and attains heights as if those heights existed. it seems like a form of nihilistic disillusionment engendered by an absurdist carefreeness. thus as vermeulen and akker postulate, on its epistemological basis; metamodernism moves for the sake of moving, attempts in spite of its inevitable failure; it seeks forever for a truth that it never expects to find. if you will forgive us for the banality of the metaphor for a moment, the metamodern thus willfully adopts a kind of donkey-and-carrot double-bind. like a donkey, it chases a carrot that it never manages to eat because the carrot is always just beyond its reach. but precisely because it never manages to eat the carrot, it never ends its chase, setting foot in moral realms the modern donkey (having eaten its carrot elsewhere) will never encounter, entering political domains the postmodern donkey (having abandoned the chase) will never come across. (vermeulen and akker, 2010, p.5) in a more simplistic term, le cunff (2021) writes; "we went from modernism – "make it new!" let's shape history! to postmodernism… nothing matters! to – metamodernism: maybe things are not this black and white? maybe there’s a middle ground.” hence metamodernism pushes for a future it never is sure of coming to terms with, but keeps hoping even in the very obvious non-existence of such reality. as turner (2015) juxtaposes; ours is also an age in which increasingly speculative modes of thought are thriving, with philosophies such as speculative realism and object oriented ontology, as well as movements like occupy, black lives matter, and the rise of extremist political factions (for better or worse, as in the case of the so-called ‘alt-right’), empowered by network culture… metamodernism does not, then, propose any kind of utopian vision, although it does describe the climate in which a yearning for utopias, despite their futile nature has come to the fore. situating metamodernism we may situate metamodernism in the existing historic times but not as a distinct period of human history. it may be also situated as a leading ideology and a guiding philosophy, but not as a style of doing philosophy. in this vein, metamodernism is conceived of; as a consolidation as well as the abandonment of methods at the same time. it is an enactment of processes but still a rejection of those processes, an appeal to objectivity and a denunciation of the objectivity it appeals to. thus it portends an admixture of different categories, a conglomeration of divergent contents, a rejection and an acceptance, an affirmation and a denial, a form of modernist postmodernism. by a metamodern philosophy, we espouse an existent position in the human thought-process, a midpoint amidst seeming alternatives, a merger between perceived extremities, which factors both sides of the divide, taking from both without necessarily pledging loyalty to any. it is an enactment of a yes mixed with the loud affirmation of a no, a meeting point between existing opposites, a rejection of both relativism and pluralism without an acceptance of absolutism. yet it neither espouses a denial of commitment nor a ovwata success metamodernism through the lenses.. 18 confirmation thereto, it takes no responsibility but neither does it reject any form of responsibility, it emphasizes on the futuristic and at the same time treats with levity any attempt at taking the future as being relevant. hence it can be further categorized as an unserious seriousness, an ironic truism, conformity and a rejection of conformity, a reliance on methods without any acceptance of the methods relied upon, it is a dispassionate outlook on the nature of things, and as vermeulen and akker (2010) affirms; it is a both-neither dynamic. this draws the line of disparity between the three unrelated terms; modernism, postmodernism and metamodernism. however, if modernism exalts objectivity, and postmodernism; plurality, metamodernism tends to exalt socially-based individuality, on the basis that the person becomes both the subject and narrator of his own story, within the space of a socially constructed communal framework. it is no more a case of “all aspects of social processes goes,” nor is it a lone categorization of knowledge as being a product of social agreements as reflected in rorty’s epistemological behaviourism, the term social has now taken a new name, becoming itself a vague and ambiguous term. while in both a modernist and postmodernist usage it could refer to society as it were; holistic and comprising the human agency as a product of social connections and location-bounded proximity, in a metamodernist sense, the social (vis-à-vis; society) becomes non-location bounded, and has gone virtual. it exists in a space where neither rules nor morality applies, and where an individual can take up any form. the virtual individual in this fast-emerging reality becomes a sum-total of the roles played, and not a person 'being.' this virtual construction spirals into a presumed system of globalization, whose only point of direction is in its being directionless. championed by a new form of interconnectivity as heralded by the digital space, the metamodern idea creates a mirror, shadow and imagery of a self-defined reality, immersed in a confluence of disparate identities or semblances of an identity, pushed beyond the limits of personality boundaries. as le cunff (2021) argues; metamodernism is about genuine connection, empathy, and community. while modernism is about creating something completely new (which you could argue is an illusion); postmodernism is about deconstructing the past and rejecting the future; pseudo-modernism is about mindless online consumerism – metamodernism is about creating something new with what was created before, while acknowledging the inherent ephemerality of the human condition. on the individual stage, metamodernism becomes a new form of becoming which isn't tied to either existing social norms, or standardized societal practices, nor a glorified scientific procedure, rather it portends a subjective interpretation of reality projected onto a phase which neither accepts nor rejects objectivity. thus one’s subjectivity could metamorphose into a subjective definition of an objective reality. taking society off its nominal hinges, metamodernism deconstructs and at the same time reconstructs the world as we knew it, creating a stratum where society becomes a community of persons within a virtual space sharing common or similar ideologies. this brings to bear the very notion that in this new socialized context, society becomes creatable and discardable by the individual. it is subject to the person and has no filial connection or communal underpinning, nor does it necessarily have any form of location-bounded proximity. thus the individual becomes the creator and discarder of his society, choosing that which aligns best with one’s notions and permutations, and creating a pedestal where neither transcendent reality, nor location-bounded barriers serve as a hindrance to personhood. virtual life becomes as real as real life, human connections digitalized, much that individuals could rise to heights in this newfound clime, without being subjected to any form of social structures nor boundaries aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 19 society had earlier put in place to determine the process of ‘any’ such rise. thus the term social determinism would more properly be replaced by an even stronger boundless form ; virtual determinism, bringing to being the question if metamodernism bears within a stronger form of determinism, who determines? however a more pertinent question should be; if there is the potentiality of determinism in a metamodern ideology, to what extent can such determinism impede human progress; in more nuanced terms if virtual determinism can be said to exist, then how exactly can knowledge be constructed within the subset of a metamodern ideology? metamodernism as virtual epistemology it may not be quite easy to rule out the necessity of pushing an epistemic inquiry beyond the boundaries of the social into the virtual. social epistemology has been conceived as “the conceptual and normative study of the relevance to knowledge of social relations, interests and institution… (this) revolves around the question of whether knowledge is to be understood individualistically or socially” (schmitt, 1998, p.8063), with goldman pushing the bar even higher by distinguishing the revisionist, preservationist and expansionist social epistemology, as cited by kusch (2011) who in criticizing goldman's differential attitude towards classical epistemology, argued for a diagnostic program in social epistemology which tries to analyze, explain and criticize the foundations of classical epistemology. the very notion of a world beyond the limitations of social ascriptions and physical descriptions; a virtual world occupying boundless space, draws within the necessity of pushing epistemology further, beyond the social into the new-social, or virtual; which thus brings to terms the need for conceptualization of a new epistemic approach; virtual epistemology. in taking deep cues from kusch's diagnostic program for social epistemology, virtual epistemology would attempt to look beyond the contours of what qualifies as knowledge in the virtual space, how such knowledge is formed, and the extent and means through which it can be justified. a basic justification paradigm may be a redefining of contextualism into the space of the virtual, thus giving rise to the notion of virtual contextualism, or better-put cybercontextualism. this is premised on the notion that adopting the diagnostic approach puts the inquirer into a position of analyzing rather than constructing, and explaining rather than deconstructing; although the very fundamental position of philosophic criticism remains an integral subset of this permutation. as a young system of inquiry, virtual epistemology may be content to perform the above using such limited tools, but the very notion of a virtual epistemology raises fundamental questions as to the necessity of such undertaking and the essentiality of its being an approach to epistemology. isn’t its construal an unnecessary extension of the epistemic instrument or an irrelevant deployment of epistemic concerns? an obvious answer to the above would be hinged on the fact that whether or not scholarship denies its reality, the existence of the virtual space has come with its medium for constructing reality, a medium which if left un-interrogated may spiral into obvious distortions of the human agency, a point to which the present trend of the metamodern tends to amplify. we see this every day, in the challenge of information and disinformation, the horrors of mal-information, and the sudden rise of several movements from online trends into open defiance and street protests, knowledge no longer becomes the prerogative of the philosopher neither does it fall under the evaluative lenses of the scientist, it has become not social but virtually constructed. what soon spreads as information becomes subject to counter-information, and soon gives way to obvious disinformation leading to arbitrary construction of beliefs; which in turn is subject to the metamodern ideology of individuality and subjectivity; the epistemic agent weighs his existing information against the background of other such existing belief-systems, bringing to ovwata success metamodernism through the lenses.. 20 bear the cyber-contextualist approach to justification, which thus creates a grounding for the attainment and proclamation of a certain knowledge claim. the less engagement scholars make into the contours of knowledge formation in the virtual world; virtual epistemology, the more the field becomes open to infiltration and unhealthy anarchism, which in turn plagues the social sphere forcing scholastic engagement devoid of an analysis of its rooting. it is not an absurd adventure to engage with the virtual, the very idea of a post-analytic philosophy draws as important the necessity of philosophy's engagement with culture, thus creating grounding for philosophy as being a voice in the conversation of humanity. here the virtual sphere indicates an aspect of human culture which though taking over the very contours of social existence in the very word of it, remains less interrogated from the agency of philosophic engagements. while we may not judge metamodernism for heralding a new way of knowing—which by the way—is not a distinct expert culture, or an approach to cultural reality as postmodernism portrayed, its very intricacies having being argued in this paper portends a new way of knowing, a new approach for coming to terms with reality, a new presupposition and constructive paradigm for determining what is 'the known.' whether in the form of artificial intelligence, or virtual realities; the metamodern ideology draws its rooting deep into these salient yet less engaged areas of human reality. to what extent then can the non-engagement of philosophy into these terrains be construed as being a fundamental part of the problem in itself? conclusion in this paper, we have attempted to interrogate the implosion of postmodernism against the background nature of its internal inconsistencies. whilst laying this upon the juxtaposition of metamodernism, the paper argues for a conception of metamodernism within the boundaries of an ideological rather than a historical approach and evaluates the same against the background of both modernism and postmodernism. we have argued that the very contours of metamodernism require philosophic engagement, this is laid on the background that while the metamodern can more properly be linked to the virtual space, there exists a paramount necessity for inquiring into the patterns through which knowledge is constructed in such virtual sphere; which brings to being the conceptualization of a virtual epistemology, and an obvious necessity for extending intricacies of philosophic engagement into this sphere. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 5 issue 2, august 2025. issn: 2786-9792 21 references baciu, c., bocos, m., baciu-urzica, c. 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